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THE  NAIIOmL  SERIES  OF  SIANDARD  SCHOOL-BOOKS 

COMPRISES  STANDARD  WORKS 
In  eTCry  departmeot  of  instruction  and  of  every  grade.  The  teacher  in  want  of  a  book  for  any  par- 
ticular purpose  or  class,  will  always  find  the  best  of  its  kind  in  our  catalogue.  Ko  other  Etries  even 
claims  to  be  as  complete  as  this.  None  is  so  extensive  or  so  judiciously  stlccted.  Among  so  many 
volumes  a  high  standard  of  merit  is  maintained,  as  it  is  our  aim  never  to  permit  our  imprint  upon  a 
poor  or  unworthy  book.  It  is  also  our  plan  to  make  books  rot  for  a  class  or  sect,  but  for  the  whole 
country — unobjectionable  to  parties  and  creeds,  while  inculcating  the  great  principles  of  political 
freedom  and  Christianity,  upon  which  all  right-minded  persons  are  agreed.  Ilcnce,  and  from  their 
almost  universal  circulation,  the  name — "  National  Series."  Among  the  principal  volumes  are 
Parker    8t    ^XTatsOn's    Rfiarlfirs— in  ♦wnrtistlnct  spnVs;    »n/-V,  rnmnloto  in  itself.     Tlie 


A'ational 

the  most  thoi 
volumes,  for 
series.    Spe 

Davies'  HI; 

Ac— Cmplel 
called  for,  an 
the  places  of 

Barnes'  Bi 

— For  one  tei 
interesting  bj 
the  most  impc 

Monteith's 

— These  work 
a  number  of  ^ 

Steele's  ST: 

Chemistr 

they  make  sc 

Clark's  Dia 

novel  analysi 

Worman's 

Ac— Upon  a  i 
new  ones. 

Searing-'s  C 

and  others,  wi 
T~>ARE  MENT 

English  I,at 

Composition, 

finers,  Dictioi 

end's  Series  ( 
History  .—Ho 

England— Ri( 
Pen  and  J'ei 

— Smitu  a  M 

Drawing. 
Jfatural  Scit 

Chemistry— M 

CUAMBERS'  Zi 

Important  )l 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


every  want  of 
rSf  in  smaller 
the  companion 

Purveying, 

ions  have  been 
blished  to  take 

hers  to  follow, 
ally  forgotten, 
grouping  about 

"hyaieal.— 

tr  series.    From 
>ok  he  wants. 
hilosophy, 

lall  precedent; 

ct  lessons  and 

n,  French, 

>rs,  with  signal 

I 

\  Orations, 

egant  editions. 

exts  published     | 

tated  Authors, 
language— Oe- 
nicon—NoBTH- 

sal- Berard'3 
stical  Hist, 
lal  Steel  Pens 
-Allen's  Map 

ihy— POHTER'S 

OD's  Botany— 

•gy- niWTINO- 


loN's  Fine  Arts— Ciiamplin'3  I'oliiical  Economy— Manskikld's  Government  Manual— Aldkn's 
Eihlos— BnoOKS'  Manual  of  Devotion- Tkacy's  School  Record,  Ac. 
OTlie  Teacher's  JAbrary/  consistsof  over  .30  volumes  of  strictly  professional  literature,  rsPage's 
Theory  and  Practice- Hoi^brook's  Normal  Methods— Nohthe.vd's  Teacher's  Assistant,  Ac. 

A  DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE  of  all  the-ic  and  many  more  may  be  obtained  by  eocloslng  a 

stamp  to  the  Publishers, 

A.  2,  BARNES  &  COMPAHY, 

National  Educational  Publishers, 
111   &  113  WILLIAM  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


THE  WORMAH  SERIES  IN  MODERN  LANGUAGE. 

k  Complete  Course  in  German 

By  JAMES  H.  "WORM AN,  AM. 

EMBBACma 

COMIPLET'E:    GrERIVIAlSr    GrR,A.nvnVtA.R, 
GrER]yL^N    READER, 
GERIVLAN    COPY-BOOKS.  GERMiAN    ECHO. 

IN  PREPAEATION, 

HISTORY    OE    GERMIAlSr    LITERATURE, 

GERIMAISr    AISTD    EISTG-JUSH    LEXICOJST. 

I.  TITE  OntMAX  on  A  MM  A  Its  of  Worman  are  widely  preferred  on  ac- 
count of  their  clear,  explicit  method  (on  the  couversation  plan),  introducing  a  system 
of  analogy  and  comparison  with  the  learners'  own  language  and  others  commonly 
studied. 

The  arts  of  speaking,  of  understanding  the  spoken  language,  and  of  correct  pronun- 
ciation, are  treated  wicli  great  success. 

The  new  classificatious  of  nouns  and  of  irregular  verbs  are  of  great  value  to  the 
pupil.  The  use  of  heavy  type  to  indicate  etymological  changes,  is  new.  The  Vocabu- 
lary is  synonymical — also  a  new  feature. 

II.  WOKMAN'S  GT:JtMAN  HT:  A  I)  IS  It  contains  progressive  selections 
from  a  wide  ran^e  of  the  very  best  German  authors,  including  three  complete  plays, 
which  are  usually  purchased  in  separate  form  for  advauctid  students  who  have  com- 
pleted the  ordinary  Reader. 

It  has  Bio,'raphie.5  of  eminent  authors.  Notes  after  the  test.  References  to  all  Ger- 
man Grammars  in  common  use,  and  an  adequate  Vocabulary;  also.  Exercises  for 
translation  into  the  German. 

III.  WORM  AX'S  OKJtMAX  I^CIfO  (Deutsdtes  Echo)  Is  entirely  a  new 
thing  in  this  country.  It  presents  familiar  colloquial  exercises  without  translation, 
and  will  teach  fluent  conversation  in  a  few  months  of  diligent  study. 

No  other  method  will  ever  make  the  student  at  home  in  a  foreign  language.  By  this 
he  thinks  in.  as  well  as  speaks  it.  For  the  time  being  he  is  a  German  through  and 
through.  The  laborious  process  of  translating  his  thoughts  no  longer  Impedes  free 
unembarrassed  utterance. 


f  OBIAFS  COMPLETE  FRENCH  COURSE 

IS   INAUGURATED  BT 

L'EOIiO      IDE      I».A.I^IS, 

Or,  "  French  Echo ;"  on  a  plan  identical  with  the  German  Echo  described  above. 
Tkis  wiU  be  foLowed  in  due  course  by  the  other  volumes  of 

THE  ereistch:  series, 

VIZ.: 
^   COMrLKTK  OJtAMMAIt,  [A    F  It  E  X  C  n    ItEADEIt, 

AJf  ELEMEXTAHY  GRAMMAJi,  I  ^     F  R  E  X  C  II    T.  EX  ICON, 
A.  MISTOItY  OF  FltEXCa  LITERATURE. 


WORMAN'S    WORKS 

are  adopted  as  fast  as  published  by  many  of  the  best  institutions  of  the  country.    In 
completeness,  adaptation,  and  homogeneity  for  consistent  courses  of  instruction,  they 

are  simply 

XJIVIVI  VAILED. 


THE   HOME    CYCLOPEDIA 


cyclopi:dia 


OF 


LITERATURE  AND  THE   FINE  ARTS; 


OOMPRKrNG 

OOMPLETE  AND    ACCURATE    DEFINITIONS    OF    ALL   TEEMS    EMPLOYED    IM 
BELLF«S-LETTEES,  PHILOSOPHY,  THEOLOGY,  LAW,  MYTHOLOGY. 
I'AINTING,  MUSIC,  SCULPTURE,  ARCHITECTURE, 
AND  ALL  KINDRED  ARTS. 


COMPILED    AXD    ARRANGED    BY 


lEORGE  RIPLEY  and  BAYARD  TAYLOR. 


A.    S.    BARNES    AND    COMPANY, 
NEW  YORK   AND   CHICAGO. 

1873. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1864,  by 

A.  ?.  BARNES  &  CO. 

In  thb  Olerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New-York. 


NX 

TEEFACE. 


The  cLaractef  of  this  work  is  fully  set  forth  in  the  title-])age,  yet  a  few 
words  of  introduction  still  seem  necessary,  fiu-ther  to  elucidate  its  o-eneral 
scope  and  aim.  llie  design  of  the  compilei's  has  been  '■.o  furnish  the 
reading  communit}',  and  more  especially  the  large  class  of  students  in 
our  colleges  and  seminaries  of  learning,  with  a  comprehensive  handbook 
or  lexicon  of  all  branches  of  Literature  and  Art.  A  work  of  this  kind 
has  long  been  needed.  The  great  aim  of  all  modern  systems  of  instruc- 
tion is  to  ])resent  knowledge  in  as  concise  and  accessible  a  form  as  pos- 
sible, and  bring  the  results  of  many  difterent  theories  and  systems  into 
forms  of  practical  convenience.  In  this  respect  the  present  work  will  be 
found  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  author,  the  artist,  the  student  of  any 
Sii:-^  learned  profession,  and  the  reader.  No  technical  tenu  of  genei'al  use  in 
5J  any  of  the  departments  it  includes  will  be  found  wanting,  while  many 

words,  which  in  a  stiict  sense  belong  neitlier  to  literature  nor  art,  have 
been  added  on  account  of  some  peculiar  association  or  ajiplication. 

In  Literature,  the  work  embraces  all  terms  of  logic  and  rhetoric, 
cnticism,  style,  and  language ;  sketches  of  works  which  stand  as  types 
of  their  age  or  tongue ;  reviews  of  all  systems  of  philosophy  and  theology, 
both  of  ancient  and  modern  times ;  and  a  complete  series  of  the  history 
of  literature  among  all  nations,  made  u})  wholly  from  original  sources. 
All  the  most  important  terms  of  common  and  international  law,  all  terli- 
nical  words  and  jjhrases  employed  in  theology  and  jiliilosophy,  and  \ 
number  of  scieiititic  and  historical  plifases,  which  have  become  familiarized 
in  Irterature,  have  been  included.  The  explanations  are  not  confined  to 
mere  definitions  ;  whereever  it  has  been  found  necessary,  illustrative  wood- 
cuts have  been  introduced,  wliich  will  greatly  assist  the  reader  in  his 
knowledge  of  architectural  terms. 


1546080 


VJ  PREFACE. 

Li  Art,  the  department  of  paintinor,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  have 
been  ti-eated  as  fully  and  carefully  as  the  nature  and  limits  of  the  work 
would  2)ermit.  While  a  mere  technical  array  of  terms  has  been  a^'oided, 
care  has  been  taken  to  explain  all  the  words ;  and  phrases  of  art-criticism 
have  been  defined  at  some  length,  as  of  interest  and  value  to  the  general 
reader,  especially  since  criticism  has  been  recognized  as  a  distinct  depart- 
ment of  hterature.  All  words  relating  to  the  art  and  practice  of  music 
have  been  hkewise  retained. 

In  compiling  the  work,  liberal  use  has  been  made  of  Maunder's  Lite- 
rary and  Scientific  Treasury^  and  Brande's  Dictionary  of  Science  and 
Art.  The  Imperial  Dictionary^  the  Leipzig  Conversations-Lexicon,  the 
Art-Journal  Dictionaiy,  and  a  number  of  other  works  have  been  coiLSulted : 
while  the  article  entitled  "  Literature,"  comprising  sketches  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  hterature  among  ancient  and  modern  nations,  has  been  prepared 
expressly  for  the  present  work.  The  definitions  copied  from  the  above- 
named  authorities  have  been  adaj^ted  to  the  usages  of  the  United  States, 
and  much  that  was  irrelevant,  on  account  of  its  apphcatiou  to  the  local 
laws  or  customs  of  foreign  nations,  has  been  purposely  omitted.  The 
work,  therefore,  as  it  now  stands,  is  intended  to  fui'iiish  a  thorough  ^■oca- 
bulary  of  Art  and  Litei'ature,  specially  designed  for  the  use  of  sschools, 
colleges,  and  the  great  reading  commmiitv  of  +lif  ^""^'lited  States. 

New- York,  Seo^  1861 


CijclnjicMii  of  Citrratiiit  nnh  tlie  fmt  Mb, 


A  IS  the  fir:*t  letter,  anil  the  first  vowel, 
uf  the  ali)habet  in  every  known  language, 
except  the  Ethiopia;  and  is  used  either 
us  a  word,  an  abbreviation,  or  a  sign. 
If  pronounced  open,  as  in  father,  it  is 
the  simplest  and  easiest  of  all  sounds ; 
the  first,  in  fact,  uttered  by  human 
beings  in  their  most  infantile  state,  serv- 
ing to  express  many  and  even  opposite 
emotions,  according  to  the  mode  in  which 
it  is  utteresl.  A  has  therefore,  perhaps, 
had  the  first  place  in  the  alphabet  as- 
signed to  it.  In  the  English  language 
it  has  four  different  sounds :  the  broad 
sound,  as  in  fall  ;  the  open,  as  in 
FATHER ;  the  slender,  or  close,  as  in 
FACE ;  and  the  short  sound,  as  in  fat. 
Most  of  the  other  modern  languages,  as 
French,  Italian,  German,  &c.,  have  only 
the  open,  or  Italian  a,  pronounced  .short  or 
long. — Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
A  was  used  as  an  arithmetical  sign  :  by 
the  former  for  1  ;  by  the  latter  for  500  ; 
or  with  a  stroke  over  it  for  5,000.  The 
Romans  also  very  extensively  used  it  as 
an  abbreviation ;  which  praciice  we  still 
retain,  as  A.M.j  artium  inagister ;  A.D., 
anno  domini,  d^'c. — A,  a,  or  aa,  in  medi- 
cal prescriptions,  denotes  ana,  or  equal 
parts  of  each. — A,  in  music,  is  the  nomi- 
nal of  the  sixth  note  in  the  diatonic 
scale ;  in  algebra,  it  denotes  a  known 
quantity;  in  logic,  an  universal  aflirma- 
tive  proposition  ;  in  heraldry,  the  dexter 
chief,  or  chief  point  in  an  escutcheon ; 
and  it  is  the  first  of  the  dominical  letters 
in  the  calendar. 

AAN'CHE,  is  a  term  applied  to  wind 
instruments  with  reeds  or  tongues,  as  the 
clariiinot,  hautboy,  &c. 

AA'NE.S,  the  tones  and  modes  of  the 
modern  Greek  music. 

AB,  is  the  11th  month  of  the  c'vil 
year,  and  the  5th  of  the  ecclesiastical  in 


the  Hebrew  calendar.  In  the  Syriac  cal- 
endar, it  is  the  last  of  the  summer 
months.  The  eastern  Christians  called 
the  first  day  of  this  month  Suuin  Miriam, 
the  fast  of  Mary,  and  the  1.5th,  on 
which  day  the  fast  ended,  Fathr- Miriam. 

ABACIS'CUS,  in  ancient  architecture, 
the  square  compartments  of  Mosaic  pave- 
ments. 

AB'ACUS,  in  architecture,  is  the  su- 
perior member  of  the  capital  of  a  column, 
to  which  it  serves  as  a  kind  of  crown.  In 
its  origin,  it  was  intended  to  represent  a 
square  tile  laid  over  a  basket ;  it  still  re- 
tains this  form  in  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  and 
Ionic  orders ;  but  in  the  Corinthian  and 
Composite,  its  four  sides  are  arched  in- 
wards, having  some  ornament  in  the 
middle. — Abacus,  among  ancient  mathe- 
maticians, was  a  table  strewed  over  with 
dust,  or  sand,  on  which  they  drew  their 
figures. — Abacus,  in  arithmetic,  an  an- 
cient instrument  for  reckoning  with  coun- 
ters. It  is  used  in  various  forms  ;  but 
the  most  common  arrangement  is  made 
by  drawing  parallel  lines  distant  from 
each  other  at  least  twice  the  diameter  of 
a  counter  ;  which  jslaced  on  the  lowest 
line,  signifies  1  ;  on  the  second  10  ;  on 
the  third,  100  ;  on  the  fourth,  1000  ;  and 
so  on.  In  the  intermediate  spaces,  the  same 
counters  are  estimated  at  one  half  of  the 
value  of  the  line  immediately  superior. 

AB'BE,  a  French  word,  literally  mean- 
ing an  abbot ;  but  the  character  denoted 
by  it,  has  long  ceased  to  be  of  any 
official  nature.  Before  the  Revolution, 
tlie  term  designated  a  body  of  persons, 
who  had  little  connection  with  the  church, 
but  who  followed  a  course  of  theological 
study,  in  hopes  that  the  king  would  con- 
fer on  them  a  real  abbey,  that  is,  a  part 
of  the  revenues  of  a  monastery.  They 
were  employed  in  various  literary  pur- 
suits, and  exerted  an  important  influence 
on  the  character  of  the  country.     Either 


CYCl.OPKUIA     OK     I.IlKIJAil  KE 


[aJ)N 


in  the  capacity  of  a  friend  or  spiritual 
counsellor,  an  abbe  was  found  in  almost 
every  distinguished  family  in  France. 

AB'BESS,  the  superior  of  a  nunnery, 
or  other  religious  community  of  women. 
She  has  the  same  authority  as  an  abbot, 
but  cannot  exercise  any  of  the  spiritual 
functions. 

AB'BEY,  a  religious  house  governed 
by  a  superior,  under  the  title  of  an 
abbot  or  abbess.  The  abbeys  of  England, 
at  their  dissolution  under  Henry  VIII., 
bt-oame  lay-sees  ;  when  no  less  than  190 
were  dissolved,  the  yearly  revenue  of 
which  has  been  estimated  at  2,S53,000Z. 
At  present,  an  abbey  is,  in  general,  the 
cathedral  or  ejiL^copal  church  of  the  see 
or  dioce.-;e  in  wlr.ch  it  stand.s. 

AB'BOT,  was  originally  the  name  of 
every  aged  monk ;  but,  since  the  8th 
century,  it  denotes  the  head  of  a  monas- 
tery. In  most  countries,  they  held  a 
rank  next  to  that  of  bishop,  and  had 
votes  in  the  ecclesiastical  councils.  At 
present  they  are  chiefly  distinguished 
into  regular  and  commendatory ;  the 
former  being  real  monks  or  religious, 
and  the  latter  onlv  seculars. 

ABBREVIA'TION,  a  contracted  man- 
ner of  writing  words  so  as  to  retain  only 
the  initial  letters.  Such  abbreviations 
were  in  common  use  with  the  Romans,  as 
they  are  with  us,  to  save  time  and  space. 
— Abbreviation,  in  music,  one  dash, 
through  the  stem  of  a  minim  or  crotchet, 
or  under  a  seinibreve,  converts  it  into  as 
many  quavers  as  it  is  equal  to  in  time  : 
two  dashes  into  semiquavers  ;  three  into 
demisemiquavers ;  and  so  on.  When 
minims  are  connected  together  like  qua- 
vers, semiquavers,  &o.,  they  are  to  be 
repeated  as  many  times  as  if  they  were 
really  such  notes.  An  oblique  dash 
through  the  2d,  31,  and  4th  lines  after 
an  arpeggio,  signifies  that  it  is  to  be 
repeated ;  for  quavers,  a  single  dash 
being  used  ;  for  semiquavers,  a  double 
one  ;  and  so  on. 

ABBRE'VIATORS,  officers  who  assist 
the  vice-chancellor  in  drawing  up  the 
Pope's  briefs,  and  reducing  petitions  into 
proper  form,  to  bo  converted  into  bulls. 

ABDICA'TION,  properly  speaking,  is 
a  voluntary  resignation  of  a  dignity, 
particularly  a  regal  one  ;  and  if  he  in 
whose  favor  the  abdication  was  made, 
dies,  or  declines  the  olfered  dignity,  the 
right  of  the  ablicatcd  prince  is  reverted. 
Involuntary  resignations  are,  however, 
also  termed  abdications,  as  in  the  case 
of  Napoleon's  abdication  at  Fontaine- 
bleau. 


ABDITA'RIUM,  or  ABDITO'RUJ[, 
in  archteology,  a  secret  place  for  hiding 
or  preserving  valuables. 

ABDLX"riON,  the  crime  of  unlawfully 
taking  away,  cither  by  force,  or  fraud 
and  persuasion,  the  person  of  another, 
whether  of  child,  wife,  ward,  heiress,  or 
woman  generall}'. 

ABE'LIANS,  or  A'BELITES,  a  Chris- 
tian sect  which  sprung  from  the  (Gnos- 
tics. They  abstained  from  mati  imony, 
but  adopted  the  children  of  others,  and 
brought  them  up  in  their  own  principles. 

ABEV'ANCE,  in  law,  the  expectancy 
of  an  estate,  or  possession  :  thus,  if  lands 
be  leased  from  one  person  for  life,  with 
reversion  to  another  for  years,  the  latter 
estate  is  in  abeyance  till  the  death  of 
the  lessee.  It  is  a  fixed  principle  of  law, 
that  the  fee-simple  of  all  lands  is  in 
somebody,  or  else  in  abeyance. 

A'BIB,  the  first  month  of  the  Hebrew 
year,  more  generally  known  by  the  Chal- 
dean name  of  Nisan.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned in  the  4th  verse  of  the  ISth  chap- 
ter of  Exodus. 

ABJURA'TION,  a  forswearing,  or  re- 
nouncing by  oath  :  in  the  old  law  it  sig- 
nified a  sworn  banishment,  or  an  oath 
taken  to  forsake  the  realm  forever.  In 
its  modern,  and  now  more  usual  signifi- 
cation, it  extends  to  persons,  and  doc- 
trines, as  well  as  places. 

ABLATIVE  case,  the  sixth  case  of 
the  Latin  nouns  implied  in  English  by 
the  preposition./'roOT. 

ABLEC'TI,  in  ancient  Rome,  a  chosen 
band  of  foreign  troops,  selected  from  the 
e.vtraordinurii  sociorum. 

ABLEG'iMINA,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
choice  parts  of  the  entrails  of  victims,  call- 
ed also  projicicc,  porricia:,  prosecta,  and 
proscgmina.  The  ablcgmina  were  sprin- 
kled with  flour,  and  burnt  on  the  altar  ; 
the  priests  pouring  some  ^dne  on  them. 

ABLU'TION,  a  religious  ceremony  of 
washing  the  body,  still  used  by  the  Turks 
and  Mohammedans.  It  originated  in 
the  obvious  necessity  of  practising  clean- 
liness, for  the  prevention  of  diseases  in 
hot  countries  ;  for  which  purpose  it  was 
made  a  religous  rite  ;  and  by  an  easy 
transition  of  idea,  the  purity  of  the  body 
was  made  to  typify  the  purity  of  the 
soul  :  an  idea  the  more  rational,  as  it  is 
perhaps  physically  certain  that  outward 
wretchedness  debases  the  inward  mind. 

ABNOR'MAL,  contrary  to  the  natural 
condition.  In  Art,  the  term  abnormal  ia 
applied  to  everything  that  deviates  from 
the  rules. of  good  taste,  and  is  analogous 
to  tasteless,  and  overcharged. 


ABS] 


AM)  mi:   KINK   Aitrs. 


ABOL'LA,  a  kinl  of  niilitai-y  g.irmcnt 
worn  by  the  Grcolc  aiil  lloiiian  saldiers. 

ABORI'tINES,  a  naiin;  s^iven  to  the 
original  or  fir!^t  inhabitants  of  any  coun- 
try ;  but  more  partieulurly  used  for  the 
ancient  iniiabitants  of  Latium.  when 
jEneas  with  liis  Trojans  cainc  into  Italj-. 

ABOU'TIUN,  in  •Ajiguratlvc  sense,  any 
proJuctii)n  that  does  not  come  to  maturity, 
or  any  design  oi  project  which  fails  before 
it  is  properly  matured. 

AB'RAt'ADAB'IlA,  a  term  of  incanta- 
tion, formerly  used  as  a  spell  or  charm, 
and  worn  abou'.  the  neck  as  an  amulet 
against  several  diseases.  In  order  to 
give  it  the  m">re  virtue,  it  was  to  be 
written  as  many  times  as  the  word  eon- 
tains  letters,  omitting  always  the  last 
letter  of  the  former,  and  so  forming  a 
triangle.  But  charms  and  incantations 
have  had  their  da}' ;  and  abracadabra,  if 
used  at  all,  now  serves  as  a  word  of  jest, 
like  hocus  pocus,  and  other  unmeaning 
gibberish. 

ABRAX'AS,  or  ABRA.S  AX',  in  church- 
history,  a  mystical  term  expressing  the 
supreme  God,  uuder  whom  the  Basilidians 
supposed  36.5  dependent  deities.  It  was 
the  principle  of  the  Gnostic  hierarchy. — 
Abraxa.s,  or  Abrasax  Stones,  are  very 
numerous,  and  represent  the  human  body, 
with  the  head  of  a  cock,  and  the  feet  of  a 
reptile.  The  n.Mne  of  Abrasax  stone  is, 
in  modern  times,  applied  to  a  variety  of 
gems  that  exhibit  enigmatical  composi- 
tions, but  have  not  the  trae  characteristics 
of  the  Basilirliaris. 

ABRIDG'MEXT,  the  bringing  the  con- 
tents of  a  book  within  a  short  compass. 
The  perfection  of  an  abridgment  consists 
in  taking  only  what  is  material  and  sub- 
stantial, and  reiecting  all  superfluities, 
whether  of  sentiment  oi  style  :  in  which 
light,  abridgments  must  be  allowed  to  be 
eminently  serviceable  to  all  whose  occu- 
pations pi-event  ihem  from  devoting  much 
time  to  literary  pursuits. 

ABSCIS'SIOX',  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
speech,  whereby  the  speaker  stops  short 
in  the  middle  of  his  disourse,  and  leaves 
his  hearers  to  draw  their  own  inferences 
from  the  facts  he  has  stated. 

ABSEXTEE',  a  word  of  modern  times, 
applied  to  land-owners  and  capitalists, 
who  expend,  their  incomes  in  another 
countrv. 

AB'SOLUTE,  whatever  is  in  all  re- 
spects unlimited  and  uncontrolled  in  its 
own  nature  :  it  is  opposed  to  the  relatltc, 
and  to  whatever  exists  only  conditionally. 
Thus  the  absolute  is  the  principle  of 
entire  completion,  the  universal  idea  and 


fundamental  principle  of  all  things.  The 
question  of  absolute  beauty,  i.  e.  the 
prototype  of  the  beautiful,  is  the  most 
important  within  the  reach  of  Art,  in- 
volving the  foundation  of  ^Esthetics,  and 
of  the  philosopliy  of  the  beautiful. 

ABSOLU'TIOX,  a  ceremony  practised 
in  various  Christian  churches.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic,  the  priest  not  only 
declares  absolution  to  the  repentant  sin- 
ner, but  is  believed  to  have  the  power  of 
actually  releasing  him  from  his  sins: 
and  this  authority  is  declared  by  the 
council  of  Trent  to  belong  to  him  in  its 
full  extent.  The  Church  of  England,  in 
the  Onler  for  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick, 
has  retained  nearly  the  same  words  ;  but 
her  authorities  seem  not  to  be  exactly 
agreed  as  to  the  force  and  effect  of  the 
absolution  so  conferred.  In  the  daily 
service,  the  words  of  the  absolution  are 
merely  declaratory. 

ABSORBED,  in  Italian,  Proscluga- 
to  ;  in  French,  LJnibu.  When  the  oil 
with  which  a  picture  is  painted  has  sunk 
into  the  ground  or  canvas,  leaving  the 
color  flat  or  dead,  and  the  touches  indis- 
tinct, it  is  said  to  be  absorbed. 

ABSORBEXT-GROUXDS  are  picture- 
grounds  prepared  in  distemper  upon 
either  panel  or  canvas  ;  they  have  the 
property  of  imbibing  the  redundant  oil 
with  which  the  pigments  are  mixed,  of 
impasting,  and  are  used  principally  for 
the  sake  of  expedition. 

AB'SIS.  or  AP'SIS,  in  architecture,  a 
word  used  by  ecclesiastical  authors  to 
signify  that  part  of  the  church  wherein 
the  clergy  were  seated,  or  the  altar  was 
placed.  The  apsis  was  either  circular 
or  polygonal  on  the  plan,  and  domed 
over  at  top  as  a  covering.  It  consisted 
of  two  parts,  the  altar  and  the  presby- 
tery, or  sanctuary  :  at  the  middle  of 
the  semicircle  was  the  throne  of  the 
bishop;  and  at  the  centre  of  the  diame- 
ter was  placed  the  altar,  towards  the 
nave,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  an 
open  balustrade,  or  railing.  On  the  altar 
was  placed  the  cibarium  and  cup. 

AB'STIXEXCE,  the  abstaining  or  re- 
fraining from  what  is  either  useful, 
agreeable,  or  pernicious;  but  more  espe- 
cially, from  eating  and  drinking.  In 
the  Romish  church  there  are  "  days  of 
abstinence,"  as  well  as  "  fast  days  ;"  the 
former  imi)orting  a  partial,  and  the 
latter,  almost  a  total  abstinence  from 
food. 

AB'STIXEXTS,  a  sect  of  Christ ian? 
who  appeared  in  France  about  the  end 
of  the  third  century,  professing  celibacy. 


rYri.orKniA    ov   i.irEit.viunK 


[acc 


and  abstinence  from  particular  kinds  of 
food,  &c. 

AB'STRACT,  a  concise  but  general 
view  of  some  large  work ;  in  which  sense 
it  differs  from  an  abridsrnent  only  as 
being  shorter,  and  its  entering  less  mi- 
nutely into  particulars  ;  and  from  an  ex- 
tract, as  this  last  is  only  a  particular 
view  of  some  part  or  passage  of  it. 

ABSTRACTION,  in  logic,  that  opera- 
tion of  the  mind  whereby  it  forms  ab 
stract  ideas.  The  faculty  of  abstraction 
stands  directly  opposite  to  that  of  com 
pounding.  By  composition  we  consider 
those  things  together,  which,  in  reality, 
are  not  joined  together  in  any  one  exist- 
ence. And  by  abstracti(m,  we  consider 
those  things  separately  and  apart,  which 
in  reality  do  not  exist  apart.  In  its  pas- 
sive? sense  it  implies  occupation  with  one's 
self  to  the  exclusion  of  other  objects. 

ACADEM'ICS,  certain  philosophers 
who  followed  the  doctrine  of  Socrates 
and  Plato,  as  to  the  uncertainty  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  incomprehen.sibility  of 
truth.  Academic,  in  this  sense,  amounts 
to  much  the  same  with  Platonist ;  the 
difference  between  them  being  only  in 
point  of  time.  They  who  embraced  the 
system  of  Plato,  among  the  ancients, 
were  called  Academic! ;  whereas  those 
who  did  the  same  since  the  restoration  of 
learning,  have  assumed  the  denomina- 
tion of  Platonists. 

ACAD'EMY,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
large  villa  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of 
Athens,  where  the  sect  of  philosophers 
called  Academics  held  their  assemblies. 
It  look  its  name  from  Aeademus,  a  cele- 
brated Athenian,  who  resided  there,  and 
became  celebrated  from  its  being  the 
place  in  which  Plato  taught  philosophy. 
— Academy,  in  the  modern  acceptation, 
is  a  society  of  persons  united  for  the 
pursuit  of  some  objects  of  study  and  ap- 
plication, as  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts 
of  London,  and  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Berlin.  The  first  academy 
of  science,  in  modern  times,  was  estab- 
lished at  Naples,  by  Baptista  Porta,  in 
1560. 

ACAD'EMY  FIGURE,  in  painting, 
a  drawing  usually  made  with  black  and 
white  chalk,  on  tinted  paper,  after  the 
living  model.  Sometimes  Academy-fig- 
ure is  understood  to  be  one  in  whicli  the 
action  is  constrained,  anil  the  parts  witli- 
out  mutual  connection  with  each  otlior, 
as  frequently  hiippcns  to  those  who  model 
from  a  study  which  was  only  intended  to 
exhibit  the  development  of  certain  mus- 
cle3  or  members  of  the  body. 


r^^ 


ACAN'TIIUS,  the  bear's  claw,  a  plant 

used  in  Greece  and  Italy  on  account  of 

its  beautiful 

indented 

leaves     and 

graceful 

growth     for 

'  (^  —  —    gar  liMi  iilots 

/\  2^l\  and  also   in 

il'f  works  of  Art 

^"i?/''^       f'"'  the  bor- 

^^^^.^^<^;kj  '  :>S>^^  b  r  o  i  d  e  r  e  d 
garments, 
tiie  c  Iges  of 
vases,  for  wreaths  round  dri-iking  cups; 
and  in  architecture,  for  ornauenting  the 
capitals  of  columns,  particularly  those 
of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  the  Roman, 
or  Composite,  which  sprang  from  it.  The 
type  of  the  Corinthian  capital  may  be 
found  on  numerous  Egyptian  capitals. 

ACAT'ALEPSY,  {acatalepsia,)  among 
ancient  philosophers,  the  impossibility 
of  comprehending  something ;  uncertainty 
in  science. 

ACCA'LIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  solemn 
festivals  held  in  honor  of  Aoca  Laurentia, 
the  nurse  of  Romulus  :  they  were  also 
called  haiirentalla. 

ACCENDEN'TES,  or  ACCENSO'- 
RES,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  an  inferior 
rank  of  ministers,  whose  business  it  is  to 
light,  snutf,  and  trim  the  candles  and 
tapers. 

ACCEN'DONES,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
oflScers  in  the  gladiatorial  schools,  who 
excited  and  animated  the  combatants  dur- 
ing the  engagement. 

ACCEN'SI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  certain 
supernumerary  soldiers,  designed  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  those  who  should  be 
killed,  or  anywise  disabled. —  Accensi 
also  denoted  a  kind  of  inferior  officers, 
appointed  to  attend  the  Roman  magis- 
trates. 

ACCENT,  a  molification  of  the  voice 
in  ])ronouncing  certain  words  or  syll.a- 
blos :  also,  the  marks  on  the  words  or 
syllables ;  as,  the  iu3ute  accent,  marked 
thus  ('),  the  grave  accent  thus  ('),  the 
circumfiex  thus  (').  This  is  called  gram- 
matical accent,  but  there  is  also  a  rhe- 
torical accent  or  emphasis,  which  is  de- 
signed to  give  to  a  sentence  distinctness 
and  clearness.  In  a  sentence,  therefore, 
tlie  stress  is  laid  on  the  most  important 
wonl,  and  in  a  word  on  the  most  impor- 
tant syllable.  When  the  accent  falls  on 
a  vowel,  that  vo'wel  has  its  long  sound, 
as  in  po'rous;  but  when  it  falls  on  a 
consonant,  the  preceding  vowel  is  short, 


ACC] 


AND    TIIK     l-INK     AKT.S. 


as  in  potter.  Accents  also  not  only  give 
a  pleasing  variety  and  beauty  to  the 
moilulation  of  the  voice,  but  often  serve 
to  ascertain  the  true  moaning  of  the 
word  — In  music,  accent  dL^notcs  a  certain 
modulation  or  warbling  of  the  sounds,  to 
express  passions,  either  naturally  bj'  the 
voice,  or  artificially  by  instruments. 
Every  bar  or  measure  is  divided  into  the 
accented  and  unaccented  parts ;  the  for- 
mer being  the  principal,  on  which  the 
spirit  of  the  music  depends. 

ACCEPT'ANCE,  in  commerce,  is  when 
a  man  subscribes,  signs,  and  makes  him- 
self a  debtor  for  the  sum  contained  in  a 
bill  of  exchange,  or  other  obligation, 
drawn  upon,  or  addressed  to  him  ;  which 
is  done  by  his  writing  the  word  "Ac- 
cepted" on  it,  and  signing  his  naiuc. 

ACCEPT'OR,  the  person  who  accepts 
a  bill  of  exchange  by  signing  it,  and 
thereby  becoming  bound  to  pay  its  con- 
tents. 

ACCESSARY,  in  law,  a  person  who 
aids  in  the  commission  of  some  felonious 
action.  There  are  two  kinds  of  acces- 
saries, viz.  before  the  fact,  and  after  it. 
The  first  is  he  who  commands  and  pro- 
cures another  to  commit  an  offence  ;  who, 
though  he  be  absent  when  it  is  com- 
mitted, is  now  regarded  as  much  a  prin- 
cipal as  the  actual  offender.  The  ac- 
cessary after  the  fact  is  one  who  receives, 
comforts,  or  assists  the  offender,  knowing 
him  to  be  such.  In  the  highest  crimes, 
as  high  treason,  Ac,  and  the  lowest,  as 
riots,  forcible  entries,  &c  ,  there  are  no  ac- 
cessaries, but  all  concerned  arc  principals. 

ACCESSORIES,  objects  and  materi- 
als independent  of  the  figure  in  a  picture, 
and  which,  without  being  essential  to 
the  composition,  are  nevertheless  useful, 
whether  under  the  picturesque  relation, 
to  fill  up  those  parts  that  without  them 
would  appear  naked,  to  establish  a  bal- 
ance between  the  masses,  to  form  the 
contrast,  to  contribute  to  the  harmony 
of  colors,  and  so  add  to  the  splendor  and 
richness  of  a  picture  ;  or,  under  the  re- 
lation of  poetic  composition,  to  facilitate 
the  understanding  of  the  subject,  recall- 
ing some  one  of  the  circumstances  which 
have  preceded,  or  which  will  follow  the 
action ;  to  make  known  the  condition 
and  habits  of  the  figures  ;  to  characterize 
their  general  manners,  and  through  them 
the  age  and  country  in  which  the  action 
takes  place,  «ic  ;  such  arc  draperies  va- 
riously adjusted,  trophies  afli.xe  1  to  the 
walls,  devices,  sculptured  divinities,  fur- 
niture, carpets,  lamps,  groups  of  vases, 
arms,  utensils,  Ac. 


ACCI.\CATU'RA,  in  music,  a  sweep, 
ing  of  the  chorda  of  the  pianoforte,  and 
dropping  sprinkled  notes  usual  in  accom- 
paniments. 

AC  CIDEXCE,  a  display  of  the  varia- 
tions of  words  according  to  their  govern- 
ment or  sense. 

ACCIDENS,  or  per  accidens,  a 
term  applied  to  the  operations  of  natural 
bodies,  in  distinction  from  per  se ;  thus 
fire  is  said  to  burn  per  se,  but  a  heated 
iron  per  accidens. 

ACCIDENT,  that  which  belongs  ac- 
cidentally, not  essentially,  to  a  thing,  as 
sweetness,  softness,  &c. 

ACCIDENTAL,  in  philosophy,  a  term 
applied  to  effects  which  result  from 
causes  occurring  by  accident. 

ACCIDENTAL  COLORS,  colors  de- 
pending on  some  affection  of  the  eye, 
and  not  belonging  to  light  itself,  or  any 
quality  of  the  luminous  object.  If  we 
look  for  a  short  time  steadily  with  one 
e.ye  upon  any  bright-colored  spot,  as  a 
wafer  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  immedi- 
ately after  turn  the  same  eye  to  another 
part  of  the  paper,  a  similar  spot  will  be 
seen,  but  of  a  different  color.  If  the 
wafer  be  red,  the  imaginary  spot  will  be 
green ;  if  black,  it  will  be  changed  into 
white ;  the  color  thus  appearing  being 
always  what  is  termed  the  complemen- 
tary color  of  that  on  which  the  eye  was 
fixed. 

ACCIDENTAL  LIGHT,  secondary 
lights,  which  are  not  accounted  for  by 
the  prevalent  effect. 

ACCIDENTAL  POINT,  in  perspec- 
tive, the  point  in  which  a  straight  line 
drawn  from  the  e3'e,  parallel  to  another 
straight  line,  cuts  the  perspective  plane 

ACCIDENTALS,  in  painting,  are 
those  fortuitous  or  chance  effects,  occur- 
ring from  luminous  rays  falling  on  cer- 
tain objects,  by  which  they  are  brought 
into  stronger  light  than  they  otherwise 
would  be,  and  their  shadows  are  conse- 
quently of  greater  intensity.  This  sort 
of  effect  is  to  bo  seen  in  almost  every 
picture  by  Rembrandt,  who  used  tliCm  to 
a  very  great  extent.  There  are  some 
fine  instances  of  accidentals  in  Raphael's 
Transfiguration,  and  particularly  in  the 
colebraterl  picture,  the  Notte  of  Coreg- 
gio,  in  which  the  light  emanates  from  the 
infant  Christ. — Accidentals,  in  mu.sic, 
are  those  flats  and  sharps  which  are  pre- 
fixed to  the  notes  in  a  movement,  and 
which  would  not  be  considered  so  by  tho 
flats  and  sharps  in  the  signature. 

ACCLAMATION,  in  Roman  antiqui- 
ty, a  shout  raised  by  the  people,  to  tes- 


6 


CVfLOl'KIJlA     OF     LMKHATURK 


[acc 


tlfy  their  {ipplansc,  or  approbation  of 
their  princes,  generals,  ,tc;  In  ages 
when  people  were  more  aoeustoinod  to 
give  full  utterance  to  their  feelings,  ac- 
clamations were  very  common,  whenever 
a  mass  of  people  was  influenceil  by  one 
common  feeling.  We  find,  therefore,  ac- 
clamations in  theatres,  senates,  ecclesias- 
tical meetings,  elections,  at  nuptials,  tri- 
umphs, <tc.  In  the  early  times  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  bishops  were  elected  by  ac- 
clamation. The  first  German  emperors 
were  elected  in  the  same  way ;  and  at 
the  present  day,  wherever  the  forms  of 
civilized  life  are  least  regarded,  approba- 
tion or  disapprobation  of  proposed  public 
measures  is  shown  by  acclamations  of 
the  assembled  multitude. 

AC'COLA,  among  the  Romans,  signi- 
fied a  person  who  lived  near  some  place  ; 
in  which  sense  it  differed  from  incola,  the 
inhabitant  of  such  a  place. 

ACCOLADE',  the  ancient  ceremony  of 
conferring  knighthood,  by  the  king's  lay- 
ing his  arms  about  the  young  knight's 
neck,  and  embracing  him.  This  familiar 
expression  of  regard  appears  to  have 
been  exchanged  for  the  more  stately  act 
of  touching,  or  gently  striking,  with  the 
royal  sword,  the  neck  of  the  kneeling 
knight.  The  present  ceremony  of  con- 
ferring the  honor  of  knighthood  is  evi- 
dently derived  from  it. 

ACCOM'PANIMENT,  an  instrumen- 
tal part  added  to  a  musical  composition 
by  way  of  embellishment,  and  in  order 
to  support  the  principal  melody.  When 
the  piece  may  be  performed  with  or 
without  the  accompaniment  at  pleasure, 
it  is  called  accompaniment  ad  libitum ; 
but  when  it  is  indispensable,  accompani- 
ment oblii(ato. 

ACCOM'PLICE,  in  law,  a  person  who 
is  privy  to,  or  aiding  in,  the  perpetration 
of  some  crime. 

ACCOM'PLISIIMENT,  in  a  general 
sense,  denotes  the  perfecting,  or  entirely 
finishing  and  completing  any  matter  or 
thing;  but  it  more  expressly  describes 
the  acquirement  of  some  branch  of 
learning,  useful  art,  or  elegant  amuse- 
ment.— Accomplishment  is  also  partic- 
ularly used  for  the  fulfilment  of  a  proph- 
ecy ;  in  which  sense,  we  read  of  a  literal 
accomplishment,  a  mystical  accomplish- 
ment, Ac. 

ACCORD ATU'RA,  an  Italian  word,  to 
express  the  tuning  of  an  instrument. 

ACCOli'DION,  a  new  musical  instru- 
ment, of  German  invention,  but  now  also 
made  in  this  country,  consisting  of  a 
double  scries  of  vibrating  tongues,  a<?tod 


on  by  a  current  of  air  from  a  sort  of  bel- 
lows, and  producing  tones  very  similar  tc 
those  of  the  organ. 

ACCOUXT'ANT,  or  ACCOMPT'ANT, 
in  a  general  sense,  denotes  one  whose 
business  it  is  to  compute,  adjust,  and 
range  in  due  order  accounts  in  commerce. 
In  a  more  restricted  sense,  the  term  is 
applicable  to  a  person  appointed  to  keep 
the  accounts  of  a  public  company  or 
office  :  thus,  we  say  the  accountant  of  the 
India  Company,  the  Custom-house,  tho 
Excise,  ifec. 

ACCOU'TREMENTS,  the  necessaries 
of  a  soldier,  as  belts,  pouches,  cartridge- 
boxes,  &c. 

ACCRE'TION,  the  increase  or  growth 
of  a  body  bj'  an  external  addition  of  new 
parts ;  thus  shells,  stones,  and  various 
other  substances  are  formed. 

ACCUBA'TIOX,  the  posture  used 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  at  their 
meals,  which  was  with  the  body  extended 
on  a  couch,  and  the  head  resting  on  a 
pillow,  or  on  the  elbow,  supported  bj'  a 
pillow.  This  practice  was  not  permitted 
among  soldiers  children,  and  servants ; 
nor  was  it  known  until  luxury  had  cor- 
rupted manners.  Their  couches  were 
called  AccuBiTA. 

ACEPII'ALI.  a  sect  of  Christians,  so 
called  because  ihey  admitted  no  head,  or 
superior,  either  lay  or  ecclesiastic. 

ACER'RA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  a 
small  altar  erected  near  the  bed  on  which 
a  dead  person  was  laid  out.  Incense  and 
perfumes  were  burnt  upon  it,  till  tho  time 
of  the  funeral  The  real  intention,  prob- 
ably, was  to  prevent  or  overcome  any  of- 
fensive smells  that  might  arise  about  tho 
corpse. 

A'CPIERON,  tho  river  of  sorrow  which 
flowed  round  the  infernal  realms  of 
Hades,  according  to  the  mythology  of 
the  ancients.  There  was  a  river  of 
Thesprotia,  in  Epirus,  of  the  same  name, 
and  also  one  in  Italy,  near  which  Alex- 
ander, king  of  the  Molossi,  was  slain ; 
both  of  which  from  tho  unwholesome  and 
foul  nature  of  their  waters,  were  sup- 
po.sed  to  communicate  with  the  infernal 
stream. 

ACME,  in  rhetoric  the  oxtremo 
height,  or  farthest  point  of  pathos,  or 
sentiment,  to  which  tho  mind  is  judi- 
ciously conducted  by  .a  series  of  impres- 
sions gradually  rising  in  intensity. 

ACOLY'TIir,  in  cccleslastiearhistory, 
denotes  canilidatcs  for  the  ministry,  so 
called  from  their  continually  attending 
the  bishop.  It  is  also  an  appellation 
given  to  the  Stoics,  on  P'^eount   of  thoif 


ict] 


AND    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


steaily  adborencc  to  wbat  they  had  once 
resolved. 

ACOrS.MAT'ICr,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
such  disciples  of  Pythagoras,  as  had  not 
finished  their  five  years'  probation.  The 
acousmatici  were  instructed  by  bare  posi- 
tive precepts  and  rules,  without  reasons 
or  demonstrations,  and  these  precepts 
ihey  called  acousmata. 

ACROAT'IC,  in  the  Aristotelian 
schools,  a  denomination  given  to  such 
lectures  as  were  calculated  only  for  the 
intimate  friends  and  disciples  of  that 
philosopher;  being  chiefly  employed  in 
demonstrating  some  speculative  or  ab- 
struse part  of  philosophy.  The  acroatic 
lectures  stood  contradistinguished  from 
the  exoteric  ones,  which  were  adapted  to 
a  common  auditory. 

ACRO'LITHOS,  in  sculpture,  a  statue 
whose  extremities  are  of  stone,  the  body 
being  made  of  wood.  According  to  Yi- 
truvius,  there  was  a  temple  at  Halicar- 
nassus  dedicated  to  ]Mars,  and  built  by 
Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  wherein  was  an 
acrolithan  statue  of  the  god.  And  from 
Trebellius  PoUio  we  learn  that  Calpurnia 
set  up  an  .acrolithan  statue  of  Venus, 
which  was  gilt. 

ACROMONOGRAMMAT'ICUM,  a  po- 
etical composition,  wherein  each  su)>se- 
quent  verse  commences  with  that  which 
the  vei'se  preceding  terminates. 

ACROP'OLIS,  the  citadel  of  Athens. 
It  was  formerly  the  whole  city,  and  at 
first  called  Acropia,  from  Acrops  the 
founder  ;  but,  after  the  inhabitants  were 
greatly  increased  in  number,  the  whole 
jjlain  around  it  was  filled  with  buildings, 
and  the  original  city  became  the  centre, 
under  the  denomination  of  Acropolis,  or 
the  upper  city. 

ACROSTIC,  a  poem,  the  lines  of  which 
are  so  contrived,  that  the  first  letters  of 
each,  taken  together,  Avill  make  a  proper 
name  or  other  word. 

ACROSTO'LIUM,  in  the  naval  archi- 
tecture of  the  ancients,  the  extreme  part 
of  the  ornament  used  on  the  prows  of 
their  ships.  It  was  usual  to  tear  the 
acrosloUa  from  the  prows  of  vanquished 
ships,  as  a  token  of  victory- 

ACROTERIA,  in  architecture,  small 
pedestals,  upon  which  globes,  vases,  or 
statues  stand  at  the  ends  or  middle  of 
pediments.  It  also  denotes  the  figures 
themselves  placed  in  such  situations. 

ACT,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  the 
exertion,  or  effectual  application,  of  some 
power  or  faculty.  Act  is  distinguished 
from  power,  as  the  effect  from  the  cause, 
or  as  a  thing  produced,  from  that  which 


produces  it. — Act,  among  logicians,  more 
particularly  denotes  an  operation  of  the 
liunian  mind  ;  in  which  sense,  compre- 
hending, judging,  willing,  kc.  are  called 
acts. — Act,  in  law,  is  used  for  an  instru- 
ment or  deed  in  writing,  serviftg  to  prove 
the  truth  of  some  bargain  or  transaction. 
Thus,  records,  certificates,  <&c.  are  called 
acts. — Act  is  also  used  for  the  final  reso- 
lution, or  decree  of  an  assembly,  senate, 
council,  &c. — Acts  of  parliament  are 
called  statutes  ;  acts  of  the  royal  society, 
transactions ;  those  of  the  French  academy 
of  sciences,  memoirs ;  those  of  the  academy 
of  sciences  at  Petersburg,  commentaries  : 
those  of  Leipsic,  acta  erudiloruin  ;  the 
decrees  of  the  lords  of  session,  at  Edin- 
burgh, acta  sederunt,  &c. — Act,  in  the 
universities,  is  the  delivery  of  orations, 
or  other  exercises,  in  proof  of  the  pro- 
ficiency of  a  student  who  is  to  take  a 
degree.  At  Oxford,  the  time  when  mas- 
ters or  doctors  complete  their  degrees,  is 
called  the  act.  At  Cambridge,  the  same 
period  is  called  the  commencement. — 
Act,  in  a  dramatic  sense,  is  the  name 
given  to  certain  portions  of  a  play,  in- 
tended to  give  respite  both  to  the  specta- 
tors and  the  actors.  In  the  ancient 
drama,  five  acts  were  required  both  in 
tragedy  and  comedy ;  and  in  what  is 
tcrnieil  the  regular  drama  that  rule  is 
still  observed,  the  acts  being  divided  into 
smaller  portions,  called  scenes. 

ACTA  CONSISTO'RII,  the  edicts  or 
declarations  of  the  council  of  state  of  the 
emi>erors. 

ACTA  DIUR'NA,  was  a  sort  of  Roman 
gazette,  containing  an  authorized  narra- 
tive of  the  transactions  worthy  of  notice, 
which  happened  at  Rome. 

ACTA  PUB'LICA,  in  Roman  history, 
the  journal  of  the  senate.  It  seems  to 
have  resembled  the  votes  of  the  English 
House  of  Commons,  wherein  a  short  ac- 
count was  given  to  the  public  of  what 
passed  in  the  senate-house.  • 

ACTIAN  GAMES,  or  Ludi  Acxiaca, 
were  instituted  in  commemoration  of  the 
victory  obtained  by  Augustus  over  An- 
tony at  Actium.  They  returned  every 
fifth  year,  according  to  the  general 
opinion,  and  were  sacred  to  Apollo,  who 
was  then  called  Actius  Apollo.  Actian 
years  became  an  era,  commencing  from 
the  battle  of  Actium.  called  also  the  era 
of  Augustus.  The  Actian  games  con- 
sisted of  shows  of  gladiators,  wrestlers, 
and  other  exercises,  and  were  kept  gene- 
rally at  Nicoptdis,  a  city  built  by  Augus- 
tus, near  Actium,  for  that  purpose,  with  a 
view  to  perpetuate  the  fame  of  Iiis  victory. 


8 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIlEilVTUUE 


[adj 


ACTION,  in  ethics,  something  done  by 
a  free  or  morul  agent,  capable  of  dis- 
tinguishing good  from  evil.  The  essence 
of  a  moral  action  consists  in  its  being 
done  knowingly  and  voluntarilj'  :  that  is, 
the  agent  must  not  only  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish whether  it  be  good  or  bad  in 
itself;  but  he  must  likewise  be  entirely 
free  from  compulsion  of  any  kind,  and  at 
full  liberty  to  follow  the  dictates  of  his 
own  understanding. — Action,  in  rhet- 
oric, may  be  defined,  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  voice,  but  more  especially  the 
gesture  of  an  orator,  to  the  subject  he  is 
upon. — Action,  in  a  theatrical  sense,  is 
nearly  the  same  with  action  among 
orators ;  only  the  actor  adapts  his  action 
to  an  assumed  character,  whereas  the 
orator  is  supposed  to  be  in  reality  what 
his  action  expresses. — Action,  in  paint- 
ing and  sculpture,  denotes  the  posture  of 
a  statue  or  picture,  serving  to  express 
some  passion,  &c. — Action,  in  the  mili- 
tary art,  is  an  engagement  between  two 
armies,  or  between  different  bodies  of 
troops  belonging  thereto. 

ACTIVE,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes 
something  that  communicates  motion  or 
action  to  another,  in  which  sense  it  stands 
opposed  to  passive. — Active,  among 
grammarians,  an  appellation  given  to 
words  expressing  some  action,  as  I  write, 
I  read,  &c. — Active  Power,  in  meta- 
physics, the  power  of  executing  any 
work  or  labor ;  in  contradistinction  to 
speculative  powers,  as  those  of  seeing, 
hearing,  reasoning,  &c. 

ACTOR,  in  a  dramatic  sense,  is  a  man 
who  enacts  some  part  or  character  in  a 
play.  It  is  remarkable  with  what  differ- 
ence actors  were  treated  among  the  an- 
cients. At  Athens  they  were  held  in 
such  esteem,  as  to  be  sometimes  sent  on 
embassies  to  foreign  powers  ;  whereas,  at 
Rome,  if  a  citizen  became  an  actor,  he 
thereby  forfeited  his  freedom.  Actors  in 
the  present  day  have  little  to  complain 
of,  in  regard  to  the  treatment  they  re- 
ceive :  according  as  they  contribute  to 
the  gratification  of  the  public  so  are  they 
rewarded  ;  and  if  their  moral  conduct  be 
irreproachable,  no  persons  are  more  es- 
teemed or  1  luded. 

ACTRE.--!.^!,  a  female  dramatic  per- 
former. They  were  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients, among  wljoin  men  always  took  the 
parts  of  women.  Nor  were  they  intro- 
duced on  the  English  stage  till  the  days 
of  the  Stuarts. 

ACTUA'RIUS,  or  ACTA'RIUS,  in 
Roman  antiquity,  an  officer,  or  ratlior 
notary,  appointed  to  write  down  the  pro- 


cceJings  of  a  court. — Actuarii  were  alsc 
officers  who  kept  the  military  accounts, 
and  distributed  the  corn  to  the  soldiers. 

AC  TUARY,  the  chief  clerk,  or  person, 
who  compiles  minutes  of  the  proceedings 
of  a  company  in  business. 

ACU'MEN,  mental  sharpness,  or  quick 
discernment;  great  intellectual  capacity. 
In  ancient  music,  acumen  denotes  a  sound 
produced  by  raising  the  voice  to  a  higa 
pitch. 

ACUTE',  an  appellation  given  to  such 
things  as  terminate  in  a  sharp  point,  or 
edge  :  thus,  we  say,  an  acute  angle,  acute- 
angled  triangle,  &c. — Acute,  in  music, 
an  epithet  given  to  sharp  or  shrill  sounds, 
in  opposition  to  those  called  grave. 

ACYROLO'GIA,  in  grammar,  denotes 
an  improper  word,  phrase,  or  expression  : 
it  differs  a  little  from  the  cataehresis. 

AD,  a  Latin  preposition,  expressing  the 
relation  of  one  thing  to  another.  It  is 
frequently  prefixed  to  other  words  :  thus, 
AD  HOMINEM,  among  logicians,  an  argu- 
ment drawn  from  the  professed  belief  or 
principles  of  those  with  whom  we  argue. 
— Ad  ludos,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  kind 
of  punishment,  whereby  the  criminals 
entertained  the  people,  either  by  fighting 
with  wild  beasts,  or  with  each  other. — Ad 
VALOREM,  in  commerce,  according  to  the 
value. — Ad  infinitum,  indefinitely,  or  to 
infinity. 

ADA'GIO,  a  degree  quicker  than 
grave  time,  in  music,  but  with  graceful 
and  elegant  execution. 

A'DEPT,  a  distinctive  term  applied  to 
those  alchemists  who  were  supposed  to 
have  attained  the  great  object  of  their  re- 
searches, or  to  have  discovered  the  phi- 
losopher's stone. 

ADIIE'RENCE,  the  effect  of  those 
parts  of  a  picture  which,  vnanting  relief, 
are  not  detached,  and  hence  -ippear  ad- 
hering to  the  canvas  or  snrfajo. 

AT)'JECTIVE,-in  grammar,  that  part 
of  speech  which  i*  annexed  to  substan- 
tives, to  define  more  accurately  the  con- 
ce)itions  intended  to  bo  denoteil  by  them. 

ADJOURN'MEXT,  the  putting  off  a 
court  or  other  meeting  till  another  day. 
In  parliament,  adjournment  differs  from 
prorogation,  the  former  being  not  only 
for  the  shorter  time,  but  also  done  by  the 
house  itself,  whereas  the  latter  is  an  act 
of  royal  authority. 

AD'JUNCT,  some  quality  belonging 
either  to  body  or  min  1,  either  natural  or 
acquired.  Thus,  thinking  is  an  adjunct 
of  tiie  mind,  and  growth  of  t!ie  body.  It 
also  denotes  something  added  to  another.. 
without  being  any  necessary  part  of  it 


ADU] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS, 


0 


Thu3  water  absorbed  by  a  spnngo  is  an 
adjunct,  but  no  necessary  p.irt  of  that 
substance. 

ADJUST'AIEXT,  in  a  picture,  is  the 
manner  in  wliich  draperies  are  chosen, 
arranged,  and  dispo.sed. 

AD'JUTANT,  a  niilitary  otlicer,  whose 
auty  it  is  to  carry  orders  from  the  major 
to  the  colonel  and  Serjeants.  When  de- 
tachments are  to  be  made,  he  gives  the 
number  to  he  furnished  by  each  company 
or  troop,  and  assigns  the  hour  and  place 
of  rendezvous.  lie  also  places  the  guards, 
receives  and  distributes  the  ammunition 
to  the  companies,  &c. 

AD'JUTANT-GEN'ERAL,  an  officer 
of  distinction,  who  assists  the  general,  by 
forming  the  several  details  of  duty  of  the 
army  with  the  brigade  majors. 

ADLOCU'TION,  or  ADLOCU'TIO,  in 
Roman  antiquity,  the  address  made  by 
generals  to  their  armies,  in  order  to  rouse 
their  courage  before  a  battle. 

AD'MIRAL,  the  commander  of  a  fleet 
of  ships  of  war ;  having  two  subordinate 
commanders,  as  vice-admiral  and  rear- 
admiral  ;  and  distinguished  into  three 
classes,  by  the  color  of  their  flags,  as 
white,  blue,  and  red.  The  admiral  car- 
ries his  flag  at  the  main-top-mast  head ; 
the  vice-admiral,  at  the  fore-top-mast 
head ;  and  the  rear-admiral,  at  the  mizen- 
top-mast  head. 

AD'MIRALTY,  the  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  executing  the  ofiice  of  Lord 
High  Admiral,  and  having  authority 
over  naval  afi"airs  generally. — Admiral- 
ty, Court  of,  in  law,  i,"  a  court  of  rec- 
ord, of  which  the  proceedings  are  carried 
on,  at  least  to  a  certain  extent,  according 
to  the  course  of  the  civil  law  ;  although, 
as  the  judge  may  have  in  some  cases  the 
assistance  of  a  jury,  it  has  also  a  resem- 
blance to  the  courts  of  common  law.  It 
has  jurisdiction  principally  for  the  deter- 
mination of  private  injuries  to  private 
rights  arising  at  sea,  o-  intimately  con- 
nected with  maritime  subjects  ;  and  in 
most  cases,  to  which  its  authority  e.xtends, 
it  hq.s  concurrent  jurisdiction,  either  with 
the  common  law  courts,  or  those  of  equity. 
ADONA'I,  one  of  the  names  of  God 
used  in  the  Scriptures,  and  properly  sig- 
nifying niij  lords,  in  the  plural,  as  Adoni 
does  my  lord,  in  the  singular  number. 

ADO'NIA,  solemn  feasts  in  honor  of 
Venus,  instituted  in  memory  of  her  be- 
loved Adonis,  and  observed  with  great 
solemnity  by  the  Greeks,  Phoenicians, 
Lycians,  Syrians,  Egyptians,  itc.  They 
lasted  two  days,  during  the  first  of  which 
the    women    carried    about    images   of 


Venus  and  Adonis,  weeping,  tearing  their 
hair,  beating  their  breasts,  .and  using  ev- 
ery token  of  grief.  On  the  second,  they 
sung  his  praises,  and  made  rejoicings,  as 
if  Ailiiiiis  hail  been  raised  todife  again. 

ADD'NIC,  a  species  of  verse  consisting 
of  a  dactylo  and  a  spondee.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Sappho,  and  derived  its  name 
from  being  principally  sung  at  the  festi- 
vals in  memory  of  Adonis. 

ADO'NIS,  in  mythology,  a  beautiful 
youth,  son  of  Cinyras,  king  of  Cyprus, 
beloved  by  Venus,  and  killed  by  a  wild 
boar,  to  the  great  regret  of  the  goddess. 
It  is,  also,  the  name  of  a  river  of  Phoenicia, 
on  the  banks  of  which  Adonis,  or  Tham- 
muz,  as  he  is  called  in  the  East,  was 
supposed  to  have  been  killed.  At  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  this  river  acquires  a 
high  red  color,  by  the  rains  washing  up 
particles  of  red  earth.  The  ancient  poets 
ascribed  this  to  a  sympathy  in  the  river 
for  the  death  of  Adonis.  This  season 
was  observed  as  a  festival  in  the  adjacent 
country. 

ADOllA'TION',  a  mode  of  reverence 
or  worship  anciently  shown  to  the  gods, 
by  raising  the  right  hand  to  the  mouth, 
and  gently  applying  it  to  the  lips  ;  also, 
in  general,  any  outward  sign  of  worship, 
by  kissing  the  hand  or  feet,  walking 
barefoot,  or  the  like.  Among  the  Jews, 
adoration  consisted  in  kissing  the  hands, 
bowing,  kneeling,  and  even  prostration. 
But  the  posture  of  adoration  most  com- 
mon in  all  ages  and  countries,  is  kneel- 
ing. 

ADO'REA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  grain, 
or  a  kind  of  cakes  made  of  fine  flour,  and 
ofi'ered  in  sacrifice  ;  a  dole  or  distribution 
of  corn,  as  a  reward  for  some  service  ; 
whence,  by  metonymy,  it  is  put  for  praise 
or  rewards  in  general. 

A'DRI  AN,  St.,  in  Christian  art  is  repre- 
sented armed,  with  an  anvil  at  his  feet 
or  in  his  arms,  and  occasionally  with  a 
sword  or  an  axe  lying  besiiie  it.  The 
anvil  is  the  appropriate  attribute  of  St. 
Adrian,  who  suffered  martyrdom,  having 
his  limbs  cut  off  on  a  smith's  anvil,  and 
being  afterwards  beheaded.  St.  Adrian 
was  the  chief  military  saint  of  northern 
Europe  for  many  ages,  second  only  to  St 
George.  He  was  regarded  as  the  patron 
of  soldiers,  and  the  protector  against  the 
plague.  He  has  not  been  a  popular  sub- 
ject with  artists.  St.  Adrian  is  the 
patron  saint  of  the  Flemish  brewers. 

ADULTERA'TION,  in  ageneral  sense, 
denotes  the  act  of  debasing,  by  an  im- 
proper mixture,  something  that  was  pure 
and  genuine.    Thus,  adulteration  of  coin, 


10 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    LITEK  ATUIIK 


[aec 


is  the  casting  or  ranking  it  of  a  metal 
inferior  in  goodness  to  the  standard,  by 
using  too  great  a  portion  of  allo_y. 

ADUL'TERY,  a  violation  of  the  nup- 
tial bed ;  a  crime  which  has  been  re- 
garded by  all  civilized  nations  with 
abhorrence,  and  in  ancient  times  was 
punished  as  a  capital  offence.  By  the 
Jewish  law,  the  penalty  was  death. 

AD'VENT,  the  coming  of  our  Saviour  ; 
also  the  festival  commemorative  of  the 
Advent,  which  falls  about  a  mouth  before 
Christmas. 

AD'VERB,  a  word  so  called  from  its 
signification  and  connection  with  verbs ; 
though  they  are  also  frequently  joined 
with  adjectives  and  other  parts  of  speech 
to  modify  their  meaning. 

AD  VERS  A'RI  A,  a  memorandum-book, 
journal,  or  common-place  book. 

ADVER'TISEMENT,  any  printed  pub- 
lication of  circumstances,  either  of  public 
or  private  interest,  particularly  that  in- 
serted in  the  newspapers. 

AD'VOCATE,  the  original  pleaders 
of  causes  at  Rome  were  the  Patricians, 
who  defended  gratuitously  their  clients; 
but  even  before  the  downfall  of  the  re- 
public, the  class  had  degenerated  into  a 
profession,  its  members  receiving  rewards 
for  their  services,  although  still  among 
the  most  honorable  of  employments.  In 
the  later  ages  of  the  empire,  the  advocati 
appear  to  have  formed  a  distinct  class 
from  the  jurisconsulti,  or  chamber-coun- 
sel, and  to  have  much  declined  in  repu- 
tation. In  France,  the  avocats,  or 
counsel,  form  a  separate  order,  of  which 
each  member  is  attached  to  a  particular 
local  court.  The  lord  advocate,  in  Scot- 
land, is  a  public  officer,  who  prosecutes- 
crimes  before  the  court  of  justiciary. 

ADVOW'SON,  properly,  the  relation 
in  which  a  patron  stands  towards  tlie 
living  to  which  he  presents,  i.  e.  the  pat- 
ronage of  a  church.  The  earliest  pro- 
vision for  divine  worship,  in  England  and 
in  other  countries,  was  derived  from  the 
offerings  of  the  laity,  which  were  dis- 
tributed by  the  bishop  of  each  diocese 
a.rnong  bis  clergy,  whom  he  sent  from 
place  to  place  to  preach  and  administer 
the  sacraments.  By  degrees  he  was  en- 
abled, by  the  bequests  of  the  faithful, 
and  the  customary  offering  of  tithes,  to 
subdivide  his  diocese,  or  paroehia,  as  it 
was  originally  called,  into  various  dis- 
tricts, and  to  build  churches  and  establish 
permanent  ministers  in  each.  At  the 
same  time  it  became  a  common  pactico 
among  the  nobles  to  Iniild  and  endow 
churches    for  .  the    benefit  of  themselves 


and  their  own  dependents  ;  in  which  case 
the3'  were  allc-.ved  to  present  to  the 
benefice,  subject  to  the  licensing  power 
of  the  bishop  and  the  canons  of  the 
church. 

AD'YTUM,  the  most  retired  and  secret 
place  of  the  heathen  temples,  into  which 
none  but  the  priests  were  allowed  to  enter. 
The  adytum  of  the  Greeks  and  RomauJi 
answered  to  the  sanctum  sanctorum  .>f 
the  Jews,  and  was  the  place  from  whence 
oracles  were  delivered.  The  term  is 
purely  Greek,  signifying  inaccessible. 

iEACE'A,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  solemn 
festivals  and  games  in  honor  of  yEacus, 
who,  on  account  of  his  justice  upon  earth, 
was  thought  to  have  been  one  of  the 
judges  in  hell.  At  the  end  of  the  so- 
lemnity, the  victors  in  the  games  used  to 
present  a  garland  of  flowers. 

.iE'DES,  in  Roman  antiquity,  besides 
its  more  ordinary  signification  of  a  house, 
or  the  internal  part  of  a  house,  where 
the  family  used  to  eat,  likewise  signified 
an  inferior  kind  of  temple,  consecrated 
indeed  to  some  deity,  but  not  by  the 
augurs. 

jEDIC'ULA,  a  small  sedes  or  temple, 
which  was  erected  in  every  village  or 
parish. 

xEDI'LES,  a  Roman  magistrate,  whose 
chief  business  was  to  superintend  build- 
ings of  all  kinds,  but  more  especially  pub- 
lic ones,  as  temples,  aqueducts,  bridges, 
&c  ;  and  to  take  care  of  the  highway's, 
weights,  and  measures,  &c. 

iE'GIS,  a  shield,  particularly  the  shield 
of  Jupiter. 

^NE'ID,  the  title  of  Virgil's  epic 
poem,  in  which  he  celebrates  the  adven- 
tures of  /Eneas,  one  of  the  bravest  among 
the  Trojan  heroes.  The  author  intro- 
duces him  as  sailing  from  Troy,  after  its 
destruction,  in  search  of  the  shores  of 
Italy,  on  which  it  had  been  promised  by 
the  gods  that  he  should  found  an  empire 
destined  to  be  immortal ;  and  the  poem 
ends  with  the  complete  success  of  .i5<;uea3 
over  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli,  whose 
dominions  he  had  invaded,  and  who  falls 
by  his  hand.  The  unrivalled  force,  ele- 
gance, and  beauty  of  Virgil's  style  have 
been  the  theme  of  admiration  in  every 
succeeding  age,  and  given  him  an  indis- 
putable right  to  a  niclio  in  the  tenijile  of 
Apollo,  second  only  to  that  of  Homer. 

.T50'LIAN  IIAliP,  an  arrangement  of 
strings  placed  in  a  window  and  playeil 
upon  bv  the  wind.  It  produces  the  effect 
of  a  distant  choir  of  music  in  the  air, 
sweetly  mingling  all  the  harmonic  notes, 
and  sweUinj:  or  diininishincr  its  sounds 


aoa] 


AXU    THE    FiXK    ARTS. 


11 


according  to  the  strength  or  weakness  of 
the  blast. 

yK'llA,  or  E'RA,  a  fixed  historical 
period  whence  }*ears  arc  reckoned  :  as 
the  building  of  Rome,  or  the  birth  of 
Christ.  Era  and  Epoch  arc  not  cvactly 
sj'nonymous.  An  era  is  a  point  fi.xed  by 
a  particular  people  or  nation;  an  epoch, 
one  determined  by  chronologist.s  and  his- 
torians. The  idea  of  an  era,  also,  com- 
prehends a  certain  succession  of  years, 
proceeding  from  a  fixed  event  ;  and  an 
epoch  is  that  event  itself. 

AE'KIAL,  in  painting,  a  term  applied 
to  the  diminishing  intensity  of  color  on 
objects  receding  from  the  eye.  Aerial 
perspective  is  the  relative  apparent  re- 
cession of  objects  from  the  foreground, 
owing  to  the  quantity  of  air  interposed 
between  them  and  the  spectator,  and 
must  accompany  the  recession  of  the 
perspective  linos. 

AER'OMANCY,  a  kind  of  divination 
amongst  the  (ireeks,  andfrom  them  adopt- 
ed by  the  Romans,  whereby  they  pre- 
tended to  foretell  future  events  from  cer- 
tain spectral  phenomena  or  noises  in  the 
air.  By  aeromanoy,  in  the  present  day, 
is  meant  the  art  of  foretelling  the  changes 
and  variations  of  the  air  and  weather,  by 
means  of  meteorological  observations. 

AERONAUT,  one  who  sails  in  the  air 
in  a  balloon. 

AERONAU'TICS,  or  AEROSTA'- 
TION,  the  art  of  navigating  the  air,  by 
employing  air-balloons,  or  silken  globes, 
filled  with  gas  lighter  than  atmospheric 
air. 

.^STIIET'ICS,  a  terra  derived  from 
'■he  Greek,  denoting  ./eeZi/is',  sentiment, 
imagination,  originally  adopted  by  the 
Germans,  and  now  incorporated  into  the 
vocabulary  of  Art.  By  it  is  generally 
understood  "  the  science  of  tbe  beautiful" 
and  its  various  modes  of  representation  ; 
its  purpose  is  to  lead  the  criticism  of  the 
beautiful  back  to  the  principle  of  reason. 
In  beauty  lies  the  soul  of  Art.  Schelling 
declares  that  the  province  of  JEstheties 
is  to  develop  systematically  the  mani- 
fold beautiful  in  every  Art,  a.s  the  one 
idea  of  the  beautiful. 

.r.S'TIVA,  summer  encampments  for 
the  Roman  soldiers,  in  distinction  from 
the  hibernitz,  or  winter  quarters. 

iES'TIVAL,  in  a  general  sense,  ilenotes 
something  connected  with,  or  belongitig 
to  summer.  Hence  we  say  a'stival  point, 
festival  sign,  restival  solstice,  &e. 

AFFECTA'TION,  in  the  Fine  Arts, 
an  artificial  show  arising  from  the  want 
of  simplicity  either  in  coloring,  drawing, 


or  action.  Also,  the  overcharging  any 
part  of  a  composition  with  an  artificial  or 
deceitful  appearance. 

AFFETUO'SO,  fi/Te/Zo,  Ital,  in  a  tender 
and  affecting  stylo;  a  term  employed  in 
music-books,  at  the  beginning  of  a  move- 
ment. 

AFFI'ANCE,  in  law,  denotes  the  mu- 
tual plighting  of  truth,  between  a  man 
and  a  woman  ;  to  bind  one's  self  to  tho 
performance  of  a  marriage  uontract. 

AFFIDA'VIT,  an  oath  in  writing, 
taken  before  some  person  who  is  legally 
authorized  to  administer  the  same. 

AFFIN'ITY,  in  civil  law,  the  rela- 
tionship in  which  each  of  the  parties 
married  stands  to  the  kindred  of  the 
other. 

AFFIR'MATIVE,  an  epithet  used  by 
logicians  for  a  species  of  proposition 
wherein  any  predicate  is  affirmed  of  its 
subject  ;  as,  "  a  dog  is  a  quadruped  ;" 
here  ^'quadruped"  is  affirmed  of  a  dog. 

AF'FIX,  in  grammar,  a  particle  added 
at  the  close  of  a  word,  either  to  diversify 
its  form,  or  alter  its  signification. 

AFFLA'TUS,  in  a  general  sense,  a 
divine  influence  communicating  to  the 
receiver  supernatural  powers,  particularly 
the  gift  of  prophecy.  Among  heathen 
mythologists  and  poets,  it  denotes  the 
actual  inspiration  of  some  divinity. 
Tully,  however,  extends  the  meaning  of 
the  word  farther,  by  attributing  all  great 
actions  to  a  divine  afflatus. 

A  FORTIO'RI,  a  term  implying  that 
what  follows  is  a  more  powerful  argu- 
ment than  what  has  been  before  adduced. 

AFTER,  modelled  or  drawn  after  the 
antique,  after  Raphael,  or  some  other 
great  master.  It  is  to  copy  an  antique 
statue,  or  some  work  of  the  great  masters. 

AG'APiE,  love-feasts  kept  by  the  an- 
cient Christians,  as  a  token  of  brotherly 
charity  and  mutual  benevolence.  In 
course  of  time  abuses  crept  in,  and  ren- 
dered the  abolition  of  them  necessary. 

AGAPE'T/E,  a  society  of  unmarried 
women  among  the  primitive  Christians, 
who  attended  on  and  served  the  clergv. 
At  first  there  was  nothing  improper  in 
these  societies,  though  they  were  after- 
wards charged  with  gross  immoralities, 
and  were  wholly  abolished  by  the  council 
of  Lateran,  in  il39. 

AG'ATHA,  St.,  when  represented  as  a 
martyr,  is  depicted  crowned,  with  a  long 
veil,  and  bearing  the  instruments  of  her 
cruel  martyrdom,  a  pair  of  shears,  with 
which  her  breasts  were  cut  off.  Aa 
patron  saint,  she  bears  in  one  hand  a 
palra  branch,  and  holding  with  the  other 


12 


CVCLOI'EUIA     OF    LUKUATUKE 


[At 


a  plate  or  salver,  upun  which  is  a  female 
breast.  The  subject  of  her  luartyrJom 
has  been  treated  by  Sebastian  del  Piom- 
bo.  Van  Dyek,  Parmigiano,  and  others. 

AGE,  a  certain  period  or  limit  of  time, 
marked  for  tlie  convenience  of  chronology 
and  history  by  some  remarkable  events. 
Chronologers  usually  reckon  seven  such 
agos,  namely,  1.  From  the  creation  to 
the  deluge.  2.  From  the  deluge  to  the 
birth  of  Abraham.  3.  From  the  birth  of 
Abraham  to  the  departure  of  the  I.-^raelites 
out  of  Egypt.  4.  From  the  departure  of 
the  Israelites  to  the  building  of  the  tem- 
ple by  Solomon.  5.  From  the  laying  the 
foundation  of  the  temple  to  the  reign  of 
Cyrus  in  Babylon.  6.  From  the  reign 
of  Cyrus  to  the  coming  of  Christ.  7.  Since 
the  birth  of  our  Saviour. — Among  an- 
cient historians,  the  duration  of  the  world 
was  also  subdivided  into  three  periods, 
or  iiges  :  the  first,  reaching  from  the 
creation  to  the  deluge  which  happened  in 
Greece  during  the  reign  of  Ogyges,  is 
called  the  obscure  or  uncertain  age  ;  the 
second,  called  the  fabulous  or  heroic, 
terminates  at  the  first  olympiail ;  where 
the  third,  or  historical  age,  commences. 
The  poets  also  distinguished  the  period 
of  the  world  into  four  ages  :  the  golden 
age,  or  the  age  of  simplicity  and  happi- 
ness ;  the  silver  age,  which  was  less  pure 
than  the  golden  age,  and  in  which  men 
began  to  till  the  ground  for  their  sus- 
tenance ;  the  brazen  age,  when  strife  and 
contentions  began ;  and  the  iron  age, 
when  justice  and  honor  had  left  the  earth. 

AGEX'DA,  small  books  are  now  pub- 
lished under  this  title,  in  which  individuals 
may  set  down,  under  their  proper  heads, 
the  things  to  be  daily  attended  to. 

A'(tENT,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes 
anything  which  acts,  or  produces  an  ef- 
fect. Agents  are  either  natural  or  moral. 
Natural  agents  are  all  such  inanimate 
bodies  as  have  a  power  to  act  upun  ollun- 
bodies,  in  a  certain  and  dcterniinate 
manner :  such  is  fire,  which  has  the  in- 
variable property  or  power  to  warm  or 
heat.  Moral  agents,  on  the  contrary, 
are  rational  creatures,  capable  of  regu- 
lating their  actions  by  a  certain  rule. 

A'(>10,  in  commerce,  a  term  chiefly 
used  in  Holland  and  at  Venice,  to  signify 
the  dilTcrence  between  the  value  of  bank- 
stcjck  and  the  current  coin. 

Ati'NES,  St.,  this  saint  is  represented 
as  a  martyr,  holding  the  palm-branch  in 
her  hand,  with  a  lamb  at  her  feet  or  in 
her  arms,  sometimes  crowned  with  olives, 
nnd  holding  an  olive-branch  as  well  as 
the  i>aliii-branch. 


AGXO'MEX,  in  Koman  antiquity,  was 
the  fourth  or  honorary  name  bestowed  on 
account  of  some  extraordinary  action,  vir- 
tue, or  accomplishment.  Thus  the  agno- 
men Africanus  was  given  to  Publius  Cor- 
nelius Scipio,  on  account  of  his  exploits 
in  Africa. 

AG'NUS  DEI,  (Lamb  of  God,)  Iho 
oval  medallions,  which  arc  made  either 
from  the  wax  of  the  consecrated  Easter 
candles  or  of  the  wafer  dough.  They 
are  also  sometimes  made  of  silver,  nnd 
have  on  one  side  the  Lamb,  with  the  ban- 
ner of  Victory,  or  St.  John,  and  on  the 
other  the  picture  of  some  saint.  They 
were  first  made  about  the  fourteenth 
century. 

A'GOX,  in  the  public  games  of  the  an- 
cients, a  term  used  indifferently  for  any 
contest  or  dispute,  whether  respecting 
bodily  exercises,  or  accomplishments  of 
the  mind.  Thus  poets,  musicians,  Ac, 
had  their  agones,  as  well  as  the  athletw. 
— Agon  was  also  used  for  one  of  the 
ministers  employed  in  the  heathen  sacri- 
fices, whose  business  it  was  to  strike  the 
victim. 

AGONA'LIA,  festivals  in  Rome,  cele- 
brated in  honor  of  Janus,  or  Agonius, 
three  times  a  year. 

AGONOTHE'T.E,  officers  appointed  at 
the  Grecian  games  to  take  care  that  all 
things  were  performed  according  to  cus- 
tom, to  decide  controversies  amongst  the 
antagonists,  and  adjudge  the  prizes. 

AGRA'RIAN  LAWS,  statutes,  which 
forbid  the  possession  of  more  than  a  cer- 
tain extent  of  land  by  any  single  imli- 
vidual.  That  law  of  the  Romans,  called, 
by  way  of  eminence,  tke  agrarian  law, 
was  published  by  Spurius  Cassius,  about 
the  year  of  Rome,  265,  enjoining  a  di- 
vision of  the  conquered  lands,  in  equal 
parts,  among  the  citizens,  and  limiting 
the  number  of  acres  that  each  might  enjoy. 

AIK,  in  music,  signifies  the  melody, 
or  treble  part  of  a  musical  composition. 
The  word  is  also  used  for  a  tune,  or  song 
itself,  that  is,  for  a  series  of  sounds 
whose  movement  is  regular  and  graceful. 
— Air,  in  painting,  the  medium  in  na- 
ture through  which  every  object  is  viewed, 
and  hence  to  be  transferred  to  the  imita- 
tion on  canvas.  The  effects  which  it 
produces  are  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
knowledge  of  every  artist.  It  affects  the 
sizes  and  color  of  objects  according  to 
their  distance. 

AL,  an  Arabian  particle,  answering  to 
the  English  the,  and  employed  in  the 
same  manner  to  mark  anythingr  indefi- 
nitely. 


alkJ 


AND     IIIE    FINK    AIMS. 


13 


AL'AB  ASTER,  a  well-known  sulphate 
of  lime,  forming  a  soft,  f:;r:inuliir,  imper- 
fectly transparent  marble;  used  for  or- 
naments in  houses,  and  by  statuaries. 
It  is  found  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy. 

A  LA  GKECQUE,  (Fr.)  an  architec- 
tural orna- 
^  ment  resem- 
bling a  vari- 
^  ously  twisted 
ribbon,  when 
it  is  merely  a 
narrow  continuous  stripe,  forming  right 
angles,  either  raised  or  cut  in,  and  some- 
times only  painted.  This  ornament,  called 
also  a  labyrinth,  may  be  used  for  recti- 
lineal mouldings.  If  it  be  only  one  stripe, 
it  is  called  the  simple  labyrinth ;  but  if 
two  stripes  be  twisted  into  one  another  it 
is  called  the  double  labyrinth. 

ALB,  or  ALBE,  (alba,)  in  the  Romish 
church,  a  vestment  of  white  linen,  hang- 
ing down  to  the  feet,  and  answering  to 
the  surplice  of  the  Episcopal  clergy.  In 
the  ancient  church,  it  was  usual  with 
those  newly  baptized,  to  wear  an  alb,  or 
white  vestment ;  and  hence  the  Sunday 
after  Easter  was  caWcd  dominica  in  albis, 
on  account  of  the  albs  worn  by  those  bap- 
tized on  Easter-day. 

AL'BAN,  St.,  in  Christian  art,  is  rep- 
resented (as  also  is  St.  Denis),  carrying 
his  head  between  his  hands.  His  attri- 
butes are  a  sword  and  a  crown. 

AL'BATROSS,  or  Man-of-War  Bird, 
the  Diomedes  of  Linnajus,  a  large  and 
voracious  bird,  which  inhabits  many 
countries  between  the  tropics. 

ALBIGEN'SES,  a  namg  common  to 
several  sects,  particularly  the  Cathari 
and  Waldenses,  who  agreed  in  opposing 
the  dominion  of  the  Koiuish  hierarchy, 
and  endeavoring  to  restore  the  simplicity 
of  primitive  Christianity.  They  endured 
the  severest  persecutions,  and  after  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century,  the  name  of 
Albigenses  altogether  disappeared  ;  but 
fugitives  of  their  party  formed,  in  the 
mountains  of  Piedmont  and  in  Lombardy, 
what  is  called  the  French  Church,  which 
was  continued  through  the  Waldenses,  to 
the  era  of  the  Reformation. 

ALBl'NOS,  or  Leuc^'thiops,  a  vari- 
ety of  the  human  species,  that  frequently 
occurs  in  Africa.  The  Portuguese  first 
gave  the  name  of  Albino  to  the  white 
negro,  and  they  formerly  described  them 
as  a  distinct  race;  but  modern  natural- 
ists have  discovered  them  in  variou.s 
countries  of  Europe,  viz.,  in  Switzerland, 
among  the  Savoyards  in  the  valley  of  ; 


Cliamouni ;    in   Franco,   in   tht    tract  of 
the  Rhine;   in  Tyrol,  &c. 

AL'BUM,  a  white  t;ible  or  register, 
whereon  the  Roiuau  i)raHor.s  had  tlicir 
decrees  written.  There  were  many  of 
them  in  use,  and  they  received  their  ap- 
pellations from  the  various  magistrate.'! 
whose  names  wore  thereon  entered;  as 
the  album  jiidicum,  the  album  decurio- 
iium,  (tc. — The  fashionable  Albums  of 
the  present  day  are  derived  from  the 
firactice  adopted  in  many  foreign  coun- 
tries of  having  a  white  paper  book,  in 
which  strangers  of  distinction  or  literary 
eminence  were  invited  to  insert  their 
names,  or  any  observation  in  proso  or 
verse,  as  a  memorial  of  their  visit. 

ALCA'ICS,  a  term  given  to  several 
kinds  of  verse,  from  their  inventor,  the 
poet  Alcffius. 

ALCAIDE,  or  AL'CALDE,  a  Spanish 
or  Portuguese  magistrate,  or  officer  of 
justice,  answering  nearly  to  the  French 
prevost,  and  the  British  justice  of  peace. 
Both  the  name  and  office  are  of  Moorish 
origin. 

AL'CORAN,  or  the  Koran,  the  name 
of  the  volume  containing  the  revelations, 
doctrines,  and  precepts  of  Mahomet,  in 
which  his  followers  place  implicit  confi- 
dence. The  general  aim  of  the  Alcoran 
was  to  unite  the  professors  of  the  three 
different  religions  then  followed  in  Ara- 
bia, Idolaters,  Jews,  and  Christians,  in 
the  knowledge  and  worship  of  one  God, 
under  the  sanction  of  certain  laws,  and 
the  outward  signs  of  ceremonies,  partly 
of  ancient,  and  partly  of  novel  institu- 
tion, enforced  by  the  consideration  of  re- 
wards and  punishments,  both  temporal 
and  eternal,  and  to  bring  all  to  the  obe- 
dience of  Mahomet,  as  the  prophet  and 
ambassador  of  God,  who  was  to  establish 
the  true  religi(m  on  earth. 

AL'DIXE  EDITIONS,  tho.se  editions 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics  which 
were  printed  by  the  family  of  Aldus 
Manutius,  first  established  at  Venice 
about  1490. 

ALEXAN'DRIAN,  or  ALEXAN'- 
DRIXE,  in  poetry,  a  kind  of  verse,  con 
sisting  of  twelve,  or  of  twelve  and  tliirteen 
syllables  alternately,  the  pause  being  al- 
ways on  the  si.\th  syllable.  It  is  so  called 
from  a  poem  on  the  life  of  .Vle.xander, 
written  in  this  way,  by  some  French  poet. 
ALEXAN'DRIAN  LIBRARY,  this 
celebrated  library  was  founded  by  Ptole- 
my Soter,  for  the  use  of  an  academy 
that  ho  instituted  in  Alexandria;  and, 
by  continual  additions  by  his  successors, 
became  at  last  the  finest  library  in  tho 


14 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[all 


world,  containing  no  fewer  ttian  700.000 
volumi;S.  The  method  followed  in  col- 
lecting books  for  this  library,  was,  to 
seize  all  those  which  were  brought  into 
Egypt  by  Greeks  or  other  foreigners. 
The  books  were  transcribed  in  the  mu- 
seum by  persons  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose, the  copies  were  then  delivered  to 
the  proprietors,  and  the  originals  laid  up 
in  the  library.  It  was  evcntuallj^  burnt 
by  order  of  the  caliph  Omar,  a  d.  624. 

ALEXANDRIAN  MANUSCRIPT,  or 
Codex  Alexandrinus,  a  famous  copy 
of  the  Scriptures,  consisting  of  four  vol- 
umes, in  a  large  quarto  size  ;  which  con- 
tains the  whole  Bible,  in  Greek,  including 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  the 
Apocrypha,  and  some  smaller  pieces,  but 
not  quite  ciimplete.  This  manuscript  is 
now  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
It  was  sent  as  a  present  to  king  Charles 
I.,  from  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  by  Sir  Thomas  Rowe, 
ambassador  from  England  to  the  grand 
seignior,  about  the  year  1628. 

ALEXAN'DRIA'N  school,  an  acad- 
emy for  literature  and  learning  of  all 
kinds,  instituted  at  Alexandria  by  Ptole- 
my, son  of  Lagus,  and  supported  by  his 
successors.  The  grammarians  and  math- 
ematicians of  this  school  were  particularly 
celebrated.  In  the  former  class  occur  the 
noted  names  of  Aristarchus,  Harpocra- 
tion,  and  Aristophanes  ;  and  among  the 
latter  were  numbered  the  astronomer 
Ptolemy,  and  geometer  Euclid.  The 
grammarians  of  Alexandria  exercised  a 
universal  literary  jurisdiction,  publishing 
canons  of  those  who  were  to  be  considered 
standard  authors,  and  revised  editions  of 
ancient  writers. 

ALEX'IS,  St.,  the  patron  saint  of  beg- 
gars and  pilgrims.  In  Christian  art,  he 
is  usually  represented  in  a  pilgrim's 
habit  and  staff;  sometimes  as  extended 
on  a  mat,  with  a  letter  in  his  hand,  dying. 
St.  Roch  is  also  represented  as  a  piljjrim, 
but  he  is  distinguished  from  St.  Ale.xis 
by  the  plague  spot  on  his  bodj',  and  in 
being  accompanied  bj'  a  dog. 

AL'GUAZIL,  the  title  of  one  of  the 
lower  orders  of  Spanish  officers  of  justice, 
whose  business  is  to  execute  the  orders 
of  the  magistrate. 

A'LIAS,  in  law,  a  Latin  word  signify- 
ing otherwise  ;  often  used  in  describing 
the  accused,  who  has  assumed  other 
names  beside  his  real  one. 

AL'IBI,  in  law,  a  Latin  word  signify- 
ing, literally,  elsewhere.  It  is  used  by 
the  accused,  when  he  wishes  to  prove  his 
innocenco,   bv  sliowing   that    ho    was   in 


another    place   when   the    act  was  com- 
mitted. 

AL'IMONY,  in  law,  the  maintenance 
sued  for  by  a  wife,  in  case  of  a  legal 
separation  from  her  husband,  wherein 
she  is  neither  chargeable  with  elopement 
nor  adultery. 

AL'LAH,  the  Arabian  name  of  God. 

ALLA-PKIMA,  {Ital)  Au  premies 
COUP,  (Z'V.)  a  method  of  painting  in 
which  the  pigments  are  appliel  all  at 
once  to  the  canvas,  without  impasting  or 
retouching.  Some  of  tlie  best  pictures 
of  the  great  masters  are  painted  In  at 
once  by  this  method,  but  it  requires  too 
much  knowledge,  skill,  and  decision  to 
be  generally  practised. 

ALLEGOR'ICAL  PICTURES  are  of 
two  kinds  :  the  one  comprehends  those  in 
which  the  artist  unites  allegorical  with 
real  persons,  and  this  is  the  lower  rank 
of  allegorical  painting.  Such  are  those 
of  Rubens,  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg, representing  the  stormy  life  of 
Mary  dj  Medicis.  The  other,  those  in 
which  the  artist  represents  allegorical 
persons  only ;  and  by  the  position  of 
single  figures,  the  grouping  of  many  and 
the  composition  of  the  whole,  conveys  to 
the  mind  of  the  spectator  one  thought 
or  manj'  thoughts,  which  he  cannot  con- 
vey by  the  common  language  of  his  art 
this  is  allegorical  painting  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  term. 

AL'LEGORY,  a  series  or  chain  ot 
metaphors  continued  through  a  whole 
discourse.  The  great  source  of  allegory 
or  allegorical  interpretations,  is  some 
difficulty,  or  absurdity,  in  the  literal  and 
obvious  sense. 

ALLE'GRO,  an  Italian  word  used  in 
music,  to  denote  that  the  part  is  to  be 
played  in  a  brii»k  and  sprightly  manner. 
The  usual  distinctions  succeed  each  other 
in  the  following  order :  grave,  adagio, 
largo,  vivace,  allegro,  -presto.  Allegro 
time  may  be  heightenc  1,  as  allegro  assai 
and  allegrissimo,  very  livel}' ;  or  lessened, 
as  allegretto  or poco  allegro,  a  little  lively. 
Pill  allegro  is  a  direction  to  jilay  or  sing 
a  little  quicker. 

ALLEMAN'NIC,  in  a  general  sense, 
denotes  anything  belonging  to  the  an- 
cient Germans.  Thus  we  meet  with  Alle- 
mannic  history,  Allcniainiic  language, 
Allemannic  law,  ,tc. 

ALL-IIAL'LOWS,  or  ALL-SAINTS, 
a  festival  observed  by  many  denomina- 
tions of  Christians,  in  commemoration  of 
the  saints  in  general.  It  is  kept  on  the 
first  of  November,  Gregory  IV.  having  in 
835  appointed  that  day  for  its  colebration 


alt] 


AND     IHE    FINE    ARTS. 


16 


ALLITERA'TIOX,  ii  figure  or  cmbcl- 
lishinent  of  sjieoch,  whicli  consists  in  the 
repetition  of  the  same  consonants,  or  of 
sj'lh'.bles  of  the  same  sound,  in  one  sen- 
tence. The  Greek  unci  Roman  literature 
afford  many  instances  of  tiiis;  and  in 
English  poetry  there  are  also  many  beau- 
tiful .specimens  of  alliterations  ;  though 
it  must  be  confessed  that  it  is  too  often 
used  without  the  requisite  skill,  and 
carried  too  far.  In  burlesque  poetry  it 
is  frequently  used  with  excellent  effect; 
though  even  there  the  sense  should  never 
be  sacrificed  to  the  sound.  Tastefully 
used,  it  is  a  most  enchanting  ornament, 
and  will  equally  contribute  to  softness,  to 
energy,  and  to  solemnity. 

ALLU'SION,  in  rhetoric,  strictly,  a 
covert  indication,  as  by  means  of  a  meta- 
phor, a  play  of  words,  &e.,  of  something 
not  openly  mentioned  and  e.xtrinsic  to  the 
principal  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

AL'MAGE.ST,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
book,  composed  by  Ptolemy;  being  a 
collection  of  many  of  the  observations 
and  problems  of  the  ancients,  relating 
both  to  geometry  and  astronomJ^ 

AL'MA  MA  TER,  a  title  given  to  the 
universities  of  O.Kford  and  Cambridge  by 
their  several  members  who  have  passed 
their  degrees  in  either  of  these  universi- 
ties. 

AL'MAXAC,  a  calendar  or  table,  con- 
taining a  list  of  the  months,  weeks,  and 
days  of  the  year,  with  an  account  of  the 
rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  the  several  festivals, 
and  fasts,  and  other  incidental  matters. — 
The  Nautical  .Almanac,  a  most  valua^ 
ble  work  for  mariners,  is  published  in 
England  two  or  three  years  in  advance. 
It  was  commenced  in  1767,  by  Dr.  ]Mas- 
kelyne,  the  astronomer  royal,  and  has 
been  regularly  continued  ever  since. 

AL'PHABET,  the  natural  or  cus- 
tomary series  of  the  several  letters  of  a 
language.  The  word  is  formed  from 
alpha  and  beta,  the  first  ami  second  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet.  It  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  important  of  all  inventions,  for 
by  means  of  it  sounds  are  represented, 
and  language  made  visible  to  the  eye  by 
a  few  simi)le  characters.  The  five  books 
of  Moses  are  universally  acknowledged 
to  be  the  most  ancient  compositions,  as 
well  as  the  most  early  specimens  of 
alphabetical  writing  extant;  and  it  ap- 
pears that  all  the  languages  in*  use 
amongst  men  which  have  been  conveyed 
in  alphabetical  characters,  have  been 
the  languages  of  people  connected,  ulti- 


mately or  imme<liatel3',  with  the  Hebrews. 
Hence  a  most  energetic  controversy  has 
existeil  amongst  learned  men,  whether  tho 
method  of  expressing  our  ideas  \>y  visible 
symbols,  called  letters,  be  re.illy  a  human 
invention  ;  or  whether  we  ought  to  attri))- 
ute  an  art  so  exceedingly  useful,  to  an 
immediate  intimation  of  the  Deity. 

ALPHON'SINE  TABLE.S,  astronom- 
ical tables  made  in  the  reign  of  Alphon- 
sus  X.,  king  of  Arragon,  who  was  a  great 
lover  of  science,  and  a  prince  of  rare 
attainments;  but  though  these  tables 
bear  his  name,  they  were  chiefly  drawn 
up  by  Isaac  Ilazan,  a  learned  Jewish 
rabbi. 

ALSEG'XO,  in  music,  a  notice  to  the 
performer  that  he  must  recommence  from 
that  part  of  the  movement  to  which  'ClJ 
the  sign  or  mark  is  prefixed.  ^• 

ALT,  in  music,  that  part  of  the  great 
scale  l.ying  between  F  above  the  treble 
cliff  note,  and  G  in  altissimo. 

AL'TAR,  a  place  upon  which  sacrifices 
were  anciently  offered  to  the  Almighty, 
or  some  heathen  deity.  Before  temples 
were  in  use,  altars  were  erected  some- 
times in  groves,  sometimes  in  the  high- 
ways, and  sometimes  on  the  tops  of 
mountains  ;  and  it  was  a  custom  to  en- 
grave upon  them  the  name,  proper 
ensign,  or  character  of  the  deity  to  whom 
they  were  consecrated.  Thus  St.  Paul 
observed  an  altar  at  Athens,  with  an 
inscription.  To  the  unknown  God.  In 
the  great  temples  of  ancient  Rome,  there 
were  ordinarily  three  altars  :  the  first 
was  placed  in  the  sanctuary,  at  the  foot 
of  the  statue  of  the  divinity,  upon  which 
incense  was  burnt,  and  libations  offered  ; 
the  second  was  before  the  gate  of  the 
temple,  and  upon  it  they  sacrificed  the 
victims;  and  the  third  was  a  port.Tble 
altar,  upon  which  were  placed  the  offer- 
ings and  the  sacred  vessels.  The  princi- 
pal altars  of  the  Jews  were  those  of  in 
cense,  of  burnt-ojferlags,  and  the  altar 
or  table,  for  the  shoic-bread^ — Alt.\r  is 
also  used  among  Christians,  for  the  com- 
munion-table. 

ALTIS'SIMO,  in  music,  an  Italian  epi- 
thet for  notes  above  F  in  alt. 

ALTIS'TA,  in  music,  an  Italian  name 
for  the  vocal  performer  who  takes  the 
alto  prima  part. 

AL'TO,  or  AL'TO  TEXO'RE,  in  music, 
is  the  term  applied  to  that  part  of  tho 
great  vocal  scale  which  lies  between  tho 
mez:o  soprano  and  the  tenor,  and  which 
is  assigned  to  the  highest  natural  adult 
male  voice.  In  scores,  it  always  signi- 
fies the  counter-tenor  part. 


16 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKAIURE 


[amp 


ALTO  RELTE'VO,  in  sculptu-ro,  a 
representation  of  figures  and  other  ob- 
jects against  a  flat  surface ;  differing 
from  basso  relievo  only  in  the  work  being 
much  nwre  brought  forward. 

AMATEUR',  a  person  having  a  taste 
for  a  particular  art,  yet  not  professing, 
nor  being  dependent  on  it. 

AM'BER,  a  hard,  brittle,  tasteless  sub- 
stance, mostly  semi-transparent,  or  opa- 
que, and  of  a  glossy  surface.  This  curious 
production  of  nature  is  inflammable,  and, 
when  heated,  yields  a  strong  and  bitumi- 
nous odor.  Its  most  extraordinary  prop- 
erties are  those  of  attracting  after  it 
has  been  exposed  to  a  slight  friction, 
straws,  and  other  surrounding  objects ; 
and  of  producing  sparks  of  fire,  visible 
in  the  dark.  Many  thousand  years  before 
the  science  of  electricity  had  entered  the 
mind  of  man,  these  surprising  qualities 
were  known  to  exist  in  amber,  and  hence 
the  Greeks  called  it  electrum. 

AM'BIDEXTER,  a  person  who  can  use 
both  hands  with  equal  facility,  and  for 
the  same  purposes  that  the  generality  of 
people  do  their  right  hands. — In  law,  a 
juror  who  takes  money  for  giving  his 
verdict. 

AM'BITUS,  in  music,  signifies  the 
particular  extent  of  each  tone,  or  modi- 
fication of  grave  and  sharp. 

AM'BO,  in  architecture,  the  elevated 
place,  or  pulpit,  in  the  early  Christian 
churches,  from  whence  it  was  usual  to 
address  the  congregation,  and  on  which 
certain  parts  of  the  service  were  chanted. 

AM'BROSE,  St.,  the  patron  saint  of 
Milan  :  but  few  works  of  art  exist,  in 
which  he  is  so  represented.  The  finest  is 
the  painting  that  adorns  his  chapel  in 
the  Frari  at  Venice,  painted  by  Viva- 
rini,  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, a  work  of  the  highest  excellence. 
St.  Ambrose  is  usually  represented  in  the 
costume  of  a  bishop. 

AMBRO'SIA,  in  heathen  antiquity, 
denotes  the  food  of  the  gods.  Hence, 
whatever  is  very  gratifying  to  the  taste 
or  smell  has  been  termed  ambrosial. 

AMimo'SIAN  CHANT,  in  music, 
so  called  from  St.  Ambrose,  archbishop 
of  Milan,  who  composed  it  for  the  church 
there  in  the  fourth  century  :  it  is  distin- 
guished from  the  Gregorian  chant  by  a 
great  monotony  and  want  of  beauty  in  its 
melody. 

AMEN',  in  Scripture  language,  a  sol- 
emn formula,  or  conclu.sion  to  all  prayer, 
signifying  verily,  or  so  be  it. 

AMENDE  HONORABLE,  (French.) 
an  infamous  kind  of  cunishmeut  formerly 


inflicted  in  France  on  traitors,  pariici  Ics, 
or  sacrilegious  persons,  who  were  to  go 
naked  to  the  shirt,  with  a  torch  in  their 
hand,  and  a  rope  about  their  neck,  into  a 
church  or  a  court,  to  beg  pardon  of  God, 
the  court,  and  the  injured  part}'. — The 
modein  acceptation  of  the  term  indicates 
that  an  open  apology  is  made  for  au  of- 
fence or  injury. 

AMER'iCANIS^I,  any  word  or  phrase 
in  general  use  among  the  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States,  which  deviates  from 
the  English  standard.  Of  these,  a  great 
proportion  are  mere  vulgarisms  and 
technical  words  of  local  character,  origi- 
nally taken  from  different  counties  in 
England,  by  the  first  emigrants ;  others 
are  words  formerly  used  by  the  English 
writers,  but  which  have  become  obsolete  ; 
while  many  are  of  modern  coinage,  and 
owe  their  origin  to  the  caprice  of  inventors. 
Every  living  language  is  subject  to  con- 
tinual changes ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  a  large  community,  in  a  state  of 
social  and  political  activity,  who  are  daily 
developing  new  and  characteristic  fea- 
tures, will  fail  to  exercise  their  share  of 
influence  upon  that  which  they  naturally 
consider  as  a  part  of  their  inheritance. 

AM'ETHYST,  a  rock  crystal  of  a  pur- 
ple color.  Many  ancient  vases  and  cupa 
are  composed  of  this  mineral,  and  the 
finer  varieties  are  still  much  in  request 
for  cutting  into  seals  and  brooches. 

AM'MON,  the  title  under  which  Jupi- 
ter was  worshipped  in  Libya,  where  a 
temple  was  erected  to  him,  from  which 
oracles  were  delivered  for  many  ages. 

AMMUNI'TION,  all  warlike  stores, 
and  especially  powder,  ball,  bombs,  guns, 
and  otlier  weapons  necessary  for  au  army. 

AM'NESTY,  an  act  by  which  two  par- 
ties at  variance  promise  to  pardon  and 
bury  in  oblivion  all  that  is  past.  It  is 
more  especially  used  for  a  pardon  granted 
by  a  prince  to  his  rebellious  subjects. 

AMPHIBO'LIA,  or  AMPHIBOL'OGY, 
in  rhetoric,  ambiguity  of  expression, 
when  a  sentence  conveys  a  double  mean- 
ing. It  is  distinguished  from  an  equivoca- 
tion, which  lies  in  a  single  word. 

AMPHIC'TYONS,  in  Grecian  anti- 
quity, an  assembly  composed  of  deputies 
from  the  different  states  of  Greece.  The 
amphictyons  at  first  met  regularly  at 
Delphi,  twice  a  year,  viz.  in  spring  and 
autumn  ;  but  in  latter  times  they  assem- 
bled at  the  village  of  Anthela,  near 
Thermopyla  ;  and  decided  all  differences 
between  any  of  the  Grecian  states,  their 
determinations  being  held  sacred  and 
inviolable. 


.NA] 


AM)    TllK     FINK     A  It  IS. 


17 


AMPIIITIIE'ATRE,  in  antiquity,  a 
spacious  edifice,  built  citiier  nmnl  or 
oval,  with  a  uuiiiber  of  rising  seats,  upon 
which  the  [loople  used  to  sit  and  behold 
the  combats  of  gladiators,  of  wild  beasts, 
and  other  sports.  Some  of  them,  as  the 
Coliseum  at  Rome,  were  capable  of  con- 
taining from  50,000  to  80,000  spectators. 
The  principal  parts  of  the  amphitheatre 
were  the  arena,  or  place  where  the 
gladiators  fought ;  cavea,  or  hollow  place 
where  the  beasts  were  kept ;  podium,  or 
projection  at  the  top  of  the  wall  which 
surrounded  the  arena,  and  was  assigned 
to  the  senators  ;  gracilis,  or  benches,  ris- 
ing all  round  above  the  podium;  aclltus, 
or  entrances  ;  and  vomiturixe,  or  gates 
which  terminated  the  aditus. 

AMPHORA,  in  antiquity,  a  liquid 
measure  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  Roman  amphora  contained 
forty-eight  sectaries,  and  was  equal  to 
about  seven  gallons  one  pint,  English 
wine-measure  ;  and  the  Grecian,  or  Attic 
amphora,  contained  one  third  more. — Am- 
phora was  also  a  dry  measure  in  use 
among  the  Romans,  and  contained  three 
bushels. 

AMPHORI'TES,  in  antiquity,  a  sort 
of  literary  contest  in  the  island  of  ^gina, 
where  the  poet  who  made  the  best  dithy- 
rambic  verses  in  honor  of  Bacchus  was 
rewarded  with  an  ox. 

AMPLIFICA'TION,  in  rhetoric,  part 
of  a  discourse  or  speech,  wherein  a  crime 
is  aggravated,  a  praise  or  commendation 
heightened,  or  a  narration  enlarged,  by 
an  enumeration  of  circumstances,  so  as 
to  excite  the  proper  emotions  in  the 
minds  of  the  auditors. 

AMPUL'LA,  an  ancient  drinking  ves- 
sel ;  and  among  ecclesiastical  writers 
it  denotes  one  of  the  sacred  vessels  used 
at  the  altar.  The  ampulla  is  still  a  dis- 
tinguished vessel  in  the  coronation  of  the 
kings  of  England  and  France.  The  vessel 
now  in  use  in  England  is  of  the  purest 
chased  gold,  and  represents  an  eagle 
with  expanding  wings  standing  on  a  pe- 
destal, near  seven  inches  in  height,  and 
weighing  about  ten  ounces.  It  was  de- 
posited in  the  Tower  by  the  gallant  Ed- 
ward, surnamed  the  Black  Prince. 

AM'ULET,  a  s\ipcrstitious  charm  or 
preservative  against  mischief,  witchcraft, 
or  disep>scs.  They  were  made  of  stone, 
metal,  animals,  and,  in  fact,  of  every- 
thing which  fancy  or  caprice  suggested. 
Sometime.^  they  consisted  of  wor^s,  charac- 
ters, and  sentences,  ranged  in  a  particular 
crier,  and  engraved  ujwn  wood,  &c.,  and 
y>  ;rn  about  the  neck,  or  some  other  part 


of  the  body.  At  other  times  the.y  were 
neither  written  nor  engraved;  but  pre- 
pared ■  with  •  many  superstitious  cere- 
monies, great  regard  being  usually  paid 
to  the  influence  of  the  stars. 

A'NA,  a  ufMue  given  to  amusing  mis- 
cellanies, consisting  of  anecdotes,  traits 
of  character,  and  incidents  relating  to 
any  person  or  subject. 

AN  AB' AS  IS,  the  title  of  Xenophon's 
description  of  the  j-ounger  Cyrus's  expedi- 
tion against  his  brother,  in  which  tho 
writer  bore  a  principal  part. 

ANA'CIIRONISM,  in  literature,  an 
error  with  respect  to  chronology,  whereby 
an  event  is  placed  earlier  than  it  really 
happened  ;  in  which  sense  it  stands  oppo- 
site to  parachronism. 

AXACOLU'TIION,  in  grammar  or 
rhetoric,  a  want  of  coherency,  generally 
arising  from  inattention  on  the  part  of 
the  writer  or  orator. 

ANACREON'TIC  Verse,  in  ancien; 
poetry,  a  kind  of  verse,  so  called  from  its 
being  much  used  by  the  poet  Anacreon. 
It  consisted  of  three  feet,  generally  spon- 
dees and  iambics,  sometimes  anapaists, 
and  was  peculiarly  distinguished  for  soft- 
ness and  tenderness. 

AXADIPLO'SIS,  a  figure  in  rhetoric 
and  poetry,  in  which  the  last  word  or 
words  of  a  sentence  are  repeated  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next. 

ANAGLY'PIIIC.  in  antique  sculpture, 
chased  or  embossed  work  on  metal,  or 
anything  worked  in  relief.  When  raised 
on  stone,  the  production  is  a  cameo. 
When  sunk  or  indented,  it  is  a  dia- 
glj'phic  or  an  intaglio. 

AN'AGRAM,  the  change  of  one  word 
or  phrase  into  another,  b}'  the  transposi- 
tion of  its  letters.  They  were  very 
common  among  the  ancients,  and  occa- 
sionally contained  some  happy  allusion  ; 
but,  perhaps,  none  were  more  appropriate 
than  the  anagram  made  by  Dr.  Burney 
on  tho  name  of  the  hero  of  the  Nile,  just 
after  that  important  victory  took  place  . 
HcHATio  Nelson,  "  Honor  est  a  Nilo." 
They  are  frequently  employed  satirically, 
or  jestingly,  with  little  aim  beyond  that 
of  exercising  the  ingenuity  of  their  au- 
thors. 

ANALEC'TA,  a  collection  of  extracts 
from  different  works. 

ANAL'OtiY,  a  certain  relation  and 
agreement  between  two  or  more  things, 
which  in  other  respects  are  entirely 
different.  Or  it  may  be  defined  an  im- 
portant process  of  reasoning,  by  which 
we  infer  similar  effects  and  plienomena 
from  similar  causes  and  events.     A  zreat 


18 


cyclopehia   of  i.itekature 


part  of  tJiir  philosophy  has  nn  othsr  foun- 
dation th;in  analogy. 

ANAL'VSIS,  among  grammarians,  is 
the  expl  lining  the  etymology,  construc- 
tion, an  1  other  properties  of  words  — 
Analysis  is  also  used  for  a  brief,  but  me- 
thodical illustration  of  the  principles  of  a 
science  ;  in  which  sense  it  is  nearly  synon- 
ymous with  what  is  termed  a  synopsis. 

ANAMXE'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  an  enume- 
ration of  the  things  treated  of  before  ; 
which  is  a  sort  of  recapitulation. 

ANAMORPHOSIS,  in  perspective  and 
painting,  the  representation  of  somj 
image,  either  on  a  plane  or  curved  sur- 
face, deformed,  or  distorted  ;  which  in  a  ■ 
certain  point  of  view  appears  regular  and 
in  just  proportion. 

AN'AP^ST,  a  foot  in  Greek  and  Latin 
metre,  consisting  of  two  short  syllables 
followed  by  a  long,  being  the  name  of  the 
dactyle. 

AXAPH'ORA,  a  rhetorical  figure, 
which  consists  in  the  repetition  of  the 
same  word  or  phrase  at  the  beginning  of 
several  successive  sentences. 

AN'ARCHY,  a  society  without  a  gov- 
ernment, or  where  there  is  no  supreme 
governor. 

AN  ASTA'SIA,  St.,  is  represented  with 
the  attributes,  a  stake  and  fagots  ;  and 
with  the  palm  as  a  symbol  of  her  martyr- 
dom. 

ANASTATIC,  a  word  derived  from  the 
Greek  signifying  "  reviving."  A  recently 
invented  process,  by  which  any  number 
of  copies  of  a  printed  page  of  any  size,  a 
wood-cut,  or  a  line-engraving,  can  be  ob- 
tained. The  process  is  based  upon  the 
law  of  "  the  repulsion  of  dissimilar,  and 
the  mutual  attraction  of  similar  parti- 
cles," and  is  e.xhibited  by  oil,  water,  and 
gum  arable.  The  printed  matter  to  be 
copied  is  first  submitted  to  the  action  of 
diluted  nitric  acid,  and,  while  retaining  a 
portion  of  the  moisture,  is  pressed  upon  a 
sheet  of  polished  zinc,  which  is  imme- 
diately attacked  by  the  acid  in  every 
part  except  that  covered  by  the  printing- 
ink,  a  thin  film  of  which  is  left  on  the 
zinc ;  it  is  then  washed  with  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  gum  arabic  ;  an  inked-roUer  being 
now  passed  over  the  zinc-plate,  the  ink 
adheres  only  to  that  portion  which  was 
inked  in  the  original ;  the  impressions  are 
then  taken  from  the  zinc-plate,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  lithographic  printing. 
ANAS'TROPIIE,  in  rhetoric,  the  in- 
v^ersion  of  words  in  a  sentence,  or  the 
placing  them  out  of  their  natural  order. 
ANATII'EMA,  among  ecclesiastical 
writers,  imports  whatever   is  set   apart. 


separated,  or  divided ;  but  the  word  is  most 
usuiUy  intended  to  express  the  cutting 
ofiF  a  person  from  the  privileges  of  socie- 
ty, an  1  from  communion  with  the  faithful. 
AN'CHOR,  in  Christian  art,  is  the 
symbol  of  hope,  firmness,  tranquillitj', 
patience  and  faith.  Among  those  saints, 
of  whom  the  anchor  is  an  attribute,  are 
Clement  of  Rome  and  Nicolas  of  Bari. 

AN'CIIORITE,  more  properly,  ana- 
choret.  a  hermit,  or  person  who  has  re- 
tired from  the  world  with  the  purpose  of 
devoting  himself  entirely  to  meditation 
and  prayer.  Such  was  the  case  with 
many  of  the  early  Christians,  beginning 
perhaps  with  such  as  fled  from  the  per- 
secutions of  Decius  and  Diocletian,  and 
retired  into  forests  and  deserts,  at  first 
with  a  view  to  security  merely,  and 
afterwards  continued,  from  religious  mo- 
tives, the  mode  of  life  they  had  there 
adopted. 

AN'CIEXTS,  in  the  more  general 
sense  of  the  term,  means  those  who 
lived  long  ago,  or  before  the  Moderns. 
But  the  term  is  now  usually  employed  to 
designate  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ;  and 
if  any  other  people  be  meant,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  specify  them,  as  the  ancient 
Germans,  the  ancient  Jews,  &c. 

ANCY'LE,  or  ANCI'LE,  in  antiquitj', 
a  small  brazen  shield  which  fell,  as  was 
pretended,  from  heaven  in  the  reign  of 
Numa  Pompilius,  when  a  voice  was 
heard,  declaring  that  Rome  should  be 
mistress  of  the  world  as  long  as  she 
should  preserve  this  holy  buckler. 

ANDAN'TE,  in  music,  the  Italian 
term  for  exact  and  just  time  in  playing, 
so  as  to  keep  the  notes  distinct  from  each 
other. — Andante  largo,  signifies  that 
the  music  must  be  slow,  the  time  exactly 
observed,  and  each  note  distinct. 

ANDANTI'NO,  in  music,  an  Italian 
word  for  gentle,  tender  ;  somewhat  slower 
than  andante. 

ANDREW,  St.,  the  patron  saint  of 
Scotland ;  also  of  the  renowned  order 
of  the  Golden  Fleece  of  Burgundy,  and  of 
the  order  of  the  Cross  of  St.  Andrew  of 
Russia.  The  principal  events  in  the  life 
of  this  apostle  chosen  for  representation 
by  the  Christian  artists  arc,  his  Flagella- 
tion, the  Adoration  of  the  Cross,  and  his 
Martyrdom.  He  is  usually  depicted  as 
an  old  man,  with  long  white  hair  and 
beard,  holding  the  Gospel  in  his  right 
haml,  and  leaning  upon  a  transverse  cross, 
formed  sometimes  of  planks  ;  at  others, 
of  the  rough  branches  of  trees.  This 
form  of  cross  is  peculiar  to  this  saint,  ana 
hence  it  is  termed  St.  Andrew's  Cross. 


A  NT  J 


AXU    THE    KIXE    ARTS. 


19 


AX'GEL,  the  name  given  to  those 
spiritual,  intelligent  beings,  who  are  sup- 
pose! to  execute  the  \yill  of  God,  in  the 
government  of  the  world.  It  is  some- 
timus  used  in  a  figurative,  and  at  others 
in  a  literal  sense. — Angel,  the  name  of 
an  ancient  gold  coin  in  England,  so  called 
from  the  figure  of  an  angel  upon  it.  It 
weighed  four  pennyweights. 

AX'GLICI.'^M.  an  idiom  of  speech,  or 
manner  petruliar  to  the  English. 

AXGLO-SAX'ON,  the  name  of  the 
people  called  Angles,  who  with  the  Sa.x;- 
ons  and  some  other  German  tribes,  flour- 
ished in  England  after  it  was  abandoned 
by  the  Roman.^,  about  the  year  400  ;  and 
who  introduced  their  language,  govern- 
ment, and  customs. — Anglo-Saxon  Lan- 
guage. After  the  conquest  of  England 
by  the  Angles  and  Sa.\ons,  the  Sa.ton  be- 
came the  prevalent  tongue  of  that  coun- 
try ;  and  after  the  Norman  conquest,  the 
English  language  exhibits  the  peculiar 
case,  where  languages  of  two  different 
stocks  are  blended  into  one  idiom,  which, 
by  the  cultivation  of  a  free  and  active  na- 
tion and  highly-gifted  minds,  has  grown 
to  a  powerful,  organized  whole. 

AN'IMA,  among  divines  and  natural- 
ists, denotes  the  soul,  or  principle  of  life 
in  animals. — Anima  Mundi,  a  phrase 
formerly  used  to  denote  a  certain  pure 
ethereal  substance  or  spirit  which  is  dif- 
fused through  the  mass  of  the  world,  or- 
ganizing and  actuating  the  whole  and  the 
different  parts. 

AN'IMAL,  a  living  body  endued  with 
sensation  and  spontaneous  motion.  In 
its  limited  sense,  any  irrational  creature, 
as  distinguished  from  man. 

AN'IMUS.  in  metaphysics,  the  mind  or 
reasoning  faculty,  in  distinction  from 
anima,  the  being  or  faculty  in  which  the 
faculty  exists. 

AN'NALS,  a  species  of  history,  in 
which  events  are  related  in  the  exact 
order  of  chronology.  They  differ  from 
perfect  history  in  this,  that  annals  are  a 
bare  relation  of  what  passes  every  year, 
as  a  journal  is  of  what  passes  every  day ; 
whereas  history  relates  not  only  the 
tiansactions  themselves,  but  also  the 
causes,  motives,  and  springs  of  actions. 

AX'NO  DOM'IXI,  abbreviated  a.d., 
the  3-ear  of  our  Lord ;  the  computation 
of  time  from  our  Saviour's  incarnation. 
It  is  usoil  as  the  date  for  all  public  deeds 
and  writings  in  England  and  this  coun- 
try, on  which  account  it  is  called  the 
"  Vulgar  Era." 

AXXOTA'TIOX'',  ii  brief  commentary, 
or  remark    upni   a   book   nr  writing,   in 


order  to  clear  up  some  passage  or  draw 
some  conclusion  from  it. 

AN'NUAL,  an  epithet  for  whatever 
happens  every  year,  or  lasts  a  year : 
thus  we  say,  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth, 
annual  plants,  annual  publications,  <tc. 

AXXU'ITY,  the  periodical  payment  of 
mone^',  either  yearly,  half-yearly,  or 
quarterly ;  for  a  determinate  period,  as 
ten,  fifty,  or  a  hundred  years ;  or  for  an 
indeterminate  period,  dependent  on  a 
certain  contingency,  as  the  death  of  a 
person ;  or  for  an  indefinite  term,  in 
which  latter  case  they  are  called  perpet- 
ual annuities.  As  the  probability  of  the 
duration  of  life  at  every  age  is  known, 
so  annuities  may  be  purchased  for  fixed 
sums  during  the  life  of  the  party.  An 
annuity  is  said  to  be  in  arrear  when  it 
continues  unpaid  after  it  is  due,  and  in 
reversion,  when  it  is  to  fall  to  the  ex- 
pectant at  some  future  time. 

AX'NULET,  in  architecture,  a  small 
square  member  in  the  Doric  capital,  un- 
der the  quarter-round.  Also  a  narrow 
flat  moulding,  encompassing  other  parts 
of  the  column,  as  in  the  base,  capital, 
Ac,  which  is  variously  termed  fillet, 
cincture,  tf*c. 

ANNUNCIA'TION,  the  delivery  of  ft, 
message,  particularly  the  angel's  mes- 
sage to  the  Virgin  Mary,  concerning  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour.  The  festival  in 
commemoration  of  that  event  is  called 
Lady-day,  and  falls  on  the  25th  of  March. 

ANOM'ALOLTS,  in  a  general  sense,  is 
applied  to  whatever  is  irregular,  or  de- 
viates from  the  rule  observed  by  other 
things  of  the  like  nature. — Anomalous 
VERBS,  in  grammar,  such  as  are  irregu- 
larly formed,  of  which  the  Greek  lan- 
guage furnishes  numerous  examples. 

AXOX'YMOUS,  in  literature,  works 
published  without  the  name  of  the  author. 
Those  publislied  under  a  false  name  are 
termed  Pseudonymous.  The  best  cata- 
logue of  anonymous  works  is  that  of 
Barbier  (Dictionnaire  des  (Euvrages 
Anonymcs  et  Pseudonymes,  3  vols.  Paris, 
1822-1824.)  There  is  also  the  great 
work  of  Placcius,  Theatrum  Anonymo- 
rum  et  Pseudonymorum,  t.  fol.  Ham- 
burg, 1703. 

AX'TA,  M.  plur.,  in  architecture,  a 
pilaster  or  square  projection  attached  to 
a  wall.  When  they  are  detached  from 
the  wall,  Vitruvius  calls  them  parastatoi. 
They  are  not  usually  diminished,  even 
when  accompanying  columns  from  whose 
capitals,   in  all  Greeii  works,  they  vary. 

"ANTANACLA'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  fig- 
ure which  repeats  the  same  word,  but  in 


20 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    UTEHATCRE 


[ant 


a  different  sense;  as,  "dum  vivinius,  vi- 
vamu?  " 

ANTECEDENT,  in  grammar,  the 
word  to  which  a  relative  refers :  thus, 
"  God  whom  we  adore,"  the  word  God  is 
the  antecedent  to  the  relative  whom. — 
Antecedent,  in  logic,  is  the  first  of  the 
two  propositions  in  an  enthymeme. 

ANTECLE  MA,  in  oratory,  is  where 
the  whole  defence  of  the  person  accused, 
turns  on  criminating  the  accuser. 

ANTEDILU'VIAN,  whatever  existed 
before  the  deluge  ;  thus,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth  from  Adam  to  Noah  are 
called  the  antediluvians. 

ANTEPENUL'TIMA,  ANTEPEN- 
UL'TIMATE,  or  ANTEPENULT',  in 
grammar,  the  third  syllable  of  a  word 
from  the  end,  or  the  last  syllable  but  two. 

ANTEPOSI'TION,  a  grammatical  fig- 
ure, whereby  a  word,  which  by  the  ordi- 
nary rules  of  syntax  ought  to  follow  an- 
other, comes  before  it. 

AN'THEM,  apiece  of  music  performed 
in  cathedral  service  by  choristers  who  sing 
alternately.  This  manner  of  singing  is 
very  ancient  in  the  church ;  some  suppose 
it  to  have  descended  from  the  practice  of 
the  earliest  Christians,  who,  according  to 
Pliny,  were  accustomed  to  sing  their 
Hymn  to  Christ  in  parts  or  by  turns. 

ANTIIOL'OGrY,  a  collection  of  choice 
poems,  particularly  a  collection  of  Greek 
epigrams  so  called.  The  word  in  its 
original  sense  simply  means  a  collection 
of  flowers. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  the  events  in  the  life 
of  this  saint  form  a  very  important  class 
of  subjects  in  Christian  Art.  Among  the 
most  frequent  are  his  Temptation,  and 
his  Meeting  with  Saint  Paul.  St.  An- 
thony has  several  distinctive  attributes 
by  which  he  is  easily  recognized  :  as  the 
founder  of  monachism  he  is  depicted  in  a 
monk's  habit  and  cowl,  bearing  a  crutch 
in  the  shape  of  a  T,  called  a  tace,  as  a 
token  of  his  age  and  feebleness,  with  a 
bell  suspended  to  it,  or  in  his  hand,  to 
scare  away  the  evil  spirits  by  which  he 
was  persecuted  ;  a  firebrand  in  his  hand, 
with  flames  at  his  feet,  a  black  hog, 
representing  the  demons  Gluttony  and 
Sensuality,  under  his  feet  ;  sometimes  a 
devil  is  substituted  for  the  hog. 

ANTHROPOl/OGY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  human  nature,  either  in  a 
phvsical  or  an  intellectual  point  of  view. 
ANTHUOPOMOR'PHrTE,  one  who  as- 
cribes a  human  figure  and  a  bodily  form 
to  God. 

ANTHROPOPH'AGI,  or  cannibals 
persons  who  eat  the  flesh  of  men  as  well 


as  animals.  AL'liorrent  and  unn.itura'I 
as  the  practice  is,  there  is  no  doult  that 
whole  nati&ns  have  been  addicted  to  this 
practice,  and  that  it  still  prevails  in  the 
South  Seas. 

AN'TI,  a  Greek  particle,  which  enters 
into  the  composition  of  several  words, 
both  Latin,  French,  and  English,  and 
signifies  opposite  or  contrary  to,  as  in 
a7itiscorbiitics. 

ANTI-CLI'MAX,  in  literary  composi- 
tion and  orator}-,  when  a  writer  or  speaker 
suddenly  descends  from  the  great  to  the 
little. 

AN'TIDOTE,  a  counter-poison,  or  any 
medicine  generally  that  counteracts  the 
effects  of  what  has  been  swallowed. 

ANTIL'OG  Y,  an  inconsistency  between 
two  or  more  passages  of  the  same  book. 

ANTIMETAB'OLE,  in  rhetoric,  a  set- 
ting of  two  things  in  opposition  to  each 
other. 

ANTIMETATH'ESIS,  in  rhetoric,  ^n 
inversion  of  the  parts  or  members  of  an 
antithesis. 

ANTIPHO'NA,  or  ANTIPH'ONY,  in 
music,  the  answer  made  by  one  choir  to 
another,  when  the  psalm  or  anthem  is 
sung  verse  for  verse  alternately. 

ANTIPH'RASIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
of  speech,  or  kind  of  irony,  whereby  wc 
say  a  thing  by  denying  what  we  ought 
rather  to  affirm  it  to  be  ;  as  when  we  say, 
"he  s  no  fool,"  we  mean  "he  is  a  man 
of  sense." 

AN'TIQUARY,  a  person  who  studies 
and  searches  after  monuments  and  re- 
mains of  antiquity.  There  were  for- 
merly in  the  chief  cities  of  Greece  and 
Italy,  persons  of  high  distinction  called 
antiquaries,  who  made  it  their  business 
to  explain  the  ancient  inscriptions,  and 
give  every  other  assistance  in  their 
power  to  strangers  who  were  lovers  of 
that  kind  of  learning. — The  monks  who 
were  employed  in  making  new  copies  of 
old  books  were  formerly  called  antlqua- 
rii. 

ANTI'QUE,  in  a  restricted  sense, 
pieces  of  ancient  art,  and  by  artists  usu- 
ally confined  to  such  as  were  made  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  of  the  classical  age. 

ANTIQ'UITIES,  all  such  documents 
of  ancient  history  as  industrious  and 
learned  men  have  collected  ;  genealogies, 
inscrii)tions,  monuments,  coins,  names, 
etymologies,  archives,  iiiechauical  instru- 
ments, fragments  of  history,  &c.  An- 
tiquities form  a  very  extensive  science, 
including  an  historical  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  edifices,  magistrates,  habiliments, 
manners,  customs,  coromoiiios,  religious 


AJ'0| 


AND     IHK     F1NI-:     AlilS. 


21 


worship,  aud  other  objects  worthy  of  cu- 
riosity, of  all  the  principal  nation.s  of  the 
earth.  In  EnglantI,  there  are  IJritish, 
Roman,  S-axon.  and  JS'ornian  antiquities, 
many  of  which  arc  highly  interesting, 
and  serve  to  throw  a  light  on  the  man- 
net's  and  customs  of  the  people. 

ANTlS'TROPllE,  the  alternate  verse 
in  ancient  poetry,  which  was  divided  into 
thti  strophe  ami  antistrophe.  In  reciting 
their  odes  the  chorus  turned  from  the  left 
to  the  right  at  the  antistrophe,  and  vice 
versa. 

ANTITH'ESIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
of  speech,  by  which  two  things  are  at- 
tempted to  be  made  more  striking,  by 
being  set  in  opposition  to  each  other. 
"Antitheses,  well  managed,"  says  Bo- 
hours,  "give  infinite  pleasure  in  the  pe- 
rusal of  works  of  genius ;  they  have 
nearly  the  same  effect  in  language  as 
lights  and  shadows  in  painting,  which  a 
good  artist  distributes  with  propriety  :  or 
the  flats  and  sharps  in  music,  which  are 
mingled  by  a  skilful  master."  The 
beautiful  antithesis  of  Cicero,  in  his 
second  Catilinarian,  may  serve  as  an  ex- 
ample :  "  On  the  one  side  stands  mod- 
esty, on  the  other  impudence ;  on  the 
one  fidelity,  on  the  other  deceit ;  here 
piety,  there  sacrilege  ;  here  continency, 
there  lust,"  &c. 

AN'TIT  YPE,  among  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters, denotes  a  type  corresponding  to 
some  other  type  or  figure.  In  the  Greek 
church  it  is  also  an  appellation  given  to 
the  symbols  of  bread  and  wine  in  the 
sacrament. 

ANTONOxMA'SIA,  a  mode  of  speaking 
in  which  a  person  is  addressed  or  de- 
scribed by  some  appropriate  or  oiUcial 
designation,  but  not  by  his  surname  ;  as, 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  "  the  noble  lord," 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  "the  honora- 
ble gentleman." 

ANU'BIS,  in  mythology,  an  Egyptian 
deity.  The  seventh,  according  to  the 
astronomical  Theology,  of  their  eight 
gods  of  the  first  class.  The  Greeks  iden- 
tified him  with  Mercury.  In  Egyptian 
painting  and  sculpture  he  is  represented 
as  a  man  with  the  head  of  a  dog. 

A'OKIST,  that  inflection  of  the  verb 
which  leaves  the  time  of  the  action  denoted 
uncertain. 

AP'ANAGE,  an  allowance  to  younger 
branches  of  a  sovereign  house  out  of  the 
revenues  of  the  country  ;  generally  to- 
gether v.ith  a  grant  «f  public  domains. 
A  district  with  the  right  of  ruling  it, 
when  thus  conferred,  is  termed  paragium. 
An  apanage,  in  ordinary  cases,  descends 


to   the   children    of   the    prince   who  en- 
joys it. 

AP'ATIIY,  a  term  expressive  of  an 
utter  i)rivation  of  passion,  and  an  insen- 
sibility of  pain.  Tlius,  the  Stoics  affected 
an  entire  ai)athj',  so  as  not  to  be  ruffled, 
or  sensible  of  pleasure  or  pain. 

APlIvERE'SIS,  in  grammar,  the  tak- 
ing away  a  letter  or  syllable  from  a 
word. 

APirORISM,  a  maxim  or  principle  of 
a  .science  ;  or  a  sentence  which  compre- 
hends a  great  deal  in  a  few  words.  The 
aphoristic  method  has  great  advantages, 
as  containing  much  matter  in  a  small 
compass ;  sentiments  are  here  almost  as 
numerous  as  expressions  ;  and  doctrines 
may  be  counted  by  phrases. 

APLUS'TRE,  o"r  APLUS'TRIA,  in  the 
naval  architecture  of  the  ancients,  an 
ornament  resembling  a  shield  fixed  in 
the  poop  of  a  ship,  in  which  case  it  dif- 
fered from  the  acrostolium. 

APOCALYPSE,  the  Greek  name  of 
the  last  book  of  the  New  Testament,  so 
called  from  its  containing  revelations 
concerning  several  important  doctrines 
of  Christianity. 

APOCOPE,  in  grammar,  a  figure  by 
which  the  last  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word 
is  cut  off. 

APOCRYPHA,  in  theology,  certain 
books  of  doubtful  authority  which  are  not 
received   into   the  canons   of  holy  writ. 

APODICTICA,  in  rhetoric,  an  epithet 
for  arguments  which  are  fitted  for  prov- 
ing the  truth  of  any  point. 

APODIOX'IS,  ill  rhetoric,  a  figure 
whereby  we  either  pass  over  a  tiling 
slightly,  or  reject  it  as  unworthy  of 
notice. 

APODIX'IS,  in  rhetoric,  an  evident 
demonstration. 

APOD'OSIS,  in  rhetoric,  the  latter 
part  of  a  complete  exordium,  or  applica- 
tion of  a  simile. 

AP'OGRAPII,  a  copy  or  transcript  of 
some  book  or  writing.  It  is  opposed  to 
autograph. 

APOLLINA'RES  LU'DI,  or  APOL- 
LINA'RIAN  GAMES,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquit}',  were  instituted  u.  c.  542.  They 
were  celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo,  by  a 
decree  of  the  senate,  in  consequence  of  a 
prediction  of  the  prophet  Mareius  rela- 
tive to  the  battle  of  Canna3. 

APOL'LO,  or  PIKEBUS,  a  heathen 
divinity,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  in 
Homeric  times  the  god  of  archery,  pro- 
phecy, music,  and  medicine.  Later  poets 
represent  him  also  as  the  god  of  day  and 
the  sun.     The  statues  of  Apollo  represent 


22 


CVCLOrElUA    OF    LITKUATUKK 


[api- 


a  j'oung  man  in  tlie  pcrfectioa  of  manly 
strength  and  beauty,  with  unshorn  curling 
locks,  and  a  bow  or  lyre  in  his  hand. 

APOL'LO  BEL'VIDERE,  an  ancient 
marble  statue  of  Apollo  most  exquisitely 
finished.  It  was  found  in  the  ruins  of 
Antium,  in  the  15th  century,  and  placed 
in  the  Belvidere  gallery  of  the  Vatican 
palace  at  Rome. 

APOLLO'NIA,  in  antiquity,  an  an- 
nual festival  celebrated  by  the  .^gialians 
in  honor  of  Apollo. 

APOLLONIA,  St.,  of  Alexandria, 
the  events  in  the  life  of  this  saint  form 
the  subjects  of  some  fine  pictures,  of 
which  one  of  the  best,  painted  by  Domen- 
ichino,  is  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Library 
at  Mayence.  She  is  usually  represented 
as  holding  the  martyr's  palm  in  one 
hand,  and  a  pair  of  pincers,  with  a  tooth, 
in  the  other,  illustrating  her  mart3'rdom, 
during  which  all  her  teeth  were  pulled  out. 

APOLOGUE,  a  poetical  fiction,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  the  improvement  of 
morals.  Some  writers  are  of  opinion, 
that  this  term  ought  to  be  confined  to 
that  species  of  fable  in  which  brute  or 
inanimate  things,  as  boasts  or  flowers, 
are  made  to  speak ;  but  this  distinction, 
so  far  from  being  followed,  is  generally 
reversed.  It  is,  in  reality,  more  visual 
to  give  the  name  of  apologue  where 
human  actors  only  are  introduced. 

APOL'OGY,  in  literature,  a  defence, 
or  answer  to  an  accusation.  The  two 
pieces  of  Xenophon  and  Plato,  each  com- 
monly termed  Apologia  Socratis,  diScr 
in  character :  the  first  being  a  defence 
supposed  to  be  pronounced  by  the  phi- 
losopher himself ;  the  last,  a  narration  of 
his  last  hours  and  discourses.  Treatises 
in  defence  of  the  Christian  religion,  in 
its  early  period,  were  denominated  Apolo- 
gies by  their  writers;  as  those  of  Justin 
Martyr,  Tertullian,  and  others,  both  pre- 
served and  lost.  The  title  has  been  re- 
tained by  some  writers  in  modern  times  : 
a.s  by  Robert  Barclay,  in  his  Apology  of 
Quakerism,  and  by  Bishop  Watson,  in 
his  Apologies  for  the  Bible  and  for  Chris- 
tianity. 

APOPII'ASIS,  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  the  orator  brieflj'  alludes  to,  or 
seems  to  decline  stating,  that  which  he 
wishes  to  insinuate. 

AP'OPlITlIEftxM,or  AP'OTIIEGM,  a 
short,  sententious,  and  instructive  remark, 
especially  if  jironounced  by  a  person  of 
distingiiislied  character. 

APOPir  YGE,  in  architecture,  the  part 
of  a  column  where  it  springs  out  of  its 
base. 


A  POSTERIORI,  in  logic,  a  mods  of 
reasoning  from  the  effect  to  the  cause. 

APOSTLE,  a  person  sent  forth  upon 
any  business  :  hence  applied,  by  way  of 
eminence,  to  the  twelve  elect  disciples  of 
Christ,  who  were  sent  forth  by  him  to 
convert  and  baptize  all  nations.  In  the 
first  century,  the  apostles  assumed  the 
highest  office  in  the  church ;  and  the 
term  apostle  during  that  period  was 
equivalent  to  bishop  in  after-times. 

APOSTLES'  CREED,  a  confession 
of  faith,  supposed  anciently  to  have  been 
drawn  up  by  the  apostles  themselves, 
and  deriving  the  title  "Creed"  from  the 
word  with  which  it  begins  in  Latin 
(credo,  /  belieri;).  With  respect  to  ita 
antiquity,  it  may  be  affirmed,  that  the 
greater  part  of  its  clauses  is  quoted  by 
the  apostolic  father  Ignatius ;  and  that 
the  whole,  as  it  now  stands  in  the  liturgy, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  St.  Am- 
brose, in  the  fourth  century. 

APOSTOL'IC  FATHERS,  the  wri- 
ters of  the  Christian  Church,  who  lived 
in  the  apostolie  age,  or  were  during  any 
part  of  their  lives  contemporary  with  the 
apostles.  They  are  five  :  Clement  of 
Rome,  Barnabas,  Hermas,  Ignatius,  and 
Polycarj) ;  of  whom  the  last  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom, A.  D.   147. 

APOS'TROPIIE,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
of  speech  by  which  the  orator  or  writer 
suddenly  breaks  off  from  the  previous 
method  of  his  discourse,  and  addresses 
himself  in  the  second  person  to  some 
person,  or  thing,  absent  or  present. 

APOTHE'OSIS,  deification,  or  the 
ceremony  of  placing  among  the  gods, 
which  was  frequent  among  the  ancients 
It  was  one  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras, 
which  he  had  borrowed  from  the  Clial- 
dees,  that  virtuous  persons,  after  their 
death,  were  raised  into  the  order  of  tho 
gods.  And  hence  the  ancients  deified  all 
the  inventors  of  things  useful  to  mankind, 
and  who  had  done  any  important  service 
to  the  commonwealth.  This  honor  was 
also  conferred  on  several  of  the  Roman 
emperors  at  their  decease. 

APOT'OME,  in  music,  the  difference 
between  the  greater  and  the  less  semi- 
tone, being  expressed  by  the  ratio  of  123 
to  12.5. 

APPEL'LATIV^E,  in  grammar,  a  noun 
or  name  applicable  to  a  whole  species  or 
kind,  a.^,  a  man,  a  horse. 

Al'PEX'DlX,  in  literature,  a  treatise 
or  .suiiplement  added  at  the  end  of  u 
work,  to  render  it  more  complete. 

APPOGIATU'RA,  in  music,  a  small 
note  inserted  by  the  practical  musiciau 


Alic] 


AND     I  HE     KINK     AUrS. 


23 


between  two  others,  at  some  distance  ; 
or  a  note  inserted  by  way  of  embellish- 
ment. 

APPOSITION,  in  grammar,  the  pla- 
cing two  or  more  substantives  together, 
without  any  copulative  oetween  them,  as 
Wellington,  the  conqueror. 

APPKEIIEX'SIOX,  in  logic,  the  first 
or  most  simple  act  of  the  mind,  whereby 
it  perceives,  or  is  conscious  of  some  idea: 
it  is  more  usually  called  perception. 

A'PIUL,  the  "fourth  month  of  the 
year.  The  name  is  probably  derived 
from  Lat.  aperire,  to  open,  either  from 
the  opening  of  the  buds,  or  of  the  bosom 
of  the  earth  in  producing  vegetation. 

A  PRlO'lll,  a  mode  of  reasoning  from 
the  cause  to  the  effect. 

AQUATIN'TA,  a  style  of  engraving, 
or  rather  etching,  by  which  an  eflfect  is 
produced  similar  to  that  of  a  drawing  in 
Indian  ink. 

AQ'UEDUCT,  a  conduit  of  water,  is  a 
construction  of  stone  or  timber,  built  on 
uneven  ground,  to  preserve  the  level  of 
water,  and  convey  it,  by  a  canal,  from 
one  place  to  another.  There  are  aque- 
ducts under  ground,  and  others  raised 
above  it  supported  by  arches.  The  Ro- 
mans were  very  magnificent  in  their 
aqueducts.  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Nerva  there  were  nine,  which  emptied 
themselves  through  13,394  pipes  of  an 
inch  diameter.  That  constructed  by 
J,oiii.<  XIV.  for  currying  the  Bucq  to 
Versailles,  is  TDOO  fathoms  long.  The 
Croton  a(|neduct,  40  miles  long,  supply- 
ing the  citv  of  Nl'W  York  with  water,  "is 
probably  the  greatest  work  of  the  kind 
in  ancient  or  tnodcrii  times. 

AR'ABE.SQUE,  or  MORESQUE,  a 
style  of  ornament  in  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, so  called  from  the  Arabians  and 
Moors,  who  rejected  the  representation 
of  animals. 

AR'ABIC  FIGURES,  the  numeral 
characters  now  used  in  our  arithmetic, 
which  were  borrowed  from  the  Arabians, 
and  introduced  into  England  about  the 
eleventh  century. 

ARABO-TEDES'CO,  a  style  of  archi- 
tecture, in  which  the  Moorish  and  Gothic 
are  combined. 

AR^EOSTYLE,  in  architecture,  a  sort 
of  intereolumniation,  in  which  the  columns 
are  at  a  distance  from  each  other. 

AR'BOR  SCIEX'TI.E,  a  general  dis- 
tribution or  scheme  of  science,  or  knowl- 
edge. 

ARCADE',  in  architecture,  a  series  of 
arches  crowned  with  a  roof  or  ceiling, 
with  a  walk  or  passage  thereunder.     The 


piers  of  arcades  may  be  decorated  with 
columns,  pilasters,  niches,  and  apertures 
of  different  forms.  The  arches  them- 
selves are  turned  sometimes  with  rock- 
worked  and  sometimes  with  plain  rustio 
arch  stones  or  voussoirs,  or  with  a  moul- 
ded archivolt,  springing  from  an  impost 
or  platband,  and  sometimes, — though  that 
is  not  to  be  recommended, — from  columns. 
The  key-stones  are  generally  car%ed  in 
the  form  of  a  console,  or  sculptured  with 
some  device. 

ARC.\'NUM,  among  physicians,  any 
remedj',  the  preparation  of  which  is  in- 
dustriously concealed,  in  order  to  enhance 
its  value. 

ARCH,  a  concave  building  with  a 
mould  bent  in  form  of  a  curve,  erected  to 
support  some  structure.  Arches  are  either 
circular,  elliptical  or  straight,  as  they 
are  improperly  called  by  workmen.  El- 
liptical arches  consist  of  a  semi-ellipsis, 
and  have  commonly  a  key-stone  and 
imposts  ;  they  are  usually  described  by 
workmen  on  three  centres.  Straight 
arches  are  those  used  over  doors  and 
windows,  and  having  plain  straight  edges, 
both  upper  and  under,  which  are  parallel, 
but  both  the  ends  and  joints  point  towards 
a  centre.  The  term  arch  is  peculiarly 
used  for  the  space  between  the  two  piers 
of  a  bridge,  for  the  passages,  of  water, 
vessels,  &c. — Triumphal  Arch,  a  stately 
gate  of  a  semicircular  form,  adorned  with 
sculpture,  inscriptions,  Ac.  erected  in 
honor  of  those  who  hal  deserved  a  tri- 
umph.— Arch,  as  a  syllable  prefi.Ked  to 
another  word,  denotes  the  highest  degree 
of  its  kind,  whether  good  or  bad  ;  as 
(trc'ians^el,  archduke,  archbishop,  arch- 
fiend, &c.  Many  of  the  highest  offices  in 
different  empires  have  this  syllable  pre- 
fi.xed  to  them. 

ARCIIyEOL'OGY,  in  general,  means 
the  knowledge  of  antiquity,  but  in  a 
narrower  sense,  the  science  which  inquires 
into  and  discovers  the  mental  life  of  an- 
cient nations  from  their  monuments, 
whether  literary,  artistical,  or  mechani- 
cal. Artistic  Archieology  treats  of  re- 
mains as  works  of  the  Fine  Arts,  in  those 
two  nations  which  were  models  in  Art,  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  ;  besides  these  the  ar- 
tistic productions  of  the  Indians,  Egyp- 
tians, Babylonians,  and  Persians,  take 
an  honorable  place  in  the  Archaeology  cf 
Art. 

AR'CIIATSM,  any  antiquated  wonl  or 
phrase.  The  use  of  archaisms,  though 
generally  objectionable,  occasionally  add 
to  the  beauty  .and  force  of  a  sentence. 

ARCHBISirOP,  a  metropolitan  pre- 


24 


CYCLOI'EDIA    C  F    Ul'EIlATUHE 


[arc 


late,  having  several  sufTratjan  bishops 
under  him.  In  England  there  are  two 
archbishops — the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, who  is  primate  of  all  En2;land  ;  and 
the  archbishop  of  York,  who  is  only 
styled  primate  of  England.  The  first 
establishment  of  archbishops  in  Eng- 
land, according  to  Bede,  was  in  the  time 
of  Lucius,  said  to  be  the  first  Christian 
king  in  Britain ;  but  the  first  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  was  Austin,  appointed 
AD.  598,  by  Ethelbert,  when  he  was  con- 
verted. An  archbishop  consecrates  the 
inferior  diocesans,  as  those  ordain  priests 
and  deacons,  and  when  invested  with  his 
dignity,  he  is  said  to  be  enthroned ;  a 
term  which  probably  originated  with 
that  period  of  English  history,  in  which 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  had  some 
of  the  privileges  of  absolute  royalty. 

ARCHDEA'CON,  an  ecclesiastical  of- 
ficer, next  in  rank  below  a  bishop.  Ev- 
ery diocese  has  one,  and  the  generality 
more.  They  are  usually  appointed  by 
■  their  diocesans  ;  but  their  authority  is 
indepemlent.  They  visit  the  clergy,  and 
have  courts  for  the  punishment  of  oflfon- 
ders  by  spiritual  censures,  and  for  hearing 
all  other  causes  that  fall  within  ecclesias- 
tical cognizance. 

ARCH'ERY,  the  art  of  shooting  with 
the  bow  and  arrow.  Since  the  introduc- 
tion of  gunpowder,  the  arrow  has  ceased 
to  be  employed  as  an  offensive  weapon  : 
but  in  former  times  it  was  reckoned  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  military 
strength  of  England.  The  practice  of 
archery  was  followed  both  as  a  recre- 
ation and  a  service,  and  Edward  III. 
prohibited  all  useless  games  that  inter- 
fered -with  the  practice  of  it  on  holidays 
and  other  intervals  of  leisure.  By  an 
act  of  Edward  IV.  every  man  was  to  have 
a  bow  of  his  own  height,  to  be  made  of 
yeve,  hazel,  or  ash,  &c. ;  and  mounds  of 
earth  were  to  be  made  in  every  township 
for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants.  Indeed, 
it  appears  from  the  use  made  of  the  bow 
by  the  English  at  the  battles  of  Cressy, 
Agincourt,  and  Poictiers,  that  their  claim 
to  be  considered  the  best  of  modern 
archers  can  scarcely  be  disputed. 

AR'CIIETYPE,  the  first  model  of  a 
work,  which  is  copied  after  to  make 
another  like  it.  Among  minters  it  is 
used  for  the  standard  weight  by  which 
the  others  are  adjusted. — The  archctopul 
world,  among  Platonists,  means  the 
•world  as  it  existed  in  the  idea  of  God, 
before  the  visible  creation. 

AR'CIIITECT,  one  who  is  skilled  in 
ftrohitecturo.     The  architect  forms  plans 


,-nd  designs  for  edifices,  conducts  the  work. 
and  directs  the  artificers  employed  in  it. 
AR'CHITECTURE,  the  art  of  invent 
ing  and  drawing  designs  for  buildings,  or 
the  science  whioli  teaches  the  method  of 
constructing  any  edifice  for  use  or  orna- 
ment.    It  is  divided  into  civil,  military, 
and  naval;    according   as  the   erections 
are    for   civil,    military,    or   naval    pur- 
poses ;  and  for  the  sake  of  convenience, 
other  divisions  are  sometimes  introJueoJ. 
Architecture  appears  to  have       pjc,    j 
been  among  the  earliest  in-  , 
ventions.  and  its  works  have 
been  commonly  regulated  by 
some  principle  of  hereditary 
imitation.     Whatever   rude 
structure  the    climate    and 
materials    of    any   country 
have    obliged  its    early  in- 
habitants to  adopt  for  their 
temporary  shelter,  the  same 
structure,  with  all  its  promi- 
nent feature  s,  has  been  after- 
wards in  soiae  measure  kept 
up  by  their  refined  and  opu- 
lent posterity.    To  Greece  we  are  indebted 
for  the  three  principal  orders  of  architec- 
ture, the  Doric,  (Fig.  1.)  the  Ionic,  (Fig. 
2.)  and  the  Corinthian,  (Fig.  3.)  ;   Rome 
added  two  oth?rs,  both  formed  out  of  the 
former,  the    Tuscan,    (Fig.   4)    and  the 
Composite,  (Fig.  5.)   Each  of       Fio-.  2. 
these  has  a  parfcular  expres- 
sion ;  so  that  a  building,  or 
diflferent  parts  of  a  building, 
maybe  rude,  solid,  neat,  deli- 
cate, or  gay,  accordingly  as 
the    Tu.scan,    the    Doric,  the 
Ionic,  the  Corinthian,  or  the 
Composite  are  employed.  The 
columns  of  these  several  orders 
are  easily  distinguishable  to 
common  observers,  by  reason 
of  the  ornaments  that  are  pe- 
culiar to  their  capitals ;  but 
the  scientific   difference  con- 
sists   in    their    proportions. 
The  Tuscan  order  is  charac-  ^ 
terized  by  its  simplicity  and 
strength.     It  is  devoid  if  all 
ornament.  The  Doric  (Fig.  1.) 
is  enlivened  with  ornaments 
in    the    frize     and    capital. 
The  Ionic  is  ornamented  with 
the   volute  scroll,    or  spinal 
horn  :  its  ornaments  are  i  i  a 
style  of  composition  betwc.n 
the  plainness   of  the  Dori !, 
and  the  richness  of  the  Corin- 
thian.   The  Corinthian  order 
is  known  by  its  capital  being 


Fig.  3. 


ARO] 


AND    Tilfi    FINE    AKT.-i. 


25 


a'iorneJ  with  two  sorts  of 
loaves  ;  between  these  rise 
little  stalks,  of  which  the 
volutes  that  supijort  tho 
highest  part  of  the  capital, 
are  formed.  Tlie  Composite 
is  nearly  tho  same  as  tho 
Corinthian,  with  an  addition 
of  the  Ionic  volute.  Inr.hoir 
private  buildings  tho  Ro- 
man architects  followed  tho 
G-recks  ;  but  in  their  public 
edifices  they  far  surpassed 
them  in  grandeur.  During 
the  dark  ages  which  followed 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire,  the  classic  architec- 
ture of  Grreece  and  Rome 
was  lost  sight  of,  but  was 
again  revived  by  the  Ital- 
ians at  the  time  of  the  res- 
toration of  letters.  The 
Gothic  style  was  so  called 
because  it  was  first  used  by 
the  Visigoths  ;  but  at  first 
it  was  vastly  inferior  to  tha.t 
which  we  now  call  Gothic, 
and  which  exhibits  grandeur 
and  splendor,  with  the  most 
accurate  execution.  The 
Saxon  and  Norman  styles  were  so  called 
because  they  were  respectively  used  by 
the  Saxons  before  the  Conquest,  and  by 
the  Normans  after,  in  the  building  of 
churches.  The  Saxon  style  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  semicircular  arch,  which 
they  seem  to  have  taken  partly  from  the 
Romans,  and  partly  from  their  ancestors 
on  the  continent.  The  Norman  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  following  particulars  : 
the  walls  were  very  thick,  generally  with- 
out buttresses ;  the  arches,  both  within 
and  without,  semicircular,  and  supported 
by  very  plain  and  solid  columns.  These 
two  styles  continued  to  be  the  prevailing 
modes  of  building  in  England  until  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  when  a  now  mode 
was  introduced,  which  was  called  modern 
Gothic.  AVhether  this  was  purely  a  de- 
viation from  the  other  two  modes,  or 
whether  it  was  derived  from  any  foreign 
source,  is  not  known.  It  i#,  however, 
supposed  to  be  of  Saracenic  extraction, 
and  to  have  been  introduced  by  the 
cruiiders.  The  style  is  distinguished  by 
its  numor:us  buttresses,  lofty  spires  and 
pinnacles,  large  and  ramified  window.-:, 
with  a  profusion  of  ornaments  throughout. 
In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
the  taste  for  Greek  and  Roman  architec- 
ture revived,  and  brought  the  five  orders 
again  into  use,  although  for  sacred  edi- 


fices the  Saxon  and   Gothic  stylos  still 
maintain  tho  pre-eminence. 

AR'CIIITRAVE,  in  architecture,  that 
part  of  a  column,  or  order  of  columns, 
which  lies  immediately  upon  the  capital ; 
being  the  lowest  member  of  the  entabla- 
ture. Over  a  chimney,  this  member  ia 
called  the  mantle-piece  ;  and  over  doors 
or  windows,  the  hyperthvron. 

AR'Clir VAULT,  in  architecture,  the 
inner  contour  of  an  arch,  or  a  frame  s'.^t 
off  with  mouldings,  running  over  the  faces 
of  tho  arch  stones,  and  bearing  lipon  tha 
imposts. 

AR'CHIVES,  ancient  records,  or  char- 
ters which  contain  titles,  pretensions, 
privileges,  and  prerogatives  of  a  com- 
munity, family,  citv,  or  kingdom. 

AR'CHON,  the  chief  magistrates  of  the 
city  and  commonwealth  of  Athens. 

ARE'NA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  that 
part  of  the  amphitheatre  where  the 
gladiators  fought;  so  called  from  its 
being  always  strewed  with  sand,  to  con- 
ceal from  the  view  of  the  people,  tho 
blood  spilt  in  the  combat. 

AREOP'AGUS,  a  sovereign  tribunal 
at  Athens,  famous  for  tho  justice  and 
impartiality  of  its  decrees.  It  was  in  the 
town,  on  a  rock  or  hill  opposite  to  tho 
citadel.  There  are  some  remains  of  tho 
arcopagus  still  existing  in  the  middle  of 
the  temple  of  Theseus,  which  was  hereto- 
fore in  the  middle  of  the  city,  but  is  now 
without  the  walls. 

AR'GONAUTS,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
a  company  of  illustrious  Greeks,  who 
embarked  along  with  Jason  in  tho  ship 
Argo,  on  an  expedition  to  Colchis  with  a 
design  to  obtain  the  golden  fleece.  Some 
writers  imagine,  and  foremost  among 
them  is  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  that  this  ex- 
pedition was  really  an  embassy  sent  by 
the  Greeks,  during  the  intestine  divisions 
of  Egypt,  in  the  reign  of  Amenophis,  to 
persuade  the  nations  upon  the  coasts  of 
the  Euxine  and  Mediterranean  seas  to 
take  that  opportunity  of  shaking  off  the 
yoke  of  Egypt,  which  Sesostris  had  laid 
"upon  them  :  and  that  fetching  the  golden 
fleece  was  only  a  pretence  to  cover  their 
true  design. 

AR'GUAIENT,  in  rhetoric  and  logic, 
an  inference  drawn  from  premises,  the 
truth  of  which  is  indisputable,  or  at  least 
highly  probable.  In  reasoning,  Mr. 
Locke  observes  that  men  onlinarily  use 
four  sorts  of  arguments.  The  first  is  to 
allege  tho  opinions  of  men,  whoso  parts 
and  learning,  erainency,  power,  or  some 
other  cause,  have  gained  a  name,  and 
settled  their  reputation  in  the  ct'moioa 


26 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[ars 


esteem,  with  some  kiiul  of  authority ; 
this  may  be  called  argumentum  ad 
verecundiam.  Secondly,  another  way  is 
to  require  the  adversaries  to  admit  what 
they  allege  as  a  proof,  or  to  assign  a 
better;  this  he  calls  argumentum  ad 
igno-antiatn.  A  third  way  is,  to  press 
a  man  with  consequences,  drawn  from 
his  own  principles  or  concessions ;  this  is 
known  by  the  name  of  argumentum  ad 
hominem.  Fourthly,  the  using  proofs 
drawn  from  any  of  the  foundations  of 
knowledge  or  probability;  this  he  calls 
argumentum  ad  judicium  ;  and  observes, 
that  it  is  the  only  one  of  all  the  four, 
that  brings  true  instruction  with  it,  and 
advances  us  in  our  way  to  knowledge. — 
Argument,  in  literature,  denotes  also 
the  abridgment,  or  heads  of  a  book,  his- 
tory, chapter,  &c. 

ARIO'SO,  in  musical  composition,  the 
Italian  word  for  the  time  of  a  common  air. 

ARISTOTE'LI  AN,  something  relating 
to  Aristotle  :  thus  we  read  of  the  Aris- 
totelian philosophy,  school,  &c.  The 
Aristotelians  were  also  designated  Peri- 
patetics, and  their  philosophy  long  pre- 
vailed in  the  schools,  till  it  gave  place  to 
the  Newtonian. 

AR'MOR,  a  name  for  all  such  habili- 
ments as  serve  to  defend  the  body  from 
wounds,  especially  of  darts,  a  sword,  a 
lance,  &o.  A  complete  suit  of  armor  an- 
ciently consisted  of  a  casque  or  helm,  a 
gorget,  cuirass,  gauntlets,  tasscs,  brassets, 
cuishes,  and  covers  for  the  legs,  to  which 
the  spurs  were  fastened.  This  they  called 
armor  cap-a-pie  ;  and  was  worn  by  cava- 
liers and  men-at-arms.  The  infantry 
had  only  part  of  it,  viz.,  a  pot  or  head- 
piece, a  cuira.ss  and  tasses ;  but  all  of 
them  made  light.  Lastly,  the  horses 
themselves  had  their  armor,  wherewith 
to  cover  the  head  and  neck.  Of  all  this 
furniture  of  war,  scarcely  anything  is 
now  retained  except  the  cuirass. 

ARMOR-BEARER,  the  person  who 
was  formerly  employed  to  carry  the  ar- 
mor of  another. 

ARMS,  in  military  phraseology,  all 
kinds  of  weapons,  whether  used  for  of- 
fence or  defence. — Arms,  in  a  legal  sense, 
e.xtend  to  anything  that  a  person  wears 
for  his  own  defence,  or  takes  into  his 
hand,  and  uses,  in  anger,  to  strike  or 
throw  at  another. — Arms  denote  also  the 
natural  weapons  of  beasts,  as  claws, 
teeth,  beak,  ,fec. 

ARMS,  CoAT.s  OF,  family  insignia  or 
distinctions,  which  had  their  rise  from 
the  painting  of  the  shields  used  in  war 
before  the  invention  of  gunpowder. 


AR'MY,  in  a  genei'al  sense,  is  taken 
for  the  whole  armed  force  raised  for  the 
defence  of  the  country  by  land.  In  a 
limited  sen.-se,  it  denotes  a  large  body  of 
soldiers,  consisting  of  horse  and  foot, 
completely  armed,  and  provided  with  ar- 
tillery, ammunition,  provisions,  &c.,  un- 
der a  commander-in-chief,  having  lieu- 
tenant-generals, major-generals,  briga- 
diers, and  other  officers  under  him.  An 
army  is  generally  divided  into  a  certain 
number  of  corps,  each  consisting  of  brig- 
ades, regiments,  battalions,  and  squad- 
rons ;  when  in  the  field,  it  is  formed  into 
lines ;  the  first  line  is  called  the  van- 
guard, the  second  the  main  body,  the 
third  the  rearguard,  or  body  of  reserve. 
The  middle  of  each  line  is  occupied  by 
the  foot ;  the  cavalry  forms  the  right  and 
left  wing  of  each  line,  and  sometimes 
squadrons  of  horse  are  placed  in  the  in- 
tervals between  the  battalions.  The  ma- 
teriel of  an  army,  as  the  French  terra  it, 
consists  of  the  horses,  stores,  provisions, 
and  everything  necessary  for  service. 
Armies  are  moreover  distinguished  ac- 
cording to  their  service,  into  blockading 
army,  army  of  observation,  army  of  re- 
serve, (f*C. 

ARPEG'GIO,  in  music,  is  a  term  im- 
plying that  the  tones  should  be  sounded 
distinctly,  as  they  are  heard  on  the  harp. 
— Arpeggio  Accompaniment  consists 
chief!}'  of  the  notes  of  the  several  chorda 
taken  in  returning  successions. 

ARRANGE'MENT,  in  the  plastic  Arks, 
and  in  painting,  Invention  and  Arrange- 
ment are  the  groundwork  of  every  com- 
position. Arrangement  is  the  ])lacing 
together  of  parts  in  a  manner  conforma- 
ble to  the  character  and  aim  of  the  work  ; 
it  relates  entirely  to  the  form,  in  which 
the  subject  must  be  worked  out  so  as  to 
produce  an  intuitive  perception  of  its 
individuality.  Artistic  arrangement  be- 
longs not  only  to  the  object  as  a  whole, 
but  to  each  part  specially,  to  groups  as 
well  as  to  single  figures,  and  to  the  posi- 
tion and  contrast  of  their  limbs.  In 
painting,  it  refers  to  the  distribution  of 
colors,  and  the  disposition  of  light  and 
shade,  all  of  which  require  a  peculiar 
artistic  arrangement ;  light,  shade,  and 
coloring,  being  the  soul  of  all  painting. 

AR'RIS,  in  architecture,  tlie  intersec- 
tion or  line  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
exterior  surfaces  of  two  bodies,  answer- 
ing to  what  is  called  the  edge.-— AhrI8 
FILLET,  a  small  piece  of  timber,  of  a 
triangular  section,  used  in  raising  tho 
slates  against  a  wall  that  cut*  obliquely 
across  the  roof. 


as] 


AND    TIIF.    FIXK    ARTS. 


AR'SIS  and  THESIS,  in  music,  terras 
used  in  composition,  as  when  a  point  is 
inverted  or  turned,  it  is  said  to  move 
per  arsin.  ct  thesin,  that  is,  when  it  rises 
in  one  point  and  falls  in  another  ;  properly 
speaking,  it  is  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
hand  in  beating  time. 

ART,  a  system  of  rules,  serving  to 
facilitate  the  performance  of  certain  ac- 
tions ;  in  which  sense  it  stands  o])posed  i 
to  science,  or  a  sj'steiu  of  merely  specula- 
tive principles. —  T'erms  of  Art,  are  such 
words  as  are  used  in  regard  to  any  par- 
ticular art,  profession,  or  science. 

AR  TICLE,  in  grammar,  a  particle  in 
most  languages,  that  serves  to  express 
the  several  cases  and  genders  of  nouns, 
when  the  languages  have  not  different 
terminations  to  denote  the  different  states 
and  circumstances  of  nouns. 

ARTICULA'TIOX,  in  painting  and 
sculpture,  the  movable  connection  of  the 
bones,  in  the  representation  of  which  by 
the  artist  the  greatest  skill  and  knowl- 
edge of  anatomy  is  required. 

ARTIL'LERY,  a  collective  name  de- 
noting engines  of  war,  but  particularly 
cannon,  mortars,  and  other  large  pieces, 
for  the  discharge  of  shot  and  shells.  It 
is  also  employed  to  denote  the  science 
which  teaches  all  things  relating  to  the 
artillery,  as  the  construction  of  all  en- 
gines of  war,  the  arrangement,  move- 
ment, and  management  of  cannon  and 
all  sorts  of  ordnance,  used  either  in  tlie 
field,  or  the  camp,  or  at  sieges,  &c.  The 
same  name  is  also  given  to  the  troops  by 
whom  these  arms  are  served,  the  men 
being,  in  fact,  subsidiary  to  the  instru- 
ments.— Park  of  artillery,  a  place  set 
apart  in  a  camp  for  the  artillery,  and 
large  fire-arms. —  Train  of  urtillery,  a 
set  or  number  of  pieces  of  ordnance 
mounted  on  carriages. — Pbjin'jr  artillery, 
a  sort  of  artillery,  so  called  from  the  ce- 
lerity with  which  it  can  be  moved.  Seats 
are  contrived  for  the  men  who  work  it, 
and  a  sufficient  force  of  horses  is  applied 
to  enable  them  to  proceed  at  .a  gallop ; 
each  horse  being  rode  by  a  separate  driver. 
ARTIST,  a  proficient  in  the  liberal 
arts,  in  distinction  from  Artisan,  or  one 
who  follows  one  of  the  mechanic  arts. 

ARTS,  in  the  most  general  sense  of  the 
word,  means  anv  acquired  skill.  They 
are  usually  divided  min  fine  and  useful; 
comprising  under  the  furracr.  all  those, 
the  direct  object  of  which  is  not  absolute 
utility,  as  painting,  sculpture,  music, 
poetry,  dc,  in  distinction  from  the  arts 
called  useful,  or  such  as  are  essential  to 
trade  and  commerce. 


ART-UNIONS  are  societies  formed  for 
the  encouragement  of  the  Fine  Arts  by 
the  purchase  of  paintings,  sculpture*,  Ac. 
out  of  a  common  fund  raised  in  small 
shares  or  subscriptions  ;  such  works  of 
art,  or  the  right  of  selecting  them,  being 
distributed  by  lot  among  the  subscribers 
or  members.  They  appear  to  owe  their 
origin  to  M.  Hennin,  a  distinguished 
amateur  of  I'aris,  who  about  forty  years 
ago  organised  a  little  society  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  together  the  unsold 
works  of  artists,  exhibiting  them,  and 
with  the  exhibition  money,  and  other 
suljscriptions,  purchasing  a  selection  from 
among  them,  which  was  afterwards  dis- 
tributed by  lot  to  the  subscribers.  In 
1816  this  company  merged  into  the 
"  Societe  des  Amis  des  Arts."  Art-Unions 
have  been  extensively  organized  in  most 
of  the  German  states.  The  Art-Union 
of  Berlin  was  established  in  1825.  The 
first  Art-Union  formed  in  Great  Britain 
was  in  Scotland,  in  the  year  1834.  The 
Art-Union  of  London  was  established  in 
1837,  and  since  that  period  similar  socie- 
ties have  been  established  in  Ireland,  and 
in  many  of  the  principal  towns  in  England. 
The  American  Art-Union  of  New  York 
has  exhibited  the  most  remarkable  in- 
stance of  rapid  growth  and  prosperity  of 
any  similar  societies.  It  was  founded  in 
1839,  and  at  the  close  of  18.50  the  num- 
ber of  members  was  16,310,  to  whom  were 
distributed  as  prizes,  433  paintings  select- 
ed by  a  committee,  27  statuettes,  30 
sets  of  prints,  from  Col.  Trumbull's  cele- 
brated pictures  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,  and  Death  of  Montsromery,  measur- 
ing 30  inches  by  20  inches,  50  sets  of 
Outlines  and  Sketches  by  Washington 
Allston,  250  "  Trumbull"  medals,  and  250 
"  Stuart"  medals. 

ARUXDE'LIAN  MARBLES,  called 
also  the  Parian  Chronicle,  are  ancient 
stones,  on  which  is  inscribed  a  chronicle 
of  the  city  of  Athens,  supposed  to  have 
been  engraven  in  capital  letters  in  the 
island  of  Paros,  264  years  before  Christ 
They  take  their  name  from  the  earl  of 
Arundel,  who  procured  them  from  tho 
East,  or  from  his  grandson,  who  presented 
them  to  the  University  of  Oxford. 

ARUS'PICES,_or  IIARUS'PICES,  an 
order  of  priesthood  among  the  Romans, 
who  pretended  to  foretell  future  events  by 
inspecting  the  entrails  of  victims  killed 
in  sacrifice.  They  were  introduced  by 
Romulus,  and  abolished  by  Constantine 
A  D.  337. 

AS,  a  weight  used  by  the  ancients,  con- 
sisting of  12  ounces  :  it  was  also  used  as  a 


28 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[aS3 


eoin.  and  as  an  integer  diviled  into  12 
parts. 

A'SAPriEIS,  defective  utterance. 

ASARO'TA,  in  antiquity,  a  pavement 
or  floor  laid  in  dining-rooms,  and  com- 
po.-sed  of  very  small  tiles  inlaid  in  differ- 
ent colors. 

ASBES'TOS,  or  ASBES'TUS,  an  in- 
flammable mineral  substance,  of  which 
amianthus  is  one  of  its  principal  species. 
This  consists  of  clastic  fibres,  somewhat 
unctuous  to  the  touch,  and  slightly  trans- 
lucent. The  ancients  manufactured  cloth 
from  the  fibres  of  the  asbestos  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  is  said,  of  wrapping  up  the  bodies 
of  the  dead  when  exposed  on  the  funeral 
pile  ;   it  being  incombustible  in  its  nature. 

ASCEND'ANT,  in  architecture,  an  or- 
nament in  masonry  or  joiner's  worlc,  which 
borders  the  three  sides  of  doors,  windows, 
and  cliiinneys. 

ASCET'ICS,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
such  Christians  in  the  primitive  church 
as  inured  themselves  to  great  degrees  of 
abstinence  and  fasting,  in  order  to  subdue 
their  passions.  In  short,  every  kind  of 
uncommon  piety  laid  claim  to  the  name 
ascetic. 

ASCLE'PIA,  a  Grecian  festival,  held 
in  honor  of  iEsculapius.  It  was  also 
called  the  sacred  contest,  because  poets 
and  musicians  contended  for  victory 
there. 

ASCLEPIAD.^'AN  VERSE,  a  kind 
of  poetic  measure  so  called  from  .^isclepias, 
the  inventor  of  it. 

ASCO'LIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
festival  celebrated  by  the  Athenian  hus- 
bandmen, in  honor  of  Bacchus,  to  whom 
they  sacrificed  a  he-goat,  because  tliat 
animal  destrovs  the  vines. 

ASCRIPTI'TII,  in  ancient  history, 
Bupernumerary  soldiers,  who  served  to 
supply  the  losses  in  tlie  legions.  Also, 
in  later  times,  foreigners  or  aliens  newly 
admitted  to  the  freedom  of  a  city. 

ASII'LAR,  in  architecture,  common 
freestones,  as  they  are  brought  rough 
and  chipped  or  detached  from  the 
quarry,  of  different  lengths  and  thick- 
nesses. Their  usual  tliickness  is  nine 
inches. 

ASII'LERING,  in  architecture,  the 
upright  timber  or  quarters  towards  the 
rooms  or  inwards  in  garrets  by  which 
the  slope  of  the  roof  is  concealed — some- 
times it  is  only  two  or  three  feet  liigh, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  height  of  the 
room. 

ASir-WEDNES'DAY,  the  first  day  in 
Lent,  so  called  from  the  ancient  custom 
of  fasting  in  sackcloth  and  ashes 


A'SIARCII,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
governor  of  the  provinces,  who  used  to 
preside  over  the  public  games. 

ASIDE',  a  term  in  plays  for  what  is  to 
be  said  on  the  stage  without  being  heard 
by  the  other  performers. 

ASINA'RIA,  a  festival  anciently  held 
in  Sicily,  in  commemoration  of  the  vic- 
tory obtained  over  the  Athenians,  when 
Demosthenes  and  Nicias  were  taken 
prisoners ;  and  was  so  callc<l  from  tho 
river  Asinarius,  near  Avliich  it  wasi 
fought. 

AS'PECT,  in  architecture,  the  direc- 
tion towards  the  point  of  tlie  compass  in 
wliioh  a  building  is  placed.  The  aspectua 
is  A\i<>  used  by  Vitruvius  to  denote  tlio 
e.xternal  distribution  of  a  temple.  Thu? 
lie  describes  seven  sorts  of  aspects  of 
temples. 

ASPIIAL'TUM,  a  bituminous  or  in- 
flammable substance,  found  in  abundance 
in  different  countries,  especially  near  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  in  Albania ;  but  nowhere 
in  such  quantities  as  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  where  there  is  a  large  plain  of 
it,  called  tho  Tar  Lake,  which  is  three 
miles  in  circumference  and  of  an  un- 
known depth.  It  is  also  found  in  France, 
Switzerland,  and  some  other  parts  of 
Europe. 

AS'PIRATE,  in  grammar,  a  character 
in  the  Greek  (marked  thus,  ')  to  denote 
that  the  vowel  must  be  sounded  with  a 
breathing.  In  English,  the  letter  h  is 
called  aspirate,  when  it  is  sounded,  in  dis- 
tinction to  h  mute. 

AS'SAI,  a  musical  term,  which  indi- 
cates tlnit  the  time  must  be  accelerated 
or  retardel;  as  allegro,  quick;  allegro 
as9ai,  still  quicker;  adagio  assai,  still 
slower. 

ASSAS'SIN,  one  who  kills  another, 
not  in  open  combat,  but  privately,  or 
suddenly.  The  name  is  generally  re- 
striiino  1  to  murilerers  of  princes  or  other 
political  characters  ;  or,  to  speak  perhaps 
more  ex]ilicitly,  to  whore  the  murder  \3 
committed  from  some  sentiment  of  ha- 
tred, but  in  a  private  and  dastardly  man- 
ner. 

ASSIGN  AT',  tho  name  of  (lie  national 
pa,])er  currency  in  France  during  tlio 
Revolution.  Four  humlred  millions  of 
this  paper  money  were  first  struck  off  by 
the  constituent  assembly,  with  the  ap- 
probation of  the  king,  April  19,  1790,  to 
bo  redeemed  with  the  proceeds  of  tho 
sale  of  the  confiscated  goods  of  the  church. 
They  at  length  increased,  by  degrees,  to 
forty  thousand  millions,  and  after  awhile 
they  became  of  no  value  whatever. 


ath] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


29 


ASSIGNEE',  in  law,  a  person  ap- 
pointed by  another  to  do  an  act,  transact 
some  business,  or  enjoy  a  particular 
l)rivilogo. — The  person  to  whom  is  com- 
mitted the  management  of  a  bankrupt's 
estate. 

ASSIGN'MENT,  in  law,  the  act  of  as- 
signing or  transferring  the  interest  or 
property  a  man  has  in  a  thing;  or  of 
appointing  and  setting  over  a  right  to 
another. 

A.SSl'ZES,  a  meeting  of  the  English 
royal  judges,  the  shcritf,  and  juries,  for 
the  purpose  of  making  jail-deliveries, 
and  trying  causes  between  individuals ; 
generally  held  twice  in  the  year.  The 
assizes  are  gciieral  when  the  justices  go 
their  circuits,  with  commission  to  take  all 
assizes,  that  is,  to  hear  all  causes ;  and 
they  are  special  when  special  commis- 
sions arc  granted  to  hear  particular 
causes. 

ASSqCIA'TION  OF  IDEAS,  by  this 
phrase  is  understood  the  connection  be- 
twerti  certain  ideas  which  causes  them  to 
euoceed  each  other  involuntarily  in  the 
mind.  To  the  wrong  association  of  ideas 
made  in  our  minds  by  custom,  Mr. 
Locke  attributes  most  of  the  sympathies 
and  antipathies  observable  in  men,  which 
work  as  strongly,  and  produce  as  regular 
effects,  as  if  they  were  natural,  though 
they  at  first  had  no  other  origin  than  the 
accidental  connection  of  two  ideas,  which 
either  bj'  the  strength  of  the  first  im- 
pression, or  future  indulgence,  are  so 
united,  that  they  ever  after  keep  com- 
pany together  in  that  man's  mind  as  if 
they  were  but  one  idea. 

AS'SONANCE,  in  rhetoric  or  poetry, 
is  where  the  words  of  a  phrase  or  verse 
have  nearly  the  same  sound,  or  termina- 
tion, but  make  no  proper  rhyme. 

ASSUMP'SIT,  in  law,  a  voluntary 
promise  by  which  a  man  binds  himself  to 
pay  anything  to  another,  or  to  do  any  work. 

ASS'UMP'TION,  a  festival  in  the 
Romish  church,  in  honor  of  the  miracu- 
lous ascent  of  the  Virgin  Mary  into 
heaven. — Assumption,  in  logic,  is  the 
minor  or  second  proposition  in  a  categor- 
ical syllogism.  It  is  also  usoil  for  a  con- 
sequence drawn  from  the  propositions 
whereof  an  argument  is  composed. 

AS'TERLSK,  in  diplomatics,  a  sign 
in  the  figure  of  a  star,  frequently  met 
with  in  ancient  L.atin  manu.^cripts,  and 
seeming  to  serve  vari!)us  purposes;  some- 
times to  denote  an  omission,  sometimes  an 
addition,  somotinios  a  passage  which  ap- 
peared remarkable  on  any  account  to 
the  copyist. 


AS'TRAtI  AL,  in  architecture,  a  little 
round  moulding,  in  form  of  a  ring,  serv- 
ing as  an  ornament  at  the  tops  and  bot- 
toms of  columns. 

A8Y'J.iUM,  in  antiqjuity,  a  place  of 
refuge  for  offenders,  wlieie  they  were 
screened  from  the  hands  of  justice.  The 
asyla  of  altars  and  temples  were  very 
ancient.  The  .Tews  had  their  asyla;  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  were,  the  tem- 
ple, the  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  and  the 
six  cities  of  refuge.  A  similar  custom 
prevailed  both  among  the  Greeks  anJ 
Romans,  where  temples,  altars,  and 
statues,  were  places  of  refuge  for  crim 
inals  of  every  description.  They  had  an 
idea,  that  a  criminal  who  fled  to  the  tem 
pie  or  altar,  submitted  his  crime  to  the 
punishment  of  the  gods,  and  that  it  would 
be  impiety  in  man  to  take  vengeance  out 
of  their  hands.  In  former  times  the  like 
immunities  were  granted  by  the  pope  to 
churches,  convents,  <tc. 

ASYN'DETON,  in  rhetoric  or  compo- 
sition, the  omission  of  conjunctions,  or 
other  connecting  particles  of  speech,  in 
order  to  render  the  sentence  more  lively 
and  impressive. 

AT'AB AL,  a  kind  of  tabor  used  among 
the  Moors. 

ATARAX'IA,  or  AT'ARAXY,  a  term 
used  to  denote  that  calmness  of  mind 
which  secures  us  from  all  emotions  aris- 
ing from  vanity  or  self-conceit.  In  this 
consisted  the  sunivium  boiium,  or  sover- 
eign good  of  the  Stoics. 

AT'AXY,  in  a  general  sense,  the  want 
of  order  :  with  physicians  it  signifies  the 
irregularity  of  crises  and  paroxysms  of 
fevers. 

ATE'LIER,  a  term  derived  from  the 
French,  and  applied  specially  to  the  work- 
room of  sculptors  and  painters,  which  are 
also  called  Srunos.  The  Dutch  and 
Flemish  painters  have  delighted  to  por- 
tray their  Ateliers. 

A-TEM'PO,  in  music,  Italian  for  'in 
time,'  employed  when  the  regular  meas- 
ure has  been  interrupted. 

ATlIEXiE'UM,  in  antiquity,  a  publio 
school  wherein  the  professors  of  the  liberal 
arts  held  their  assemblies,  the  rhetori- 
cians declaimed,  and  the  poets  rehearsed 
their  performances.  These  places,  of 
which  there  wore  a  great  number  at 
Athens,  were  built  in  the  manner  of 
amphitheatres,  encompassed  with  seats 
called  cunei.  The  three  most  celebrated 
Athenrea  were  those  at  Athens,  at  Rome, 
and  at  Lyons,  the  second  of  which  was 
built  by  the  emperor  Adrian. 

ATIILE'T^E,  in  antiquity,  men  of  re- 


30 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    MTERATLRE 


[ati 


markable  strength  and  agility,  disci))lined 
to  perform  the  public  games.  This  was 
a  general  term,  under  which  were  compre- 
hended wrestlers,  boxers,  runners,  leap- 
ers,  throwers  of  the  disk,  and  those  who 
practised  in  other  exercises  exhibited  in 
the  Olympic,  Pythian,  and  other  solemn 
sports,  wherein  there  were  prizes  allotted 
for  the  conquerors. 

ATLAN"IE.S,  Telamones,  Perces, 
GiGANTEs,  .are  the  athletic  male  statues 
which  we  find  as  supports  of  parts  of  an- 
cient buildings ;  female  figures  for  the 
same  purpose  were  called  Caryatides  ; 
they  are  not  exact  imitations  of  nature, 
but  their  use  is  sufBeiently  justified  by 
the  antique.  They  were  only  employed 
when  pillars  were  too  insignificant  for 
the  erections  ;  they  are  suitable  to  a  rich 
style,  to  small  screens,  fountains,  for 
supporting  a  gallery,  and  for  the  upper 
rows  of  pillars  :  these  should  not  appear 
so  heavy  as  to  excite  compassion,  but  the 
expression  should  be  one  of  graceful 
freedom. 

ATLAN'TIS,  an  island  mentioned  in 
Plato's  Dialogue  entitled  Lima^us,  as  hav- 
ing once  existed  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
opposite  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  It 
was  said  to  have  exceeded  Europe  and 
Africa  jointly  in  magnitude  ;  and  after 
existing  for  9000  years,  during  which 
period  its  inhabitants  extended  their  con- 
quests throughout  the  known  quarters 
of  the  globe,  to  have  been  uprooted  by 
prodigious  earthquakes  and  inundations, 
and  submerged  in  the  ocean.  The  ques- 
tion of  the  reality  and  site  of  this  island 
has  been  frequently  discussed  by  modern 
geographers. 

AT'LAS,  in  geography,  a  collection  of 
maps  ;  more  properly,  a  book  containing 
maps  of  the  whole  world  ;  so  called  from 
Atlas,  who  was  fabled  to  have  borne  the 
world  on  his  shoulders.  It  is  also  the 
name  of  a  chain  of  high  mountains  in 
Africa,  extending  from  the  coast  of  the 
Atlantic  to  the  border  of  Egypt. 

AT'OM,  in  philosophy,  a  particle  of 
matter,  so  minute  as  to  admit  of  no  di- 
vision. Atoms  are  the  minima  naturce, 
and  are  conceived  as  the  first  principle  or 
component  parts  of  all  physical  magni- 
tude. From  the  earliest  times  of  an- 
tiquity, down  to  the  present  day,  two 
opinions  directly  opposed  to  each  other, 
have  divided  the  world  on  this  subject ; 
the  one,  that  matter  is  composed  of  an 
assemblage  of  minute  particles,  or  atoms, 
incapable  of  farther  division  ;  the  other 
that  there  is  no  limit  to  its  divisiliility, 
the  smallest  conceivable  portion  still  con- 


sisting of  an  infinity  of  parts.  The  first 
of  these  tlioories,  whicli  is  commonly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  Atomic 
Philosophy,  was  originated  in  Greece 
by  Leucippus  ;  it  was  supported  by  Dem- 
ocritus,  and  subsequently  improved  by 
Epicurus  and  his  disciples.  The  Epicu- 
reans professed  to  account  for  the  origin 
and  formation  of  all  things  by  supposing 
that  these  atoms  were  endued  with  grav- 
ity and  motion,  and  thus  come  together 
into  the  different  organized  bodies  we 
now  see. 

ATTACII'MENT,  in  law,  the  taking 
or  apprehending  a  person,  by  virtue  of  a 
writ  or  precept.  It  differs  from  an  ar- 
rest, inasmuch  as  it  lays  hold  of  the 
goods,  as  well  as  the  person  ;  and  also 
from  a  distress,  which  seizes  on  lands, 
tenements,  and  goods ;  but  an  attach- 
ment on  the  goods  and  body. 

ATTAIN'DER,  the  nanie  of  a  law  by 
which  the  estate  and  life  of  a  traitor  are 
forfeited.  A  Bill  of  Attainder  is  a  bill 
for  attainting  persons  convicted  of  tigh 
treason.  A  person  attainted  of  high 
treason  forfeits  all  his  lands,  tenements, 
and  hereditaments ;  his  blood  is  cor- 
rupted, and  he  and  his  posterity  rendered 
base  ;  and  this  corruption  of  blood  can- 
not be  taken  off  but  by  act  of  parliament. 

ATTAINT',  in  law,  a  writ  that  lies 
after  judgment  against  a  jury  of  twelve 
men  that  are  charged  with  having  given 
a  false  verdict. 

AT'TIC,  in  architecture,  a  sort  of 
building,  in  which  there  is  no  roof  or 
covering  to  be  seen,  as  was  usual  in  the 
houses  of  the  Athenians. — The  Attic,  or 
Attic  story,  is  the  upper  story  of  a 
house. — The  Attic  base  is  a  peculiar 
kind  of  column,  or  support,  employed 
both  in  the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders. 

AT'TICISM,  an  elegant  or  con- 
cise form  of  expression.  Milton,  in  his 
Apology  for  Smoctymnuus,  thus  uses 
it :  "  They  made  sport,  and  I  laughed : 
they  mispronounced,  and  I  misliked; 
and,  to  make  up  the  atticism,  they  were 
out,  and  I  hissed."  The  term  Sal  Atti- 
cum  was  employed  by  the  Romans  at 
once  to  characterize  the  poignancy  of  wit 
and  brilliancy  of  style  peculiar  to  the 
Athenian  writers,  and  to  designate  the 
liveliness,  spirituality,  and  refined  taste 
of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city,  which 
formed  the  focus  and  central  point  of  all 
tlio  eloquence  and  refinement  of  tho 
Greeks. 

AT'TITUDE,  in  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, tho  ptiiition  and  gesture  of  a  figure 
or  statue,   ):  such  a  disposition  of  their 


Aug] 


ANU    THE    KINE    AUTS. 


81 


parts,  as  shall  best  display  some  grace  or 
beauty,  or  serve  to  express  the  action 
and  sentiments  of  the  person  repre- 
sented. 

ATTOR'T"'  EY,  one  who  is  appointed  by 
another  to  do  a  thing  in  his  absence.  A 
publ'c  attorney  is  one  who  acts  in  the 
courts  of  iaw,  and  is  a  lawyer  by  profes- 
sion. 

AT'XRIBUTES,  in  theology,  the  sev- 
eral f^iualities  or  perfections  of  the  divine 
nature,  or  such  as  we  conceive  to  consti- 
tute the  proper  essence  of  God  ;  as  his 
wisdom,  jiower,  justice,  goodness,  &c. — 
AfTRiBUTSs,  in  logic,  are  the  predicates 
of  any  subject,  or  what  may  be  affirmed 
or  denied  of  anything. — Attributes,  in 
painting  and  sculpture,  are  symbols  added 
to  a  figure  or  group,  which  are  character- 
istic of  the  principal  subject.  Thus  the 
eagle  is  an  attribute  of  Jupiter ;  a  pea- 
cock, of  Juno;  a  caduceus,  of  Mercury; 
a  club,  of  Hercules,  &o. 

AU'DIENCE,  the  persons  assembled 
at-a  theatre,  or  other  public  place  to  see 
and  hear  the  performances. — Audience, 
a  ceremony  used  in  courts  at  the  admis- 
sion of  ambassadors  or  other  public 
ministers  to  a  hearing.  In  England, 
audience  is  given  to  ambassadors  in  the 
presence  chamber;  and  to  envoys  and 
residents  in  a  gallery,  closet,  or  any 
place  where  the  king  happens  to  be. — ■ 
Audience  is  also  the  name  of  an  eccle- 
siastical court,  held  by  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  wherein  differences  upon 
elections,  consecrations,  institutions,  mar- 
riages, etc.,  are  heard. 

AU'DIT,  a  regular  examination  of  ac- 
counts by  officers  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

AU'DITOR,  an  officer  of  any  corporate 
body,  appointed  annually  to  examine  ac- 
counts. 

AU'GUR,  an  officer  among  the  Romans, 
appointed  to  foretell  future  events,  by  the 
chattering  and  feeding  of  birds.  The 
augurs  bore  an  augural  stafi"  or  wand,  as 
the  ensign  of  their  authority,  and  their 
dignity  was  so  much  respected,  that  they 
were  never  deposed,  nor  any  substituted 
in  their  place,  though  convicted  of  the 
most  enormous  crimes. 

AUGURY,  a  species  of  divination,  or 
the  art  of  foretelling  future  events,  prac- 
tised by  the  ancients.  It  was  distin- 
guished into  five  sorts,  viz.,  augury  from 
appearances  in  the  heavens  ;  from  birds  ; 
from  chickens ;  from  quadrupeds ;  and 
from  portentous  events.  This,  like  other 
human  errors,  appears  to  have  arisen 
from   ideas  tolerably   rational   at   first. 


The  regular  ajipcarance  and  disappear- 
ance of  the  birds,  and  the  precision  thaV; 
is  observable  in  almost  their  whole  pro- 
ceedings, might  naturally  impress  an 
ignorant  race  of  men  with  a  belief  that 
they  either  inherently  possessed,  or  from 
time  to  time  received,  supernatural  in- 
formation. Accustomed  to  regulate  by 
these  monitors  their  rural  occupations, 
the  shepherd  and  the  husbandman  were 
led,  by  the  most  excusable  association  of 
ideas,  to  consult  the  same  advisers  in  the 
few  other  concerns  of  life  that  fell  to  their 
lot :  and  on  the  foundation  laid  by  super- 
stition, imposture  subsequently  raised  a 
fantastic  structure. 

AUGUSTAN  HISTORY,  a  series  of 
history  of  the  Roman  empire  from  the 
year  157  a.d.  to  285  a.d.,  written  by  the 
following  six  authors :  JEl.  Spartianus, 
J.  Capitolinus,  ^1.  Lampridius,  Vulca- 
tius  Gallianus,  Trebellius  PoUio,  and 
Flavins  Vopiscus. 

AUGUS'TINE  AGE,  a  term  used  to 
designate  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the 
most  brilliant  period  in  the  literary  his- 
tory of  Rome.  The  civil  wars  that  had 
long  distracted  the  Roman  empire  had 
stifled  the  cultivation  of  literature  and 
the  arts  ;  and  when  the  battle  of  Actium 
had  terminated  internal  commotion,  noth- 
ing, it  was  supposed,  could  so  effectually 
celebrate  and  adorn  the  restoration  of 
peace  and  the  happy  reign  of  Augustus, 
as  the  appearance  of  great  national 
poets,  who  might  supply  the  chief  defect 
in  the  literature  of  their  country,  and 
create  a  body  of  classical  works,  in  which 
the  ancient  Roman  traditions  might  be 
transmitted  to  posterity.  To  accomplish 
this  object,  men  of  genius  were  flattered, 
courtcil,  and  enriched,  in  an  unexampled 
manner,  by  the  liberality  of  Augustus ; 
and  after  a  brief  interval,  the  verses  of 
Virgil,  Horace,  Propertius,  Ovid,  and 
Tibullus  resounded  throughout  the  em- 
pire in  their  respective  epic,  lyric,  and 
elegiac  strains.  The  science  of  jurispru- 
dence then  received  its  full  development : 
and  the  boundaries  of  strict  law  on  the 
one  hand,  and  equity  on  the  other,  were 
respectively  ascertained.  In  this  age, 
too,  Rome  became  the  seat  of  universal 
government  and  wealth  ;  and  so  numer- 
ous and  splendid  were  the  architectural 
decorations  with  which  it  was  eml>el!ishod, 
as  to  justify  the  saying  of  Augustus — 
that  he  found  Rome  of  brick,  and  loft  it 
of  marble. 

AUOUS'TINES,  a  religions  order,  so 
calleil  from  St.  Augustine,  their  founder, 
and   vulgarly   called   Austin    friars,   or 


32 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LrrERATURE 


[act 


Christian  hermits.  Before  the  Reforma- 
tion they  had  •32  houses  in  En;^land. 
Among  other  thing.",  this  rule  enjoins  to 
have  all  things  in  common,  to  receive 
nothing  without  the  leave  of  the  .superior ; 
and  several  other  precepts  relating  to 
charity,  modesty,  and  chastity.  There 
are  likewise  nuns  of  this  order.  The 
Augustines  are  clothed  in  black,  and  at 
Paris  are  known  under  the  name  of  the 
religious  of  St.  Genevieve,  that-  abbey 
being  the  chief  of  the  order. 

AnU'STlX'IANS,  a  religious  sect  of 
the  16th  century,  who  maintained  that 
the  gates  of  heaven  would  not  be  opened 
till  the  general  resurrection. 

AU'LIC,  an  epithet  given  to  certain 
officers  in  the  ci-dcvant  (Jerman  empire, 
who  composed  a  court  which  decided, 
without  appeal,  in  all  judicial  processes 
entered  in  it.  This  court,  which  was 
proverbial  for  the  slow  administration 
of  justice,  had  not  only  concurrent  juris- 
diction with  the  court  of  the  imperial 
chamber,  but,  in  many  eases,  exclusive 
jurisdiction.  The  right  of  appeal,  pos- 
sessed by  the  estates,  existed  also  in  regard 
to  the  judicial  decisions  of  the  aulic  court. 

AURE'OLA,  in  its  original  significa- 
tion, denotes  a  jewel,  which  is  proposed 
as  a  reward  of  victory  in  some  public 
dispute.  Hence,  the  Roman'  schoolmen 
applied  it  to  the  reward  bestowed  on 
martyrs,  virgins,  &c.,  on  account  of  their 
works  of  supererogation ;  and  painters 
use  it  to  signify  tlie  crown  of  glory  with 
which  they  adorn  the  heads  of  saints, 
confessors.  &c. 

AU'RUM  MOSA'ICUM,  a  combination 
of  tin  and  sulphur,  used  by  statuaries 
and  painters,  for  giving  a  gold  color  to 
their  figures. 

AUS'PICE.S,  a  kind  of  soothsaying 
among  the  Romans,  by  the  flight  or  sing- 
ing of  birds. 

AUTHENTIC  MEL'ODIES,  in  music, 
such  as  have  their  principal  notes  con- 
tained between  the  key-note  and  its  oc- 
t\ivc.  This  term  i.s  applied  by  the  Ital- 
ians to  four  of  the  church  modes  or  toners 
in  music  which  rise  a  fourth  above  their 
<lominants,  which  are  always  fifths  above 
llioir  liniils,  (hat  is,  rise  to  complete  tlieir 
o'-t;i,\i.'s,  thus  distinguished  from  plagal 
melodies,  whicli  fall  a  fourth  below  their 
finals. 

AUTOBTOG'RAPHY,  this  word  is  of 
(rreek  origin,  anil  signifies  literally  the 
life  of  a  person,  irritf.en  htj  hiinsflf. 
These  memoirs  may  be  divideil  into  two 
classes  :  those  in  which  the  chief  object 
of  the  writer  is  to  illustrate  the  history 


of  his  own  mind  and  heart,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  these  were  swayed  by  tho 
destinies  of  his  life;  and  those  in  which 
liis  purpose  is  merely  to  give  a  sketch 
of  the  scenes  and  events  which  have  oc- 
curred within  his  own  experience,  and  of 
characters  with  which  he  has  been  brought 
in  contact.  Of  the  firs-t  class  of  writings, 
from  the  Confession  of  Saint  Augustine 
down  to  the  Confessions  of  Rousseau,  and 
the  many  works  which  have  since  been 
produced  in  imitation  of  the  latter,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  general  defect  is  a 
morbid  spirit  of  exaggeration.  Of  the 
more  narrative  class  of  memoirs,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say,  that  where  the  writer 
was  himself  a  prominent  actor  in  parsing 
events,  they  are  usually  little  better  than 
apologies  or  self-justifications,  such  as 
the  famous  Memoirs  of  the  Cardinal  de 
Retz,  and,  in  our  own  times,  the  various 
fragments  of  autobiography  which  have 
been  published  from  the  hand  of  Na- 
poleon. 

AUTOCHTHONS,  the  Greek  term  for 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  a  country, 
iraplj'ing  that  they  were  sprung  from  the 
soil.  The  Athenians,  whose  territory 
had  been  held  by  the  same  race  from 
time  immemorial,  chiefly  on  account  of 
its  sterility,  which  oftered  no  incitement 
to  foreign  aggression,  particularly  laid 
claim  to  this  title,  in  memorial  of  which 
they  wore  the  emblematic  grasshopper 
as  part  of  their  head-dress. 

AUTO-DA-FE,  properly  AUTO-DE- 
FE,  a  public  solemnity  held  by  the  Court 
of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. It  was  a  jail  delivery,  at  which 
extracts  from  the  trials  of  offenders,  and 
the  sentences  pronounced  by  tho  jiulgos, 
were  read;  after  which  absolution  wa,s 
conferred  on  those  who  were  penitent, 
and  discharged  :  after  which,  those  con- 
demned to  death  (relaja  dos)  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  secular  authority :  and 
liere  the  auto,  properly  so  called,  ended; 
the  execution  of  tho  victims  taking  place 
immediately  afterwards,  under  the  .au- 
thority of  the  civil  judge,  a  secretary  to 
tlie  inquisition  attending. 

AU'TOCiRAlMI,  an  epithet,  ai)plic<l  to 
whatever  is  written  in  a  person's  own 
h;ind-writing,  as  an  autograph  letter,  a 
lotler  of  ono's  own  writing. 

AU'TUMN,  the  third  season  in  tho 
year,  which  begins  in  the  northern  hemr 
isphoro,  on  tho  day  when  the  sun  enters 
Libra,  that  is,  on  the  2"2d  of  September. 
It  terminates  about  the  same  day  in  De- 
cember, when  the  winter  cvinmcncos. 
Autumn  is  ropreseutod,  in  painting,  by  u 


BAOj 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


33 


man  of  mature  age,  clothed  ami  girt  with 
a  starry  girdle  ;  holding  in  onu  hand  a 
pair  of  scales  equally  poised,  with  a 
globe  in  each;  ami  in  the  other  a  bunch 
of  grapes  and  other  fruit.  His  age  de- 
notes the  perfection  of  this  season ;  and 
the  balance,  that  sign  of  the  zodiac 
which  the  sun  enters  when  our  autumn 
begins. 

AUXIL'IARY  VERB.?,  in  grammar, 
are  such  verbs  a?  helj)  to  form  or  conju- 
gate others;  as,  in  English,  the  verbs 
"to  have,"  and  "to  be." 

AVA'TAR,  a  terra  used  by  the  Hin- 
doos to  express  an  incarnation  or  descent 
of  Vishnu,  their  deitj- :  nine  pf  which 
are  believed  to  be  passed,  and  the  tenth 
yet  to  come. 

A'VE  MARI'A,  the  name  given  to  the 
angel  Gabriel's  salutation  to  the  Virgin 
Mary.  Also,  the  chaplets  and  rosaries 
of  the  Romish  church,  which  are  divided 
into  ave-marias  and  pater-nosters. 

AVER'N US,  a  lake  of  Italy  10  miles 
west  of  Naples,  celebrated  in  antiquity 
as  the  entrance  to  the  infernal  regions. 
This  place  continued  to  be  the  favorite 
haunt  of  superstition  till  the  time  of 
Augustus,  who  violated  its  sanctity,  and 
dispelled  the  impenetrable  darkness  in 
which  it  had  hitherto  been  enshrouded, 
b}'  cutting  down  the  surrounding  wood, 
and  connecting  it  with  the  Lucrine  lake, 
then  an  arm  of  the  sea.  This  lake  still 
exists  under  the  name  Lago  d' Aver- 
no ;  it  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  cir- 
cumference, and  in  many  places  190  feet 
deep. 

AWARD',  in  law,  the  judgment  of  an 
arbitrator,  or  of  one  who  is  not  appointed 
by  the  law  a  judge,  but  chosen  by  the 
parties  themselves  for  terminating  their 
differences. 

AX'IO  JI,  in  philosophy,  is  such  a  plain, 
self-evident  proposition,  that  it  cannot  be 
made  more  plain  and  evident  by  demon- 
stration ;  because  it  is  itself  better  known 
than  anything  that  can  be  brought  to 
prove  it.  By  axioms,  called  also  max- 
ims, are  understood  all  common  notions 
of  the  minil,  whose  evidence  is  so  clear 
and  forcible,  that  a  man  cannot  deny 
them  without  renouncing  common  sense 
and  natural  reason. 

AZ'URE,  the  blue  color  of  the  sky. 
Among  painters,  this  word  originally 
signified  lapis-luzidi,  and  the  blue  color 
prepared  from  it.  At  present  it  is  called 
uUra-marine ;  and  the  blue  glass  made 
from  the  earth  of  cobalt  and  other  vitri- 
fiable  matters,  which,  when  in  masses,  is 
called  smalt,  is,  in  the  state  of  fine  pow- 
3 


der,  known  by  the  name  of  azure.  A/.uro 
being  employed  to  color  starch,  is  also 
called  starch-blue. 

AZ'YMITE.S,  in  church  history,  Chris- 
tians who  administer  the  eucharist  with 
unleavened  bread.  This  appellation  was 
given  to  the  Latin  by  the  Greek  church, 
and  also  to  the  Armenians  and  Jla- 
ronites. 


B. 

B,  the  second  letter,  and  first  conso- 
nant, in  the  alphabet,  is  formed  in  the 
voice  by  a  :^trong  and  quick  expression 
of  the  breath,  and  a  sudden  opening  of 
the  lips  ;  it  is  therefore  called  a  labial, 
and  its  pronunciation  ditfers  but  slightly 
from  p  and  v.  It  is  often  used  as  an  ab- 
breviation for  Bachelor,  as  B.A.  Bache- 
lor of  Arts,  B.D.  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
(fee.,  and  for  before,  as  B.C.,  Before  Christ. 
B,  as  a  numeral  among  the  Romans, 
stood  for  300,  and  with  a  dash  over  it  for 
3000.  B,  in  chronologj',  stands  for  one 
of  the  dominical  letters,  and  in  music  for 
the  seventh  note  in  the  gamut. 

BA'AL,  an  idol  among  the  ancient 
Chaldeans  and  Syrians ;  supposed  to 
represent  the  sun,  and  to  be  the  same  as 
the  Bel  or  Belus  of  the  Greeks.  The 
word  signifies  also  lord  or  commander ; 
and  the  character  of  the  idol  was  varied 
by  different  nations,  at  different  times. 

BABYLON'ICA,  in  antiquity,  a  spe- 
cies of  rich  weaving  so  called  from  the 
citj-  of  Babylon,  where  the  art  of  weav- 
ing hangings  with  a  variety  of  colors  was 
first  invented. 

BABYLOX'ICS,  in  literary  history,  a 
fragment  of  the  anc'jrit  history  of  the 
world,  ending  at  267  j'ti  rs  before  Christ ; 
and  composed  by  Boro-!U3,  a  priest  of 
Babylon,  about  the  titin  of  Alexander. 

BAC'CUJE,  the  pricstecses  of  Bacchus, 
who,  crowned  with  vine  and  ivy  leaves, 
and  clad  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  cele- 
brated the  orgies  of  their  god  with  frantic 
cries  and  gestures.  They  were  also  called 
Matnade.'i,  Bassarides,  and  Thyades. 

BACCHANA'LIA,  feasts  celebrated  in 
honor  of  Bacchus  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Their  times  of  celebration 
were  spring  and  autumn  :  the  former  in 
the  city,  and  the  latter  in  the  fields.  The 
company  personified  Silenus,  Pan,  Fauns, 
Satyrs,  &c. ;  and  in  this  manner  ap- 
peared in  public,  night  and  day,  counter- 
feiting drunkenness,  danciir  obscenely, 
committing  all  kinds  of  Jiceatiousnesa 
and  debauchery ;  and  rur.aliig  over  the 


34 


CVCLOrEDIA    OF    LITEIIATURE 


[ban 


mountains  and  forests,  with  horrible 
shrieks  and  howlings,  crj-ing  out  Kvoe 
iiacche,  or  lo  Bacche.  Livy  informs  us, 
that  during  the  Bacchanalian  feasts  at 
Rome,  such  shocking  disorders  were 
practised  under  the  cover  of  the  night, 
and  those  who  were  initiated  were  bound 
to  conceal  them  by  an  oath  attended  with 
horrid  imprecations,  that  the  senate  sup- 
pressed them  first  in  Rome,  and  after- 
wards throughout  all  Italy. 

BACU'ELOR,  in  its  primitive  sense, 
means  a  man  who  has  not  been  marrieil : 
and  in  all  its  various  senses  it  seems  to 
include  the  idea  of  youth  or  immaturity. 
— Bachelor,  in  universities,  is  one  who 
has  attained  the  first  degree  in  the  lib- 
eral arts  and  sciences,  or  the  first  degree 
in  the  particular  study  to  which  he  de- 
votes himself.  This  degree  of  honor  is 
called  the  haccalaureate.  At  Oxford  and 
at  Cambridge,  to  attain  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts,  a  person  must  have 
studied  there  four  years :  after  three 
more,  he  may  become  master  of  arts; 
and  at  the  end  of  another  series  of  seven, 
bachelor  of  divinity. 

BACK'GROUND,  in  painting,  is  the 
space  behind  a  portrait  or  group  of  fig- 
ures. The  distance  in  a  picture  is  usu- 
ally divided  into  the  foreground,  midJIe- 
distnnee,  and  background.  In  portrait- 
painting,  the  nature  and  treatment  of 
backgrounds  have  varied  in  the  hands  of 
almost  every  master,  yet  there  are  cer- 
tain recognized  methods  which  are  more 
worthy  of  imitation  and  study  than 
others.  In  most  of  the  portraits  of 
Titian,  Vandyke,  and  Rembrandt,  the 
backgrounds  represent  only  space,  indi- 
cated by  a  warm  brown  gray  tone,  and 
this  treatment  is  the  most  effective. 

BACK-PAINTING,  the  method  of 
painting  mezzotinto  prints  pasted  on  glass 
with  oil  colors. 

BADGE,  an  exterior  ornament  of  a 
coat  of  arms,  originally  worn  by  the  re- 
tainers or  attendants  of  the  nobility.  It 
fell  into  disuse  in  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth. — In  naval  architecture,  an 
ornament  placed  on  the  outside  of  ships 
near  the  stern,  containing  either  a  win- 
dow, or  the  representation  of  one. 

BADGER,  a  quadruped  of  the  genus 
■ursuK. 

BAG'PIPE,  a  musical  wind  instrument 
used  chiefly  in  Scotlaml  and  Ireland.  It 
is  of  high  antiquity,  and  consists  of  two 
parts  :  nanudy,  a  leathern  bag,  and  pipes 
for  admitting  and  ejecting  the  air.  One 
of  the  i»ipcs  called  the  drone,  with  which 
the  bass  part  is  played,  never  varies  its 


tone.  The  third  pipe  is  pla}-ed  on  by 
compressing  the  bag  under  the  arm. 

BAIL,  in  law,  sureties  given  for  the 
appearance,  when  required,  of  a  person 
in  custody.  Common  Bail  is  in  common 
cases,  where  any  sureties  may  be  taken; 
but  Special  Bail  is  necessary  in  matters 
of  greater  importance,  where  special 
surety  of  two  or  more  persons  must  be 
taken  according  to  the  value  of  the 
cause. —  T'o  admit  to  bail,  is  to  release 
upon  security  given  by  bondsmen. —  To 
justify  bail,  is  to  prove  by  the  oath  of 
the  person  that  he  is  worth  the  sum  for 
which  he  is  surety  beyond  his  debts. 

BAILEE',  in  law,  the  person  to  whom 
the  goods  of  the  one  that  is  bailed  are 
delivered.  The  party  who  delivers  the 
goods  is  termed  the  Bailor. 

BAL'CONY,  in  architecture,  a  projec- 
tion from  the  front  of  a  house,  surrounded 
by  a  balustrade  or  open  gallery.  In 
large  buildings  they  are  susceptible  of 
considerable  elegance  of  decoration,  and 
may  be  made  highly  ornamental  to  the 
edifices  to  which  they  are  attached. 

BALD'ACHIN,  in  architecture,  a  kind 
of  canopy  erected  over  an  altar. 

BAL'LAD,  a  short  lyric  composition, 
or  tale  in  verse,  of  a  simple  and  popular 
character;  set  to  music,  and  generally 
in  most  esteem  by  the  lower  classes.  It 
originally  meant  a  solemn  song  of  praise. 

I5AL'LET,  a  theatrical  representa- 
tion of  Actions,  characters,  sentiments, 
and  passions,  by  means  of  mimic  move- 
ments and  dances,  accompanied  by  mu- 
sic. The  ballet  is  divided  into  three 
kinds — historical,  mythological,  and  alle- 
gorical ;  and  consist  of  three  parts — the 
entry,  the  figure,  and  the  retreat. 

BAL'USTER,  (often  improperly  writ- 
ten bannister,)  in  architecture,  a  small 
turned  column  usually  introduced  be- 
tween piers,  on  the  upper  parts  of  large 
buildings  under  windows,  and  on  balco- 
nies, &c. 

BALUSTRADE',  a  series  or  row  of 
balusters,  joined  by  a  rail :  serving  as 
well  for  rest  to  the  elbows,  as  for  a  fence 
or  inclosure  to  balconies,  altars,  stair- 
cases, (fee. 

BAN,  (bannum,)  in  the  feudal  law,  a 
solemn  proclamation  or  publication  of 
anything.  Hence  the  custom  of  asking, 
or  publishing  the  bans,  before  marriage. — 
Ban,  in  uiilitary  affairs,  a  proclamation 
made  in  the  armj-^,  by  beat  of  drum, 
sound  of  trumpet,  <tc ,  requiring  the 
strict  observance  of  discipline,  either  for 
the  declaring  a  new  officer,  or  punishing 
an  offender. — The  word  Ban  also  meaa'< 


ban] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


35 


an  edict  of  interdiction  or  proscription. 
Thus,  to  put  a  priiiae  under  the  ban  of 
the  empire,  is  to  divest  him  of  liis  digni- 
ties, and  to  interdict  all  intercourse  and 
all  offices  of  humanity  with  the  offender. 

BANl),  in  architecture,  a  term  used 
to  denote  what  is  generally  called  a  face 
or  fascia.  To  speak  correctly,  it  signifies 
a  flat,  low,  square,  profiled  member 
without  respect  to  its  place.  That  mem- 
ber in  a  cornice  on  which  modillion.s  or 
dentils  are  cut  is  called  the  modillion 
band  in  the  former,  and  the  dentil  band 
in  the  latter  ease. 

BANDOLEER',  a  large  leathern  belt, 
thrown  over  the  right  shoulder,  and 
hanging  under  the  left  arm,  worn  by  an- 
cient musketeers,  for  sustaining  their 
fire-arms  and  musket-charges. 

BANDIT'TI,  a  term  peculiarly  denot- 
ing companies  of  armed  robbers,  formerly 
common  in  Italy  fwid  France  ;  but  some- 
times also  used,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
for  robbers,  pirates,  outlaws,  or  others, 
united  for  nefarious  purposes. 

BANGUE,  the  name  of  an  opiate  used 
in  the  East,  made  from  the  loaf  of  wild 
hemp.  It  is  used  by  the  Mahometans 
for  the  same  purpose  as  wine  and  spirits 
are  by  the  Christians, 

BAN'IAN-DAYS,  a  proverbial  ex- 
pression, imported  from  the  Asiatic  colo- 
nies, used  for  a  short  or  indifferent  din- 
ner, or  days  on  which  no  animal  food  is 
eaten  :  in  allusion  to  the  Banians  de- 
scribed below. 

BAN'IANS,  a  caste  of  the  Hindoos, 
whose  profession  is  trade  and  merchan- 
dise ;  and,  in  India  and  Asia,  they  are 
the  great  factors  and  bankers,  iis  the 
Jews  are  in  the  West.  They  believe  in 
the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  not  only 
abstain  from  eating  the  flesh  of  animals, 
but  endeavor  to  release  even  the  most 
no.Yious  from  the  cruelty  of  others.  They 
are  mild  in  temper,  and  honest  in  their 
dealings ;  and  are  so  cautious  of  having 
communication  with  any  but  their  own 
caste,  that  if  any  of  another  nation  or 
tribe  has  drunk  out  of  or  touched  their 
cup,  they  break  it. 

BAN'IAN-TREE,  one  of  the  greatest 
wonders  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It 
never  dies,  and  continually  extends  it- 
self; for  every  branch  shoots  downward, 
and,  striking  into  the  ground,  becomes 
itself  a  parent  tree,  whose  branches,  in 
like  manner,  spread.  One  of  them,  the 
Cubbeer  Burr,  htis  350  stems,  equal  to 
large  oaks,  and  more  thnn  3000  smaller 
ones,  covering  space  sufficient  to  shelter 
7000  persons.     Its  branches  are  crowded 


with  families  of  monkeys,  and  with  birds 
of  every  description,  and  also  with  enor- 
mous bats,  all  of  which  find  lu.vurious 
subsistence  upon  the  rich  scarlet  figs  that 
grow  upon  it. 

BANK,  in  commerce,  an  establishment 
for  the  receiving  of  moneys  and  letting 
them  out  on  interest.  It  may  likewise 
be  defined,  a  place  used  as  a  common  re- 
pository of  the  money  of  individuals  or 
companies.  Also,  a  company  of  jtersons 
concerned  in  a  private  bank ;  or  the  di- 
rectors of  an  incorporated  one.  Tlie 
basis  of  all  banking  is  the  profitable  use 
to  which  the  banker  or  company  can  ap- 
ply the  capital  which  is  deposited.  The 
first  bank  was  established  at  Venice 
about  1157,  and  the  name  of  Banco  was 
given  to  it  in  Italian,  from  the  bench 
which  the  money-changers  or  bankers 
used  to  sit  upon  in  their  burses  or  ex- 
changes. 

BANK'ER,  a  person  who  traffics  in 
money,  by  receiving  the  current  cash  of 
inilividuals  free  of  interest,  and  negotiat- 
ing with  it,  either  in  the  discount  of  bills, 
or  the  advance  of  money  on  sufficient 
securities.  The  moneyed  goldsmiths  in 
the  reign  of  king  Charles  II.  first  acquired 
this  name. — The  Romans  had  two  sorts 
of  bankers,  whose  office  was  much  more 
extensive  than  that  of  the  bankers  among 
us ;  theirs  being  that  of  public  affairs,  in 
whom  were  united  the  functions  of  a 
broker,  agent,  banker,  and  notary,  manag- 
ing the  exchange,  taking  in  money,  assist- 
ing in  buying  and  selling,  and  drawing 
the  writings  necessary  on  all  these  occa- 
sions. 

BANK-NOTE,  or  BANK-BILL,  a 
promissory  note,  issued  by  a  banking 
company,  properly  signed  and  counter- 
signed, payable  to  the  bearer  in  the  cur- 
rent coin  of  the  realm,  on  demand. 

BAN'NER,  a  square  flag,  or  the  prin- 
cipal standard  belonging  to  a  prince  or 
state. 

BAN'NERET,  an  ancient  order  of 
knights  or  feudal  lords,  who,  possessing  - 
several  large  fees,  led  their  own  flag  or  '. 
banner.  As  the  spirit  of  the  feudal  sys- 
tem declined,  persons  came  to  be  created 
bannerets,  an'l  hence  the  institution 
must  have  become  merely  titular.  The 
last  knight  of  this  description  was  Sir 
John  Smith,  on  whom  the  honor  was  be- 
stowed after  Edgehill  fight,  for  rescuing 
the  standard  of  Charles  I.  On  the  day 
of  battle,  the  candidate  presented  his 
flag  to  the  king  or  general,  who  cutting 
off  the  train  or  skirt,  and  making  it  a 
square,  returned  it  again.     Hence,  ban- 


36 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[bah 


nerets  are  sometimes  called  knights  of 
the  square  flag. 

BAP'TISM,  a  rite  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, by  which  the  members  of  its 
church  are  received  into  the  communion. 
Almost  all  sects  of  Christians  style  bap- 
tism a  sacrament,  and  consider  its  use  as 
important;  but  the  manner  in  which  it 
ought  to  be  performed,  and  the  effects  to 
be  derived  from  it,  have  been  subjects  of 
much  controversy. 

BAP'TISTERY,  in  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ters, a  place  in  which  the  ceremony  of 
baptism  is  performed.  In  the  ancient 
church,  it  was  one  of  the  exedreB  or 
buildings  distinct  from  the  church  itself, 
and  consisted  of  a  porch  or  ante-room, 
where  the  persons  to  be  baptized  made 
their  confession  of  faith,  and  an  inner 
room  where  the  ceremony  of  baptism 
was  perforrned.  Thus  it  continued  till 
the  si.xth  century,  when  the  baptisteries 
began  to  be  taken  into  the  church-porch  ; 
and  afterwards  into  the  church  itself. 

BAP'TISTS  (a  contraction  of  Ana- 
BAPTLSTs),  a  Christian  sect  who  practise 
the  baptism  of  adults  instead  of  that  of 
children. 

BAR,  the  partition  which  separates 
the  members  of  a  court  of  justice  from 
those  who  have  to  report  or  hear.  It  is 
also  applied  to  the  benches,  where  the 
lawyers  are  seated,  because  anciently 
there  was  a  bar  to  separate  the  pleaders 
from  the  attorneys  and  others.  Hence 
those  who  are  called  to  the  bar,  or  li- 
censed to  plead,  arc  termed  barristers, 
an  appellation  equivalent  to  liccnUate  in 
other  co'intries. — Bar,  in  music,  a  stroke 
drawn  perpendicularly  across  the  lines  of 
a  piece  of  music,  including  between  each 
two  a  certain  quantity  or  measure  of  time. 

BAllALYP'TON,  in  logic,  an  indirect 
mode  of  syllogism,  consisting  of  two  uni- 
versals  and  one  particular  affirmative 
proposition  :  as,  "  Every  animal  is  en- 
dued with  sense  ;  every  man  is  an  ani- 
mal ;  therefore  something  endued  with 
sense  is  man." 

BARA'TIIIIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  deep 
pit,  with  sharp  spikes  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom, into  which  condemned  persons  were 
ciist  headlong,  at  Athens. 

BAH'BARA,  in  logic,  an  arbitrary 
term  for  the  first  mode  of  the  first  figure 
of  syllogisms,  consisting  of  three  univer- 
sal propositions :  as,  "  All  animals  are 
endued  with  sense  :  all  men  are  animals  ; 
therefore,  all  men  arc  endued  witli  sense." 

BAR'BARA,  .St.,  the  jiatron  saint  of 
those  who  might  otherwise  <lie  impeni- 
tent.     Ilcr  attributes  are,   1.    The  cup, 


given  her  as  a  sign  that  those  who  hon- 
ored her  could  not  die  without  the  sacra- 
ment. 2.  A  tower,  her  father  having 
sliut  her  up  in  one  when  a  child.  3.  The 
sword  by  which  she  was  beheaded.  4.  A 
crown  which  she  wears  as  a  symbol  of 
victory  and  reward.  St.  Barbara,  who 
was  the  patron  saint  of  Mantua,  was  a 
favorite  subject  with  the  artists  of  the 
middle  ages. 

BARBA'RIAN,  a  name  given  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  to  all  who 
were  not  of  their  own  country,  or  were 
not  instituted  in  their  language,  man- 
ners, and  customs.  In  this  sense  the 
word  signified  with  them  no  more  than 
foreigner,  not  signifying,  as  with  us,  a 
wild,  rude,  or  uncivilized  person. 

BAR'BARISM,  in  a  general  sense,  a 
rudeness  of  language  or  behavior. — In 
grammar,  an  offence  against  the  purity 
of  style  or  language  or  a  mode  of 
speaking  or  writing  contrary  to  the  truo 
idiom  of  any  particular  language. 

BAR'BITON,  the  name  given  to  tho 
lyre  of  Apollo. 

BARD,  the  name  given  to  those  indi- 
viduals of  semi-barbarous  tribes,  whoso 
genius  or  imagination  enabled  them  to 
describe  events  in  elevated  or  measured 
language.  Homer  was  one  of  these 
bards  among  the  early  Greeks  ;  Ossian 
another  among  the  ancient  Irish ;  and 
their  rhapsodies  were  the  foundati<ms  of 
the  art  of  poetry,  which  has  been  culti- 
vated with  success  by  all  civilized  na- 
tions. In  the  first  stages  of  society,  in 
all  countries,  bards  have  made  a  con- 
spicuous figure;  and  the  "  light  of  the 
song"  has  been  the  morning-beam  that 
first  broke  upon  the  darkness  of  igno- 
rance :  but  nowhere  does  it  appear,  did 
ever  verse  and  its  professors  receive  so 
much  public  regard  as  un<]cr  tlie  druidi- 
cal  establishment ;  a  regard  with  which 
they  continued  to  be  honored  long  after 
that  system  had  perished.  In  battle  the 
bards  of  the  Celtic  tribes  raised  the  war- 
cry,  and  in  peace  they  sung  the  e.xiiloits 
of  their  heroes,  celebrated  the  attributes 
of  their  gods,  and  chronicled  the  history 
of  their  nation.  Originally  spread  over 
the  greater  part  of  western  Europe,  they 
seem  to  have  been  the  heralds,  tho 
priests,  and  tho  lawgivers  of  the  free 
barbarians  who  first  occupied  its  ancient 
forests,  until,  by  the  gradual  progress  of 
southern  civilization  and  despotism,  they 
were  driven  back  into  the  fastnesses  of 
Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  where  tho 
l.ist  ccliocs  of  their  h;n-iis  have  long  sincu 
died  away. 


BAS] 


AND    THE    FIN'E    ARTS. 


37 


BARGE,  in  r\a\-.\\  aflfuir?,  a  boat  of 
state  and  jjleasure,  ailonioil  with  various 
oruameuts,  having  lialcs  aii<l  tilts,  and 
seats  covered  with  cushions,  and  carpctH. 
and  benches  for  many  oars  ;  as  a  com- 
pany's barge,  an  aduiiral's  barge,  &c. 
It  is  also  the  name  of  a  flat-bottomed 
vessel  employed  for  carrying  goods  on  a 
navigable  river,  as  those  uj)on  the  river 
Thames,  called  west  country  barges. 

liAR'NABAS,  St.,  representations  of 
this  saint  are  seldom  to  be  met  with,  ex- 
cept in  the  works  of  the  Venetian  artists. 
He  is  usually  depicted  as  a  venerable 
inan,  of  majestic  mien,  holding  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew  in  his  hand.  The 
subjects  are  chiefly  taken  from  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  and  from  the  life  of  St. 
Paul. 

BAR'ON,  a  degree  of  nobility  next  be- 
low a  viscount,  and  above  a  baronet. 
Originally,  the  barons  being  the  feudato- 
ries of  princes,  were  the  proprietors  of 
land  held  by  honorable  service  :  hence, 
in  ancient  records,  the  word  barons  com- 
prehends all  the  nobility. — Barons  of 
THE  Exchequer,  the  four  judges  to  whom 
the  administration  of  justice  is  committed, 
in  causes  between  the  king  and  his  sub- 
jects, relating  to  matters  concerning  the 
revenue.  They  were  formerly  barons  of 
the  realm,  but  of  late  are  generally  per- 
sons learned  in  the  laws. 

BAKOX  AND  FEMME,  a  term  in  law 
for  husband  and  wife,  who  are  deemed 
but  one  person ;  so  that  a  wife  cannot  be 
witness  for  or  against  her  husband  ;  nor 
he  for  or  against  his  wife,  except  in  cases 
of  high  treason. 

B  AR'ONET,  the  lowest  degree  of  honor 
that  is  hereditary,  being  next  below  a 
baron,  and  above  a  knight.  The  order 
was  founded  by  king  James  I.  at  the 
suggestion  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton,  when 
200  baronets  were  created  at  once  :  to 
which  number  it  was  intended  that  they 
should  be  always  restrained  :  but  it  is 
now  enlarged  at  the  royal  pleasure,  with- 
out limitation. 

BAR'RAC'KS,  large  buildings  erected 
for  the  security  and  accommodation  of 
sohlicrs,  whether  infantry  or  cavalry. 

BAR'RATOR,  in  law,  a  common  mover, 
or  maintainer  of  suits  and  quarrels,  either 
in  courts  or  elsewhere  ;  an  encourager  of 
litigation. 

BARRICADE',  or  BARRICA'DO,  a 
fortification  made  in  haste,  of  trees,  earth, 
palisades,  wagons,  or  anything  that  will 
obstruct  the  progress  of  an  enemy,  or 
serve  for  defence  or  security  against  his 
attack. 


BAR'RT.STER,  a  counsellor  learned  in 
the  law,  admitted  to  jiload  at  the  bar, 
and  there  to  tiike  upon  him  the  protec- 
tion and  defence  of  clients. 

BARTllOL'UMEW,  St.,  the  Apostle, 
generally  depicted  with  a  knife,  and  his 
skin  in  his  hand.  The  horrible  scene  of 
his  being  flayed  alive,  by  order  of  the 
chief  magistrate  of  Albanopolis,  who  con- 
demned him  also  to  be  crucified,  has  been 
painted  by  some  artist*!. 

BAK'YTOXE,  in  music,  a  male  voieo 
the  compass  of  which  partakes  of  the 
common  bass  and  the  tenor,  being  lower 
than  the  one  and  higher  than  the  other. 

BASAL'TES,  or  BASALT',  a  stone 
supposed  to  be  of  volcanic  origin,  black 
or  green  in  color,  and  found  in  pillars  in 
the  prismatic  form.  Columns  of  basalt 
form  the  Giant's  Cau.seway,  the  Isle  of 
Staffa,  and  Fingal's  Cave,  and  are  always 
found  near  great  volcanoes,  as  Hecla,  &o. 
It  is  remarkably  hard  and  heavy,  will 
not  strike  fire  with  steel,  and  is  a  fine 
touch-st(7ne. 

BASE,  in  architecture,  is  used  for  any 
body  which  bears  another,  but  par- 
ticularly for  the  lower  part  of  a  column 
and  pedestal.  The  base  of  columns  is 
differently  formed  in  different  orders : 
thus,  the  Tusenn  base  consists  only  of  a 
single  torus,  besides  the  plinth ;  the 
Doric  has  an  astragal  more  than  the 
Tuscan  ;  the  Ionic  has  a  large  torus  over 
two  slender  scotias,  separated  by  two 
astragals  ;  the  Corinthian  has  two  toruses, 
two  scotias,  and  two  astragals  :  the  Com- 
posite has  an  astragal  less  than  the 
Corinthian  ;  the  Attic  bu^e  has  two  toruses 
and  a  scotia,  and  is  proper  for  either  tho 
Ionic  or  Composite  columns. 

BASHAW,  Pasha',  or  Pacha',  a  dig- 
nity under  the  Turkish  government. 
Bashaw,  used  absolutely,  denotes  the 
prime  vizier  ;  other  bashaws,  which  are 
generally  governors  of  provinces  or  cities, 
being  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
place  under  their  command.  The  appel- 
lation is  given  by  way  of  courtesy  to 
almost  every  person  of  any  figure  .at  the 
Grand  Signior's  court.  Their  degrees  of 
dignity  were  marked  by  their  bearing 
one,  two,  or  three  horses'  tails. 

BASIL,  St.,  representations  of  this 
saint,  who  was  Bishop  of  Cesarea,  are 
very  rare.  He  is  represented  in  Greek 
pontificals  bareheaded,  with  an  emaciated 
appearance. 

BASIL' ICE,  anciently,  public  halls  or 
courts  of  judicature,  where  princes  and 
magistrates  sat  to  administer  justice. 
They  were  at  first  the  palaces  of  princes, 


38 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LltEUATfRE 


[B. 


but  were  finally  converted  into  churches. 
Hence  basilic  now  means  a  church,  chapel, 
cathedral,  or  royal  palace. 

BASS,  (sometimes  written  base,  which 
is  the  correct  English  word  for  basso, 
low  :)  the  lowest  or  fundamental  part  in 
mesic,  and  important  as  the  foundation 
of  harmony. —  Tlwrough  bass  is  that 
which  includes  the  fundamental  rules  of 
composition. —  Ground  bass  is  that  which 
commences  with  some  subject  of  its  own 
that  is  continually  repeated  throughout 
the  movement,  whilst  the  upper  parts 
pursue  a  separate  air. —  Counter  bass  is 
a  second  or  double  bass,  where  there  are 
several  in  the  same  concert. 

BAS'SO,  in  music,  the  Italian  for  bass. 
Thus,  Hasso  concertante,  is  the  bass  of 
the  little  chorus ;  basso  repieno,  the 
bass  of  the  grand  chorus  ;  and  basso  con- 
tinue, that  part  of  a  composition  which 
is  set  for  the  organ,  &c. 

BASSOON',  a  musical  wind  instrument, 
consisting  of  a  very  long  tube,  with  a  reed 
for  the  mouthpiece. 

BAS'SO  RELIE'VO,  or  BASS  RE- 
LIEF, sculpture  in  which  the  figures  are 
represented  as  projecting  not  far  above 
the  plane  on  which  they  are  formed. 
Figures  cut  are  said  to  be  done  in  relief, 
and  when  the  work  is  low  or  flat  it  is 
called  bass  relief,  or  basso  relievo,  in 
distinction  from  alto  relievo  and  mezzo 
relievo. 

BASS  VIOL,  a  stringed  musical  in- 
strument of  the  same  shape  as  a  violin, 
but  much  larger. 

BASTILE',  a  noted  fortress  in  Paris, 
which  was  used  as  a  state  prison,  and  in 
which  many  persons  who  had  incurred 
the  resentment  of  the  French  monarchs, 
or  their  ministers,  had  been  immured  for 
life.  It  was  built  at  the  latter  part  of 
the  14th  century  ;  and  was  demolished 
by  the  enraged  populace  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  revolution  in  1789. 

BASTINA'DO,  a  mode  of  punishment 
used  among  the  Turks,  of  beating  the 
offender  on  the  soles  of  the  feet. 

BATH,  (KNIGHTS  OF  THE)  a  mili- 
tary order  of  knighthood  in  England, 
Buppised  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Richard  II.,  who  limited  tlio  number  of 
knights  to  four  ;  but  his  successor,  Henry 
IV.,  on  the  day  of  his  coronation  increas- 
ed them  to  forty-si.t.  This  oriler  received 
its  denomination  from  a  custom  of  bath- 
ing before  the  knights  received  the  gol- 
den spur.  The  badge  or  symbol  of  the 
order  is  a  seejitrc,  rose,  thistle,  and  three 
imperial  crowns  conjoined  within  a  circle, 
upon  which  is  the  motto,  "  Tria  juncta  in 


uno,"  alluding  to  the  three  cardinal  vir- 
tues— faith,  hope,  and  charity.  The  or- 
der of  the  bath,  after  remaining  many 
years  o.xtinct,  was  revived  under  George 
I.,  by  a  solemn  creation  of  a  great  number 
of  knights. 

BA'TON',  in  music,  a  term  denoting  a 
rest  of  four  semibreves. 

BATOON',  in  architecture,  a  moulding 
in  the  base  of  a  column. 

BAT'TEL,  an  ancient  mode  of  trial  bj 
single  combat,  which  was  introduce!  into 
England  by  William  the  Conqueror. 
The  contest  was  had  before  the  judges,  on 
a  piece  of  ground  enclosed,  and  the  com- 
batants were  bound  to  fight  until  the 
stars  appeared,  unless  the  death  of  one 
party  or  victory  sooner  decided  the  con- 
test. It  is  but  of  late  years  that  this 
barbarous  law  has  been  abolished. 

BAT'TERING-KAM,  a  military  ma- 
chine, with  which  the  ancients  made 
breaches  in  fortifications.  The-:e  engines 
were  variously  constructed,  and  of  differ- 
ent sizes ;  but  in  general  the  batterin^- 
rara  consisted  of  a  vast  beam  suspended 
to  a  frame,  and  armed  at  one  end  with  a 
head  of  iron,  resembling  that  of  a  ram  ; 
from  the  butting  of  which  animal  the 
idea  was  doubtless  derived.  This  being 
equally  balanced,  and  furnished  with  a 
number  of  ropes,  at  the  extremity  oppo- 
site to  the  ram's  head,  a  great  number 
of  men  threw  it  forward  with  violence, 
and  thus,  by  a  repetition  of  the  strokes, 
demolished  the  wall  against  which  it  wa;s 
directed. 

BAT'TERY,  in  the  military  art,  a 
parapet  thrown  up  to  cover  the  gunners 
and  men  employed  about  the  guns  from 
the  enemy's  shot.  This  parapet  is  cut 
into  embrasures  for  the  cannon  to  fire 
through.  A  battery  of  mortars  is  sunk 
in  the  ground,  and  has  no  embrasures. — 
Battery,  in  law,  the  striking,  beating, 
or  offering  any  violence  to  another  per- 
son, for  which  damages  may  be  recovered. 
It  is  distinguished  from  an  assault,  inas- 
much as  the  latter  does  not  necessarily 
imply  a  hitting  or  blow.  There  may  be 
an  assault  without  battery,  but  battery 
always  implies  an  assault. 

BAT'TLE-AXE,  a  kind  of  halberd, 
first  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Danes,  and  much  used  in  the  early  part 
of  the  middle  ages. 

BAT'TLEMENTS,  in  architecture,  are 
indentures  or  notches  in  the  top  of  a 
wall,  or  other  building,  in  the  form  of 
embrasures. 

BATTOL'OOY,  in  grammar,  a  super- 
fluous repetition  of  some  words  or  things. 


bel] 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ArxT9. 


39 


BAY,  or  Bay  Tree,  tlio  female  laurol 
tree,  an  evorgrcen  which  grows  wild  in 
Italy  and  France. — Uays,  in  the  plnral, 
an  honorary  garland  or  crown,  bestowed 
as  a  prize  for  victory  or  excellence, 
anciently  made  of  laurel  branches. 

BAY  bXET,  a  short  pointed  instru- 
ment or  triangular  dagger,  make  to  fix 
on  the  muzzle  of  a  firelock  or  musket. 

BAZAR',  or  BAZAAR',  a  kind  of  ex- 
change or  market-place  among  the  Turks 
and  Persians.  Some  of  these  buildings 
are  remarkable,  not  only  for  their  ex- 
tent, but  for  their  magnificence. — This 
name  has  of  late  years  been  in  use  to  de- 
note certain  large  buildings  containing  a 
collection  of  shops  or  stalls,  let  to  difier- 
ent  persons,  and  in  which  a  great  variety 
of  "  fancy  goods"  arc  exposed  for  sale. 

BDEL'LIUM,  a  gummy  resinous  juice, 
produced  by  a  tree  in  the  East  Indies,  of 
which  we  have  no  satisfactory  account 
It  is  brought  into  Europe  from  the  East 
Indies,  and  from  Arabia. 

BEA'COX,  a  signal  erected  on  a  long 
pole,  upon  an  eminence,  consisting  of  a 
pitch-barrel  or  other  combustible  matter, 
to  be  fired  at  night,  to  notify  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy.  Also,  any  object 
serving  as  an  occasional  signal,  or  as  a 
constant  seamark,  by  means  of  which 
ships  may  be  warned  of  danger,  or  as- 
sured of  their  port. 

BEAD,  in  architecture,  around  mould- 
ing, commonly  made  upon  the  edge  of  a 
piece  of  stuff,  in  the  Corinthian  and  Ro- 
man orders,  cut  or  carved  in  short  em- 
bossments, like  beads  in  necklaces. 

BE.\TIFICA'TIOX,  an  a«t  of  the 
Pope,  by  which  he  declares  a  person  be- 
atified or  blessed  after  death,  and  is  the 
first  step  towards  canonization,  or  the 
raising  of  one  to  the  dignity  of  a  saint ; 
but  no  person  can  be  beatified  till  fifty 
years  after  his  death. 

BEAT'INGS,  in  music,  the  regular 
pausative  swellings  of  sound,  produced  in 
an  organ  by  pipes  of  the  same  key,  when 
not  in  unison,  and  their  vibrations  not 
simultaneous  or  coincident. 

BEAT'IXG  TIME,  in  music,  that 
motion  of  the  hand  or  foot  by  which  some 
person  marks  and  regulates  the  move- 
ments of  the  performers. 

BBAU  IDEAL,  in  painting,  that 
beauty  which  is  freed  from  the  defor- 
mity and  peculiarity  found  in  nature 
in  all  individuals  of  a  species.  All  the 
objects  which  nature  exhibits  to  us  have 
their  blemishes  and  defects,  though  every 
eye  is  not  capable  of  perceiving  them  ; 
and  it  is  only  by  long  habit  of  observing 


what  any  object.^  of  the  same  kind  have 
in  common  that  it  acquires  the  faculty 
of  discerning  what  each  wants  in  par- 
ticular. By  such  means  the  artist  gains 
an  idea  of  perfect  nature,  or  what  is 
called  the  Beau  Ideal. 

BEAU'TY,  a  general  term  for  whatever 
excites  in  us  pleasing  sensations  or 
causes  our  admiration.  Or  it  may  be 
defined  to  be  an  assemblage  of  graces  or 
properties  which  please  the  eye  and  in- 
terest the  mind.  The  proportion  and 
symmetry  of  parts,  the  regularity  and 
sj'mmetry  of  features,  the  expression  of 
the  eye,  and  the  complexion,  are  among 
the  principal  properties  which  constitute 
personal  beauty.  This  kind  is  said  to  bn 
intrinsic,  and  immediately  perceptible  ; 
but  when  reflection  is  requisite  to  com- 
prehend the  utility  of  an  object,  it  is  said 
to  be  relative :  for  instance,  the  beauty 
of  a  machine  is  not  perceived  till  we 
understand  its  uses  and  adaptation  to  its 
purpose.  Thus,  an  object  may  please  the 
understanding  without  interesting  the 
sense  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  we  per- 
ceive agreeable  sensations,  excited  by 
some  objects,  whose  ideas  are  not  related 
to  anything  that  is  praiseworthy. — 
Beauty,  in  architecture,  painting,  and 
other  arts,  is  the  harmony  and  justness 
of  the  whole  composition  taken  together. 

BEL-ESPRIT',  a  term  formerly  natu- 
ralized in  England,  applied  to  those  in- 
dividuals whose  conversation  or  writings 
display  an  agreeable  sprightliness  or 
vivacity.    . 

BELLES-LETTRES,  or  Polite  Lit- 
erature, in  its  most  obvious  sense,  is 
that  description  of  literature  which  has  a 
peculiar  reference  to  matters  of  taste  : 
but  according  to  many  writers,  the  term 
has  a  much  more  extensive  signification, 
and  is  made  to  comprehend  not  merely 
every  elegant  acquirement,  but  nearly 
every  branch  of  knowledge. 

BEL'LEVUE,  a  name  given  in  France 
to  small  country-seats,  or  to  arched 
bowers  at  the  end  of  a  garden  or  park, 
intended  for  the  enjoyment  of  fresh  air  in 
the  shade. 

BELLOXA'RTI,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
the  priests  of  Bellona,  who,  in  honor  of 
that  goddess,  used  to  make  incisions  in 
their  bodies  ;  and  after  having  gathered 
the  blood  in  the  palm  of  their  hand,  give 
it  to  those  who  were  partakers  of  their 
mysteries. 

BEL-.META'LO  DI  VOCE,  in  music, 
an  Italian  expression  for  a  clear  and! 
brilliant-toned  soprano  voice. 

BEL'VEDERE,  a  name  given  in  Ralj 


40 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[bio 


to  the  cupolns  on  palaces  or  large  houses. 
which  are  ascended  for  the  enjoyment 
of  a  fine  prospect  and  the  advantage  of 
a  pure  air.  This  i.s  the  name  also  of 
a  jiart  of  the  Vatican,  where  the  famous 
statue  of  Apollo  is  placed,  and  which,  on 
this  account,  is  called  the  Apollo  Belve- 
dere. 

BEXCII,  in  law,  a  seat  of  justice,  a'S 
the  Queen's  Bench  at  Westminster.  Also, 
the  persons  sitting  on  a  bench,  a.s  a  bench 
of  magistrates. 

BENCH'ER,  a  lawyer  of  the  oldest 
Btanding  in  the  inns  of  court. 

BENEDICTINES,  a  celebrated  order 
of  monks,  who  profess  to  follow  the  rules 
of  St.  Benedict.  They  wear  a  loose  black 
gown  with  large  white  sleeves,  and  a  cowl 
on  the  head,  ending  in  a  point.  They 
are  the  same  that  are  calledBlack-friars. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY,  a  privilege, 
originating  in  a  superstitious  regard  for 
the  church,  whereby  the  clergy  were 
either  partially  or  wholly  exempted  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  lay  tribunals.  It 
extended  in  England  only  to  the  case  of 
felony ;  and  though  it  was  intended  to 
ai^ply  only  to  clerical  felons  or  clerks, 
yet  as  every  one  who  could  read  was  by 
the  laws  of  England,  considered  to  be  a 
clerk,  when  the  rudiments  of  learning 
came  to  be  diffused  almost  every  person 
became  entitled  to  this  privilege. 

BE'NE  PL  A'CITO,  in  music,  an  Italian 
term,  denoting  that  the  performer  is  to 
exercise  his  own  taste. 

BENZOIN',  a  solid  balsam,  yielded 
from  incisions  made  in  a  tree  which 
grows  in  Sumatra,  called  the  Styrax  Ben- 
zoin. It  is  hard,  friable,  with  an  agree- 
able fragrant  odor,  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  oil  of  turpentine.  It  has  been 
employed  as  an  ingredient  in  spirit  var- 
nishes by  the  Italians  and  Spaniards,  but 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  an  ingre- 
dient in  oil  varnishes. 

BER'NARDINES,  an  order  of  monks, 
founded  by  Robert,  abbot  of  Moleme,  and 
reformed  by  St.  Bernard.  They  wear  a 
white  robe  with  a  black  scapulary,  and 
wlien  they  officiate  they  are  clad  in  a 
birgo  white  gown,  with  great  sleeves,  and 
a  Iwiod  of  the  same  color. 

BE'TA,  the  second  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet. 

BEY,  among  the  Turks,  signifies  a  gov- 
ernor of  a  country  or  town.  The  Turks 
write  it  begh,  or  beg,  but  pronounce  it 
bey.  The  word  is  particularly  applied  to 
a  lord  of  a  banner,  whom  thoy  call  san- 
giac-beg  or  V)cy.  Every  province  in  Tur- 
key is   divided   into   seven   sangiacs,   or 


banners,  each  of  which  qualifies  a  bey, 
and  these  are  all  commanded  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  province,  whom  they  also 
call  begler-beg,  that  is,  lord  of  all  the 
beys  of  the  province. 

BI'BLE,  (the  Book,)  a  name  given  by 
way  of  eminence  to  the  Sacred  Writings. 
The  Old  Testament  consists  of  the  five 
books  called  the  Pentateuch  ;  the  His- 
torical, Poetical,  and  Prophetic  books  : 
the  New  Testament,  of  the  four  Gospels, 
the  Acts,  and  the  Epistles.  The  earliest 
version  of  the  Bible  is  a  Greek  transla- 
tion called  the  Scptuagint,  and  from  this 
other  translations  have  been  made.  It 
was  first  printed  in  English  in  153.5.  The 
present  authorized  version  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  was  completed  in  the  reign  of 
James  the  First,  about  the  j'ear  1603. 

BIBLIOG'RAPHY,  the  knowledge  of 
books  as  to  their  several  editions,  time 
of  being  printed,  and  other  information 
tending  to  illustrate  the  history  of  litera- 
ture. 

BIBLIOM'ANCY,  a  kind  of  divination, 
performed  by  means  of  the  Bible,  by 
selecting  passages  of  Scripture  at  hazard, 
and  drawing  from  them  indications  con- 
cerning future  events. 

BIBLIOTHE'CA,  in  its  original  and 
proper  sense,  denotes  a  library,  or  place 
for  depositing  books.  In  matters  of 
literature,  it  means  a  treatise  giving  an 
account  of  all  the  writers  on  <a  certain 
subject ;  thus,  we  have  bibliothecas  of 
theology,  law,  philosophy,  &e.  There 
are  likewise  universal  bibliothecas,  which 
treat  indifferentlj'  of  books  of  all  kinds. 

BIG'AJIY,  double  marriage,  or  the 
marrying  of  two  wives  or  two  husbands 
while  the  first  is  living. 

BIGA'RIUS,  in  antiquit.y,  the  char- 
ioteer of  a  biga,  or  two-wheeled  chariot. 
Money  or  medals  stamped  with  this  em- 
blem were  called  biga'ti. 

BIG'OT,  a  person  who  is  obstinately 
and  unreasonably  wedded  to  a  particular 
religious  creed,  practice,  or  opinion  ;  or 
one  who  is  illiberally  attached  to  any 
opinion  or  svstem  of  belief. 

BI'NARY  MEASURE,  in  music,  that 
in  which  the  raising  tlic  hand  or  foot  is 
equal  to  that  of  falling,  usually  called 
common  time.  The  Italians  are  accus- 
tomed after  a  recitative  to  use  the  jihraso 
a  tempo  giusto,  to  indicate  that  the  meas- 
ure is  to  be  beat  true  and  correct,  which 
is  otherwise  conducted  in  the  recitativn 
in  order  to  express  passion,  Ac. 

BIOG'RAPHY,the  life  of  one  or  more 
individuals  whose  actions  are  deemed 
worthy  of  record.     No  species  of  history 


BLU] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


41 


can  be  more  entertaining  or  instructive 
than  the  lives  of  eminent  men,  who  by 
their  private  virtues  or  publie  deeds,  by 
the  efforts  of  genius  or  the  imjuilses 
of  phi  hint  hropy,  excite  our  admiration. 
an(l  all'ord  examples  for  posterity  to 
emulate. 

BIllD'S-EYE  VIEW,  in  the  Fine 
Arts,  a  term  used  to  denote  a  view 
arranged  according  to  the  laws  of  per- 
spective, in  which  the  point  of  sight  or 
situation  of  the  eye  is  placed  at  a  very 
considerable  height  above  the  objects 
viewed  and  delineated.  In  architectural 
representations,  it  is  used  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  the  disposition  of 
the  diticrent  courts  or  quadrangles  and 
roofs  of  a  building.  It  is  a  useful  method 
of  representing  battles,  as  also  of  giving 
a  general  notion  of  a  small  district  of  a 
country. 

BIS,  in  music,  a  word  placed  over  pas- 
sages which  have  dots  postfixed  to  one 
bar,  and  prefixed  to  a  subsequent  bar, 
signifying  that  the  passage  between  the 
dots  is  to  be  twice  plaj'cd. 

BIS'CUIT,  a  kind  of  white,  unglazed, 
baked  porcelain-clay,  much  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  statuettes,  &c.,  but 
for  this  purpose,  a  much  finer  and  more 
suitable  material  is  the  so-called  Parian. 
Biscuit  is  the  term  generally  applied  to 
articles  of  clay,  which  have  gone  through 
only  one  "  baking"  or  "  firing"  in  the 
oven,  and  which  have  not  received  the 
glaze.  In  this  state  it  is  porous,  and  is 
used  for  wine-coolers,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

BISH'OP,  a  prelate,  or  person  conse- 
crated for  the  spiritual  government  of  a 
diocese.  In  Great  Britain,  bishops  arq 
nominated  by*the  sovereign,  who,  upon 
request  of  the  dean  and  chapter  for  leave 
to  elect  a  bishop,  sends  a  conge  cTdire,  or 
license  to  elect,  with  a  letter  missive, 
nominating  the  person  whom  he  would 
have  chosen. 

BISSEXTILE,  or  LEAP-YEAR,  a 
year  consisting  of  366  days,  and  happen- 
ing every  fourth  year,  by  the  addition  of 
a  day  in  the  month  of  February,  which 
that  year  consists  of  29  days.  And  this 
is  done  to  recover  the  six  hours  which 
the  sun  takes  up  nearly  in  his  course, 
more  than  the  36.5  days  commonly  allowed 
for  it  in  other  years. 

BIS'THE,  or  BIS'TER,  the  burnt  oil 
extracted  from  the  soot  of  beech-wood, 
which  is  used  as  a  brown  jiigmont  by 
painters. 

BLACK,  a  well-known  color,  supposed 
to  bo  owing  to  the  absence  of  liglit,  most 


of  the  rays  falling  upon  black  substances 
being  not  reflected  but  absorbed.  There 
are  several  species  of  blacks  used  in 
painting;  as  Prankfo^t  black,  of  which 
there  are  two  sorts,  one  a  natural  earth 
inclining  to  blue  ;  and  the  other  made 
from  the  lees  of  wine  burnt,  washed,  and 
ground  with  ivory,  bones,  <&c.  ;  lamp 
black,  the  smoke  of  resin,  prepared  by 
melt'ing  it  in  iron  vessels  ;  ivur'j  black, 
made  of  burnt  ivory,  and  used  in  minia- 
tures ;  Spanish  black,  made  of  burnt 
cork,  and  first  us^d  by  the  Spaniards. 

BLACK  LETTER,  is  the  name  now 
applied  to  the  old  English  or  modern 
Gothic  letter,  which  was  intro<luced  into 
England  about  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  became  the  character 
generally  used  in  MS.  works  before  the 
art  of  printing  was  publicly  practised  in 
Europe.  On  the  application  of  that  art 
to  the  multiplying  of  books,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  block 
books,  and  subsequently  those  written 
with  movable  types,  were  in  this  charac- 
ter, to  imitate  writing,  and  were  disposed 
of  as  manuscripts  ;  and  so  jierfect  was  the 
imitation,  that  it  required  great  dis- 
crimination to  distinguish  the  printed 
from  the  written.  The  first  printed 
Bible,  known  as  "  the  Mentz  Bible  with- 
out date,"  was  an  instance  of  this. 

BLACK'-MAIL,  a  certain  rate  of  mo- 
ney, corn,  or  cattle,  anciently  paid,  in  the 
north  of  England,  to  certain  persons  con- 
nected with  the  moss-troopers,  or  robbers, 
to  be  by  them  protected  from  pillage. 

BLANK,  a  void  space  in  any  writing 
or  printing.  This  word  is  applied  to  va- 
rious objects,  usually  in  the  sense  of  des- 
titution, or  emptiness. 

BLANK-VERSE,  in  poetry,  that  which 
is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  syl- 
lables, without  the  assistance  of  rhyme. 

BLOCKADE',  in  military  afifairs,  the 
blocking  up  a  place,  by  posting  troops  at 
all  the  avenues  leading  to  it,  to  keep  sup- 
plies of  men  and  provisions  from  getting 
into  it;  and  by  these  moans  proposing  to 
starve  it  out,  without  making  any  regu- 
lar attacks. — To  raise  a  blockade,  is  to 
force  the  troops  that  blockade  to  retire. 

BLUE,  one  of  the  seven  primitive  col 
ors  into  which  they  are  divided  wlien  re- 
fracted through  a  glass  prism.  Blue,  as 
a  color  in  painting,  is  distinguished  into 
ultra-marine,  from  the  azure  stone,  called 
lapis  lazuli;  Prussian  blue,  a  color  next 
to  nltra-marine  for  beauty  ;  blue  ashes, 
used  in  limning,  fresco,  and  miniature; 
blue  rerdiler,  a  blue  somewhat  inclining 
to  a  groon ;  and  bice,  which  is  the  palost 


42 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    UiERATURE 


[bob. 


of  all  the  bright  blues.  In  dyeing,  the 
principal  ingredients  for  giving  a  blue 
color  are  indigo  and  woad. 

BODY,  in  matters  of  literature,  de- 
notes much  the  same  with  system,  being 
a  collection  of  everj-thing  belonging  to  a 
particular  science  or  art,  disposed  in 
proper  order  :  thus  we  say,  a  body  of  di- 
vinity, law,  physic,  &c. 

BOIiD'NESS,  that  quality  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  artist,  who,  educated  in 
the  soundest  principles  of  art,  designs 
and  executes  with  fearlessness  and  de- 
cision. When  under  proper  control,  it 
imparts  to  all  his  productions  a  vigor 
that  is  sure  to  charm.  It  is  exhibited  in 
the  highest  degree  in  the  works  of 
Rubens. 

BOLOGNESE'  SCHOOL,  in  painting, 
sometimes  called  the  Lombard  school  of 
painting.  It  was  founded  by  the  Caracci, 
and  its  object  was  to  unite  the  excellen- 
cies of  the  preceding  schools  ;  hence  it  is 
occasionally  called  the  Eclectic  school. 
Among  the  principal  painters  which  it 
numbered  were  Domenichino,  Lanfranco, 
Corregio,  Guido,  Schidone,  Caravagio, 
Zampieri,  Primaticcio,  &c. 

BOMB,  a  large  shell  or  ball  of  cast 
iron,  round  and  hollow,  with  a  vent  to 
receive  a  fusee,  which  is  made  of  wood, 
and  filled  with  combustible  materials  of 
all  kinds.  This  being  done,  and  the  fusee 
driven  into  the  vent,  the  fusee  is  set  on 
fire,  and  the  bomb  is  thrown  from  the 
mortar,  in  such  a  direction  as  to  fall  into 
a  fort,  city,  or  enemy's  camp,  when  it 
bursts  with  great  violence,  and  often  with 
terrible  effect,  blowing  into  pieces  what- 
ever may  be  in  its  way. 

BOM'BAST,  in  literary  composition, 
an  inflated  style,  by  which,  in  attempting 
to  raise  a  low  or  familiar  subject  beyond 
its  rank,  the  writer  seldom  fails  to  be 
ridiculous. 

BONA  DEA,  in  Roman  mythology,  a 
goddess  concerning  whom  a  great  diver- 
sity of  opinion  prevails,  even  among  the 
writers  of  antiquity.  She  is  represented 
by  Macrobius,  who  treats  at  length  upon 
her  nature  and  worship,  as  synonymous 
with  the  Grecian  Rhea  or  Cybele.  The 
Bona  Dea  had  two  temples  at  Rome  ;  but 
her  rites  were  generally  solemnized  in 
the  house  of  the  consul  or  prajtor.  In 
the  celebration  of  these  rites  only  women 
participated,  thereby  indicating  the  pecu- 
liar chastity  of  the  goildoss.  But  a  perusal 
of  the  ancient  writers  will  convince  the 
most  skeptical  that  tlie  exelu.sion  of  men 
from  the  solemnities  of  the  Bona  Doa 
was    purely  nominal,   and  that  in  the 


course  of  time  the  grossest  licentiousness 
was  practised  during  their  celebration. 

BOND,  in  architecture,  the  connection 
of  one  stone  or  brick  with  another  by 
lapping  them  over  each  other  in  carrying 
up  work,  so  that  an  inseparable  mass  of 
building  may  be  formed,  which  could  not 
be  the  case  if  every  vertical  joint  was 
over  that  below  it. — Bond,  in  law,  a 
deel  whereby  the  obligator,  or  party 
binding  himself,  obliges  himself,  his 
heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  to 
pay  a  certain  sum  of  money,  called  the 
penalty,  to  another  (the  obligee)  at  a 
day  appointed. — Bond,  English,  in  ar- 
chitecture, that  disposition  of  bricks  in  a 
wall  wherein  the  courses  are  alternately 
composed  of  headers,  or  bricks  laid  with 
their  heads  or  ends  towards  the  faces  of 
the  wall,  and  in  the  superior  and  inferior 
courses  of  stretchers  or  bricks,  with  their 
lengths  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  walls, 
as  in  the  margin,  in  which  the  upper  is 
called  the  heading,  and  the  lower  the 
stretching  course. — Bond,  Flemish,  in 
architecture,  that  disposition  of  bricks  in 
a  wall  wherein  each  course  has  headers 
and  stretchers  alternately,  as  in  the 
margin. — Bond  or  Lap  of  a  Slate,  in 
architecture,  the  distance  between  the 
nail  of  the  under  slate  and  the  lower 
edge  of  the  upper  slate. 

BOND  STONE,  in  architecture,  a  stone 
running  through  the  whole  thickness  of 
a  wall  at  right  angles  to  its  face,  for  the 
purpose  of  binding  the  wall  together  in 
the  direction  of  its  thickness. 

BOND  TIM'BER,  in  architecture,  tim- 
ber worked  in  with  a  wall  as  it  is  carried 
up,  for  the  purpose  of  tying  it  together 
in  a  longitudinal  direction  while  the 
work  is  setting.  * 

BONZE,  an  Indian  priest,  who  wears 
a  chaplet  of  beads  about  his  neck,  and 
carries  a  staff,  having  a  wooden  bird  at 
one  end.  The  bonzes  of  China  are  the 
priests  of  the  Fohists,  or  sects  of  Fohi ; 
and  it  is  one  of  their  established  tenets, 
that  there  are  rewards  allotted  for  the 
righteous,  and  punishments  for  the  wick- 
ed, in  the  other  world;  and  that  there 
are  various  mansions,  in  which  the  souls 
of  men  will  reside,  according  to  their 
different  degrees  of  merit.  The  number 
of  bonzes  in  China  is  estimated  at  fifty 
thousand,  and  they  are  represented  as 
idle,  dissolute  men. 

BOOK,  a  literary  composition,  designed 
to  communicate  something  which  the  au- 
thor has  invented,  experienced,  or  col- 
lected, to  the  public,  and  thence  to  pos- 
te»ity ;  being  printed,  bound  in  a  volume, 


borJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


43 


and  published  for  that  purpose. — The  five 
books  of  Moses  arc  doubtless  the  oldest 
books  now  extant  ;  and  there  are  none  in 
pruf^me  history  extant  anterior  to  Ho- 
mer's poems.  A  groat  variety  of  mate- 
rials were  formerly  used  in  making 
books :  plates  of  lead  and  copper,  the 
bark  of  trees,  bricks,  stone,  and  wood, 
were  among  the  first  materiafe  employed 
to  engrave  such  things  upon,  as  men  were 
desirous  to  transmit  to  posteritj'.  Jo- 
sephus  speaks  of  two  columns,  the  one  of 
stone,  the  other  of  brick,  on  which  the 
children  of  Seth  wrote  their  inventions 
and  astronomical  discoveries  :  Porphyry 
makes  mention  of  some  pillars,  preserved 
in  Crete,  on  which  the  ceremonies  prac- 
tised by  the  Corybantes  in  their  sacrifices, 
were  recorded :  Ilesiod's  works  were  ori- 
ginally written  upon  tables  of  lead,  and 
deposited  in  the  temple  of  the  Muses,  in 
Boeotia :  the  ten  commandments,  deliv- 
ered to  Moses,  were  written  upon  stone  ; 
and  Solon's  laws  upon  wooden  planks. 
Tables  of  wood,  box,  and  ivory,  were  com- 
mon among  the  ancients:  when  of  wood 
they  were  frequently  covered  with  wax, 
that  people  might  write  on  them  with 
more  ease,  or  blot  out  what  they  had 
■written.  The  leaves  of  the  palm-tree 
were  afterwards  used  instead  of  wooden 
planks,  and  the  finest  and  thinnest  part  of 
the  bark  of  such  trees,  as  the  lime,  the 
ash,  the  maple  and  the  elm ;  from  hence 
comes  the  word  liber,  which  signifies  the 
inner  bark  of  the  trees :  and  as  these 
barks  were  rolled  up,  in  order  to  be  re- 
moved with  greater  ease,  these  rolls  were 
called  volumen,  a  volume  ;  a  name  after- 
wards given  to  the  like  rolls  of  paper  or 
parchment.  With  regard  to  the  use  of 
books,  it  is  indisputable  that  they  make 
one  of  the  chief  instruments  of  acquiring 
knowledge  ;  they  are  the  repositories  of 
the  law,  and  vehicles  of  learning  of  every 
kind ;  our  reMgion  itself  is  founded  on. 
books,  and  "without  them,  (says  Bartho- 
lin) God  is  silent,  justice  dormant,  physic 
at  a  stand,  philosophy  lame,  letters  dumb, 
and  all  things  involved  in  Cimmerian 
darkness."  Yet,  with  all  the  well-merited 
eulogies  that  have  been  bestowed  on 
them,  we  cannot  overlook  the  fact  that 
many  are  frivolous,  and  some  pernicious. 
It  will  therefore  be  well  to  bear  in  mind 
the  opinion  of  the  learned  Selden,  who 
says  that  the  characteristics  of  a  good 
book  are  solidity,  perspicuity,  and  brev- 
ity. 

BOR/DER,  that  which  limits  or  orna- 
ments the  extremities  of  a  tiling.  Frames 
in  a  picture,  is  a  border  of  carved  wood, 


sometimes  painted  or  gilt,  and  of  copper- 
gilt,  on  which  the  picture  is  placed.  The 
frame  is  not  only  a  luxurious  ornament, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  circumscribe  the 
composition,  and  to  figure  the  opening 
through  which  the  spectator  percwvesthe 
painted  olyects,  which  an  .illusion  of  per- 
spective leads  him  to  think  are  beyond 
the  wall  on  which  the  picture  is  placed. 
Tapestrie.s,  in  imitation  of  paintings, 
have  also  Borders,  worked  in  the  tapes- 
try :  as  these  must  be  proportionate  to 
the  size  of  the  picture,  which  in  tapestry 
are  usually  very  large,  they  may  be  or- 
namented with  Arabesques,  Masks,  Ca- 
meos, &c.  The  greatest  painters  have 
not  disdained  this  style  of  composition  ; 
the  borders  of  many  of  the  tapestries  in 
the  Vatican  were  executed  after  designs 
by  Raflfaelle. 

BO'REAS,  in  Grecian  mythology,  the 
son  of  Astrajus  and  Aurora,  and  usually 
worshipped  as  the  god  of  the  north  wind. 
There  are  few  of  the  minor  Grecian 
divinities  of  whom  so  strange  and  multi- 
farious exploits  ivre  recorded  as  of  Bo- 
reas ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  trace  to  its 
source  the  allegorj'  of  all  his  adventures 
and  achievements,  and  thence  to  eluci- 
date the  causes  of  his  deification.  The 
assiduity,  for  instance,  with  which  the 
worship  of  Boreas  was  cultivated  at 
Athens  proceeded  from  gratitude,  the 
north  wind  having  on  one  occasion  de- 
stroyed the  fleet  of  the  Persians  when 
meditating  the  invasion  of  Athens.  A 
similar  cause  induced  the  inhabitants  of 
Megalopolis  to  consider  Boreas  as  their 
guardian  divinity,  in  whose  honor  they 
instituted  an  annual  festival.  AVith  his 
usual  partiality  for  mythological  allu- 
sion, Milton  has  given  Boreas  a  place  in 
his  Paradise  Lost : — 

Now  from  the  north 
Of  Norumbeca.  and  the  Samoed  shore, 
Burstiii!;  their  brazen  dungeon,  armed  with  ice 
And  snow  and  hail,  and  .stormy  ansf  and  Haw, 
Boreas  and  Ctpcia.s  and  Art'e.stes  loud. 
And  Thrascias  rend  the  woods  and  seas  upturn. 

Boreas  was  usually  represented  with  the 
feet  of  a  serpent,  his  wings  dripping  with 
golden  dew-drops,  and  the  train  of  his 
garmenf  sweeping  along  the  ground. 

BOR'OUGII,  this  word  originally  de 
noted  a  fortified  city  or  town ;  but  at 
present  it  is  given  tO'  such  town  or  vil- 
lage as  sends  burgesses  or  representa- 
tives to  parliament.  Boroughs  are  equally 
such  whether  they  be  incorporate  or  not; 
there  being  several  boroughs  that  are  not 
incorporated,  and,  on  the  contrary,  sev  . 
eral  corporations  that  are  not  boroughs. 


44 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[bou 


BORT.ELISTS,  in  church  history,  a 
sect  of  Christians  in  Holland,  (so  called 
from  Borrel,  their  founder,)  who  reject 
the  use  of  the  sacraments,  public  prayer, 
and  all  external  worship  ;  yet  they  lead 
a  very  swistere  life. 

BORS'HOLDER,  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  one  of  the  lowest  magistrates, 
whose  authority  extended  only  over  one 
tithing,  consisting  of  ten  families.  Each 
tithing  formed  a  little  state  of  itself,  and 
chose  one  of  its  most  respectable  mem- 
bers for  its  head,  who  was  called  a  bors- 
holder,  a  term  derived  from  two  words 
Bignifying  a  "surety"  and  a  "head." 

BOSS',  this  term  describes  sculptured 
objects  in  their  full  forms  in  contradis- 
tinction to  those  which  are  in  Relief, 
or  attached  more  or  less  to  a  plane  or 
ground. 

BOS'SAGE,  in  architecture,  a  term 
used  for  any  stone  that  has  a  projecture, 
and  is  laid  rough  in  a  building,  to  be  af- 
terwards carved  into  mouldings,  capitals, 
coats  of  arms,  &c. — Jiossage  is  also  the 
name  for  what  is  otherwise  called  rustic 
work,  consisting  of  stones  that  seem  to 
project  beyond  the  level  of  the  building, 
by  reason  of  indentures  or  channels  left 
in  the  joinings.  These  are  chiefly  in  the 
corners  of  edifices,  and  are  there  called 
rustic  quoins. 

BOSS'ES,  are  projecting  ornaments 
used  in  architecture  in  variou  s  situations, 
such  as  ceilings,  to  cover  the  points  of  in- 
tersection of  the  ribs,  &c.  They  consist 
variously  of  fuliage,  hes.Js,  armorial 
shields,  &c.,  and  embrace  a  great  variety 
of  fanciful  shapes. 

BOTAN'IC  GARDEX,  a  garden  devo- 
ted to  the  culture  of  a  collection  of  plants, 
with  reference  to  the  science  of  botany. 
The  legitimate  object  of  gardens  of  this 
description  appears  to  be  to  collect  and 
cultivate,  at  the  public  expense,  all  the 
species  and  varieties  of  plants  that  can 
be  cultivated  in  the  given  climate,  with 
or  without  the  aid  of  glass ;  and  then  to 
distribute  these  to  private  individuals 
throughout  the  district  by  which  the 
botanic  garden  is  supported.  The  most 
complete  system  of  this  kind  ever  es- 
tablished appears  to  have  been  that  of 
France  soon  after  the  revolution.  All 
the  botanical  articles  that  could  bo  pro- 
cured from  other  countries  were  sent  to 
the  botanic  garden  at  Paris  ;  and  after 
they  had  borne  seeds  or  been  propagated 
there,  the  progeny  was  distributed  among 
the  provincial  botanic  gardens,  of  which 
there  is  one  or  more  in  every  department. 
After  being  propagated  in  tlie  i)rovincial 


botanic  gardens,  the  seeds  or  progeny 
wore  given  out,  free  of  expense,  to  who- 
ever in  the  district  to  which  the  garden 
belonged  thought  fit  to  apply  for  them. 
As  the  useful  species  and  varieties  were 
as  much  attended  to  in  these  gardens  as 
those  which  were  cultivated  only  in  a 
scientific  point  of  view,  the  greatest  facili- 
ties were  thus  given  to  the  spread  of 
every  useful  grain,  pulse,  culinary  ve- 
getable, and  fruit,  over  the  whole  of 
France. 

BOTANOMAN'CY,  an  ancient  species 
of  divination  by  means  of  plants,  espe- 
cially sage  and  fig  leaves.  Questions 
were  written  on  leaves,  which  were  then 
exposed  to  the  wind,  and  as  many  of  the 
letters  as  remained  in  their  places  were 
taken  up,  and,  being  joined  together, 
contained  an  answer  to  the  question. 

BOT'TOM  RAIL,  in  architecture,  a 
term  used  for  denoting  the  lowest  horizon- 
tal rail  of  a  framed  door. 

BOT'TOMRY,  in  commercial  law,  is  in 
eifect  a  mortgage  of  a  ship,  being  an 
agreement  entered  into  by  an  owner  or 
his  agent,  whereby,  in  consideration  of  a 
sum  of  money  advanced  for  the  use  of  the 
ship,  the  borrower  undertakes  to  repay 
the  same,  with  interest,  if  the  ship  ter- 
minate her  voj'age  successfully ;  and 
binds  or  hypothecates  the  ship  for  the 
performance  of  the  contract. 

BOU  DOIR,  in  architecture,  a  smiU 
room  or  cabinet,  usually  near  the  bed- 
chamber and  dressing-room,  for  the  pri- 
vate retirement  of  the  master  or  mistress 
of  the  house. 

BOUL'TIN,  in  architecture,  a  name 
given  to  a  moulding  whose  section  is 
nearly  a  quadrant  of  a  circle,  whose 
diameter  being  horizontal,  the  contour  is 
convex  in  respect  of  a  vertical  to  such 
diameter.  It  is  more  usually  called  the 
egg  or  quarter  round,  placed  next  below 
i^he  plinth  in  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  cap- 
ital. 

J50UN'TY,  in  commerco  and  the  arts, 
a  premium  paid  by  government  to  the 
producers,  exporters,  or  importers  of 
certain  articles,  or  to  those  who  employ 
ships  in  certain  trades,  when  the  ]irofit3 
resulting  from  these  respective  branches 
of  industry  are  alleged  to  bo  insufficient. 

BOUSTROPIIE'bON,  a  word  descrip- 
tive  of  a  mode  of  writing  common  among 
the  early  Greeks  \intil  nearly  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century  before  Christ;  viz.  in 
alternate  lines  from  right  to  left  and 
from  left  to  right,  as  fields  are  ploughed 
in  furrows  having  an  alternate  direction, 
from  whence  tbo  derivation. 


cre] 


AST)    THK    FIXK    AHTS. 


BOUTS-RIMES,  a  term  for  certain 
rhymes  (lispo.^ed  in  order,  and  gix'cn  to  a 
poet,  together  with  a  subject,  to  be  filled 
up  with  versos  ending  in  the  same  word 
and  same  order. 

BOWL'liEll,  or  EOWL'DER-STONB, 
a  roundish  stone  found  on  the  sea-shore, 
or  in  the  channels  of  rivers,  &<:.,  worn 
»mooth  by  the  action  of  water. 

BOWL'DER  WALL,  a  wall,  generally 
on  the  sea-coast,  constructed  of  large 
pebbles  or  bowlders  of  flint,  which  have 
been  rounded  by  the  action  of  water. 

BOWLS,  a  game  played  upon  a  fine 
smooth  grassy  surface,  used  solely  for  the 
purpose,  and  denominated  a  bowling- 
green. 

BOX'ERS,  a  kind  of  athlete,  who 
combat  or  contend  for  victory  with  their 
fists.  Among  the  Romans  they  were 
called  pugiles  ;  hence  the  appellation 
of  pugilists  to  the  boxers  of  the  present 
day. 

BRACE,  in  architecture,  a  piece  of 
timber  framed  in  with  bevel  joints,  to 
keep  the  building  from  swerving  either 
way.  AVhen  the  brace  is  framed  into  the 
principal  rafters,  it  is  sometimes  called 
a  strut. 

BRACE'LETS,  were  with  the  Ancients, 
and  are  still  with  the  Moderns,  the  sym- 
bol of  marriage.  They  were  generally  in 
the  form  of  a  serpent,  and  some  were 
round  bands  fastened  by  two  serpent's 
heads  like  the  girdle  of  warriors.  The 
number  of  golden  and  bronze  bracelets 
found  at  llerculaneum  and  P*mpeii, 
'  show  that  these  ornaments,  particuhxrly 
those  in  the  form  of  serpents,  were  arti- 
cles of  luxury  among  the  females  of  iin- 
cient  times.  Antique  bracelets  are  of 
two  kinds,  armlets  and  true  bracelets,  the 
one  worn  on  the  upper  arm  and  the  other 
on  the  wrist  or  'ower  arm.  Smaller 
bracelets,  generally  of  gold,  beautifully 
worked,  and  sometimes  set  with  jewels, 
were  worn  on  the  wrist.  Bracelets  have 
also  been  found  like  twisted  bands.  The 
Bacchantes  wore  real  serpents  instead  of 
serpent-like  bracelets.  These  ornaments 
were  not  worn  exclusively  by  women,  for 
we  find  that  the  Roman  Consuls  wore 
bracelets  in  triumphal  processions  ;  they 
wore  presented  by  the  emperors  to  sol- 
diers who  distinguished  themselves  (Ar- 
M\LLM.)  The  ankles  had  similar  orna- 
nionts,  thonr-e  called   .\nklet.s. 

BR.\C[[Y(rRAFnY,  stenography,  or 
the  art  of  writing  in  short  hand. 

BRACHYL'OtJY,  in  rhetoric,  the  meth- 
od of  expressing  anj'thing  in  the  most 
concise  manner. 


BR.\CK'ET,  a  support  suspended 
from  or  attached  to  a  wall  for  the  purpose 
of  supporting  statuettes,  vases,  lamps, 
clocks,  &c.  The  skill  of  the  artist  has 
been  frequently  employed  upon  this  or- 
nament, which  is  susceptible  of  great  clc- 
ganse  of  form  and  embellishment. 

BRAH'MINS,  or  BRAM'INS,  the  caste 
or  hereditary  division  of  Hindoos  pecu- 
liarly devoted  to  religion  and  religions 
science,  in  the  same  manner  as.  among 
the  Jews,  the  priesthood  Avas  ordained  to 
continue  in  the  tribe  of  Levi.  The  fami- 
lies of  this  caste  claim  peculiar  venera- 
tion from  the  rest,  and  seem,  in  their 
name  of  bramins,  to  claim  the  merit  of 
being  the  more  immediate  followers  of 
Brahma,  their  incarnate  deity.  Some  of 
them,  however,  are  described  as  very 
corrupt  in  their  morals  ;  while  others  live 
sequestered  from  the  world,  devoted  to 
superstition  and  indolence.  To  the  bram- 
ins  we  are  indebted  for  whatever  we 
know  of  the  Sanscrit,  or  ancient  language 
of  the  country,  in  which  their  sacred 
books  arc  written. 

BRAVU'RA,  in  music,  an  air  so  com- 
posed as  to  enable  the  performer  to  show 
his  skill  in  the  execution  of  difficult  pas- 
sages. It  is  also  sometimes  used  for  the 
style  of  execution. 

BREADTH,  this  term  is  employed  in 
the  language  of  Art  to  express  that  kind 
of  grandeur  which  results  from  the  ar- 
rangement of  objects  and  of  the  mode  of 
proceeding  in  delineating  them.  In 
painting  it  is  applied  both  to  Design  and 
to  Coloring:  it  convej's  the  idea  of  sim- 
ple arrangement,  free  from  too  great  a 
multiplicity  of  details,  following  which 
the  lights  and  shades  spread  themselves 
over  the  prominent  parts,  without  daz- 
zling or  interfering  with  each  other,  so 
that  the  attention  of  the  spectator  is  ar- 
rested and  kept  fixed,  and  there  is  breadth 
of  effect,  the  result  of  judicious  coloring 
and  chiaro-oscuro.  When  a  work  offers 
these  results,  we  say  it  has  breadth ;  and 
'•broad  touch,"  and  "  broad  pencil,"  are 
terms  applicable  to  this  manner  of  work- 
ing, when  the  touches  and  strokes  of  the 
pencil  produce  breadth  of  effect.  In  a 
similar  sense,  in  engraving,  we  say  "  a 
broad  burin."  But  although  a  work  of 
sculpture  is  su.seeptible  of  breadth,'  we  do 
not  sav  "  a  broad  chisel." 

BRECCIA,  an  Italian  name  for  those 
stones  which  consist  of  hard  angular  or 
rounded  fragments  of  different  mineral 
bodies,  united  by  a  kind  of  cement,  of 
which  the  so-called  puilding-stone  is  an 
example,  which  consists  of  tliut  dotritu», 


46 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATUFIR 


IDRO 


cemented  by  quartz.  The  ancients  used 
breccia  bothi  in  architecture  and  the 
Plastic  Arts.  Porphyry  breccia,  or 
Egyptian  breccia,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  varieties  of  this  material,  of 
which  a  fine  pillar  is  contained  in  the 
Museo  Pio  Clementino. 

BREED'INU,  in  a  moral  sense,  denotes 
a  person's  deportment  or  behavior  in  the 
external  offices  and  decorums  of  social 
life.  In  this  sense,  we  say,  well-bred,  ill- 
bred,  a  man  of  breeding,  &c.  Lord 
Shaftesbury  compares  the  well-bred  man 
with  the  real  philosopher  ;  the  conduct 
and  manners  of  the  one  are  formed  accord- 
ing to  the  most  perfect  ease  and  good  en- 
tertainment of  company  ;  of  the  other, 
according  to  the  itrictest  interest  of  man- 
kind ;  the  one  according  to  his  rank  and 
quality  in  his  private  station  ;  the  other, 
according  to  his  rank  and  dignity  in  na- 
ture. In  short,  good-breectlng  is  polite- 
ness, or  the  union  of  those  qualifications 
which  constitute  genteel  deportment. 

BREVE,  in  music,  a  note  of  the  third 
degree  of  length.  It  is  equal  to  two 
semibreves,  or  when  dotted,  to  three  :  the 
former  is  called  an  imperfect,  the  latter, 
a  perfect  breve. 

BREVET',  a  military  term,  expressive 
of  nominal  promotion  without  additional 
pay  :  thus,  a  brevet  major  serves  a  cap- 
tain, and  draws  pay  as  such.  The  word 
is  borrowed  from  the  French,  signifying 
a  royal  act  granting  some  favor  or  privi- 
lege ;   as  brevet  (T invention. 

BRE'VIARY,  the  book  containing  the 
daily  service  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

BRIEF,  in  law,  an  abridgment  of  the 
client's  case,  made  out  for  the  instruction 
of  counsel  on  a  trial  at  law;  wherein  the 
case  of  the  plaintiff,  &c.,  is  to  be  briefly, 
but  completely,  stated — Brief,  in  music, 
a  measure  of  quantity,  which  contains 
two  strokes  down  in  beating  time,  and 
two  up  — Brief  apostolical,  letters  or 
written  messages  of  the  pope,  addressed 
to  princes  or  magistrates,  respecting 
matters  of  public  concern. 

BR[(t.\DE',  a  party  or  division  of  sol- 
diers, either  horse  or  foot.  An  army  is 
divided  into  brigades  of  horse  and  brigades 
of  foot  :  a  brigade  of  horse  is  a  body  of 
eight  cr  ten  squadrons  ;  a  brigade  of  foot 
consists  of  four,  five,  or  si.K  battalions. 

BRIG'ANDINE,  a  kind  of  ancient  de- 
fensive armor,  consisting  of  thin  jointed 
scales  of  plate,  so  arranged  as  to  be  pliant 
and  easy  to  the  body. 

BRItJlIT,  in  painting,  shining  with 
light ;  a  term  apiilied  to  a  picture  in  which 
the  lights  preponderate  over  the  shadows. 


BRILLAN'TE,  in  music,  prefi.Ked  to  a 
movement,  denotes  that  it  is  to  be  played 
in  a  gay  and  lively  manner. 

CRITAN'NIA,  tlio  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  the  island  of  Britain,  whivh  is 
represented  on  their  medals  under  the 
figure  of  a  female  resting  her  left  arm  on 
a  shield. 

BRITIN'IANS,  a  body  of  Augustine 
monks  who  received  their  name  from 
Britini,  in  Ancona.  They  were  di.stiu- 
guished  by  their  austerities  in  living. 

BROCADE',  a  stu'lf  of  gold,  silver,  or 
silk,  raised  and  enriched  vi'ith  flowers*, 
foliages,  and  other  ornaments,  according 
to  the  fancy  of  the  merchants  or  manu- 
facturers. 

BROGUE,  .a  defective  pronunciation  of 
a  language,  particularly  applied  to  the 
Irish  manner  of  speaking  English. 

BRO'KER,  a  name  applied  to  persons 
of  several  and  very  different  professions, 
the  chief  of  which  are  exchange-brokers, 
stock-brokers,  pawn-brokers,  and  brokers 
who  sell  household  furniture. 

BRON'TIL'M,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
place  underneath  the  floor  of  the  thea- 
tres, in  which  were  kept  brazen  vessels 
full  of  stones  and  other  materials,  with 
which  they  imitated  the  noise  of  thunder. 

BRONZE,  a  mixed  metal,  composed 
principally  of  copper,  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  tin  and  other  metals.  The  an- 
cients used  bronze  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes  ;  hence,  arms  and  other  instru- 
ments, medals  and  statues  of  this  metal, 
are  to  Ijc  found  in  all  cabinets  of  antiqui- 
ties. The  moderns  have  also  made  much 
use  of  bronze,  particularly  for  statues 
exposed  to  incidents,  or  the  influence  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  for  casts  of  cele- 
brated antiques.  Bronze  of  a  good  qual- 
ity acquires,  by  oxydation,  a  fine  green 
tint,  called  patina  cntiqua  or  mriigo ; 
which  appearance  is  imitated  by  an  ar- 
tificial nrocess,  called  bronzing. 

BROWN,  or  tan-color,  was  used  both 
in  ancient  and  mediaeval  times  as  a  sign 
of  mourning ;  regarded  as  a  comj-ound 
of  red  and  black,  bistre,  it  is  the  sym- 
bol of  infernal  love  and  of  treason.  By 
the  Egyptians  Typhon  was  represented 
of  a  red  color,  or  rather  of  red  mixed 
with  black ;  everything  in  nature  of  a 
brown  color  was  consecrated  ti)  Typhon. 
In  the  ancient  pictures  representing  the 
Passion  of  Jesus  ChrLi^.t,  the  personages 
are  frequently  depicted  brown.  Several 
religious  orders  adopt  this  color  in  their 
costume,  as  the  symbol  of  renunciation. 
AVith  the  Moors  it  was  emblematic  of 
every  evil.     Tradition  assign?  red  hair 


Bun] 


AND    TIIK    FIKK    AUT3. 


47 


to  Judas.  Christian  s3'nibolism  appro- 
priates the  color  of  the  dead  leaf  for  the 
type  of  spiritual  death ;  the  blue,  the 
celestial  color,  which  gives  them  life, 
is  evaporated — they  become  of  a  dark- 
yellow,  hence  the  term  "  dead  leaf." 

BRU'AIAL,  the  winter  quarter  of  the 
year,  bepjinning  at  the  shortest  day. 

BRUMA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival 
celebrated  by  the  Romans  in  honor  of 
r.iicchus  twice  a-year  ;  viz.,  on  the  twelfth 
of  the  caleuds  of  March,  and  the  eighth 
of  the  calends  of  December. 

JiRUTE,  an  animal  without  the  use  of 
reason,  or  that  acts  by  mere  instinct,  in 
which  sense  it  denotes  much  the  same 
with  beast,  and  comprehends  all  animals 
excepting  mankind.  Philosophers,  how- 
ever, are  far  from  being  agreed  on  this 
subject;  some  making  brutes  mere  ma- 
chines, whilst  others  allow  them  not  only 
reason,  but  immortality.  Others  take  a 
middle  course,  and  allow  brutes  to  have 
imagination,  memory,  and  passion ;  but 
deny  that  they  have  understanding  or 
reason,  at  least,  in  any  degree  compara- 
ble to  that  of  mankind.  The  sagacity  of 
many  brutes  is  indeed  admirable ;  j'et 
what  a  prodigious  difference  is  there 
between  that  sagacity  and  the  reason  of 
mankind ! 

BUCANIER',  or  BUCCANEER',  a 
name  given  to  those  piratical  adven- 
turers, chiefly  English  and  French,  who, 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  committed 
the  most  excessive  depredations  on  the 
Spaniards  in  America.  The  name  had 
been  given  to  the  first  French  settlers  on 
the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  whose  sole  em- 
ployment consi-jted  in  hunting  bulls  or 
wild  boars,  in  order  to  sell  their  hides 
and  flesh;  and  as  they  smoked  and  dried 
the  flesh  of  the  aniuials  according  to  the 
manner  of  the  Indians,  which  was  called 
buccaneering,  l-hey  thus  obtained  the 
name  of  buccaneers. 

BUCCELLA'Rir,  an  order  of  soldiery 
under  the  Greek  emperors,  appointed  to 
guard  and  distribute  the  rations  of  bread. 

BUCCI'NA,  an  ancient  musical  and 
military  instrument,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  modern  trumpet. — Hence  Buccina- 
tor, or  trumpeter. 

BIJCEN'TAUR,  the  name  of  the  large 
vessel  which  the  Venetians  formerly  used 
in  the  ceremony  of  espousing  the  sea. 

BUCK'LEK,  a  piece  of  defensive  ar- 
mor used  by  the  ancients,  commonly 
composed  of  hides,  fortified  with  plates  of 
metal. — Bucklers,  votive,  were  those  con- 
secrated to  the  gods,  and  hung  up  in 
their  temples,  in  commemoration  of  some 


hero,  or  os  a  thanksgiving  for  a  victory 
obtained  over  an  enemy,  whose  bucklers, 
taken  in  war,  were  offered  as  a  trophy. 

BUCK'RAM,  a  sort  of  coarse  cloth 
made  of  hemp,  gummed,  calendered,  and 
dyed  of  several  colors.  It  is  used  in 
drapery,  garments,  &c.,  required  to  be 
kept  stiff  to  their  form. 

BUCOL'ICS,  the  Greek  term  for  pas- 
toral poems,  meaning  literally  the  songs 
of  herdsmen.  We  have  considerable  re- 
mains of  this  species  of  poetry  in  the 
poems  of  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus, 
and  the  Eclogues  of  Virgil.  The  metre 
universally  employed  is  the  hexameter 
or  heroic ;  but  in  pastoral  poetry  an 
easier  flow  of  the  lines  was  studied  than 
in  epics,  and  this  was  generally  accom- 
plished by  introducing  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  metrical  feet  called  dactyls  in 
the  former  than  in  the  latter ;  but  no 
rules  were  laid  down  on  this  point.  This 
species  of  poetry  has  been  cultivated  also 
by  most  modern  nations,  and  in  England, 
France,  and  especially  in  Germany,  with 
great  success.  Indeed,  the  last-mentioned 
country  can  boast  among  others  of  a 
Gessner,  whose  Idjis  have  been  pro- 
nounced by  some  modern  critics  to  be 
models  of  pastoral  poetry,  combining  the 
most  finished  harmony  of  numbers  with  a 
simplicity  and  tenderness  of  sentiment 
and  expression  worthy  of  Theocritus  him- 
self. 

BUDD'IIISTS,  the  followers  or  wor- 
shippers of  Buddha,  the  founder  of  a  very 
ancient  religion  in  India,  which  after- 
wards spread  to  Japan,  Thibet,  and  Chi- 
na, where  it  exists  at  the  present  day. 
Buddha,  whose  historical  name  was  Tsha- 
kia-muni,  was  born  under  the  reign  of 
Tshao-wang,  of  the  dynasty  of  Tsheu, 
1029  B.C.,  and  died  under  the  reign  of 
Mouwang,  950  b.c.  His  disciple  Maha- 
kaya  succeeded  him,  and  is  the  first  saint 
or  patriarch  of  Buddhism ;  but  a  regular 
dynasty  of  successors  filled  this  important 
station  till  a.d.  713.  Their  history  is 
mixed  with  the  grossest  fables  ;  but  it  is 
clear  that  they  devoted  themselves  to  re- 
ligious exercises  and  constant  contempla- 
tion, and  condemned  themselves  to  the 
severest  abstinence.  Besides  many  other 
monuments  of  the  ancient  worship  of 
Buddha,  there  are  two  particularly  re- 
markable— the  ruins  of  the  gigantic  tem- 
ple Boro-Budor,  in  Java,  and  the  five 
large  subterranean  halls,  called  Pantsh- 
Pandu,  on  the  way  from  Guzerat  to  Mal- 
wa.  Tradition  a.scribes  these  astonishing 
works  of  ancient  Indian  architecture  and 
sculpture,  which  far  surpass  the  skill  of 


48 


CVCLOPKDIA    OF    LITERATI' RE 


[bur 


the  m&cJoi-na  Hindoos,  to  the  PaiiJus,  the 
heroes  of  Indian  mythology. 

BUD'GrET,  in  a  general  sense,  means 
a  condonsed  statement  of  the  income  and 
expenditure  of  a  nation,  or  of  any  particu- 
lar public  department.  In  England, 
however,  the  term  is  usually  employed 
to  designate  the  speech  made  by  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  when  he 
gives  a  general  view  of  the  public  reve- 
nue and  expenditure,  iind  intimates 
whether  government  intend  to  propose 
the  imposition  or  repeal  of  any  taxes,  &c. 

BUFTO,  the  Italian  for  a  singer,  or 
actor,  when  he  takes  the  humorous  part 
in  comic  operas,  &c. 

BUHL,  this  word  is  a  corruption  of 
JBoule,  the  name  of  an  Italian  artisan 
who  first  introduced  this  kind  of  ornament 
into  cabinet-work.  It  is  used  to  desig- 
nate that  sort  of  work  in  which  any  two 
materials  of  different  colors  are  inlaid 
into  each  other,  as  brass,  tortoise-shell, 
pearl,  &c. ;  it  is  applied  to  chairs,  tables, 
desks,  work-boxes,  &c. 

BUL,  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  cbronolo- 
Xy,  the  eighth  m'inthof  the  ecclesiastical, 
'.nil  the  second  i>(  the  civil  year  ;  it  has 
ince  been  called  Marshevan,  and  answers 
to  our  October. 

BULL,  PAPAL,  an  instrument,  ordi- 
nance, or  decree  of  the  Pope,  equivalent 
to  the  proclamations^  edicts,  letters  pat- 
ent, or  ukases  of  secular  princes.  Bulls 
are  written  on  parchment,  to  which  a 
leaden  seal  is  affixed,  and  are  granted 
for  the  consecration  of  bishops,  the  pro- 
motion to  benefices,  and  the  celebration 
of  jubilees,  &c.  The  publication  of  papal 
bulls  is  termed  fulmination  ;  and  it  is 
done  by  one  of  three  commissioners,  to 
whom  they  are  usually  addressed. 

BUL'LA,  in  antiquity,  a  small  round 
ornament  of  gold  or  silver,  worn  about 
the  neck  or  breast  of  the  children  of  the 
Eobility  till  the  age  of  fourteen. 

BUL'LETIN,  an  official  account  of 
public  transactions  or  matters  of  general 
interest. 

BULL'-FIGUT,  an  entertainment  for- 
merly frequent  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
at  which  wild  bulls  are  encountered  by 
men  on  horseback,  armed  with  lances. 

BULL'ION,  uncoined  gold  or  silver  in 
the  mass.  Those  metals  arc  callcil  so, 
either  when  smelted  from  the  native  ore, 
and  not  perfectly  refined ;  or  when  they 
are  perfectly  refined,  but  melted  down  in 
bars  or  ingots,  or  in  any  unwrought  bodj', 
of  any  degree  (4'  fineness. 

BUIl'DEN,  in  music,  the  drone  or  bass 
in   some    musi'cal    instruments,    and   the 


pipe  or  string  that  plaj's  it.  The  bass 
pipe  in  the  bagpipe  is  so  called.  Hence, 
that  part  of  a  soijg  that  is  repeated  at 
the  end  of  every  stanza  is  ca'Ued  the  bur- 
den of  it. 

BUREAU',  in  its  primary  sense,  is  a 
cloth  co^•Jring  a  table  ;  next  a  writing- 
table  ;  and  afterwards  used  to  signify  tho 
chamber  of  an  offi.ier  of  government,  and 
the  body  of  subordinate  officers  who  libor 
under  the  direction  of  a  chief. 

BUREAU'CRATIE,  or  BUREAU- 
CRACY, is  the  system  by  which  the 
business  of  administration  is  carried  on 
in  departments,  each  under  the  control 
of  a  chief,  in  contra-distinction  to  those 
systems  in  which  the  officers  of  govern- 
ment have  a  co-ordinate  authority. 

BUR'GESS,  an  inhabitant  of  a  borcugu, 
or  one  who  possesses  a  tenement  therein 
In  other  countries,  burgess  and  citizen 
are  used  synonymously  ;  but  in  England 
they  arc  distinguished,  burgess  being 
ordinarily  used  for  the  representative  of 
a  borough-town  in  parliament. 

BURG'LARY,  in  law,  the  breaking 
and  entering  the  dwelling  of  another  in 
the  night,  with  the  intent  tv»  commit 
some  felony,  whether  the  felonious  intent 
be  put  in  execution  or  not.  The  like 
offence  committed  by  day,  is  called  house- 
breaking. 

BUR'GOMASTER,  the  chief  magistrate- 
of  the  great  towns  in  Fhvnders,  Holland, 
and  Germany.  Tho  authority  of  a  burgo- 
master resembles  that  of  the  Lord  Mayor 
in  London. 

BU'llIN,  an  instrument  used  for  en- 
graving on  copper  or  steel  plates. 

BURLES'QUE,  the  Italian  poesia  bur- 
lesca,  signifies  merely  comic  or  sportive 
poetry ;  but  the  term,  in  French  and 
English,  is  more  commonly  restricted  to 
compositions  of  which  the  humor  consists 
in  a  ludicrous  mixture  of  things  high 
and  low  :  as  high  thoughts  clothed  in 
low  expressions;  or,  vice  versa,  ordinary 
or  base  topics  invested  in  the  artificial 
dignity  of  poetic  diction.  The  humor  of 
parody  or  travestie  arises  from  the  bur- 
lesque.— Burletta,  a  slight  comic  musical 
drama,  is  derived  from  the  same  origin. 

BURLET'TA,  a  light,  comic  fe',)ceies  of 
musical  drama,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  Italian  bttrlare,  to  jest. 

BUR'SARS,  originally  clerks  or  treas- 
urers in  convents  :  in  more  modern  times, 
persons  enableil  to  prosecute  their  .atudiea 
at  a  university  by  means  of  funiJts  derived 
from  endowments.  It  is  a  singular  cir- 
cumstance that  tho  latter  acceptation  of 
this  term  originated  among  the   Polos, 


>^ 


c] 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


49 


who,  even  in  the  14th  century,  were  ac- 
customed to  supply  young  men  of  talent 
with  the  means  of  travelling  to  (Jermany, 
and  there  studying  philosophy  under  the 
guidance  of  the  monks.  This  practice 
was  soon  adopted  by  other  nations;  and 
there  is  now,  perhaps,  no  civilized  coun- 
try in  wliich  it  does  not  exist,  under  the 
name  of  bursaries,  fellowships,  exhibi- 
tions, scholarships,  etc.  These  endow- 
ments are  of  two  kinds  :  either  furnishing 
the  student  with  the  means  of  prosecuting 
Lis  studies  during  the  academical  curri- 
culum ;  or  enabling  him  to  devote  him- 
self, without  distraction,  to  literary  pur- 
suits even  after  the  expiration  of  this 
period. 

BUR'SCHE,  a  youth,  especially  a  stu- 
dent at  a  univcrsitv. 

BUR'SCIIEN  COMMENT,  the  code  of 
laws  adopted  by  the  students  for  the 
regulation  of  their  demeanor  amongst 
themselves,  &c. 

BUR'SC'HENSCHAFT,  a  league  or 
secret  association  of  students,  formed  in 
1815,  for  the  purpose,  as  was  asserted,  of 
the  political  regeneration  of  Germany, 
and  suppressed,  at  least  in  name,  by  the 
exertions  of  the  governments. 

BURSE,  BUR'SA,  or  BASIL'ICA,  an 
exchange,  or  place  of  meeting  for  mer- 
chants to  consult  on  matters  of  trade,  and 
to  negotiate  bills  of  exchange. 

BU."^rRIS,  in  Egyptian  mythology,  a 
fabulous  personage,  of  whose  origin,  ex- 
ploits, and  character,  Apollodorus,  Herod- 
otus, Diodorus  Siculus,  and  other  ancient 
writers,  have  given  a  most  discrepant 
account.  His  history  is  blended  with 
that  of  Osiris. 

BUS'KIN,  a  kind  of  boot,  or  covering 
for  the  leg,  of  great  antiqiMty.  It  was 
part  of  the  costume  of  actors  in  tragedy ; 
it  is  worn  by  Diana  in  representations  of 
that  goddess,  as  part  of  the  costume  of 
hunters.  In  antique  marbles  it  is  repre- 
sented tastefully  ornamented.  Being 
laced  in  front  it  fitted  tightly  to  the  leg. 
Buskin  is  used  in  contradistinction  to 
the  sock,  {soccus)  the  flat-soled  shoe, 
worn  by  comedians,  &c.,  and  both  terms 
are  used  to  express  the  tragic  and  comic 
drama. 

BUST,  or  BUS'TO,  in  sculpture,  de- 
notes the  figure  or  portrait  of  a  person 
in  relievo,  showing  only  the  heail.  shoul- 
ders, and  stomach,  the  arms  being  lopped 
off.  The  stomach  and  shoulders  are, 
strictly  speaking,  the  bust.  The  term  is 
also  used  by  the  Italians,  for  the  torso  or 
trunk  of  the  body,  from  the  neck  to  the 
hips. 


BUS'TUM,  in  antiquity,  a  funeral  pilo 
on  which  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Romans 
used  to  be  burnt.  Hence,  Bustua'rh 
were  gladiators  who  fought  about  tho 
bustum  of  any  person  in  the  celebration 
of  his  obsequies. 

BY'-LAWS,  or  BYE'-LAWS,  private 
and  peculiar  laws  for  the  good  govern- 
ment of  a  city,  court,  or  other  community, 
made  by  the  general  consent  of  the  mem- 
bers. All  by-laws  are  to  bo  reasonable, 
and  for  the  common  benefit,  not  private 
advantage  of  any  particular  persons,  and 
must  be  agreeable  to  the  public  laws  in 
being. 

BYZAN'TINE,  a  gold  coin  of  the  value 
of  15Z.,  so  called  from  being  coined  at 
Byzantium.  Also  an  epithet  for  any- 
thing pertaining  to  Byzantium,  an  an- 
cient city  of  Thrace,  situated  on  the  Bos- 
phorus. 

BYZAN'TINE  HISTORIANS,  a  se- 
ries of  Greek  historians  and  authors,  who 
lived  under  the  Eastern  Empire  between 
the  6th  and  the  15th  centuries.  They 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  1. 
Historians  whose  works  form  a  continu- 
ous history  of  the  Byzantine  Empire 
from  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian 
era  down  to  the  Turkish  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople. They  are  nearly  thirty  in 
number,  with  various  shades  of  literary 
merit ;  but  their  works  constitute  the  al- 
most onl3'  authentic  source  of  the  history 
of  that  eventful  period.  2.  General  chron- 
iclers or  historians,  whose  works,  embra- 
cing a  wider  range  than  those  of  the  for- 
mer, treat  chiefly  of  the  chronography  of 
the  world  from  the  oldest  times.  3.  Au- 
thors who  confined  their  attention  to  tho 
politics,  statistics,  antiquities,  manners, 
(fee.,  of  the  Romans.  These  two  classes 
combined  amount  also  to  about  thirty, 
and  their  writings  give  an  excellent  illus- 
tration of  the  times  of  which  they  treat, 
whether  as  historians,  chroniclers,  anti- 
quaries, or  politicians. 


c. 

C,  the  thirdletter  and  second  consonant 
of  the  alphabet,  is  pronounced  like  k  he- 
fore  the  vowels  o,  o,  and  u,  and  like  s  bo- 
fore  e,  i,  and  y.  Before  k  it  has  a  pecu- 
liar sound,  as  in  chance,  chalk  ;  in  chord 
and  some  other  words,  it  is  hard  like  k; 
but  in  man}'  French  words  it  is  soft  be- 
fore /(,  like  s,  as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  Ac. 
As  a  numeral  C  stamls  for  100,  and  C  C 
for  200,  itc. ;  as  an  abbreviation  it  stands 
for  Christ,  as  AC.  Anno  Christi,  or  Ante 


CO 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[cad 


Christum ;  also  for  Companion,  as  C.B. 
Companion  of  the  Bath.  And  in  music, 
C  after  the  cliff,  is  the  mark  of  common 
time. 

CAA'BA,  or  CAA'BAH,  properly  sig- 
nifies a  square  building;  but  is  particu- 
larly applied  by  the  Mahometans  to  the 
temple  of  Mecca,  built,  as  they  pretend, 
by  Abraham,  and  Ishmaul  his  son.  It  is 
towards  this  temple  they  always  turn 
their  faces  when  they  pray,  in  whatever 
part  of  the  world  they  happen  to  be. 
This  temple  enjoys  the  privilege  of  an 
nsylum  far  all  sorts  of  criminals;  but  it 
is  most  remarkable  for  the  pilgrimages 
made  to  it  by  the  devout  Mussulmans, 
who  pay  so  great  a  veneration  to  it,  that 
they  believe  a  single  sight  of  its  sacred 
walls,  without  any  particular  act  of  de- 
votion, is  as  meritorious  in  the  sight  of 
God,  as  the  most  careful  discharge  of 
one's  duty,  for  the  space  of  a  whole  year, 
in  any  other  temple. 

CABAL',  denotes  a  number  of  persons 
united  in  some  close  design,  and  is  some- 
times used  synonymously  with  faction. 
This  term  was  applied  to  the  ministry  of 
Charles  II.,  from  the  initial  letters  of 
their  respective  names,  viz.,  Clifford, 
Ashley,  Buckingham,  Arlington,  and 
Lauderdale. 

CAB' ALA,  a  mysterious  kind  of  science 
pretended  to  have  been  delivered  by  rev- 
elation to  the  ancient  Jews,  and  trans- 
mitted by  oral  tradition  to  those  of  our 
times ;  serving  for  the  interpretation  of 
the  books  both  of  nature  and  scripture. 

CAB'INET.  a  select  apartment  set 
apart  for  writing,  studying,  or  preserv- 
ing anything  that  is  precious.  Hence 
we  say,  a  cabinet  of  paintings,  curiosi- 
ties, Ac. — Also,  the  closet  or  private 
room  in  the  royal  palace,  where  councils 
are  held  ;  likewise  the  ministers  of  state 
■who  are  summoned  to  attend  such  coun- 
cils. 

CABI'RT,  certain  deities  greatly  ven- 
erated by  the  ancient  Pagans  in  Greece 
and  Phoenicia,  who  were  supposed  to  have 
a  particular  influence  over  maritime  af- 
fairs. Various  oi)inions  have  been  enter- 
tained concerning  the  nature  and  origin 
oftheCabiri;  but  from  the  multiplicity  of 
names  applied  to  them,  together  with  the 
■,.rofound  secrecy  observed  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  their  rites,  an  almost  impenetrable 
veil  of  mystery  has  been  thrown  around 
their  history.  They  seem  to  have  been 
men  who,  having  communicated  the  art 
of  molting  metals,  etc..  were  deified  by  a 
grateful  jiostcrity.  Their  worship  was 
chiefly  cultivated  in  the  island  of  Samo- 


thracia,  whence  it  was  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  certain 
towns  of  Troas.  They  were  styled  the  off- 
spring of  Vulcan,  though  their  name  was 
derived  from  their  mother  Cabera,  daugh- 
ter of  Proteus.  Their  number  is  variously 
given.  Those  who  were  initiated  in  their 
rites  were  held  to  bo  secured  against  all 
danger  by  sea  and  hind.  Their  distin- 
guishing badge  was  a  fiurple  girdle. 

CACOE'THES,  an  ill  habit  or  propen- 
sity ;  as  the  cacoethes  scribendi,  an  itch 
for  authorship. 

CAC'OPHONG,  in  rhetoric,  an  un- 
couth, bad  tone  of  the  voice,  proceeding 
from  the  ill  disposition  of  the  organs. 

CAOOPH'ONY,  in  rhetoric,  a  defect 
of  style,  consisting  in  a  harsh  or  disagree- 
able sound  produced  by  the  meeting  of 
two  or  more  letters  or  syllables,  or  by 
the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same 
letters  or  syllables  :  e.g. 

And  oft  the  ear  the  open  vowels  tire.— Pope. 

CACOSYN'TIIETON,  in  grammar,  an 
improper  selection  and  arrangement  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

CA'CUS,  in  fabulous  history,  the  son 
of  Vulcan,  a  robber  of  Italy,  whose  dwell- 
ing was  in  the  Aventine  wood.  His  ex- 
ploits form  the  subject  of  a  fine  episode 
in  the  8th  book  of  the  ^Eiieid.  He  was 
represented  as  a  frightful  monster  of  en- 
ormous strength,  who,  after  a  long  life 
of  crime,  was  at  length  slain  by  Her- 
cules, from  whom  he  had  stolen  some 
oxen.  To  express  his  gratitude  for  his 
victory,  Hercules  erecteil  the  Ara  Ma\C- 
iina  ;  and  Evandor,  with  his  infant  colony 
of  Arcadians,  performed  divine  honors  to 
Hercules  as  their  benefactor. 

CA'DENTIE,  in  grammar,  the  fall  of 
the  voice ;  also  the  flow  of  verses  or 
periods  ;  in  music,  the  conclusion  of  a 
song,  or  of  some  parts  thereof,  in  certain 
places  of  the  piece,  dividing  it  as  it  were 
into  so  many  numbers  or  periods.  The 
cadence  takes  place  when  the  parts  fall 
or  terminate  on  a  note  or  chord  naturally 
expected  by  the  ear,  just  as  a  period 
closes  the  sense  in  the  paragraph  of  a 
discourse.  A  cadence  is  cither  perfect  or 
imperfect.  The  former  Avhcn  it  consists 
of  tveo  notes  sung  after  each  other,  or  by 
degrees  conjointed  in  each  of  the  two 
parts,  the  harmony  of  the  fifth  preceding 
that  of  the  key-note ;  and  it  is  called 
perfect,  because  it  satisfies  the  ear  more 
than  the  latter.  The  latter  imperfect; 
that  is,  when  the  key-note  with  its  har- 
mony precedes  that  of  the  fifth  without 
its  added  seventh.     A  cadence  is  said  to 


c.k] 


AND    TFIE    FINE    ARTS. 


51 


be  broken  or  interrupted  when  the  bass 
rises  a  major  or  minor  secoml,  instead  of 
falling  a  fifth. 

CADET',  one  who  is  trained  np  for  the 
army  by  a  course  of  military  discipline; 
such  as  the  cadets  at  the  militarj'  col- 
leges of  AVoolwich,  Addiscombe,  &c.  In 
England  there  are  three  grand  institu- 
tions for  the  education  of  cadets  :  Sand- 
hurst for  the  British  line  ;  AVoolwich  for 
the  artillery  and  engineers ;  and  Addis- 
combe for  the  Indian  army,  both  line 
and  artillery.  The  academy  at  Sand- 
hurst was  instituted  by  George  III.,  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  general  and  pro- 
fessional instruction  to  the  sons  of  pri- 
vate or  military  gentlemen,  with  the 
view  of  their  obtaining  commissions  in 
the  British  army  without  purchase.  Be- 
fore the  commission  is  conferred,  the 
cadet  must  undergo  an  examination  be- 
fore a  competent  board  in  the  classics, 
mathematics,  militarj'  drawing,  &c. 

The  academy  at  Woolwich  was  estab- 
lished with  the  view  of  qualifying  cadets 
for  the  artillery  or  engineers  ;  and  to 
this  institution  the  master-general  of  the 
ordnance  has  the  solo  right  of  granting 
admission.  The  attention  of  the  cadets 
is  specially  directed  to  geography  ;  gen- 
eral history,  ancient  and  modern  ;  modern 
languages  ;  military  drawing  and  sur- 
veying ;  mathematics ;  engineering  and 
fortification.  After  the  lapse  of  four 
years,  generally,  the  cailets  undergo  an 
examination  in  the  above  mentioned 
branches  of  science  ;  when  the  most  dis- 
tinguished are  selected  for  the  engineers, 
the  others  for  the  artillery. 

The  college  of  Aildiscombe  is  estab- 
lished for  the  education  of  officers  of  the 
line,  artillery,  and  engineers  for  the  In- 
dian army.  The  plan  of  instruction 
pursued  there  combines  the  two  sys- 
tems adopted  at  Sandhurst  and  at  Wool- 
wich. In  order  to  become  a  cadet  in  this 
institution,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
promise  of  a  commission  from  a  director 
of  the  East  India  Coi»pany  ;  and  after  a 
prescribed  examination,  an  appointment 
is  obtained  in  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
Indian  army,  according  to  the  merit  or 
pleasure  of  the  cadet. 

In  France  the  academies  for  cadets 
which  existed  previously  to  the  French 
Revolution  have  been  merged  in  the 
Polytechnic  schools. 

The  Dutch  possess  two  institutions  of 
this  nature ;  one  a-t  Breda,  the  other  at 
Delfl. 

In  Germany  every  small  state  has  a 
military  school  ;    while  those  at  Berlin, 


Vienna,  and  Munich  arc  on  so  extensive 
a  scale  as  to  challenge  a  comparison  with 
any  similar  institutions  in  Europe.  In 
Germany,  too,  the  word  cadet  has  a  wider 
signification  than  in  England,  being  ap- 
plied tf>  those  persons  who,  without  hav- 
ing frequented  a  military  school,  join  the 
army  in  the  expectation  of  obtaining  a 
commission  when  they  have  gained  a 
competent  knowledge  of  the  service. 

In  Russia  there  is  a  famous  academy 
for  cadets,  which  was  instituted  by  Ann 
at  St.  Petersburg  in  1732;  and  since  its 
foundation  has  afforded  instruction  in 
military  science  to  upwards  of  9000 
pupils,  many  of  wnom  have  acquired 
celebrity  in  the  annals  of  Russian  litera- 
ture. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  one  at 
West  Point,  on  nearly  the  same  princi- 
ple as  that  at  Addiscombe. 

CADET'SIIIP,  the  commission  given 
to  a  cadet  to  enter  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's service. 

CA'DI,  a  civil  judge  or  magistrate  in 
the  Turkish  empire. 

CADU'CEUS,  the  st.aff  of  Mercury  or 
Hermes,  which  gave  the  god  power  to  fly 
It  was  given  to  him  by  Apollo,  as  a  re- 
ward for  having  assisted  him  to  invent 
the  Lyre.  It  was  then  a  winged  staff; 
but,  in  Arcadia,  llcrnies  cast  it  among 
serpents,  who  immediately  twined  them- 
selves around  it,  and  became  quiet.  After 
this  event,  it  was  used  as  a  herald  of 
peace.  It  possessed  the  power  of  bestow- 
ing happiness  and  riches,  of  healing  the 
sick,  raising  the  dead,  and  conjuring  spir- 
its from  the  lower  world.  On  the  silver 
coins  of  the  ftoman  emperors,  the  Cadu- 
cous was  given  to  Mars,  who  holds  it  in 
the  left  hand,  and  the  spear  in  the  right, 
to  show  how  peace  succeeds  war. 

C^ELATU'RA,  from  the  Latin  ccelum, 
the  tool  used  :  the  art,  called  also  by  the 
Romans,  sculptura,  or  chasing,  if  we 
mean  "raised-work"  Caslatura  corres- 
ponds to  the  Grecian  term  toreutice,  de- 
rived from  toros,  which  in  its  true  sense 
means  only  raised-work.  Quintilian  ex- 
pressly limits  this  term  to  metal,  while 
he  mentions  wood,  ivorj',  marble,  glass, 
and  precious  stones  as  materials  for  en- 
graving. Silver  was  the  artist's  favorite 
metal,  but  gold,  bronze,  and  even  iron, 
were  embossed.  Closely  connected  with 
this  art  was  that  of  stamping  with  the 
punch,  called  by  the  Romans  e.rcudere. 
Embossings  were  probably  finished  by 
loreutice,  of  which  Phidias  is  called  the 
inventor.  The  colossal  statues  of  gold 
and  ivory  made  by  him  and  by  Polyclotus 


52 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[CAl 


belong  partly  to  sculpture  by  the  ivory- 
work,  and  partly  to  toreutic  art  from  tlie 
gold-work,  the  embossing  of  which  was 
essentiiil  to  their  character,  as  also  to 
castings  :  the  statue  of  Minerva  was  rich- 
ly embossed.  Besides  Phidias  and  Poly- 
cletus,  Myron,  Mys  and  Mentor  are  men- 
tioned as  great  toreutic  artists.  Arms, 
armor,  &c.,  were  adorned  in  this  manner ; 
other  articles,  such  as  goblets  and  other 
drinking  cups,  were  also  embossed,  partly 
with  figures  in  alto-relievo,  or  with 
figures  standing  quite  clear  :  also  dishes, 
the  ornaments  of  which  were  set  in  em- 
blemcE,  or  fastened  slightly  on  as  crustcc. 
Carriages  were  ornamented  not  only  with 
bronze,  but  even  with  silver  and  gold 
embossings.  Other  articles  of  furniture, 
tripods,  disks  of  candelabra,  were  thus 
ornamented.  With  this  toreutice  or  em- 
bossing, must  not  be  confounded  the  art 
of  inlaying,  empaistike,  much  practised 
in  antiquity. 

C.ERI'TES  TAB'UL.E,  in  antiquity, 
tables  or  registers  in  which  the  censors 
entered  the  names  of  those  citizens,  who 
for  any  misdemeanor  wore  deprived  of 
their  right  of  voting  at  an  election. 

CiE'SAR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
family  name  of  the  first  five  Roman  em- 
perors, and  afterwards  adopted  as  a  title 
by  their  successors.  It  was  also  used,  by 
way  of  distinction,  for  the  intended  or 
presumptive  heir  of  the  empire. 

CiESA'RIANS,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
ofiBcers  or  ministers  of  the  Roman  empe- 
rors, who  kept  an  account  of  their  reve- 
nues, and  took  possession  in  their  name 
of  such  things  as  devolved  or  were  confis- 
cated to  them. 

C^SU'RA,  a  figure  in  prosody,  by 
which  a  division  or  separation  takes  place 
in  a  foot  that  is  composed  of  syllables 
belonging  to  diff"eront  words. 

C.ET'ERIS  PARIBUS,  a  term  often 
used  by  mathematical  and  physical  wri- 
ters ;  the  words  literally  signifying  the 
rest,  or  other  things,  being  alike  or  equal. 
Thus  of  a  bullet,  it  may  be  said  cccteris 
paribus,  the  heavier  it  is  the  grcnter  the 
range,  supposing  the  length  and  diame- 
ter of  the  piece  an<l  the  quantity  and 
strength  of  the  powder  to  bo  the  same. 

CAI'NITES,  a  sect  of  heretics,  who 
appeared  about  \59  a.d.  They  probably 
originated  in  some  of  the  various  schools 
of  Manicheism ;  and,  if  their  doctrines 
are  truly  reported  to  us,  they  are  said  to 
have  asserted  that  the  power  which  cre- 
ated heaven  and  earth  was  the  evil  prin- 
ciple ;  that  Cain,  Esau,  Korah,  the  peoi)le 
of  Sodom,  and  others  whom  the  Old  Tes- 


tament represents  as  victiias  of  p€3uliar 
divine  judgments,  were  in  fact  children 
of  the  good  principle,  and  enemies  of  the 
evil.  Some  of  them  arc  said  to  have 
published  a  gospel  of  Judas  on  the  same 
principle.  The  Quintilianists,  so  called 
from  a  lady  named  Quintilia,  of  whom 
TertuUiau  speaks,  were  an  offset  of  this 

CA  IRA,  CA  IRA,  (literally.  It  (the 
Revolution)  sliall  go  on,)  the  burden  of  a 
famous  revolutionary  song,  which  was 
composed  in  the  year  1790  in  denuncia 
tion  of  the  French  aristocracy.  The  tune 
and  sentiments  of  this  song  were  much 
inferior  to  those  of  the  Marseillaise 
Hymn  ("  AUons  enfans  de  la  patrie,") 
the  object  of  which  was  to  rouse  the 
French  to  defend  their  country  against 
foreign  aggression. 

CAIRN,  a  word  of  Celtic  origin,  used 
to  denote  the  piles  of  stones  of  a  conical 
form  so  frequently  found  on  the  tops  of 
hills,  &e.  in  various  districts ;  erected 
probably,  for  the  purpose  of  memorials, 
although  some  have  assigned  to  them  a 
peculiar  character,  as  receptacles  for  the 
bodies  of  criminals  burnt  in  the  wicker 
images  of  the  Druids,  &c.  According  to 
some  antiquaries,  cairn  is  distinct  from 
carnedd,  the  Welsh  name  for  heaps  of 
stones  on  the  tops  of  high  mountains, 
(Carnedd  David,  Carnedd  Llewellyn,  &c.,) 
which  are  said  to  have  been  sacrificial. 
Some  cairns  are  undoubtedly  sepul- 
chral. 

CA'ISSON,  in  architecture,  a  sunken 
panel  in  a  flat  or  vaulted  ceiling,  or  in 
the  soffit  of  a  cornice.  In  ceilings  they 
are  of  various  geometrical  forms,  and 
often  enriched  with  rosettes  or  other 
ornaments. 

CAL'AMUS,  a  rush  or  reed  used  an- 
ciently as  a  pen  to  write  on  parchments 
or  papyrus. 

CALAN'TICA,  Calvatica,  a  kind  of 
head-dress  worn  by  women  in  ancient 
times,  and  known  very  e;irly  in  Greece; 
there  were  two  kin;ls,  nets  and  cap-like 
bags.  Many  varieties  of  those  caj)s  are 
to  bo  seen  upon  ancient  vases  ;  sometimes 
they  are  of  a  plain  material,  sometimes 
having  a  pattern,  and  sometimes  striped 
or  checked  ;  they  arc  cither  open  behind, 
so  that  part  of  the  hair  hangs  out,  or  it 
covers  only  the  two  sides  of  the  head. 

CAL'ATIIUS,  the  ancient  term  for 
the  basket  in  which  the  spinners  kept 
their  wool  and  their  work ;  it  was  also 
called  Talarus,  and  was  maile  of  wicker- 
work,  with  a  wide  opening  at  top  and 
pointed  at  bottom.     The  calathus  was  a 


cal] 


AND    THK    FINE     A  UTS. 


53 


symV)ol  of  maidenliond. 
anil  in  this  sense  was  em- 
ployed by  artists,  as  is 
soon  in  the  reliefs  repre- 
sent in<j  Achilles  among 
the  dani!;hters  of  Lycom- 
odes.  Other  antiqnes  show 
us  that  these  baskets  were 
used  for  many-  purposes  at 
the  toilet,  for  flowers,  Ac.  The  calathus 
also  appears  in  the  basket-like  form  of 
the  capitals  of  Corinthian  pillars 

CALA'TOR,  in  antiquity,  was  a  public 
servant,  and  a  freeman,  such  as  a  bailiff 
or  crier,  to  summon  courts,  synods,  and 
other  public  assemblies,  lie  also  attend- 
ed on  the  priests  in  the  sacrifices. 

CAL'CEUS,  a  shoe  or  short  boot  used 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  a  covering 
to  protect  the  feet  while  walking ;  the 
term  being  used  in  contradistinction  to 
sandals  or  slippers,  and  corresponding  to 
the  modern  shoes.  There  were  two  sorts, 
the  calceiluiiati,  which  were  worn  by  the 
patricians,  so  called  from  an  ivory  cres- 
cent with  which  they  were  ornamented, 
and  the  calcel  mulli,  or  red  shoes.  They 
came  up  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  but 
only  covered  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

CALCOG'RAPIIY,  an  engraving  after 
the  manner  of  a  drawing  in  chalk. 

CALCULA'TION,  the  act  of  comput- 
ing several  sums  by  means  of  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  division,  ,te-, 
or  an  estimate  formed  in  the  mind  by 
comparing  the  various  circumstances 
which  infiaence  its  determination. 

CALCULATO'RE.-^,  accountants  among 
the  Romans,  who  used  to  reckon  by  means 
of  little  stones  or  pebbles. 

CAL'ENDAR,  a  distribution  or  divis- 
ion of  time  into  periods  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  civil  life  ;  also  a  table  or  re- 
gister of  such  ilivisions,  exhibiting  the 
order  in  which  the  seasons,  months,  festi- 
vals, and  holidays  succeed  each  other  du- 
ring the  year.  The  word  is  derived  from 
the  ancient  Latin  vcrbca/arc,  to  call.  In 
the  early  ages  of  Rome,  it  Avas  the  custom 
for  the  pontiffs  to  call  the  people  together 
on  the  first  day  of  e;ich  month,  to  apprise 
them  of  the  days  that  were  to  be  kept 
pacred  in  the  course  of  it.  Hence  dies 
calenrlfe,  the  calends  or  first  days  of  the 
different  months.  The  calendnrs  in  use 
throughout  Europe  are  borrowed  from 
that  of  the  Romans.  Romulus  is  sup- 
posed to  have  first  undertaken  to  divide 
the  year  in  such  a  manner  that  certain 
epochs  should  return  iieriodically  after  a 
revolution  of  the  sun  ;  but  the  knowledge 
of  astronomy  was   not  then  sufliciently 


advanced  to  allow  this  to  bo  done  with 
much  prec^ision.  The  Roman  calendar 
continued  in  a  state  of  uncertainty  and 
confusion  till  the  time  of  Julius  CiBsar, 
when  the  civil  equino.x  differed  from  the 
astronomical  by  three  months.  Under 
the  advice  of  the  astronomer  Sosigencs, 
Cassar  abolished  the  lunar  year,  and  reg- 
ulated the  civil  year  entirely  by  the  sun. 
The  Julian  year  consisted  of  ',i6o\  days, 
and  conse(aiently  diftered  in  excess  by  11 
minutes  1D-j5  sec.  from  the  true  solar 
year,  which  consists  of  365  d.  fi  h.  48  m. 
49-62  sec.  In  consequence  of  this  differ- 
ence the  astronomical  equinox,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  centuries,  sensibly  fell 
back  towards  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
In  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  it  corre- 
sponded to  the  25th  of  JMarch ;  in  the 
sixteenth  century  it  had  retrograded  to 
the  11th.  The  correction  of  this  error 
was  one  of  the  purposes  sought  to  be  ob- 
tained by  the  reformation  of  the  calendar 
effected  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582. 
By  suppressing  10  days  in  the  calendar, 
Gregory  restored  the  equinox  to  the  21st 
of  Alarch,  the  day  o-i  which  it  fell  at  the 
time  of  the  Council  of  Nice  in  325 ;  the 
place  of  Easter  and  the  other  movable 
church  feasts  in  the  ecclesiastical  calen- 
dar having  been  prescribed  at  that  coun- 
cil. And  in  order  that  the  same  incon- 
venience might  be  prevented  in  future, 
he  ordered  the  intercalation  which  took 
place  every  fourth  year  to  be  omitted  in 
years  ending  centuries.  The  Gregorian 
calendar  was  received  immediately  or 
shortly  after  its  promulgation  by  all  the 
Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe.  The 
Protestant  states  of  Germany,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  adhered  to  the 
Julian  calendar  till  1700;  and  in  Eng- 
land the  alteration  was  successfully  op- 
posed by  popular  prejudices  till  1752.  In 
that  year  the  Julian  calendar,  or  old 
sttjle,  as  it  was  called,  was  formally  abol- 
ished by  the  act  of  parliament,  and  the 
date  used  in  all  public  transactions  render- 
ed coincident  with  that  followed  in  other 
Euro]iean  countries,  by  enacting  that  the 
day  following  the  2d  of  .September  of  the 
year  1752  should  bo  called  the  14th  of 
that  month. 

A  new  reform  of  the  calendar  was  at- 
tempted to  be  introduced  in  France  du- 
ring the  period  of  the  Revolution.  The 
commencement  of  the  year  was  fixed  at 
the  autumnal  equinox,  which  nearly  co- 
incideil  with  the  ejioch  of  the  foundation 
of  the  republic.  The  names  of  the  an- 
cient months  were  abolished,  and  othera 
substituted  having  reference  to  agricul- 


64 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEIJATCRE 


[CAL 


tural  labors,  or  the  state  of  nature  in  the 
different  seasons  of  the  year.  But  the 
alteiation  was  found  to  be  inconvenient 
ana  impracticable,  and  after  a  few  years 
was  formally  abandoned. 

CA'LENDS,  in  the  ancient  Roman 
calendar,  were  the  first  days  of  each 
month.  The  Roman  month  was  divided 
into  three  periods  by  the  Calends,  the 
Nones^  and  the  Ides.  The  Calends  were 
invariably  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
month  ;  the  Ides  at  the  middle  of  the 
month,  on  the  13th  or  15th ;  and  the 
Nones  {novem,  nine)  were  the  ninth  daj' 
before  the  Ides,  counting  inclusively. 
From  these  three  terms  the  days  were 
counted  backwards,  in  the  following  man- 
ner : — Those  days  comprised  between  the 
calends  and  the  nones,  were  denominated 
days  before  the  nones;  those  between 
the  nones  and  the  ides,  days  before  the 
ides ;  and  those  from  the  ides  to  the  end 
of  the  month,  days  before  the  calends. 

CAL'ICO,  cloth  made  of  cotton.  It  is 
called  calico,  because  originally  brought 
from  Calicut,  a  kingdom  of  India  on  this 
side  of  the  Ganges,  •  n  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar. These  cloths,  wiether  plain,  printed, 
dyed,  stained,  or  painted,  chintz,  or  mus- 
lin, are  all  included  under  one  general 
denomination. 

CAL'IDUCT,  in  antiquity,  a  pipe  or 
canal  disposed  along  the  walls  of  a  house 
for  conveying  heat  from  a  furnace  to  the 
various  apartments. 

CAL'IGrA,  in  antiquity,  a  sort  of  san- 
dal worn  by  the  Roman  soldiers,  whence 
Caligula  derived  his  name.  These  caligcB 
were  sometimes  adorned  with  gold  and 
silver  nails. 

CALIG'RAPIIY,  the  art  of  beautiful 
writing.  The  scribes  who  made  <a  pro- 
fession of  copying  manu-scripts,  before 
the  invention  of  printing,  have  been 
termed  Caligraphcrs.  Their  art  con- 
sisted not  merely  in  writing,  but  also  in 
embellishing  their  work  with  ornamen- 
tal devices,  although  illumination  was 
also  practised  as  a  distinct  employment. 
Among  the  MSS.  of  the  early  part  of  the 
middle  ages  which  we  possess,  there  are 
some  sumptuous  specimens  of  the  art, 
written  in  letters  of  gold,  vermilion,  &c., 
and  on  leaves  of  different  colors,  but  that 
fashion  went  early  out  of  use  ;  and  in 
general  it  may  be  said,  that  the  current 
writing  of  caligraphcrs  diminished  in 
beauty  and  laborious  minuteness,  espe- 
cially in  Italy,  during  tlic  centuries  im- 
mediately precedmg  tlie  invention  of 
printing. 

CA'LIPII,  the  chief  sacerdotal  dignity 


among  the  Saracens  or  Mahometan.s, 
vested  with  absolute  authority  in  all 
matters  relating  both  to  religion  and 
policy.  It  is  at  this  da}-  one  of  the 
Grand  Signior's  titles,  as  successor  of  the 
Prophet ;  and  of  the  Sophi  of  Persia,  as 
successor  of  Ali.  The  government  of  the 
original  Caliphs  continued  from  the 
death  of  Mahomet  till  the  655th  year  of 

CALKING,  or  CAULKING,  in  paint- 
ing, the  covering  of  the  back  side  of  a 
design  with  red  chalk,  and  tracing  lines 
through  on  a  waxed  plate  or  wall,  so  as 
to  leave  an  impression  of  the  color  there. 

CALLI'OPE,  in  mythology,  one  of  the 
Muses  usually  associated  with  Homer  in 
the  statues  of  antiquity,  and  thence  con- 
sidered as  the  patroness  of  heroic  poe- 
try. 

CALL  OF  THE  HOUSE,  a  parlia- 
mentary term,  implying  an  imperative 
call  or  summons,  sent  to  every  member 
on  some  particular  occasion. 

CALOR'IC,  the  principle  or  cause  of 
heat,  as  distinguished  from  the  sensa- 
tion. 

CALOTE',  a  sort  of  skull  cap  worn  by 
the  French  cavalry  under  their  caps,  as  a 
guard  against  the  blows  of  the  sabre. 

CAL'UMET,  a  symbolical  instrument 
of  great  importance  among  the  Indians 
of  America.  It  is  a  smoking-pipc,  the 
bowl  of  which  is  generally  made  of  a  soft 
red  marble,  and  the  tube  of  a  very  long 
reed,  ornamented  with  feathers.  This  in- 
strument, the  use  of  which  bears  a  great 
resemblance  to  the  caduceus  of  the 
Greeks,  is  a  pledge  of  peace  and  good 
faith.  The  calumet  of  war,  differently 
made,  is  used  to  proclaim  war. 

CAL'VINISM,  the  theological  tenets 
of  John  Calvin,  who,  in  the  16th  century, 
flourished  at  Geneva,  where  his  doctrines 
still  subsist.  The  doctrinal  parts  of  this 
system  differ  from  that  of  other  reformers 
of  Calvin's  period,  chiefly  in  what  regards 
the  absolute  decrees  of  God,  by  which, 
according  to  this  teacher,  the  future  and 
eternal  condition  of  the  human  race  was 
predetermined. 

CALYP'SO,  in  fabulous  history,  a 
daughter  of  Atlas,  according  to  Homer, 
but  of  Oceanus  and  Thctys,  according  to 
Ilesiod,  was  the  queen  of  the  island 
Ogygia.  On  this  island  Ulysses  suffered 
shipwreck  ;  and  Calypso,  by  the  united 
influence  of  her  love  and  spells,  prevailed 
on  him  to  remain  and  share  her  sceptre. 
After  the  lapse  of  seven  years,  however, 
his  desire  to  revisit  his  native  country 
became  irrepressible,  and  he  resolved  to 


cam] 


AND    THE    I'lXU    ARTS. 


55 


forego  his  honors  in  Ogygia.  Calypso 
tried  every  expedient,  offering  him  even 
the  bribe  of  immortality,  to  induce  him 
to  remain  ;  but  all  her  efforts  proved 
unavailing,  and  on  his  departure  she 
die.l  of  grief.  The  island  of  Ogygia, 
placed  by  Pliny  off  the  Lacinian  ])rom- 
ontory,  between  the  Tarontine  and  Sycil- 
lian  bay?,  has  long  since  been  engulfed  in 
the  ocean,  along  with  the  famous  islands 
of  the  Sirens. 

CAMAYEU,  CAMAIEU,  Mono- 
chrome. By  this  term  we  understand 
painting  with  a  single  color,  varied  only 
by  the  effect  of  chiaro-oscuro ;  we  apply 
this  term  to  painting  in  gray,  which,  as 
well  as  red,  was  used  by  the  ancients. 
Pictures  in  two  or  three  tints,  where  the 
natural  hues  of  the  objects  are  not 
copied,  may  also  be  called  en  camayeu ; 
we  speak  of  brown,  red,  yellow,  green, 
anil  blue  camayeu,  according  to  their 
principal  colors.  The  pictures  of  Poli- 
dori  Caravaggio,  for  example,  by  their 
heavy  brown  tint,  give  the  impression  of 
monochrome  painting,  and,  with  all  their 
perfection,  they  are  but  pictures  en 
camayeu.  Drawings  in  red  or  black 
chalk,  lead  and  other  pencils,  Indian  ink, 
sepia  and  bistre,  as  well  as  engraving, 
may  be  called  Camayeux. 

CAM'BRIC,  a  species  of  fine  white  lin- 
en, made  of  flax,  said  to  be  named  from 
Cambray,  in  Flanders,  where  it  was  fii'st 
manufactured. 

CAM'BER-BEAM,  in  architecture,  a 
beam  cut  hollow  or  archwise  in  the  mid- 
dle, commonly  used  in  platforms. 

CAM'EO,  Camei,  gems  cut  in  relief, 
the  most  expensive  class  of  cut  stones. 
The  custom  of  ornamenting  goblets,  cra- 
tera,  candelabra,  and  other  articles  with 
gems,  originated  in  the  East ;  and  was 
followed  at  the  court  of  the  Seleucida;,  the 
greatest  extravagance  being  practised 
with  regard  to  such  ornaments.  When 
the  image  on  the  stone  was  not  to  be  used 
as  a  seal  it  was  cut  in  relief,  and  the  va- 
riegated ony-^c  was  generally  selected. 
Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  different 
colors  of  the  strata  of  the  stone,  so  tnat 
the  objects  stood  out  light  from  a  dark 
ground.  Some  of  the  cameos  preserved 
to  us  are  wonders  of  beauty  and  technical 
perfection,  showing  the  high  degree  of 
Art  to  which  the  (irecian  lapidaries  had 
attained  under  the  luxurious  successors 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  finest  spe- 
cimen now  existing  is  the  tJonzaga  ca- 
meo, formerly  at  iSIalmaison,  now  in  the 
imperial  collection  of  gems  at  St.  Peters- 
burg.    Among  the  remains   of  the  an- 


cient art  of  stone-cutting,  the  gems  cut  in 
relief,  called  on  account  of  the  different 
layers  of  stone  camei,  are  rarer  and  more 
valuable  than  those  cut  rn  intaglio.  Ca- 
meos are  not  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
medieval  iirt ;  they  were  brimght  for- 
ward again  in  Italy  in  recent  times.  The 
production  of  cameos  has  become  an  art- 
manufacture  of  considerable  importance. 

CAMERALIS'TICS,  the  science  of 
finance  or  jjublic  revenue,  comprehending 
the  means  of  raising  and  disposing  of  it. 

CAM'ERA  LU'CIDA,  an  optical  in- 
strument, for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
image  of  any  object  appear  on  the  wall  iu 
a  light  room,  either  by  day  or  night. — • 
Also,  an  instrument  for  drawing  objects 
in  true  perspective. 

CAM'ERA-OBSCU'RA,  or  dark  cham- 
ber, an  optical  machine  or  apparatus,  in 
which  the  light  being  collected,  and 
thrown  through  a  single  aperture,  ex- 
ternal objects  are  exhibited  distinctly, 
and  in  their  native  colors,  on  any  white 
surface  placed  within  the  machine. 

CAMISADE',  a  French  term  for  at- 
tacking or  surprising  an  enemy  by  night. 
It  obtained  the  namej^rom  the  soldiers 
wearing  their  shirts  over  their  other 
clothes,  that  they  might  be  known  to  each 
other. 

CAM'LET,  a  sort  of  stuff  originally 
made  of  camel's  hair  and  silk  mixed,  but 
now  of  wool  and  silk. 

CAMP,  the  residence  of  an  army  rest- 
ing in  tents  ;  or,  the  place  and  order  of 
tents  for  soldiers  in  the  field.  On  the 
continent  of  Europe  tents  are  abolished, 
and  the  armies  birouac  in  tiie  open  air, 
or,  if  the  time  will  allow  it,  lodge  in  huts 
built  of  branches,  &c.  In  short,  in  the 
progress  of  the  military  art,  camps  have 
become  more  slight  and  simple,  even  with 
those  who  still  continue  to  make  use  of 
them. 

CAMPAIGN',  the  space  of  time  during 
which  an  army  is  kept  in  the  field.  A 
campaign  is  usually  from  spring  to  au- 
tumn ;  but  sometimes  armies  make  a 
winter  campaign. 

CAMPANILE',  in  architecture,  prop- 
erly a  tower  for  containing  a  hell  or 
bells.  Though  the  word  has  been  adopt- 
ed in  the  English  language,  and  applied 
to  the  bell  towers  of  churches,  it  more 
properly  belongs  to  those  towers  near 
churches,  but  detached  from  them,  to  be 
seen  in  many  of  the  cities  of  Italy.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Campanile  of 
Cremona,  which  is  of  the  extraonlinary 
height  of  396  feet ;  that  of  Florence,  268 
feet  high,  built  from  the  design  of  Giotto ; 


66 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    I.I  rERMUIlE 


[can 


the  Garisomli  tower  at  Bologna,  built  in 
1110,  which  is  147  feet  high,  and  is  8  feet 
8  inches  out  of  an  upright ;  and  ver3-  near 
to  it  in  the  same  city  another  tower,  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Asinelli,  327  feet  in 
height,  and  leaning  from  the  perpendicu- 
lar 3  feet  8  inches,  but  which,  seen,  as  it 
always  is,  in  company  with  the  first, 
seems  to  lean  but  little.  The  last  we 
shall  name  is  that  which  is  commonly 
called  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa,  and  per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  of  all.  It  is 
151  feet  high,  and  overhangs  12  feet  9 
inches.  Its  general  form  possesses  ele- 
gance, and  is  that  of  a  cylinder  encircled 
by  8  tiers  of  columns  over  each  other, 
and  each  with  an  entablature.  The  col- 
umns are  all  of  marble,  and  the  upper 
tier  is  recessed  back. 

CAMPES'TRE,  a  short  garment  fas- 
tened about  the  loins,  and  extending  from 
thence  down  the  legs,  nearly  to  the  knees, 
after  the  manner  of  the  kilt.  It  was  worn 
by  the  Roman  j'ouths  when  they  exer- 
cised in  public  places,  also  by  soldiers  and 
gladiators  for  the  sake  of  decency  when 
exercising. 

CAM'PUS  MAn,  an  anniversary  as- 
sembly of  our  ancestors,  held  on  May- 
day, when  they  confederated  together  for 
defence  of  the  kingdom  against  all  its  ene- 
mies. 

CAM'PUS  MAR'TIUS,  among  the  Ro- 
mans, a  field,  by  the  side  of  the  Tiber, 
where  the  youth  exercised  themselves  in 
warlike  exercises.  It  was  so  called,  on 
account  of  a  temple  that  stood  on  it,  con- 
secrated to  the  god  Mars.  The  consuls, 
Brutus  and  Collatinus,  made  it  the  place 
for  holding  the  comitia  or  assemblies  of 
people,  and,  in  after  times,  it  was  adorned 
with  a  great  quantity  of  fine  statues. 

CANA'BUS,  CANE'VAS,  CANNE'- 
VAS,  the  terra  by  which  the  ancients 
designated  the  wooden  skeleton  covered 
with  clay,  or  some  other  soft  substance, 
for  modelling  larger  figures ;  hence  the 
French  word  caiievas.  Similar  skeletons 
were  used  as  anatomical  studies,  by  pain- 
ters and  plastic  artists. 

CANA'RIUM  AUGU'RIUM,  in  an- 
tiquity, a  sacrifice  among  the  Romans,  of 
a  red  dog,  for  the  purpose  of  appeasing 
the  fury  of  the  dog-star  on  the  ai)proacli 
of  harvest. 

CANGELLA'RIA  CU'RIA,  in  arclue- 
ology,  the  court  of  Chancerj'. 

CANCEL'hr,  in  architecture,  trellis, 
or  lattice-work,  made  of  cross  bars  of 
wood  or  iron.  Also,  the  balusters  or  rails 
encompassing  the  bar  of  a  court  of  jus- 
tice. 


CANDELA'BRA,  were  objects  of  great 
importance  in  ancient  Art ;  they  were 
originally  used  as  candlesticks,  but  after 
oil  was  introduced,  they  were  used  to 
hold  lamps,  and  stood  on  the  ground,  be- 
ing very  tall,  from  four  to  seven  or  ten 
feet  in  height.  The  simplest  candelabra 
were  of  wood,  others  were  very  splendid 
both  in  material  and  in  their  ornaments. 
The  largest  candelabra,  placed  in  tem- 
ples and  palaces,  were  of  marble  with  or- 
naments in  relief  and  fastened  to  the 
ground ;  there  are  several  specimens  in 
the  Museum  Clementinum  at  Rome. 
These  large  candelabra  were  also  altars 
of  incense,  the  carving  showing  to  what 
god  they  were  dedicated  :  they  were  also 
given  as  offerings,  and  were  then  made 
of  finer  metals,  and  even  of  precious 
stones.  Candelabra  were  also  made  of 
baked  earth,  but  they  were  mostly  of  ele- 
gantly wrought  bronze.  They  consisted 
of  three  parts  : — 1.  the  feet ;  2.  the  shaft ; 
3.  the  plinth  with  the  tray,  upon  which 
the  lamp  was  placed.  The  base  generally 
consisted  of  three  animals'  feet,  orna- 
mented with  leaves.  The  shaft  was  flut- 
ed ;  and  on  the  plinth  often  stands  a  fig- 
ure holding  the  top,  generally  in  the 
shape  of  a  vase,  on  which  rests  the  tray. 
The  branching  candelabra  are  valuable 
as  works  of  Art,  and  also  those  where  the 
shaft  is  formed  by  a,  statue,  bearing  a 
torch-like  lamp,  and  each  arm  holding  a 
plate  for  a  lamp.  Another  kind  of  can- 
delabrum was  call- 
ed Lampadarii : 
these  were  in  the 
form  of  pillars, 
with  arms  or 
branches  from 
which  the  lamps 
hung  by  chains.  In 
the  Museo  Etrus- 
co  Gregoriano  at 
Rome,  arc  forty- 
three  candelabra 
of  various  forms, 
which  were  exca- 
vated at  Cervetri. 
Some  have  smooth, 
and  some  have  flut- 
ed, shafts,  on  which 
is  represented  a 
climbing  animal, 
a  serpent,  lizard, 
weasel,  or  a  cat 
following  a  cock. 
Sometimes  these 
shafts  bear  a  cup, 
or  branch  info 
many     arms,     bo- 


can] 


AXD    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


67 


tween  which  stand  beautiful  little  fig- 
ures, or  they  have  plates  rising  perpen- 
dicularly above  one  another.  They  gen- 
erally rest  on  feet  of  lions,  men,  or  stags, 
or  they  are  sujiported  by  figures  of  sa- 
tyrs, &c.  Some  candelabra  are  in  the 
form  of  a  human  figure,  bearing  the 
plate  in  the  outstretched  hand,  and  some- 
times the  pillar  is  supported  by  carya- 
tides. The  most  curious  specimens  of 
candelabra,  as  respects  form,  use,  and 
workmanship,  are  those  excavated  at 
Herculaneum  and  Pompeji.  These  are 
all  of  bronze ;  and  that  they  were  em- 
ployed for  domestic  purposes  is  proved 
from  the  representation,  on  an  Etrus- 
can vase,  of  one  which  serves  to  give 
light  to  the  guests  assembled  round  a 
banquet  table.  They  are  slender  in  their 
proportions,  and  perfectly  portable,  rare- 
ly exceeding  five  feet  in  height.  It  is  to 
be  observed,  that  none  of  the  candelabra 
hitherto  found  exhibit  any  appearance  of 
a  sockrt  or  of  a  spike  at  top,  from  which 
an  inference  of  the  use  of  candles  could 
DC  drawn. 

CAN'DIDATE,  a  person  who  seeks  or 
aspires  to  some  public  office.  In  the  Ro- 
man commonwealth,  the  Candidati  were 
obliged  to  wear  a  white  robe,  during  the 
two  years  of  their  soliciting  for  a  place. 
This  garment,  according  to  Plutarch,  they 
wore  without  any  other  clothes,  that  the 
people  might  not  suspect  they  concealed 
money  for  purchasing  votes  ;  and  also, 
that  they  might  the  more  easily  show  to 
the  people,  the  scars  of  those  wounds  they 
had  received  in  fighting  for  the  defence 
of  the  commonwealth. 

CANDIDA'TI  MIL'ITES,  an  order  of 
soldiers,  among  the  Romans,  who  served 
as  the  emperor's  body-guards,  to  defend 
him  in  battle.  They  were  the  tallest  and 
strongest  of  the  whole  troops  ;  and  were 
called  candidati,  in  consequence  of  being 
clothed  in  white. 

CAN'DLEMAS  DAY,  the  festival  ob- 
served on  the  second  day  of  February,  in 
commemoration  of  the  purification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  It  is  borrowed  from  the 
practice  of  the  ancient  Christians,  who  on 
that  day  used  an  abundance  of  lights  both 
in  their  churches  and  processions,  in  mem- 
ory, as  is  supposed,  of  our  Saviour's  be- 
ing on  that  day  declared  by  Simeon  "  to 
be  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles."  In 
imitation  of  this  custom,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics on  this  day  consecrate  all  the  tapers 
and  candles  which  they  use  in  their 
churches  during  the  whole  year. 

C.\N'T>YS,  a  kind  of  gown,  of  woollen 
cloth    wiob   wide   sleeves,    worn   by  the 


Candys. 


Canephoros. 


Medes  and  Persians  as  an  outside  gar- 
ment ;  it  was  usually  of  purple  or  similar 
brilliant  color. 

CANEPHO'ROS,  the  bearer  of  the 
round  basket  containing  the  implements 
of  sacrifice,  in  the  processions  of  the  Dio- 
nysia,  Panathenea,  and  other  public  fes- 
tivals. The  attitude  in  which  they  ap- 
pear in  works  of  Art,  is  a  favorite  one 
with  the  ancient  artists ;  the  figure  ele- 
vates one  arm  to  support  the  basket  car- 
ried on  the  head,  and  with  the  other 
slightly  raises  her  tunic. 

CANICULAR  DAYS,  or  DOG  DAYS, 
the  name  given  to  certain  daj's  of  the 
year,  during  whicjj  the  heat  is  usually 
the  greatest.  They  are  reckoned  about 
forty,  and  are  set  down  in  the  almanacs 
as  beginning  on  the  3d  day  of  July,  and 
ending  on  the  11th  of  August.  In  the 
time  of  the  ancient  astronomers,  the  re- 
markable star  Sirius,  called  also  Canic- 
ula,  or  the  Dog  Star,  rose  heliacally, 
that  is,  just  before  the  sun,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  July;  and  the  sultry  heat 
which  usually  prevails  at  that  season, 
with  all  its  disagreeable  effects,  among 
which  the  tendency  of  dogs  to  become 
mad  is  not  one  of  the  least  disagreeable, 
were  ascribed  to  the  malignant  rage  of 
the  star.  Owing  to  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius 
now  takes  place  later  in  the  .year,  and  in 
a  cooler  season  ;  so  that  the  dog  days 
have  not  now  that  relation  to  the  partic- 
ular position  of  the  Dog  Star  from  which 
they  obtained  their  name. 

CANICULAR  YEAR,  the  ancient  so- 
lar year  of  the  Egyptians ;  so  palled  be- 
cause its  commencement  was  determined 
by  the  heliacal  rising  of  the  Dog  Star.  The 


58 


CrCLOrEDIA    OF    LITEKATURE 


[CAH 


Egyptians  chose  this  star  for  their  obser- 
vations, either  on  account  of  its  superior 
brightness,  or  because  its  heliacal  rising 
corresponded  with  the  annual  overflow  of 
the  Nile.  At  a  very  earlj'  period  of  his- 
tory the  Egyptians  had  perceived  that 
the  solar  year  contains  365i  days ;  for 
their  common  years  consisted  of  365  days, 
and  every  fourth  year  of  366,  as  in  the 
Julian  Calendar. 

CAN'NON,  a  piece  of  ordnance,  or  a 
heavy  metallic  gun  for  a  battery,  mount- 
ed on  a  carriage.  Guns  of  this  kind  are 
made  of  iron  or  brass,  and  of  ditl'erent 
sizes,  carrj'ing  balls  from  three  or  four 
to  forty-eight  pounds'  weight.  The  ex- 
plosion being  directed  by  the  tube,  balls 
and  missiles  are  carried  to  great  distances 
with  destructive  force.  In  a  field  of  bat- 
tle they  are  often  drawn  by  horses  on  light 
carriages,  and  are  called  field-pieces,  or 
flying  artillery. 

CANOE',  a  small  boat,  made  of  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  hollowed  out  by  cutting 
or  burning ;  and  sometimes  also  of  pieces 
of  bark  joined  together.  It  is  impelled 
by  a  paddle  instead  of  an  oar ;  and  is 
used  by  the  uncivilized  nations  in  both 
hemispheres. 

CAN'ON,  a  word  of  various  significa- 
tions, of  which  we  can  only  enumerate 
the  principal. 

1.  In  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches 
there  are  canons  who  perform  some  of  the 
services,  and  are  possessed  of  certain  rev- 
enues connected  with  them.  These  are, 
strictly  speaking,  residentiary  canons: 
foreign  canons  are  those  to  whom  col- 
legiate revenues  are  assigned  without  the 
exaction  of  any  duty. 

2.  The  laws  and  ordinances  of  ecclesi- 
astical councils  are  called  canons. 

3.  The  canon  of  Scripture  signifies  the 
authorized  and  received  catalogue  of  the 
sacred  books.  The  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  received  by  the  Catholics, 
differs  from  that  of  the  Protestant  church- 
es in  regarding  as  inspired  those  books 
which  they  reject  under  the  term  Apoc- 
rypha. The  catalogue  received  by  the 
Jews  themselves,  which  we  adopt,  was 
first  enlarged  by  the  Council  of  Carthage 
to  the  e.\tent  in  which  it  is  held  by  our 
opponents,  and  that  decision  was  formally 
confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  In 
the  canon  of  tiie  New  Testament,  how- 
ever, the  agreement  of  Christian  churches 
may  be  considered  unanimous.  There 
exist  a  .series  of  enumerations  of  sacred 
books  of  the  latter  covenant  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  first  fi)ur  centuries,  the  gene- 
ral agreement  of  which,  and  the  satisfac- 


tory reasons  which  can  be  assigned  in 
most  cases  of  omission  —  there  are  no 
additions — distinctly  mark  the  universal- 
ity of  the  judgment  of  the  early  churches 
in  this  matter. — In  music,  a  perpetual 
fugue.  This  original  method  of  writing 
this  was  on  one  line,  with  marks  thereon, 
to  show*  where  the  parts  that  imitate  were 
to  begin  and  end.  This,  however,  was 
what  the  Italians  more  particularly  call 
canone  chiuso,  (shut)  or  canune  in  corpo. 

CAN'ONES.S,  a  description  of  religious 
women  in  France  and  Germany.  Their 
convents  were  termed  colleges.  They 
did  not  live  in  seclusion.  The  college  of 
Bemiremont  was  the  oldest  establishment 
of  this  order  in  France.  Similar  noble 
monasteries  still  exist  in  Germany,  and 
the  revenues  and  dignities  of  some  belong 
to  Protestants. 

CANONICAL  HOURS,  stated  tim'is 
of  the  day  set  apart,  more  especially  by 
the  Romish  church,  for  devotional  pur- 
poses. In  England  the  canonic»l  hours 
are  from  8  to  12  in  the  forenoon,  before 
or  after  which  the  ceremony  of  marriage 
cannot  be  legally  performed  in  any  parish 
church. 

CAXONIZA'TION,  a  ceremony  in  the 
Romish  church,  by  which  holy  men  de- 
ceased are  enrolled  in  the  catalogue  of 
saints.  The  privilege  of  canonizing  was 
originally  common  to  all  bishops,  and 
was  first  confined  to  the  Pope  by  Alexan- 
der III.  in  1170.  When  it  is  proposed 
to  canonize  any  person,  a  formal  process 
is  instituted,  by  which  his  merits  or  de- 
merits are  investigated.  Hereupon  the 
beatification  of  the  person  in  question  is 
pronounced  by  the  Pope,  and  his  canon- 
ization follows  upon  the  production  of 
testimony  to  miracles  performed  at  his 
tomb  or  by  his  remains.  The  day  of  his 
death  is  generally  selected  to  be  kept  in 
his  honor,  and  is  inserted  as  such  in  the 
calendar. 

CANOPY,  a  covering  of  velvet,  silk,  or 
cloth  of  gold,  extended  on  a  frame,  and 
richly  embroidered  with  suitable  devices, 
supported  and  carried  by  four  or  more 
staves  of  wood  or  silver,  borne  in  proces- 
sion over  the  heads  of  distinguished  per- 
sonages, or  over  the  hearse  at  the  fu- 
nerals of  noble  persons.  In  the  religious 
processions  of  the  Catholic  church  it  is 
borne  over  the  Ilo.^t  and  sacred  reliques. 
According  to  Roman  use  they  are  white, 
but  in  the  French  .and  Flemish  churches 
they  are  generally  red.  In  England,  the 
two  colors  seem  to  have  been  used  indis- 
criminately. 

CANT,  quaint  or  vulgar  language,  af- 


cap] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


59 


fectcd  by  particular  persons  or  profes- 
sions, and  not  authorized  by  established 
usage. — In  architecture,  a  term  express- 
ing the  position  of  any  piece  of  timber 
not  standing  sqtiare. —  Cant  moulding,  a 
moulding  with  a  bevelled  surface  applied 
to  the  capitals  of  columns. 

CANTAB'ILE,  in  music,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  movements  intended  to  be  in  a 
graceful  and  melodious  style. 

CAXTAN'TE,  in  music,  a  term  to  de- 
note the  vocal  part  of  the  composition. 

CAXTA'TA,  a  song,  or  composition, 
intermixed  with  recitatives,  airs,  and 
different  movements,  chiefly  intended  for 
a  single  voice,  with  a  thorough  bass, 
though  sometimes  with  other  instru- 
ments. 

CAN'THAHUS,  a  kind  of  drinking- 
cup  with  handles,  sacred  to  Bacchus,  who 


is  frequently  depicted  on  antique  vases, 
Ac,  holding  it  in  his  hand. 

CAN'TICjE,  ancient  dramatic  solilo- 
quies, supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
as  interludes. 

CAX'TICLES,  the  Song  of  Songs,  in 
the  Bible,  supposed  to  be  a  marriage 
song  written  by  Solomon  ;  to  be  explained 
by  compositions  of  a  similar  nature  in 
Eastern  countries.  By  other  writers  it 
is  supposed  to  be  a  series  of  sacred  idols, 
each  distinct  and  independent  of  the 
other. 

CANTILEEXA,  in  music,  the  treble 
melody,  or  upper  part  of  any  composi- 
tion. 

CANTILE'YER,  in  architecture,  a 
piece  of  wood  framed  into  the  front  or 
side  of  a  house,  and  projecting  from  it, 
to  sustain  the  eaves  and  mouldings  over 
them. 

CANTO,  a  part  or  division  of  a  poem, 
answering  to  what  in  prose  is  called  a 
book.  In  Italian,  canto  is  a  song;  and  it 
signifies  also  the  first  treble,  or  highest 
vocal  part. 

CAN'TO-FER'MO,  in  music,  the  sub- 
ject song.  Ever}'  part  that  is  the  sub- 
ject of  counterpoint,  whether  plain  or 
figured,  is  called  by  the  Italians  canto 
fermo. 


CAN'TONED,  in  architecture,  is  when 
the  corner  of  a  building  is  adorned  with 
a  pilaster,  an  angular  column,  rustic 
quoins,  or  anything  that  projects  beyond 
the  level  of  a  wall. 

CAN'VAS,  a  coarse  sort  of  cloth,  of 
which  there  are  several  kinds.  Among 
others,  are,  1.  That  worked  regularly  in 
little  squares  as  a  basis  for  tapestry:  2. 
That  which  is  called  buckram :  3.  The 
cloth  used  for  pictures :  And,  4.  That 
employed  for  sails  of  ships,  tents,  Ac. 
Two  kinds  are  prepared  for  artists'  use ; 
the  best  is  called  ticking.  It  is  primed 
with  a  ground  of  a  neutral  gray  color,  or 
with  other  colors,  according  to  the  fancy 
of  the  painter.  Certain  sizes  being  in 
greater  request  than  others,  they  are 
kept  stretched  on  frames  ready  for  use  ; 
for  portraits,  these  are  known  by  the 
names  of  Kit-cat,  which  measures  28  or 
29  inches  by  36  inches  ;  Three-quarters, 
measures  25  by  30 ;  Half-lengtti,  40  by 
50 ;  Biskops'  half-length,  44  or  45  by 
56  ;  Bishops''  whole  lenstli,  58  by  94. 

CANZONE,  or  CANZO'NA,  in  music, 
a  song  or  air  in  two  or  three  parts,  with 
passages  of  fugue  and  imitation  ;  but  it  ia 
sometimes  used  for  a  kind  of  lyric  poem, 
in  Italian,  to  which  music  may  be  com- 
posed in  the  style  of  a  cantata. 

CANZONET',  in  music,  a  short  song, 
in  one  or  two  parts. 

CAP,  a  part  of  dress  made  to  cover  the 
head.  The  use  of  caps  and  hats  is  re- 
ferred to  the  year  1449,  the  first  seen  in 
Europe,  being  at  the  entry  of  Charles  VII. 
into  Rouen  :  from  that  time  they  began 
to  take  place  of  hoods  or  chaperons. — 
Cap,  in  architecture,  the  uppermost  part 
of  any  assemblage  of  principal  or  subor- 
dinate parts. —  Cap  of  maintenance,  one 
of  the  ornaments  of  state,  carried  before 
the  kings  of  England  at  the  coronation. 
It  is  of  crimson  velvet,  faced  with  ermine. 
It  is  also  frequently  met  with  above  the 
helmet,  instead  of  wreaths,  under  gentle- 
men's crests. — Cap-a-pie,  (French)  from 
head  to  foot. 

CA'PET,  the  name  of  the  French  race 
of  kings,  which  has  given  118  sovereigns 
to  Europe,  viz.,  36  kings  of  France,  22 
kings  of  Portugal,  5  of  Spain,  11  of  Na- 
ples and  Sicily,  3  of  Hungary,  3  emperors 
of  Constantinople,  3  kings  of  Navarre,  17 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  12  dukes  of  Brittany, 
2  dukes  of  Lorraine,  and  4  dukes  of 
Parma. 

CA'PIAS,  in  law,  a  writ  of  two  sorts; 
one  before  judgment,  to  take  the  de- 
fendant ;  the  other  after,  which  ia  called 
the  writ  Of  execution. 


60 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[cap 


CAPITAL,  in  commerce,  the  fund  or 
stock,  in  money  and  goods,  of  a  merchant, 
manufacturer,  &c.,  or  of  a  trading  com- 
pany.— A  floating  capital  is  that  which 
remains  after  payment  is  made  for  all 
the  apparatus  and  implements  of  the 
business. — Pictitioas  capital  generally 
means  nothing  more  or  less  than  exces- 
sive credits,  which  throw  the  manage- 
ment and  disposition  of  a  great  deal  of 
property  into  the  hands  of  persons  who 
are  not  able  to  answer  for  the  risks  of 
loss  from  its  bad  management,  or  other 
causes. — Capital,  in  architecture,  the 
uppermost  part  of  a  column  or  pilaster, 
serving  as  the  head  or  crowning,  and 
placed  immediately  over  the  shaft,  and 
under  the  entablature. 

CAPITA'TION,  a  tax  or  imposition 
raised  on  each  person  in  consideration  of 
his  labor,  industry,  office,  rank,  &c.  It 
is  a  very  ancient  kind  of  tribute,  and  an- 
swers to  what  the  Latins  called  tributum, 
by  which  taxes  on  persons  are  distin- 
guished from  taxes  on  merchandise,  called 
vectigalia. 

CAP'ITOL,  a  castle,  in  ancient  Rome, 
on  the  Mons  Capitolinus,  where  there  was 
a  temple  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  in  which 
the  senate  assembled ;  and  on  the  same 
spot  is  still  the  city-hall  or  town-house, 
where  the  conservators  of  the  Roman 
people  hold  their  meetings.  The  foun- 
dations of  the  capitol  were  laid  by  Tar- 
quin  the  elder,  in  the  year  of  Rome  139  : 
his  successor  Servius  raised  the  walls, 
and  Tarquin  the  Proud  finished  it  in  221  ; 
but  it  was  not  consecrated  till  the  third 
year  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  and 
establishment  of  the  consulate.  The  cap- 
itol consisted  of  three  parts,  a  nave,  sa- 
cred to  Jupiter;  and  two  wings,  the  one 
consecrated  to  Juno,  and  the  other  to 
Minerva  :  it  was  a.scended  by  stairs  ;  the 
frontispiece  and  sides  were  surrounded 
with  galleries,  in  which  those  who  were 
honored  with  triumphs  entertained  the 
senate  at  a  magnificent  banquet,  after 
the  sacrifices  had  been  offered  to  the 
gods.  Both  the  inside  and  outside  were 
enriched  with  numerous  ornaments,  tlie 
most  distinguished  of  which  was  the 
statue  of  Jupiter,  with  his  golden  thun- 
der-bolt, sceptre,  and  crown.  In  the 
capitol  also  were  a  temple  to  Jupiter  the 
guardian,  and  another  to  Juno  ;  with  the 
mint;  and  on  the  descent  of  the  hill  was 
the  temple  of  Concord.  This  beautiful 
edifice  contained  the  most  sncrcd  deposits 
of  religion,  such  as  the  ancylia,  the  books 
of  the  sv))ils,  .tc. 

CAP'lTOLlNE  GAMES,    these  were 


annual  games  instituted  by  Camillus,  in 
honor  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  in  com- 
memoration of  the  preservation  of  the 
capitol  from  the  Gauls. .  There  was  also 
another  kind  of  Capitoline  games,  insti- 
tuted by  Domitian,  and  celebrated  every 
five  3'ears,  at  which  rewards  and  crowns 
were  bestowed  on  the  poets,  champions, 
orators,  historians,  &c. 

CAPIT'ULA  RURA'LIA,  assemblies 
or  chapters  held  by  rural  deans  and  pa- 
rochial clergy  within  the  precinct  of 
every  distinct  deanery. 

CAPITULARY,  the  body  of  laws  or 
statutes  of  a  chapter,  or  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical council. 

CAPITULA'TION,  in  military  affairs, 
a  treaty  made  between  the  garrison  of  a 
place  besieged  and  the  besiegers,  for  sur- 
rendering on  certain  conditions.  The 
term  is  also  applicable  to  troops  in  any 
situation  in  which  they  are  compelled  to 
submit  to  a  victorious  enemy. 

CAPIT'ULITM,  in  antiquity,  a  trans- 
verse beam  in  the  military  engines  of  the 
ancients,  wherein  were  holes  for  the 
strings  with  which  they  were  set  in  mo- 
tion. 

CAPOTE',  a  large  great  coat,  with  a 
hood  or  cowl,  which  is  sometimes  worn  by 
sentinels  in  bad  weather. 

CAPRIC'CIO,  in  music,  the  term  for 
that  irregular  kind  of  composition  in 
which  the  composer,  without  any  re- 
straint, follows  the  bent  of  his  humor. — 
Capriccio'so  denotes  that  the  movement 
before  whidi  it  is  written,  is  to  be  played 
in  a  free  and  fantastic  style. 

CAP'TAIN,  in  the  army,  the  com- 
mander of  a  company  of  foot  or  a  troop 
of  horse  ;  and  in  the  naval  or  merchant 
service,  the  commander  of  a  vessel. — A 
Captain-lieutenant  is  an  officer,  who, 
with  the  rank  of  captain  and  pay  of  lieu- 
tenant, commands  a  company  or  troop. — 
A  Post-captain  in  the  IJritish  navy,  is 
an  officer  commanding  any  man-of-war, 
from  a  ship  of  the  line  down  to  n  ship- 
rigged  sloop. — A  man  eminently  skilled 
in  war  or  military  affairs  is  styled  a 
"great-captain"  as  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington. 

CAP'TION,  in  law,  the  act  of  taking 
any  person  by  any  judicial  process. 

CAPTIVITY,  in  sacred  history,  a  pun- 
ishment which  God  inflicted  upon  the 
Jews  for  their  vices  and  infidelity.  The 
first  captivity  was  that  of  Egypt,  from 
wliich  the  Israelites  were  delivered  by 
Moses  ;  then  followed  six  captivities  dur- 
ing the  governnicnt  of  the  judges;  but 
the  greatest  and  most  remarkable  were 


car] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


61 


tbose  of  Judah  nnd  Israel,  which  hap- 
^neil  uiiJcr  tho  kings  of  those  dififerent 
kingdoms. 

CAPUCHINS',  an  order  of  Franciscan 
friars  in  the  llomi.sh  church,  so  called 
from  their  capuche  or  hood  sowed  to  their 
habits,  and  hanging  down  their  backs. 

C  AP'ULA,  in  antiquity,  a  wooden  uten- 
sil with  two  handles  for  taking  oil  out  of 
one  vessel  into  another.  The  person  who 
did  this  office  was  called  the  capulator. 

CAR'ABINE,  or  CAR'BINE,  a  short 
gun  used  by  the  cavalry. 

CAR'ACOLE,  the  half  wheel  which  a 
horseman  makes,  either  to  the  riglit  or 
left.  The  cavalry  make  a  caracole  after 
each  discharge,  in  order  to  pass  to  the 
rear  of  the  squadron. 

CA'RAITES,  a  sect  among  the  Jews 
■who  adhere  closely  to  the  text  and  letter 
of  the  scriptures,  rejecting  the  rabbinical 
interpretations  and  the  cabbala. 

CAR'AVAN,  a  company  of  merchants, 
travellers,  or  pilgrims,  who  associate  to- 
gether in  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
that  they  may  travel  with  greater  secu- 
rity through  deserts  and  other  places  in- 
fested with  robbers  or  exposed  to  other 
dangers.  The  commercial  intercourse  of 
Eastern  and  African  nations  has  from  the 
remotest  ages  been  chiefly  carried  on  by 
means  of  caravans,  as  the  governments 
that  have  sprung  up  in  those  continents 
have  seldom  been  able,  even  if  they  had 
had  the  will,  to  render  travelling  safe  or 
practicable  for  individuals.  Since  the 
establishment  of  the  Mohammedan  faith, 
religious  motives,  conspiring  with  those 
of  a  less  e.-calted  character,  have  tended 
to  augment  the  intercourse  between  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  Eastern  world,  and  to 
increase  the  number  and  magnitude  of 
the  caravans.  Mohammed,  as  is  well 
known,  enjoined  all  his  followers  to  visit 
Mecca  once  in  their  lifetime  ;  and  in  obe- 
dience to  a  command  so  soleranlj'  enjoin- 
ed and  sedulously  inculcated,  large  cara- 
vans assemble  for  this  purpose  in  every 
country  where  the  Mohammedan  faith  is 
established.  There  are  four  regular  car- 
avans which  proceed  annually  to  Mecca  ; 
the  first  from  Damascus,  composed  of 
pilgrim*,  travellers,  and  merchants,  from 
Europe  and  Asia;  the  second  from  Cairo, 
for  the  Mohammedans  of  Barbary  ;  the 
third  from  Zibith,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Red  Sea,  where  those  of  Arabia  and  In- 
dia meet;  the  fourth  from  Babylon, 
where  the  Persians  assemble.  Every 
caravan  is  under  the  command  of  a  chief 
or  aga,  who  has  frequently  under  him 
such  a  number  of  troops  cr  forces  as  is 


deemed  sufficient  for  its  defence.  When 
it  is  practicable  they  encamp  near  wells 
or  rivulets,  and  ol)serve  a  regular  disci- 
pline. Camels  are  almost  uniformly  used 
as  a  means  of  conveyance,  in  preference 
to  the  horse  or  any  other  animal,  on  ac- 
count of  their  wonderful  patience  ol  fa- 
tigue, and  their  peculiarity  of  structure, 
which  so  admirably  fits  them  for  travel- 
ling through  desert  wastes. 

CARAVAX'SERA,  a  large  public 
building,  or  inn,  appropriated  for  the  re- 
ception and  lodgment  of  caravans  in  the 
desert.  Though  serving  in  lieu  of  inns 
there  is  this  essential  difference  between 
them,  that  the  traveller  finds  nothing  in 
the  caravansera  for  the  use  either  of  him- 
self or  his  cattle,  but  must  carry  all  his 
provisions  and  necessaries  with  him.  Car- 
avanseras  are  also  numerous  in  cities, 
where  they  serve  not  only  as  inns,  but  as 
shops,  warehouses,  and  even  exchanges. 

CAR'CAXET,  in  archieology,  a  chain 
for  the  neck. 

CARCE'RES,  in  the  ancient  Circensian 
games,  were  inclosures  in  the  circus, 
wherein  the  horses  were  restrained  till 
the  signal  was  given  for  starting,  when, 
by  an  ingenious  contrivance  they  all  at 
once  flew  open. 

CARCIIE'SIUM,  CARCHE'SION,  the 
name  of  an  antique  drinking  vessel,  and 
also  of  the  goblet  peculiar  to  Bacchus, 
found  on  numerous  antiques,  sometimes 
in  his  own  hand,  as  in  the  ancient  repre- 
sentations in  which  the  god  is  clothed  and 
bearded,  and  sometimes  at  the  Bacchic 
feasts.  The  carchesium  has  a  shallow 
foot  ;  it  is  generally  wider  than  it  is  deep, 
smaller  towards  the  centre,  and  with  han- 
dles rising  high  over  the  edge,  and  reach- 
ing to  the  foot.  Its  use  in  religious  cere- 
monies proves  it  to  have  been  one  of  the 
oldest  forms  of  goblets. 

CAR'DIXAL,  which  in  a  general  sense 
signifies  ]jrincipal  or  pre-eminent,  is 
formed  of  the  Latin  word  cardo,  a  hinge, 
agreeably  with  the  common  expression, 
in  which  it  is  said  of  an  important  matter 
that  everything  turns  upon  it :  thus  Jus- 
tice, Prudence,  Temperance,  and  For- 
titude are  called  the  four  cardinal  vir- 
tues.— The  cardinal  signs,  in  astrono- 
my, arc  Aries,  Libra,  Cancer,  and  Capri- 
corn.— The  cardinal  points  of  the  com- 
pass, north,  south,  east,  and  west. — 
Cardinal  numbers,  in  grammar,  are  the 
numbers,  one,  two,  three,  &c.,  which  arc 
indeclinable,  in  opposition  to  the  ordinal 
numbers,  first,  second,  thir'l,  »tc. 

CAR'DIXAL,  in  tho  Roman  hierarchy, 
an  ecclesiastical  prince  and  iiubordinato 


62 


CYCLOPEDIA.    OF    LITERATURE 


[car 


magistrate,  who  has  a  voice  in  the  con- 
clave at  the  election  of  a  pope,  and  who 
may  be  advanced  to  that  dignity  himself. 
The  dress  of  a  cardinal  is  a  red  soutanne, 
a  rochet,  a  short  purple  mantle,  and  a  red 
hat;  and  his  title  of  address,  "His  emi- 
nence." 

CA'RET,  in  grammar,  a  character  in 
this  form  a,  denoting  that  something  has 
been  omitted,  and  is  interlined. 

CARICATURE',  in  painting,  an  ex- 
aggerated representation  of  any  object, 
in  which  any  natural  defects  are  over- 
charged, so  as  to  make  it  appear  ridicu- 
lous. 

CAR'ILLONS,  a  species  of  chimes  fre- 
quent in  the  Low  Countries,  particularly 
at  Ghent  and  Antwerp,  and  played  on  a 
number  of  bells  in  a  belfry,  forming  a 
complete  series  or  scale  of  tones  or  semi- 
tones, like  those  of  the  harpsichord  and 
organ. 

CAR'MELITES,  an  order  of  mendi- 
cant friars,  very  numerous  in  Italy  and 
Spain.  They  wear  a  scapulary,  or  small 
woollen  habit  of  a  brown  color,  thrown 
over  the  shoulders. 

CAR'MEN,  a  Latin  term,  used,  in  a 
general  sense,  to  signify  a  verse ;  but  in 
a  more  peculiar  sense,  to  signify  a  spell, 
charm,  form  of  e.xpiation,  execration,  &c.. 
Couched  in  few  words,  placed  in  a  mystic 
order,  on  which  its  efficacy  was  supposed 
to  depend. 

CAR'MINE,  a  pigment  or  powder  of  a 
deep  red  or  crimson  color,  procured  from 
cochineal,  and  used  for  painting  in  minia- 
ture. 

CARNA'TIONS,  in  painting,  the  parts 
of  a  picture  which  represent  the  naked 
limbs,  (tc. 

CARNE'IA,  a  festival  observed  in 
most  of  the  cities  of  Greece,  and  especially 
at  Sparta,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  surnameij 
Carneius.  The  festival  lasted  nine  days, 
and  was  conducted  in  imitation  of  the 
method  of  living  in  camps;  for  nine  tents 
were  erected,  in  each  of  which  nine  men 
of  three  different  tribes  lived  nine  days. 

C  ARNE'LIAN,  a  precious  stone,  either 
red,  flesh-color,  or  white.  The  finest  car- 
nelians  are  tho,»o  of  the  East  Indies : 
there  are  some  beautiful  ones  in  the  riv- 
ers of  Silesia  and  Bohemia;  and  some  of 
a  quality  not  to  be  despised  in  Britain. 
The  use  to  which  they  are  most  generally 
applied  is  that  of  seals. 

CAR'NIVAL,  the  feast  or  season  of  re- 
joicing previous  to  Lent,  celebrated  with 
(^reat  s|)irit  throughout  Italy,  when  feasts, 
balls,  operas,  concerts,  masquerades,  &c., 
abound.      The  churches    are    filled  with 


choristers,  and  the  streets  with  masks 
This  festival  flourishes  more  particularly 
at  Venice,  where  it  begins  on  the  second 
holiday  in  Christmas,  and  where  it  boasts 
to  have  had  at  one  time  seven  sovereign 
princes,  and  thirty  thousand  foreigners 
among  its  votaries. 

CARNIVOROUS,  an  epithet  applied 
to  animals  that  feed  on  flesh. 

CAROLOT'IC  COLUMNS,  in  architec- 
ture, columns  with  foliated  shafts,  deco 
rated  with  leaves  and  branches  winding 
spirally  around  them,  or  forming  crowns 
and  festoons. 

CARO'LUS,  a  gold  coin  struck  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  at  that  time  valued  at 
twenty  shillings,  but  afterwards  current 
at  twentv-three. 

CAR'PENTRY,  in  building  and  archi- 
tecture, an  assemblage  of  pieces  of  tim- 
ber connected  bj'  framing  or  letting  them 
into  each  other,  as  are  the  pieces  of  a 
roof,  floor,  centre,  &c.  It  is  distinguish- 
ed from  joinery  by  being  put  together 
without  the  use  of  other  edge  tools  than 
the  axe,  adze,  saw,  and  chisel ;  whereas 
joinery  requires  the  use  of  the  plane. 

CAR'PET,  a  sort  of  stuti' wrought  either 
with  the  needle  or  the  loom,  and  used  as 
a  covering  for  the  floor.  Persian  and 
Turkish  carpets  are  the  most  costly ;  but 
a  variety  of  other  kinds  are  used,  many 
of  which  are  both  elegant  and  durable. 

CAR'RACK,  a  large  armed  vessel  em 
ployed  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  East 
India  and  Brazilian  trade. 

CARRA'GO,  in  the  military  art  of  the 
ancients,  a  barricade  made  by  carts  and 
wagons,  which  the  Gauls  and  other  bar- 
barous nations  put  in  the  way  to  impede 
the  progress  of  an  enemy. 

CARRA'RA,  a  hard  white  kind  of  mar- 
ble, somewhat  resembling  the  Parian  ;  so 
called  from  the  town  of  Carrara,  where 
it  was  found. 

CARRONADE',  a  short  piece  of  ord- 
nance, having  a  large  calibre,  and  a 
chamber  for  the  powder,  like  a  mortar. 

CARRU'CA,  in  antiquity,  a  splendid 
kind  of  chariot  or  car  on  four  wheels, 
which  were  made  of  brass,  ivorj',  silver, 
and  sometimes  of  gold. 

CARTE-BLANCHE,  a  blank  paper, 
signed  at  the  bottom  with  a  person's 
name,  and  given  to  another  person  with 
permission  to  fill  it  up  as  he  pleases ;  ap- 
plied generally  in  the  sense  of  unlimited 
terins  being  granted. 

CAR'TEL,  an  agreement  between  two 
states  for  the  exchange  of  their  prisoners 
of  war. — A  cartel-ship,  a  ship  commis- 
sioned in  time  of  war  to  exchange  the 


CAs] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


C3 


prisoners  of  any  two  hostile  powers ;  also 
to  carry  any  particular  request  from  one 
power  to  another.  The  otlicer  who  com- 
mands her  is  ordereil  to  carry  no  cargo, 
ammunition,  orimi)lementsof  war,  except 
a  gun  for  the  purpose  of  firing  signals. 

CARTESIAN  PHILOSOPHY,  the 
philosophical  system  of  Rene  des  Cartes, 
(born  1596,)  a  native  of  Franco,  perhaps 
the  most  original  thinker  that  country 
hiia  produced.  Des  Cartes  was  the  con- 
temporary of  Bacon,  and  exercised  an 
ecjually  powerful  influence,  though  in  a 
manner  widely  different,  on  the  progress 
of  philosophy  in  Europe.  What  Bacon 
strove  to  accomplish  by  calling  men's  at- 
tention to  experiment  and  observation  of 
nature,  Des  Cartes  proposed  to  attain  by 
the  search  for  a  first  and  self-evident 
ground  of  all  knowledge.  This  he  finds 
in  the  act  of  consciousness,  involving  nc- 
cessaril3'  the  idea  of  self  or  mind.  Con- 
sciousness is  the  act  of  thought,  consti- 
tutes the  essence  of  the  soul,  and  is  that 
which  distinguishes  it  from  matter.  The 
ideas  or  objects  of  consciousness  are  of 
three  kinds, — acquired,  compounded,  and 
innate.  All  j)hysical  phenomena  Des 
Cartes  endeavored  to  account  for  by  his 
celebrated  vortices — motions  excited  by 
God,  the  source  of  all  motion. 

CARTHAGINIAX,  a  native  of  an- 
cient Carthage,  or  something  pertaining 
to  that  celebrated  citj',  which  was  situated 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  about 
twelve  miles  from  the  modern  Tunis.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Romans. 

CARTHU'SIANS,  a  religious  order, 
founded  in  the  year  1080,  by  St.  Bruno. 
They  received  their  name  from  Char- 
treuse, the  place  of  their  institution. 
They  are  so  remarkable  for  their  austeri- 
ty, that  they  never  leave  their  cells  ex- 
cept to  go  to  church,  nor  speak  to  any 
person  without  leave. 

CARTOON',  a  design  drawn  upon  large 
sheets  of  paper  for  the  purpose  of  being 
traced  upon  any  other  substance,  where 
the  subject  is  to  be  finished.  The  most 
celebrated  cartoons  in  existence  are  those 
of  Raphael,  seven  of  which  are  at  Hamp- 
ton Court,  and  were  originally  designed 
for  tapestry. 

CARTOUCH',  a  case  of  wood  holding 
about  four  hundred  musket  balls,  besides 
iron  balls,  from  six  to  ten,  to  be  fired  out 
of  a  howitzer.  Also,  a  portable  box  for 
charges. — In  architecture,  cartouches  are 
blocks  or  raodillions  used  in  the  cor- 
nices of  wainscoted  apartments  :  also  or- 
naments representing  a  scroll  of  paper. 


CAR'TRIDGE,  a  case  of  paper  or 
parchment  filled  with  gunpowder,  and 
used  in  the  charging  of  guns.  The  car- 
tridges for  small  arms,  prepared  for  bat- 
tle, contain  the  powder  and  ball:  those 
for  cannun  and  mortars  are  made  of 
pasteboard  or  tin.  Cartridges  without 
balls  are  called  blank-cartridges. — The 
cartridsre-hox  is  a  case  of  wood  covercil 
with  leather,  with  cells  for  cartridges,  and 
worn  upon  a  belt  thrown  over  the  left 
shoulder. 

CARTULARY,  or  CHAR  TULARY^  a 
register-book,  or  record,  as  of  a  monas- 
tery. 

CARVING,  a  branch  of  sculpture  usu- 
ally limited  to  works  in  wood  and  ivory, 
sculpture,  properly  so  called,  being  gen- 
erally applied  to  carving  in  stone  or  mar- 
ble. Various  kinds  of  wood  were  used  by 
the  ancients,  chiefly  for  images  of  the 
gods,  to  each  of  which  a  difiFerent  or  par- 
ticular kind  of  wood  was  appropriated ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  images  of  Dionysia, 
the  God  of  Figs,  were  made  of  the  wood 
of  the  fig-tree.  Ivory  was  also  used  to 
great  extent  by  the  ancients  in  their 
works  of  Art ;  and  the  Chryselephantine 
sculpture,  or  the  union  of  gold  with  ivory, 
was  adopted  by  the  greatest  artists.  For 
a  long  period  prior  to  the  Reformation, 
there  was  an  immense  demand  for  fine 
wood-carvings,  as  the  remains  in  cathe- 
drals, churches,  colleges,  of  screens,  cano- 
pies, desks,  chair-seats  ;  and  in  baronial 
halls,  of  door  frames,  staircases,  chimney- 
pieces,  cabinets,  picture-frames,  suffi- 
ciently show. 

CARYATI'DES,  in  architecture,  col- 
umns, or  pillars  shaped  like  the  bodies 
of  women,  and  in  the  dress  of  the  Caryan 
people.  They  were  erected  as  trophies, 
and  intended  to  represent  the  Caryan  wo- 
men who  were  taien  captive  by  the 
Athenians.  Other  female  figures  were 
afterwards  used  in  the  same  manner,  but 
they  were  called  by  the  same  name. 

CASCADE',  a  small  waterfall,  either 
natural  or  artificial.  The  word  is  ap- 
plied to  such  as  are  less  than  a  cataract. 
CASE,  the  particular  state,  condition, 
or  circumstances  that  befall  a  person,  or 
in  which  he  is  placed.  Also,  any  outside 
covering  which  serves  to  enclose  a  thing 
entirely,  as  packing-cases,  or  knife-cases. 
Case,  in  grammar,  implies  the  diflferent 
inflections  or  terminations  of  nouns,  serv- 
ing to  express  the  different  relations  they 
bear  to  each  other  and  the  things  they 
represent. — Action  on  the  case,  in  law, 
is  an  action  in  which  the  whole  cause  of 
complaint  is  set  out  in  the  writ 


64 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[cASs 


CASE'MENT,  a  window  that  opens  on 
hinges.     Also,  a  hollow  moulding. 

CASE-SHOT,  musket  balls,  stones,  old 
iron,  (fee,  put  into  cases  and  discharged 
from  cannon. 

CASH,  money  in  hand,  or  ready  mo- 
ney, distinguished  from  bills. 

CASHIER',  a  person  who  is  entrusted 
with  the  cash  of  some  public  company. 
In  a  banking  establishment  the  cashier 
superintends  the  books,  payments,  and 
receipts  of  the  bank :  he  also  signs  or 
countersigns  the  notes,  and  superintends 
all  the  transactions,  under  the  order  of 
the  directors. 

CASK'ET,  the  diminutive  of  cask,  a 
email  chest  or  box,  for  jewels,  &c. 

CASQUE,  a  piece  of  defensive  armor, 
to  cover  and  protect  the  head  and  neck 
in  battle. 

CASQUETBL',  a  small  steel  cap  or 
open  helmet,  without  beaver  or  visor, 
but  having  a  projecting  umbril  and  flex- 
ible plates  to  cover  the  neck  behind. 

CASSA'TION,  Court  of,  one  of  the 
most  important  institutions  of  modern 
France,  which  gives  to  the  whole  juris- 
diction of  that  country  coherency  and 
uniformity,  without  endangering  the  ne- 
cessary independence  of  the  courts.  It 
was  established  by  the  first  national  as- 
sembly, and  has  been  preserved,  in  every 
essential  respect,  under  all  the  changes 
of  the  revolution  and  restoration.  It 
properly  signifies  the  annulling  of  any 
act  or  decision,  if  the  forms  prescribed  by 
law  have  been  neglected  or  justice  has 
been  perverted. 

CAS'SOCK,  the  vestment  worn  by  cler- 
gymen under  their  gowns. 

CAST,  among  artists,  any  statue  or 
part  of  a  statue,  of  bronze,  or  of  plaster- 
of-Paris.^  A  cast  is  that  which  owes  its 
figure  to  the  mould  mto  which  the  mat- 
ter of  it  has  been  poured  or  cast  while  in 
a  fluid  state ;  and  thus  difi"ers  from  a 
model,  which  is  made  by  repeated  efforts 
with  a  ductile  substance,  as  any  adhesive 
earth  ;  and  from  a  piece  of  sculpture, 
which  is  the  work  of  the  chisel. 

CASTANETS',  instruments  formed  of 
small  concave  shells  of  ivory  or  hard 
wood,  fasteneil  to  the  thumb  and  beat 
with  the  middle  finger.  The  Spaniards 
and  Moors  use  them  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  their  saraband  difnces  and  gui- 
tars. 

CASTE,  the  general  name  for  the 
tribes  of  various  employment,  into  which 
tlie  Hindoos  are  divided  in  successive 
generations,  and  generations  of  families. 
The  first  caste  is  religious ;    the  second 


warlike  ;  the  third  commercial ;  and  the 
fourth  laborers.  Persons  of  the  religious 
caste  are  universally  denominated  bram- 
ins ;  the  soldiers  or  princes  are  styled 
cutlery  or  rajahs;  the  traders,  choutres 
or  shudder!/ ;  the  lowest  order,  parias. 

CAS'TELLAIN,  in  feudal  times,  the 
owner,  lord,  or  governor  of  a  castle  or 
fortified  place. 

CAS'TELLANY,  the  lordship  belong- 
ing to  a  castle  ;  or  the  extent  of  its  land 
and  jurisdiction. 

CAST'ING,  with  founders,  the  running 
of  metal  into  a  mould  :  among  sculptors, 
it  is  the  taking  casts  or  impressions  of 
figures,  &c.  Plaster-of-Paris  is  the  most 
usual  material  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose.^In  architecture,  a  term  used  to 
denote  the  bending  of  the  surfaces  of  a 
piece  of  wood  from  their  original  state, 
caused  either  by  the  gravity  of  the  mate- 
rial, or  by  its  being  subject  to  unequal 
temperature,  moisture,  or  the  uniform 
texture  of  the  material.*  Called  also 
Warping. 

CASTING  OF  DRAPERIES,  in  paint- 
ing or  sculpture,  consists  in  the  proper 
distribution  of  the  folds  of  the  garments, 
so  that  they  appear  the  result  of  accident 
rather  than  of  study  or  labor.  The  ar- 
rangement of  draperies  sometimes  gives 
the  artist  much  trouble,  but  this  is  fre- 
quently caused  by  the  material  employed 
in  the  model  being  of  a  difi'erent  sub- 
stance to  that  depicted  in  the  picture. 

CAS'TLE,  a  fortress  or  place  rendered 
defensible,  either  by  nature  or  art. — 
English  castles,  walled  with  stone,  and 
designed  for  residence  as  well  as  defence, 
are  for  the  most  part  of  no  higher  dale 
than  the  Conquest.  Those  previously 
erected  had  been  suffered  to  fall  into 
ruin ;  and  many  writers  have  assigned 
this  circumstance  as  a  reason  for  the  fa 
cility  with  which  William  the  Norman 
made  himself  master  of  the  country.  It 
was  the  policy  of  this  able  general  t<^ 
build  a  considerable  number  :  and  in  pro- 
cess of  time  the  martial  tenants  of  the 
crown  erected  them  for  themselves;  so 
that  towards  the  end  of  Stephen's  reign, 
we  are  told  that  there  existed  upwards 
of  eleven  hundred.  At  this  period  castles 
were  an  evil  of  the  greatest  magnitude 
to  both  the  sovereign  and  the  subject ; 
considerable  struggles  appear  to  have 
taken  place  with  regard  to  their  continu- 
ance ;  several  were  demolished  ;  and  their 
general  decline  commenced.  A  complete 
castle  consisted  of  a  ditch  or  moat,  an 
outwork,  called  a  bai-bican,  which  guard- 
ed the  gate  and  drawbridge  ;  an  artificial 


cat] 


AND    THK    FINE    ARTS. 


05 


mount;  an  outer  and  inner  bulliuni  or 
inclosure ;  and  the  keep,  or  lofty  tower, 
in  which  the  owner  or  governor  resided, 
and  under  which  were  the  dungconsi. — 
Castle-guard,  a  feudal  tenure,  or  knight 
service,  which  obliged  the  tenant  to  per- 
form service  within  the  realm,  without 
limitation  of  time. —  CasLle-irard,  an  ini- 
l)Osition  laid  upon  subjects  dwelling  with- 
in a  certain  distance  of  a  castle,  for  the 
jiurpose  of  maintaining  watch  and  ward 
in  the  castle. 

CAS'TOR  AND  POL'LUX,  the  name 
given  to  a  meteor  which  sometimes  ap- 
pears at  sea,  attached  to  the  extremities 
of  the  masts  of  ships  under  the  form  of 
balls  of  fire.  AVhen  one  ball  only  is 
seen,  it  is  called  Helena.  The  meteor  is 
generally  supposed  to  indicate  the  cessa- 
tion of  a  storm,  or  a  future  calm ;  but 
Helena,  or  one  ball  only,  to  portend  bad 
weather. 

CAS'UISTRY,  the  science  of  resolving 
cases  of  doubtful  propriety,  or  of  deter- 
mining the  lawfulness  or  unlawfulness  of 
any  act,  by  rules  and  principles  drawn 
from  the  Scriptures,  from  the  laws  of  so- 
ciety, or  from  reason. 

CA'SUS  FCED'ERI.S,  the  case  stipu- 
lated by  treaty,  or  which  comes  within 
the  terms  of  compact. 

CA'SUS  OMIS'SUS,  in  law,  where  any 
particular  thing  is  omitted,  and  not  pro- 
vided for  by  the  statute. 

CATACHRE'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  trope 
which  borrows  the  name  of  one  thing  to 
express  another.  Thus  Milton,  in  de- 
scribing Raphael's  descent  from  the  em- 
pyreal heaven,  says, 

■'  Down  thither  prone  in  flight 
He  speeds,  and  thro'  the  vast  ethereal  sky 
Hails  between  worlds  and  worlds." 

So  in  Scripture  we  read  of  the  "  blood 
of  the  grape."  A  catachresis,  in  fact,  is 
the  abuse  of  a  trope,  or  when  a  word  is 
too  far  wrested  from  its  original  signifi- 
cation. 

CAT'ACOMB,  a  grotto  or  subterrane- 
ous place  for  the  burial  of  the  dead.  It 
is  generally  applied  to  a  vast  number  of 
subterraneous  sepulchres,  in  the  Appian 
Wa_v,  near  Rome  ;  supposed  to  be  the 
cells  in  which  were  deposited  the  bodies 
of  the  primitive  Christian  martyrs.  But 
there  are  now  many  other  catacombs,  as 
at  Paris,  Ac. 

CATADRO'MUS,  in  antiquity,  the 
etadium,  or  place  where  races  were  run. 

CATAFAL'CO,  in  architecture,  a  tem- 
porary structure  of  carpentry,  decorated 
with  painting  and  .sculpture,  representing 


a  tomb  or  cenotaph,  and  used  in  funeral 
ceremonies.  That  used  at  the  final  in- 
tcrmcntM)f  Michael  Angelo  at  Florence 
was  of  the  most  magnificent  description, 
and  perhaps  unequalled  as  to  the  art 
employed  on  it  by  any  used  before  or 
since. 

CATALEC'TIC,  in  Greek  and  Latin 
poetry,  a  verse  wanting  one  syllable  of 
its  proper  length :  acatalectic,  a  ver.se 
complete  in  length  ;  hypcrcatalectic,  hav- 
ing one  syllable  too  many;  bracliycatalec- 
tic,  wanting  two  syllables. 

CAT'ALEP.SY,  a  disease  in  which  the 
functions  of  the  organs  of  sense  and  mo- 
tion are  suspended,  whilst  the  heart  con- 
tinues to  pulsate.  The  patients  are  said 
to  be  in  a  trance;  and  in  this  state  they 
remain  for  some  hours,  or  even  days. 
Ammoniacal  and  ethereal  stimulants  are 
the  most  effectual  restoratives. 

CAT'ALOGUE  RAISONNE',  in  bib- 
liography, a  catalogue  of  books,  classed 
under  the  heads  of  their  several  subjects, 
and  with  a  general  abstract  of  the  contents 
of  works  where  the  title  does  not  sufficient- 
ly indicate  it ;  thus  serving  as  a  manual, 
to  direct  the  reader  to  the  sources  of  in- 
formation on  any  particular  topic.  The 
want  of  alphabetical  arrangement  is  sup- 
plied by  an  index  at  the  end.  '^he  cata- 
logue of  the  French  Bibliotheque  Royale 
(lU  vols.  fol.  1739-53)  is  said  to  be  the 
best  work  of  this  description. 

CATAPUL'TA,  or  CAT'APULT,  in 
antiquity,  a  military  engine  used  for 
throwing  arrows,  darts,  and  stones  upon 
the  enemy.  Some  of  these  engines 
would  throw  stones  of  a  hundred  weight. 
Joscphus  takes  notice  of  the  surprising 
effects  of  these  engines,  and  says,  that 
the  stones  thrown  out  of  them  beat  down 
the  battlements,  knocked  off  the  angles 
of  the  towers,  and  would  level  a  whole  file 
of  men,  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

CAT'ARACT,  a  great  fall  of  water  over 
a  precipice  in  the  channel  of  a  river, 
caused  by  rocks  or  other  obstacles  stop- 
ping the  course  of  the  stream  ;  as  that 
of  Niagara,  the  Nile,  the  Danube,  and 
the  Rhine. 

CATAS'TASIS,  in  poetry,  the  third 
part  of  the  ancient  drama,  being  that 
wherein  the  intrigue,  or  action,  is  sup- 
ported and  carried  on,  and  heightened, 
till  it  be  ripe  for  unravelling  in  the  catas- 
trophe. 

CATAS'TROPIIE,  in  dramatic  poetry, 
the  fourth  and  last  part  in  the  ancient 
drama,  or  that  iinuiodiatoly  succeeding 
the  catastasis ;  anil  which  consists  in  the 
unfolding  and  winding  up  of  the  plot, 


66 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEr.Al  LRE 


[cat 


clearing  up  diflBculties,  and  closing  the 
play. 

CATCH,  in  music,  is  defined  to  be  "a 
piece  for  three  or  four  voices,  one  of 
which  leads,  and  the  others  follow  in  the 
same  notes."  But  perliaps  it  may  be 
more  correctly  described  as  a  fugue  in 
the  unison,  wherein  to  humor  some  con- 
ceit in  the  words,  or  to  give  them  a  dif- 
ferent meaning,  the  melody  is  broken, 
and  the  sense  is  interrupted  in  one  part, 
and  caught  and  supported  by  another. 

CAT'ECHISM,  a  form  of  instruction 
in  religion,  conveyed  in  questions  and 
answers.  The  catechism  of  the  Cliurch 
of  England  originally  consisted  of  no 
more  than  a  repetition  of  the  baptismal 
vow,  the  creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer ; 
but  King  James  I.  ordered  the  bishops  to 
add  to  it  a  short  and  plain  explication  of 
the  sacraments. 

CAT'ECHIST,  an  officer  in  the  primi- 
tive Christian  church,  whose  business  it 
was  to  instruct  the  catechumens  in  the 
first  principles  of  religion,  and  thereby 
prepare  them  for  the  reception  of  bap- 
tism. 

CATECIIU'MENS,  a  name  formerly 
given  in  the  Christian  church  to  such  as 
Avere  prepared  to  receive  the  ordinance  of 
baptism.  These  were  anciently  the  chil- 
dren of  Tselieving  parents,  or  pagans  not 
fully  initiated  in  the  principles  of  the 
Christian  religion  ;  and  were  admitted  to 
this  state  by  the  imposition  of  hands  and 
the  sign  of  the  cross. 

CAT'EGOREMAT'IC,  in  logic,  when 
a  word  is  capable  of  being  employed  by 
itself  as  a  term,  or  predicate  of  a  propo- 
sition. 

CAT'EGORY,  in  logic  and  metaphys- 
ics, a  Greek  word,  signifying  originally 
that  which  may  be  said  or  predicated  of 
a  thing ;  a  general  term  in  reference  to 
a  less  general  one  which  is  included  un- 
der it.  By  Aristotle,  from  whom  the 
word,  and  its  correspondmg  Latin  term 
predicate,  was  borrowed  by  the  school- 
men, it  was  applied  to  denote  the  most 
general  of  the  attributes  that  may  be  as- 
signed to  a  subject.  Of  these  ho  attempt- 
ed an  enumeration,  under  the  name  of 
substance,  quantity,  quality,  relation, 
place,  time,  condition,  state  or  habitude, 
action,  and  passion.  The  word  has  been 
revived  in  modern  time  by  Kant,  to  ex- 
press the  most  general  of  the  modes  in 
which  a  thing  can  bo  raised  from  an  ob- 
ject of  sense  to  an  object  of  intellect ;  or, 
in  other  words,  the  forms  or  conditions 
which  must  pre-exist  in  the  understand- 
ing, in  order  that  an  act  of  intelligence 


m.Ty  take  place.  The  difference  between 
the  categories  of  Kant  and  those  of  Aris- 
totle is  this,  that  the  latter  are  mere  gen- 
eralizations from  experience,  which  may 
consequently  be  multijilied  indefinitely  ; 
whereas  the  former  result  from  a  profes- 
sedly exhaustive  analysis  of  the  human 
understanding  as  it  is  in  itself,  or  formal- 
ly, that  is,  apart  from  all  consideration 
of  its  object-matter 

CATENA'RIAN  ARCH,  in  architect- 
ure, an  arch  whose  form  is  that  of  a  chord 
or  chain  suspended  from  two  fixed  points 
at,  its  extremities. 

CAT'GUT,  the  name  for  the  strings 
made  of  the  intestines  of  sheep  or  lambs, 
used  in  musical  instruments,  Ac.  Great 
quantities  are  imported  from  Lyons  and 
Italy. 

CATHE'DRA,  in  archgeology,  a  term 
used  to  denote  the  pulpit,  or  the  profes- 
sor's chair.  It  originally  signified  any 
chair. — Among  ecclesiastical  writers  it  de- 
notes a  bishop's  see,  or  throne.  Hence, 
ex  cathedra  is  a  phrase  which  is  much 
used  among  the  clergy  of  the  Romish 
church,  in  relation  to  the  solemn  decrees 
of  the  pope. 

CATHE'DRAL,  the  principal  church 
of  a  diocese,  in  which  is  the  throne  of  the 
bishop.  The  term  cathedra  was  original- 
ly applied  to  the  seats  in  which  the  bish- 
op and  presbyters  sate  in  their  assem- 
blies, which  were  held  in  the  rooms  in 
which  the  worship  of  the  first  Christians 
was  also  performed  before  they  had  liber- 
ty to  erect  temjjles  for  that  purpose.  In 
after-times  the  choir  of  the  cathedral 
church  was  made  to  terminate  in  a  semi- 
circular or  polygonal  apsis ;  and  in  the 
recess  thus  formed  were  placed  the  throne 
of  the  bishop  in  the  centre,  and  seats  of 
an  inferior  class  for  presbyters. 

CATHER'INE,  St.,  of  Alexandria, 
the  patron  saint  of  Philosophy  and  the 
Schools.  The  pictures  of  her  are  almost 
innumerable  ;  as  patron  saint  or  martyr, 
her  attributes  are  a  broken  wheel  set 
round  with  knives,  and  a  sword,  the  in- 
struments of  her  martyrdom. 

CATH'OLIC,  an  epithet  properly  sig- 
nifying universal.  Originally  this  appel- 
lation was  given  to  the  Christian  church 
in  general,  but  now  the  Romish  church 
assumes  it  exclusively  to  itself;  whence 
the  name  of  Roman  Catholics  has  been 
applied,  since  the  Reformation,  to  the 
followers  of  the  Romish  doctrine  and  dis- 
cipline.—  Catholic  Majesty,  the  title  giv- 
en to  the  king  or  queen  of  Spain. — Cath- 
olic Priest,  a  clergyman  or  priest  ordained 
to  say  mass   and   administer  the  sacra- 


CBCj 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


67 


ments,  Ac,  according  to  the  ritos  of  the 
Romish  church. 

CATOP'TROMANCY,  a  species  of  div- 
ination among  the  ancients,  which  was 
performed  tor  the  sicii,  by  letting  down  a 
mirror,  fa.^tencd  by  a  thread,  into  a  foun- 
tain before  the  temple  of  Ceres,  to  look  at 
his  face  in  it.  If  it  appeared  distorted 
and  ghastly,  it  was  a  sign  of  death ;  if 
fresh  and  healthy,  it  denoted  a  speedy 
recovery. 

CAUSALITY,  or  CAUSA'TION,  a- 
mong  metaphysicians,  the  action  or  pow- 
er of  a  cause  in  producing  its  efi'ect. 

CAUSE,  that  from  whence  anything 
proceeds,  or  by  virtue  of  which  anything 
is  done  :  it  stands  opposeil  to  effect.  We 
get  the  ideas  of  cause  and  effect  from  our 
observation  of  the  vicissitude  of  things, 
while  we  perceive  some  qualities  or  sub- 
stances begin  to  exist,  and  that  they  re- 
ceive their  existence  from  the  due  appli- 
cation and  operation  of  other  beings. 
That  which  produces  is  the  cause;  that 
which  is  produced,  the  effect. — Causes  are 
distinguished,  by  the  schools,  into  effi- 
cient, material,  final,  and  formal.  Effi- 
cient Causes  are  the  agents  emploj'ed  in 
the  production  of  anything.  Alaterial 
Causes,  the  subjects  whereon  the  agents 
work  ;  or  the  materials  whereof  the  thing 
is  produced.  Final  Causes  are  the  mo- 
tives inducing  an  agent  to  act  :  or  the 
design  and  purpose  for  which  the  thing 
was  done.  Causes  are  again  distinguished 
into  physical  and  moral ;  universal,  or 
particular  ;  principal,  or  instrumental : 
total,  or  partial ;  univocal,  equivocal, 
&c. —  Cause,  among  civilians,  is  the  same 
with  action  ;  denoting  any  legal  process 
which  a  party  institutes  to  obtain  his  de- 
mand, or  by  which  he  seeks  his  supposed 
right. 

CAUTIO'NE  ADMITTEN'DA,  inlaw, 
a  writ  which  lies  against  a  bishop  that 
holds  an  excommunicated  person  in  prison 
for  contempt,  after  he  has  offered  suffi- 
cient caution  or  security  to  obey  the  or- 
ders of  the  church.  On  receipt  of  this 
writ,  the  sheriff  warns  the  bishop  to  take 
caution. 

CAV^ALCADE'  a  pompous  procession 
of  horsemen,  equipages,  &c.,  by  way  of 
parade  to  grace  a  triumph,  public  entry, 
or  the  like. 

CAVALIER',  a  gallant  armed  horse- 
man. It  was  also  an  appellation  given 
to  the  pnrty  of  Charles  I.  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  parliamentarians,  who 
were  called  Roundheads. — In  fortifica- 
tion, a  work  raised  within  the  bod}'  of  a 
place,  above  the  other  works. 


CAVALRY,  a  body  of  soldiers  on 
horseback  ;  a  general  term  for  light-horse, 
dragoons,  lancers,  and  all  other  troops 
who  are  armed  and  mounted.  Their 
chief  use  is  to  make  frequent  excursions 
to  the  disturbance  of  the  enemy,  and  in- 
tercept his  convoys  ;  in  battle,  to  support 
and  cover  the  infantry,  and  to  break 
through  and  disorder  the  enemy.  The 
use  of  cavalry  is  probably  nearly  as  an- 
cient as  war  itself.  At  the  present  day 
the  cavalry  is  divided  into  light  and  heavy 
horse,  which  are  employed  for  diflferent 
purposes.  The  heavy  cavalry,  with  de- 
fensive armor  (cuirassiers,)  is  generally 
employed  where  force  is  requisite  ;  the 
lighter  troops  are  used  in  small  detach- 
ments, where  swiftness  and  continued  ef- 
fort are  required. 

CA'VEAT,  an  entry  in  the  spiritual 
courts,  by  which  the  probate  of  a  will, 
letters  of  administration,  license  of  mar- 
riage, &c.,  may  be  prevented  from  being 
issued  without  the  knowledge,  and,  if  the 
reason  be  just,  the  consent  of  the  party 
entering  the  caveat. 

CAVERN,  a  natural  cavity,  or  deep 
hollow  place  in  the  earth,  arising  either 
from  arches  accidentally  made,  or  from 
streams  of  water  flowing  under  ground. 
One  of  the  grandest  natural  caverns 
known  is  Eingal's  cave,  in  StafFa,  one  of 
the  western  islands  of  Scotland.  The 
grotto  of  Antiparos,  in  the  Archipelago, 
is  celebrated  for  its  magnificence.  In 
some  parts,  immense  columns  descend  to 
the  floor ;  others  present  the  appearance 
of  trees  and  brooks  turned  to  marble. 
The  Peak  Cavern,  in  Derbyshire,  is  also 
a  celebrated  curiosity  of  this  kind.  It  is 
nearly  half  a  mile  in  length,  and,  at  its 
lowest  part,  600  feet  below  the  surface. 
Many  caves  are  formed  by  the  lava  of 
volcanoes.  In  the  Cevennes  mountains, 
in  France,  are  caverns  and  grottoes  of 
great  extent,  and  which  abound  in  objects 
of  curiosity.  But  the  largest  we  read  of 
is  the  cavern  of  Guacharo,  in  South 
America,  which  is  said  to  extend  for 
leagues. 

C  A  VET 'TO,  in  architecture,  a  hollow 
member,  or  round  Cdueave  moulding, 
containing  the  quadrant  of  a  circle  ;  and 
used  as  an  ornament  in  cornices. 

CECIL'IA,  St.,  the  patroness  of  music, 
and  supposed  inventress  of  the  organ ; 
she  suffered  mnrtyrdom  by  being  plunged 
into  a  vessel  of  boiling  oil.  She  is  some- 
times depicted  with  a  gash  in  her  neck, 
and  standing  in  a  cauldron,  but  more 
frequently  holding  the  model  of  an  or- 
gan, and  turning  her  head  towards  hoa- 


C8 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[CES 


Ten,  as  if  listening  to.  the  music  of  the 
spheres. 

CEIL'ING,  in  architecture,  the  upper 
part  or  roof  of  a  room,  being  a  lay  or 
covering  of  plaster  over  laths,  nailed  on 
the  bottom  of  the  joists  which  bear  the 
floor  of  the  upper  room,  or  on  joists  put 
up  for  that  purpose  where  there  is  no  up- 
per room,  hence  called  coiling  joists. 

CEL'ARENT,  in  logic,  a  mode  of  syllo- 
gism, wherein  the  major  and  conclusion 
are  universal  negative  propositions,  and 
the  minor  an  universal  affirmative  ;  as 
"  No  man  that  is  a  hypocrite  can  be 
saved  :  Every  man  who  with  his  lips  only 
cries  Lord,  Lord,  is  a  hypocrite  :  There- 
fore, no  man,  who  with  his  lips  only  cries 
Lord,  Lord,  can  be  saved." 

CEL'EBE,  a  vase,  found  chiefly  in 
Etruria,  distinguished  by  its  peculiarly 
shaped  handles,  which  are  pillared. 

CEL'ERES,  in  Iloman  antiquity,  a 
regiment  of  body-guards  belonging  to  the 
Roman  kings,  established  by  Romulus, 
and  composed  of  300  youn^  men  chosen 
out  of  the  most  illustrious  Iloman  fami- 
lies, and  approved  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
curia;  of  the  people,  each  of  which  fur- 
nished ten. 

CELES'TIAL,  in  its  first  and  obvious 
sense,  denotes  something  pertaining  to, 
or  dwelling  in  heaven.  In  mythology, 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  residence  of 
the  gods,  supposed  to  be  in  the  clouds  or 
stars ;  and  hence  the  space  in  which  the 
stars  are  situated  are  commonly  called 
the  celestial  spaces. 

CEL'ESTINS,  a  religious  order  of 
Christians,  reformed  from  the  Bernardins 
by  Pope  Celestin  V.  The  Celestins  rise 
two  hours  after  midnight  to  say  matins; 
they  eat  no  flesh  at  any  time,  except 
■when  sick,  and  fast  often.  Their  habit 
is  a  white  gown,  a  capuche,  and  a  black 
scapularv. 

CELEUS'MA,  in  antiquity,  a  naval 
shout  serving  as  a  signal  for  the  mari- 
ners to  ply  their  oars,  or  to  cease  from 
rowing.  It  was  also  niiide  use  of  to  sig- 
nify the  joyful  acclamation  of  vintagers, 
and  the  shouts  of  the  conquerors  over  the 
vanquished. 

CELIB'ACY,  an  unmarried  or  single 
state  of  life,  to  which,  nccording  to  the 
doctrine  and  the  discipline  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  the  clergy  are  obliged  to  con- 
form. 

CEL'TIC,  pertaining  to  the  CcUk,  or 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Britain,  Gaul, 
Spain.  Thus  we  say  Celtic  customs, 
Celtic  origin,  Celtic  remains,  Ac. 

CEM'ETERY,  a  repository  for  the  dead. 


Among  modern  improvements,  perhaps 
few  are  more  deserving  of  commendation 
than  the  custom,  recently  introduced,  of 
appropriating  an  eligible  spot  of  ground, 
at  a  convenient  distance  from  populous 
towns,  for  the  purpose  of  human  inter- 
ment. 

CEN'OTAPH,  a  monument  erected  to 
a  deceased  person,  but  not  contaiuing  the 
remains.  Originally  cenotaphs  were 
raised  for  those  only  whose  bones  could 
not  be  found,  who  had  perished  at  sea, 
&c.,  or  to  one  who  died  far  away  from 
his  native  to-\vn.  The  tomb  built  by  a 
man  during  his  life-time  for  himself  and 
family  was  called  a  cenotaph. 

CEX'SER,  in  the  religious  rites  of  the 
ancients,  was  a  vase,  containing  incense 
to  be  used  in  sacrificing  to  the  gods.  Cen- 
sers were  likewise  in  use  among  the  Jews, 
as  we  find  in  the  1  Kings  vii.  .50.  "Solo- 
mon, when  he  prepared  furniture  for  the 
temple  of  the  Lord,  among  other  things 
made  censers  of  pure  gold." 

CEN'SOR,  an  officer  in  ancient  Rome, 
whose  business  it  was  to  reform  the  man- 
ners and  to  value  the  estates  of  the  peo- 
ple. At  first  they  were  chosen  out  of  the 
senate,  but  after  the  plebeians  had  got  the 
consulate  open  to  them,  they  soon  arrived 
at  the  censorship.  Cicero  reduces  their 
functions  to  the  numbering  of  the  people, 
the  correction  and  reformation  of  man- 
ners, the  estimating  the  eff"ects  of  each 
citizen,  the  proportioning  of  taxes,  the 
superintendence  of  tribute,  the  exclusion 
from  the  temples,  and  the  care  of  the 
public  places.  The  otHce  was  so  consider- 
able, that  none  aspired  to  it  till  they  had 
passed  all  the  rest. 

CEN'SURE,  a  judgment  which  con- 
demns some  book,  person,  or  action,  or 
more  particularly  a  reprimand  from  a 
superior. — Ecclesiastical  censures  are 
penalties  by  which,  for  some  striking 
malconduct,  a  member  of  a  church  is  de- 
prived of  the  communion  of  the  church, 
or  prohibited  from  executing  the  sacer- 
dotal office. 

CEN'SUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an 
authentic  declaration  made  before  the 
censors,  by  the  several  subjects  of  the 
empire,  of  their  respective  names  and 
places  of  abode.  This  declaration  was 
registered  by  the  censors,  and  confaine<l 
an  enumeration  of  all  their  estates,  lands, 
and  inheritances,  their  quantity  and  qual- 
ity, with  the  wives,  children,  ilomcstics, 
tenants,  and  shaves  of  each  citizen.  The 
census  was  instituted  by  Servius  Tullius, 
and  was  held  every  five  years.  The 
word  ceiisus  is  still  used  to  signify  an 


CEU] 


AND    Trip;    FINK    A IITS. 


69 


enumeration  of  the  inhabitants  of  any 
kingdom  or  state,  taken  by  order  of  its 
legislature. 

CENT,  from  centum,  "a  hundred,"  is 
used  in  commercial  concerns  to  signify 
a  hundred  pounds.  A  proflt  of  10  per 
cent,  is  the  gain  of  10/.  by  the  use  of 
100/. 

CEN'TAUR,  in  classic  antiquity,  a 
monster,  half  man  and  half  horse.  It  is 
intimated  by  Virgil,  and  generally  be- 
lieved, that  the  Centaurs  were  a  tribe  of 
Lai)itli;r,  who  inhabited  the  city  of  Pele- 
thronium,  adjoining  to  Mount  Pelion, 
and  who  first  broke  and  rode  upon 
horses.  Nations  to  whom  the  sight  of 
a  man  on  horseback  was  new,  believed, 
as  did  the  Americans  of  the  Spaniards, 
the  liorse  and  his  rider  made  but  one 
animal. 

CEN'TENARY,  the  number  of  a  hun- 
dred, or  pertaining  thereto.  Hence  the 
epithet  centennial  for  what  regularly  oc- 
curs once  in  a  century. 

CENTE.SIMA'TldN,  a  military  pun- 
ishment, in  cases  of  desertion,  mutiny, 
Ac,  when  every  hundredth  man  is  selected 
for  execution. 

CEN'TO,  in  poetry,  a  work  wholly  com- 
posed of  verses  or  passages,  promiscuously 
taken  from  other  authors,  and  disposed  in 
a  new  order. 

CENTRAL  FIRE,  a  supposed  perpet- 
ual fire,  which,  according  to  the  theory 
of  some  philosophers,  e.xists  in  the  centre 
of  the  earth,  and  to  which,  in  ancient 
times,  volcanoes  and  other  similar  phe- 
nomena were  attributed. 

CENTUM'VIRI,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
judges  appointed  to  decide  common 
causes  among  the  people.  Three  were 
chosen  out  of  each  tribe ;  and  though 
there  were  five  more  than  a  hundred, 
they  were  nevertheless  called  centumviri, 
from  the  round  number  centum. 

CENTfRION,  among  the  Romans,  an 
officer  in  the  infantry,  who  commanded  a 
century,  or  a  hundred  men.  The  Roman 
legions  were,  in  fact,  divided  into  cen- 
turies. 

CEN'TURY,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes 
a  hundred;  or  anything  divided  into,  or 
consisting  of,  a  hundred  parts  The  Ro- 
man people,  when  they  were  assembled 
for  the  electing  of  magistrates,  enacting 
of  laws,  or  deliberating  upon  any  public 
affair,  were  always  divided  into  centuries, 
and  voted  by  centuries,  in  order  that  their 
suffrages  mij^ht  be  the  more  easily  col- 
lected ;  whence  these  assemblies  were 
called  comilia  centuriata.  This  mode  of 
dividing  the  Roman   people  was   intro- 


duced by  Servius  Tullius  ;  the  first  class 
contained  eighty,  to  which  were  added 
the  eighteen  centuries  of  the  knights  ;  the 
three  following  classes  had  each  twenty 
centuries,  the  fifth  thirty,  and  the  si.xth 
only  one  century. — -In  chronology',  it 
means  the  space  of  one  hundred  j-ears ; 
and  this  is  the  most  common  signification 
of  the  word.  As  we  begin  our  common 
computation  of  time  from  the  incarnation 
of  Christ,  the  word  is  generally  applied 
to  some  term  of  a  hundred  years  subse- 
quent to  it. 

CEREA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  feasts  of 
Ceres,  instituted  by  Triptolemus  of  Eleu- 
sis,  in  Attica.  These  feasts  were  cele- 
brated with  religious  purity ;  but  the 
votaries  of  the  goddess  ran  about  with 
lighted  torches,  in  commemoration  of  her 
search  after  her  daughter  Proserpine. — 
The  word  also  was  used  to  denote  all 
sorts  of  corn  of  which  bread  is  made. 

CER'EMOXY,  an  assemblage  of  seve- 
ral actions,  forms,  and  circumstances, 
serving  to  render  a  thing  more  magnifi- 
cent and  solemn ;  particularly  used  to 
denote  the  external  rites  of  religious  wor- 
ship, the  formality  of  introducing  ambas- 
sadors to  audiences,  &c. — Master  of  the 
Ceremonies,  an  officer  instituted  by 
James  I.  for  the  more  honorable  reception 
of  ambassadors  and  strangers  of  quality, 
and  for  the  regulation  of  all  matters  of 
etiquette  in  the  assemblies  over  which 
they  presMe. — Ceremonial  of  l^uropean 
Powers,  comprises — 1.  The  particular 
titles  due  to  sovereigns  indifferent  states; 
the  imperial  title  being  considered  as  ex- 
pressing some  sort  of  superioritj'  over  the 
royal,  and  having  been  in  consequence 
assumed  by  various  kings  in  their  public 
acts  (as  the  king  of  England  since  the 
union  of  the  crowns.)  2.  The  acknowledg- 
ment of  sovereign  titles,  the  right  to  con- 
fer which  was  formerly  claimed  by  the 
popes  as  their  own  prerogative,  but  they 
are  now  assumed  by  princes,  and  confirmed 
by  the  acknowledgment  of  other  sove- 
reigns. 3.  The  respective  prerogatives 
of  diff'erent  sovereigns ;  which  species  of 
precedence  is  that  which  has  occasioned 
the  greatest  amount  of  discussion  and  dis- 
pute when  sovereigns,  or  their  represen- 
tatives, have  been  brought  together.  In 
1.'504,  Pope  Julius  II.  arranged  the  rank 
of  European  powers  in  the  following  or- 
der: 1.  The  Roman  emperor;  2.  The 
king  of  Rome ;  3.  France  ;  4.  Castile ; 
.5.  Aragon;  6.  Portugal;  7.  England; 
8.  Sicily;  9.  Scotland;  10.  Hungary; 
11.  Navarre;  12.  Cyprus;  13.  Bohemia; 
14.  Poland;    15.  Denmark;    IG.  Repub- 


10 


rVf'I.OrEDIA    OK    I.ITF.RATURK 


[ciTA 


lie  of  Venice;  17.  Dulvc  of  Britanny; 
18.  Burgundy;  19.  Elector  of  Bavaria; 
20.  Saxony;  21.  Brandenburg;  22.  Arch- 
duke of  Austria;  23.  Duke  of  Savoy; 
24.  Grand  Duke  of  Florence  ;  2.5.  Duke 
of  Milan ;  26.  Bavaria.  27.  Lorraine. 
This  arrangement,  however,  gave  birth 
to  repeated  contests.  At  present,  where 
precedence  is  not  considered  as  established 
between  rulers  of  equal  dignity,  each  con- 
cedes to  the  other  precedence  at  home  ; 
and  when  they  meet  on  the  territory  of 
a  third  party,  they  take  precedence  al- 
ternately until  some  arrangement  is 
effected. 

CERIN'THIANS,  the  followers  of  Ce- 
rinthus,  one  of  the  first  heresiarchs  in  the 
church.  They  denied  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  but  they  held  that  a  celestial  vir- 
tue descended  on  him  at  his  baptism  in 
the  form  of  a  dove,  by  which  he  was  con- 
secrated and  made  Christ. 

CERO'MA,  an  ointment  made  of  oil 
and  wax,  with  which  the  ancient  wrestlers 
rubbed  themselves  to  render  their  limbs 
more  pliant. 

CER'OMANCY,  an  ancient  mode  of 
divination,  by  means  of  dropping  melted 
wax  in  water,  and  observing  the  shapes, 
&c  ,  it  assumed. 

CEROPLAS'TIC,  the  art  of  modelling 
in  wax,  one  of  very  high  antiquity.  Ly- 
sistratus,  the  brother  of  Lysippus,  was 
the  first  that  used  wax  for  modelling  the 
human  figure.  He  lived  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  a  native 
of  Sicyon. 

CEilTIF'ICATE,  in  a  general  sense, 
a  testimonj' given  in  writing  to  declare  or 
certify  the  truth  of  anything.  Of  these 
there  are  many  which  are  requisite  in 
almost  every  profession,  but  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  law  and  in  the  army. 

CERTIORA'RI,  a  writ  issuing  out  of 
some  superior  court,  to  call  up  the  re- 
cords of  an  inferior  court,  or  remove  a 
cause  there  depending,  that  it  may  bo 
tried  in  a  superior  court. 

CESSA'TION  OF  ARMS,  an  armistice 
or  occasional  truce,  agreed  to  by  the  com- 
manders of  arms,  to  give  time  for  a  cap- 
itulation, or  for  other  purposes. 

CESSA'VIT,  in  law,  a  writ  to  recover 
lands,  when  the  tenant  or  occupier  has 
ceased  for  two  years  to  perform  the  ser- 
vice which  constitutes  the  condition  of  his 
tenure,  and  has  not  sufficient  goods  or 
chattels  to  be  distrained. 

CES'SION,  in  a  general  sense  a  sur- 
render; but  particularly  a  surrender  of 
conquered  territory  to  its  former  propri- 
etor or  sovereign  by  treaty. — Cession, 


in  the  civil  law,  is  a  voluntary  surrender 
of  <a  person's  effects  to  his  creditors,  to 
avoid  imprisonment. 

CES'TUS,  Caestl's,  thongs  of  leather 
round  the  hands  and  arms,  worn  by  box- 
ers for  offence  and  defence,  to  render 
their  blows  more  power- 
ful. The  cestus  was  in- 
troduced when  athletics 
were  generally  practised, 
and  the  name  is  Roman. 
It  was  a  stronger  defence 
than  the  Hlmantes  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  ;  the  sim- 
ple thongs  of  leather  were 
still  used  occasionally  in 
boxing,  and  in  the  exer- 
cises of  the  Agonistae,  and 
were  called  Melichai,  be- 
cause the  blows  they  gave 
were  less  formidable  than  those  of  the 
cestus.  There  are  many  kinds  of  cestus, 
in  some  the  thongs  of  leather  are  studded 
with  nails.  Works  of  ancient  Art  abound 
in  which  the  cestus  is  represented. — 
Cestus,  a  girdle  said  to  be  worn  by  Ve- 
nus, to  which  Homer  ascribes  the  power  of 
exciting  love  towards  the  wearer.  It  was 
also  a  marriage  girdle,  richly  studded, 
with  which  the  husband  girded  his  wife 
at  the  wedding,  and  loosed  again  at  night. 

CHACONE',  or  CIACOXE,  in  music, 
a  kind  of  dance  resembling  a  saraband, 
of  Moorish  origin.  The  bass  of  it  consists 
of  four  notes,  which  proceed  in  conjoint 
degrees,  whereon  the  harmonies  are  made 
with  the  same  burden.  Some  have  de- 
rived this  dance  from  cieco,  a  blind  man, 
its  supposed  inventor. 

CHAIR,  {cathedra),  was  anciently  the 
suggestum,  or  pulpit,  whence  the  priest 
or  public  orator  spoke  to  the  people.  It 
is  still  applied  to  the  place  whence  pro- 
fessors in  universities  deliver  their  lec- 
tures ;  thus  we  say,  the  professor's  chair. 
It  is  commonly  used  for  a  speaker  or 
president  of  a  public  council  or  assembly, 
as  the  speaker's  chair;  and  by  a  meto- 
nymy, the  speaker  himself;  as,  to  ad- 
dress the  chair. —  Chair,  among  the  Ro- 
man Catholics,  certain  feasts  Iield  ancient- 
ly in  commemoration  of  the  translation 
of  the  see  or  seat  of  the  vicarage  of  Christ 
by  St.  Peter. —  Curiile  chair,  in  Roman 
antiquity,  an  ivory  seat  placed  on  a 
car,  wherein  were  seated  the  chief  ma- 
gistrates of  Rome,  and  those  to  whom  the 
honor  of  a  trium])h  was  granted. 

ClIALCED'OxXY,  a  kind  of  quartz, 
semi-transparent,  of  a  bluish  white,  but 
frequently  striped  and  clouded  with  other 
colors.     Agate  is  a  mixture  of  chalced- 


cha] 


AND    THE    FINE     ARTS. 


71 


ony  and  varieties  of  quartz,  often  beau- 
tifully tinted.  Chaleedony  and  agate 
were  used  for  seals  and  other  works  of 
art. 

CHALCID  rCUM,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, a  magnificent  hall  belonging  to  a 
tribunal  or  cnurt  of  justice. 

CHALCOGRAPHY,  a  modern  term 
for  engraving  on  copper. 

CllALDEE',  or  CHALDA'IC,  the  lan- 
guasre  spoken  by  the  Chaldeans,  or  peo- 
jile  of  Ciialdea  :  it  is  a  dialect  of  the  He- 
brew. 

CHAL'ICE,  the  communion  cup,  or 
vessel  used  to  administer  the  wine  in  the 
sacrament  of  the  eucharist.  The  form 
has  undergone  many  variations  in  differ- 
ent ages,  always  preserving,  however,  its 
cup-like  shape.  Chalices  are  made  of 
gold,  but  more  commonly  of  silver,  either 


whole,  or  parcel  gilt  and  jewelled.  They 
have  sometimes  been  made  of  crystal, 
glass,  and  agate,  but  these  materials  are 
now  prohibited  on  account  of  their  brittle 
nature. 

CHALI'ZA,  in  Hebrew  antiquity,  the 
ceremony  whereby  a  woman,  left  a  wid- 
ow, pulled  off  her  brother-in-law's  shoes, 
who  should  have  espoused  her ;  after 
which  she  was  at  liberty  to  raarry  whom 
she  pleased. 

CIIAL'LENGE,  in  a  general  sense,  a 
summons  to  fight,  whether  in  a  duel  or 
in  a  pugilistic  contest.  In  law,  an  excep- 
tion to  jurors,  made  by  the  party  put  on 
his  trial :  or  the  claim  of  a  party  that 
certain  jurors  shall  not  sit  in  trial  upon 
him  or  his  cause.  The  right  of  challenge 
is  given  both  in  civil  and  criminal  trials, 
and  extends  either  to  the  whole  panel,  or 
only  to  particular  jurors.  In  criminal 
cases,  a  prisoner  may  challenge  twenty 
jurors,  without  assigning  a  cause  ;  which 
is  called  a  perempforij  challenge. 

CIIALYB'EATE,  an  epithet  for  wa- 
ters in  which  iron  forms  the  principal  in- 


gredient, as  the  waters  of  Tunbridga 
Wells.  Chalybeates  act  chiefly  as  absorb- 
ents and  deohstruents.  The  action  of  the 
particles  of  a  chalybeate,  by  their  elasti- 
cit^y,  together  with  the  momentum  they 
give  the  blood  by  their  ponderosity, 
makes  it  not  only  preferable  to  most 
other  deobstruents,  but  also  proper  in 
other  cases ;  especially  where  there  is  a 
viscidity  of  the  juices,  the  blood  impover- 
ished, or  the  circulation  languid. 

CHAiM,  or  KHAM,  the  title  of  the 
sovereign  prince  of  Tartary.  It  is  like- 
wise applied  to  the  principal  noblemen 
of  Persia. 

CHAMADE',  in  war,  a  signal  made  by 
beat  of  drum  or  sound  of  trumpet,  for  a 
conference  with  the  enemy,  either  to  in- 
vite to  a  truce,  or  to  propose  a  capitula- 
tion. 

CIIAM'BER,  in  building,  any  room 
situated  between  the  lowermost  and  up- 
permost rooms.  Chamber,  in  polity,  the 
place  where  certain  assemblies  are  held ; 
also  the  assemblies  themselves.  Of  these 
some  are  established  for  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  others  for  commercial 
aflairs.  In  many  languages,  chamber  is 
used  to  designate  a  branch  of  government 
whose  members  assemble  in  a  common 
apartment.  —  Priry-chambcr.  Gentle- 
men of  the  privj--chamber  are  servants 
of  the  king,  who  are  to  wait  and  attend 
on  him  and  the  queen  at  court. 

CHAM'BERLAIX,  a  high  officer  in 
all  European  courts.  Originally  the 
chamberlain  was  the  keeper  of  the  treas- 
ure-chamber ;  and  this  meaning  of  the 
word  is  still  preserved,  in  the  usages  of 
the  corporations  of  London  and  other 
places,  where  the  chamberlain  is  the 
officer  who  keeps  the  money  belonging  to 
the  municipal  body.  But  in  moilern 
times,  the  court  officer  styled  chamber- 
lain has  the  charge  of  the  private  apart- 
ments of  the  sovereign  or  noble  to 
whom  he  is  attached.  In  England,  the 
lord  great  chamberlain,  or  king's  cham- 
berlain, is  one  of  the  three  great  officers 
of  the  king's  household.  He  has  the  con- 
trol of  all  the  officers  above  stairs,  except 
the  precinct  of  the  bedchamber,  which  i.s 
under  the  government  of  the  groom  of 
the  stole.  Under  him  are  the  vice-cham- 
berlain, lord  of  the  bedchamber,  Ac. ;  the 
chaplains,  officers  of  the  wardrobe,  phy- 
sicians, tradesmen,  artisans,  and  others 
retained  in  his  majest3''s  service  are  in 
his  department,  and  sworn  into  office  by 
him.  He  is  commonly  one  of  the  highest 
nobility  of  the  country;  in  virtue  of  his 
situation   he    precedes  dukes.     The  em- 


12 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[CHA 


bleni  of  office  appropriated  to  the  cham- 
berlain ill  European  courts  is  a  gold  key, 
generally  suspended  from  two  gold  but- 
tons.— The  Lord  Great  Chamberlain 
OF  England  (not  of  the  household)  is  the 
sixth  great  officer  of  state.  This  office 
belonged  for  many  centuries  to  the  noble 
family  of  De  Vere,  Earls  of  O.Kford;  af- 
terward to  that  of  Bertie,  Lords  Wil- 
loughby  de  Eresby  and  Dukes  of  Ancas- 
ter.  In  that  line  it  became  vested  in 
coheiresses,  by  whom  the  present  deputy 
chamberlain  (Lord  Gwydir)  is  appointed. 

ClIAM'BRE  ARDENTE,  in  French 
history,  a  name  given  to  the  tribunal 
which  was  instituted  by  Francis  I.  for  the 
purpose  of  trying  and  burning  heretics ; 
and  also  the  extraordinary  commissions 
established  under  Louis  XIV.  for  the  ex- 
amination of  prisoners,  and  under  the 
regent  Duke  of  Orleans  against  public 
officers  charged  with  certain  offences 
against  the  revenues,  and  those  guilty  of 
fraud  in  the  matter  of  Law's  b.ink. 

ClIAM'BRE  DES  COMPTES,  (Cham- 
ber of  Accounts,)  in  French  history,  a 
great  court  established  for  various  pur- 
poses ;  as  for  the  registration  of  edicts, 
ordinances,  letters  patent,  treaties  of 
peace,  Ac.  The  sovereign  chambre  des 
comptes  was  at  Paris :  there  were  also 
inferior  courts  in  ten  provincial  cities. 

CHAM'FER,  in  architecture,  the  edge 
of  anything  originally  right-angled  cut 
aslope  or  bevel,  so  that  the  plane  it  then 
forms  is  inclined  less  than  a  right  angle 
to  the  other  planes  with  which  it  inter- 

ClIAMP  DE  MARS,  in  French  his- 
tory, the  public  assemblies  of  the  Franks, 
which  were  held  in  the  open  air. 

CHAM'PERTY,  in  law,  a  bargain 
made  with  either  plaintiff  or  defendant 
in  any  suit,  for  giving  part  of  the  land, 
debt,  &c.,  sued  for,  to  the  party  who  un- 
dertakes the  process  at  his  own  expense. 

CHAM'PION,  a  person  who  under- 
takes a  combat  in  the  place  of  another : 
sometimes  the  word  is  used  for  him  who 
fights  in  his  own  cause.  In  ancient  times, 
when  two  champions  were  chosen  to 
maintain  a  cause,  it  was  always  required 
that  there  should  be  a  <lecreo  of  the 
judge  to  authorize  the  combat :  when  the 
judge  hail  pronounced  sentence,  the  ac- 
cused threw  a  gnge  or  jiludge,  originally 
a  glove  or  gantlet,  which  being  taken  up 
by  the  accuser,  they  were  both  taken  into 
sale  custody,  till  the  day  of  battle  ap- 
pointed by  the  judge.  Before  the  cham- 
pions took  the  field,  their  heads  were 
shaved   to   a   kind   of   crown   or   round, 


which  was  left  at  the  top :  they  then 
made  oath  that  they  believed  the  person 
who  retained  them  to  be  in  right,  &c. 
They  always  engaged  on  foot,  and  with 
no  other  weapon  than  a  club  and  a  shield, 
and  they  always  made  an  offering  to  the 
church,  that  God  might  assist  them  in  the 
battle.  —  Champion  of  the  King  {or 
Queen,)  an  officer  who  rides  armed  into 
Westminster  Hall  on  the  coronation, 
while  the  sovereign  is  at  dinner,  and  by 
herald  makes  proclamation,  "That  if  any 
man  shall  deny  the  king's  (or  queen's) 
title  to  the  crown,  he  is  there  ready  to 
defend  it  in  a  single  combat :"  which 
being  done,  the  sovereign  drinks  to  him, 
and  then  presents  him  with  a  cup  for  his 
fee. 

CHANCE,  a  term  applied  to  events 
that  are  supposed  to  happen  without  any 
known  or  necessary  cause  ;  or,  rather,  of 
which  the  cause  is  such  that  they  may 
happen  in  one  way  as  well  as  another. 
Thus,  when  a  piece  of  money  is  tossed  up 
in  the  air,  as  no  reason  can  be  given  why 
it  should  fall  on  one  side  rather  than  on 
the  other,  it  is  said  to  be  an  oven  chance 
which  of  the  sides  shall  turn  up. 

CIIAN'CEL,  that  part  of  the  choir  of 
a  church  between  the  altar  and  the  balus- 
trade that  incloses  it,  where  the  minister 
is  placed  at  the  celebration  of  the  com- 
munion. The  chancel  is  also  the  rector's 
freehold  and  part  of  his  glebe,  and  there- 
fore he  is  obliged  to  repair  it ;  but  where 
the  rectory  is  impropriate,  the  impro- 
priator must  do  it 

CHAN'CELLOR  Under  the  Roman 
emperors,  a  chancellor  signified  a  cliief 
notary  or  scribe;  but  in  England  it 
means  an  officer  invested  with  high  ju- 
dicial powers. —  77ie  Lord  His^h  Chan- 
cellor of  Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers  of  the  civil  government, 
created  without  writ  or  patent,  by  the 
mere  delivery  of  the  king's  great  seal 
into  his  custody.  He  is  a  privy  counsel- 
lor by  his  office,  and  prolocutor  of  the 
House  of  Lords  by  proscription.  He  also 
appoints  all  the  justices  of  the  peace 
throughout  the  kingdom.  Persons  exer- 
cising this  office  in  former  times  having 
been  ecclesiastics,  and  superintendents  of 
the  royal  chapel,  the  Lord  Chancellor  is 
still  styled  keeper  of  the  king^s  conscience, 
and  for  the  same  reason  he  is  visitor,  in 
right  of  the  king,  of  all  hospitals  and 
colleges  of  the  king's  foundation;  and 
patron  of  all  the  king's  livings  under  the 
value  of  20/.  per  annum  in  the  king's 
books.  He  is  the  general  guardian  of 
all  infants,  idiots,  and   lunatics;    has  a 


cua] 


AND    HIE    FINK    ARTS. 


13 


control  over  all  public  charities  ;  and  a 
jurisJictioa  of  va.st  extent,  as  the  head 
of  the  law  in  his  Court  of  Chancery ; 
whore  he  decides  without  the  assistance 
of  a  jury,  but  from  which  there  is  an  ap- 
peal to  the  House  of  Lords. —  Cliancellor 
of  a  Diocese,  a  lay  officer  under  a  bishop, 
versed  in  the  canon  and  civil  law,  who  is 
judge  of  his  court. — -Chancellor  of  a  Ca- 
thedral, an  officer  who  hears  lessons  in 
the  church,  inspects  schools,  hears  causes,  , 
writes  letters,  and  applies  the  seal  of  the  ' 
chapter,  keeps  the  books,  itc. —  Chancellor 
of  a  Universibj,  an  officer  who  seals  the 
diplomas,  or  letters  of  degree,  ifce.  The 
chancellors  of  O.xfurd  and  Cambridge  are 
selected  from  among  the  prime  nobility  : 
the  former  holds  his  office  for  life;  the 
latter  is  elected  every  three  years. — 
Chancellor  of  the  Kxchcqucr,  an  officer 
who  i)resides  in  that  court,  and  takes  care 
of  the  interests  of  the  crown.  lie  has 
power  with  the  lord  treasurer  to  lease  the 
crown  lands,  and  with  others  to  compound 
for  forfeiture  of  lands,  on  penal  statutes  : 
he  has  also  great  authority  in  managing 
the  royal  revenues,  and  in  all  matters 
relating  to  the  finances  of  the  state. 

CHANCE-MEDLEY,  in  law,  the  acci- 
dental killing  of  a  jjcrson,  not  altogether 
without  the  killer's  fault,  though  without 
any  evil  intention. 

CUAN'CERY,  the  grand  court  of 
equity  and  conscience,  instituted  to  mod- 
erate the  rigor  of  the  other  courts  that 
are  bound  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law. 

CIIAN'CE.S,  a  branch  of  mathematics, 
which  estimates  ratios  of  probability. 

CHANT,  in  music,  an  ecclesiastical 
song  usually  adapted  to  the  psalms  and 
litanies.  There  have  been  several  sorts, 
of  which  the  first  was  the  Ambrosian,  in- 
vented by  St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan. 
The  Gregorian  chant,  which  was  intro- 
duced by  Pope  Gregory,  is  still  in  use  in 
the  Roman  church,  and  is  the  foundation 
of  all  that  is  grand  and  elevated  in 
music. 

CHAN'TRY,  a  little  chapel  or  altar, 
commonly  in  some  church  endowed  (be- 
fore the  Reformation)  with  revenues  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  priest  to  perform 
prayers  for  the  souUof  the  founder  and 
others. 

CHA'OS)  that  confusion  in  which  mat- 
ter is  supposeii  to  have  e.vistod  before 
the  world  was  produced  by  the  creative 
power  of  Omnipotence  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  unformed  primeval  matter  of  which 
everything  was  made.  The  ancient  poets, 
and  Ovid  in  particular,  represent  chaos 
thus  :  that  there  was  neither  sun  to  make 


the  day,  nor  moon  to  cnligiitcn  the  night ; 
that  the  earth  was  not  yet  hung  in  tho 
circumambient  air,  nor  the  sea  bounded 
by  any  shore  ;  but  that  earth,  air,  and 
water,  were  one  undigested  mass. 

CIIAP'EL,  a  place  of  divine  worship, 
served  by  an  incumbent  under  the  denom- 
ination of  a  chaplain.  There  are  vari- 
ous kinds  of  chapels  ;  as  paroch ial  chapels, 
distinct  from  the  mother  church  ;  cha]>cls 
of  case,  built  in  large  parishes  for  tho 
accommodation  of  the  inhabitants  ;  free 
chapels,  which  were  founded  by  different 
kings ;  chapels  belonging  to  particular 
colleges;  domestic  chapels,  built  by  no- 
blemen or  gentlemen  for  the  use  of  their 
families. 

CHAP'ELRY,  the  precinct  belonging 
to  a  chapel,  in  distinction  from  a  parish, 
or  that  belonging  to  a  church. 

CHAP'LAIN,  an  ecclesiastic  who  per- 
forms divine  service  in  a  oiiapsl  ;  but  it 
more  commonly  means  one  who  attends 
upon  a  king,  prince,  or  othor  person  of 
qu.ality,  for  the  performance  of  his  cleri- 
cal duties  in  the  private  chapel. 

CHAP'LET,  in  a  general  sense,  a  gar- 
land or  wreath  to  be  worn  on  the  head. — 
In  architecture,  a  little  moulding,  carved 
into  round  beads,  pearls,  etc. — Chaptet,  a 
string  of  beads  used  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, by  which  they  count  the  number  of 
their  prayers,  and  are  called  paternos- 
ters. This  practice  is  believed  to  have 
been  introduced  by  Peter  the  Hermit 
into  the  church  on  his  return  from  tho 
Holy  Land,  the  Orientals  using  a  kind 
of  chaplet  called  a  chain,  and  rehearsing 
one  of  the  perfections  of  God  on  each  link 
or  bead. 

CHAP'TER,  in  ecclesiastical  polity,  is 
an  assembly  for  the  transaction  of  such 
business  as  comes  under  its  cognizance. 
Every  cathedral  is  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  the  dean  and  chapter  of  its 
canons.  A  meeting  of  the  members  of 
an  order  of  knighthood  is  also  called  a 
chapter. 

CHAP'TER-HOUSE,  in  architecture, 
the  apartment  (usually  attached)  of  a 
cathedral  or  collegiate  church,  in  which 
the  heads  of  the  church  or  the  chapter 
meet  to  transact  business. 

CHAR'ACTER,  that  which  distin- 
guishes each  species  of  being  in  each 
genus,  and  each  individual  of  each  spe- 
cies. In  man,  character  consists  of  tho 
form  of  the  body,  stature,  and  gait, 
which  distinguish  him  from  other  ani- 
mals. In  mankind,  the  natural  or  acci- 
dental peculiarities  resultisg  from  sox, 
temperament,  age,  climate,  the  exercisa 


74 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEHATLRE 


[CIIA 


of  the  passions,  the  position  of  the  indi- 
vidual in  the  social  scale,  and  his  mode 
of  living.  These-  peculiarities  and  differ- 
ences are,  afler  the  study  of  the  human 
figure  in  general,  the  most  important 
subjects  of  the  study  of  the  painter  and 
sculptor,  since  upon  these  peculiarities 
and  differences  depend  all  the  signifi- 
cance of  their  compositions.  Each  genus, 
each  family  of  animals,  has  also  its  gen- 
eral and  particular  character.  So  also 
in  the  inanimate  productions  of  nature, 
trees,  rocks,  fields,  and  meadows,  which 
varj'  in  reality  as  well  as  in  appearance, 
according  to  the  climate,  season,  time  of 
day,  accidental  condition  of  the  sky,  and 
also  according  to  the  modifications  they 
receive  at  the  hands  of  man,  the  effect  of 
time,  or  by  the  effect  of  natural  acci- 
dents. If  all  these  things,  observed  with 
sagacity  and  selected  with  taste,  are 
faithfully  represented  in  a  picture,  wo 
say  that  the  animals,  the  trees,  the  rocks 
of  the  picture  have  good  character. 

CHARACTERIS'TIC,  in  a  general 
sense,  a  peculiar  mark  or  character, 
whereby  a  person  or  thing  is  distinguish- 
ed from  all  others. 

CHARADE',  a  syllabic  enigma,  so 
named  from  its  inventor,  made  upon  a 
word  the  two  syllables  of  which,  when 
separately  taken,  are  themselves  words. 
It  consists  of  three  parts  ;  the  two  first 
describing  the  syllables  separately  ;  the 
second  alluding  to  the  entire  word.  A 
charade  can  only  bo  called  complete  if 
the  different  enigmas  which  it  contains 
are  brought  into  a  proper  rel.ation  to  each 
other,  and  as  a  whole  unite  in  an  epi- 
grammatic point.  The  following  charade, 
which  we  borrow  from  the  Diction naire 
de  I' Academic  Francaise,  may  be  regard- 
ed as  a  good  specimen  of  this  species  of 
riddle : — "  My  first  makes  use  of  my 
second  to  eat  my  whole  ;"  the  solution 
being  chieii-dent,  (do<^-too/h,)  or  dog's 
grass.  The  word  ckaruile  has  been  ap- 
plied to  this  sort  of  amusement,  from  the 
name  of  its  inventor. 

CHARGE,  in  a  general  sense,  is  that 
which  is  enjoj'ed,  committed,  intrusted  or 
delivered  to  another,  implying  care,  cus- 
tody, oversight,  or  duty  to  be  performed 
by  the  party  intrusted.  Charge,  in  civil 
law,  the  instructions  given  by  the  judge 
to  the  grand  jury. — In  ecclesiastical  law, 
the  instructio!is  given  by  a  bishop  to  the 
clergy  of  his  diocese. 

CHAR'I()T,  in  antiquity,  a  car  or  ve- 
hicle used  formerly  in  war,  and  called  by 
the  several  names  of  biga,  triga,  qua- 
driga, &c.,  according  to  the  number  of 


horses  which  drew  thcui.  ^Vhen  the  war- 
riors came  to  encounter  in  close  fight, 
they  alighted  and  fought  on  foot;  but 
when  they  were  weary  they  retired  into 
their  chariot,  and  thence  annoj'ed  their 
enemies  with  darts  and  missive  weapons 
Besides  this  sort,  wo  find  frequent  men- 
tion of  the  cur r us  falcati,  or  chariots 
armed  with  hooks  or  scythes,  with  which 
whole  ranks  of  soldiers  were  cut  off  to- 
gether :  these  were  not  only  used  by  the 
Persians,  Sj'rians,  Egyptians,  Ac,  but 
we  find  them  among  our  British  ances- 
tors.— -The  Roman  triumphal  chariot  was 
generally  made  of  ivory,  round  like  a 
tower,  or  rather  of  a  cylindrical  figure  ; 
sometimes  gilt  at  the  top  and  ornamented 
with  crowns  ;  and,  to  represent  ii  victory 
more  naturally,  they  used  to  stain  it  with 
blood.  It  was  usually  drawn  by  four 
white  horses,  but  oftentimes  by  lions,  ele- 
phants, tigers,  bears,  leopards,  <tc. 

CHARIS'IA,a  Roman  nocturnal  festi- 
val and  dance  kept  in  honor  of  the  G  races, 
when  sweetmeats,  called  charisia,  were 
distributed  among  the  guests. 

CHARIS'TIA,  a  solemn  festival  among 
the  Romans  kept  in  the  month  of  Febru- 
ary. It  was  well  worthy  the  imitation 
of  Christians  ;  for  at  this  time  the  rela- 
.  tions  of  each  family  compromised  any 
differences  that  had  arisen  between  them, 
and  renewed  their  former  friendships 
upon  the  principles  of  pure  boiievoleuce 
and  good-will. 

CHARITY,  in  a  general  senae,  that 
disposition  of  heart  which  inclines  men  to 
think  favorably  of  their  fcllow-mon,  and 
to  do  them  good  ;  or  liboralitj'  and  be- 
nevolence, either  in  alms-giving  or  in 
contributing  towards  public  charitable  in- 
stitutions.— In  a  theological  sense,  su- 
preme love  to  God,  and  universal  good- 
will to  men. 

CHAR'IiATAN,  one  who  makes  un- 
warrantable pretensions  to  skill,  and 
prates  much  in  his  own  favor.  The  ori- 
ginal import  of  the  word  was  an  empiric, 
or  quack,  who  retailed  his  medicines  on 
a  public  stage,  and  drew  the  people  about 
him  by  his  buffooneries. 

CHARM,  some  magical  words,  char- 
acters, verses,  &c.*  imagined  to  possess 
some  occult  and  unintelligible  power  :  by 
which,  with  the  supposed  assistance  of 
the  devil,  witches  and  sorcerers  have  pre- 
tended to  do  wonderful  things.  The  word, 
in  its  more  modern  acceptation,  is  used 
to  describe  that  which  delights  and  at- 
tracts the  heart. 

CHA'RON,  in  mythology,  the  ferry- 
man of  hell,  who  conducted  the  souls  of 


che] 


AND    TIIF,    FINE    ARTS. 


the  departed  in  a  boat  across  the  Stygian 
lake  to  receive  judgment  from  (Eaciis, 
Rhadamanthiis,  and  Mino?,  the  judge.s  of 
the  infernal  regions.  lie  received  an 
obolus  from  every  passenger,  for  ivhicli 
reason  the  ancients  used  to  put  that  piece 
of  money  in  the  mouths  of  the  dead.  He 
was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Erebus  and 
Night. 

CHAR'TA,  M.\G'NA,  in  English  his- 
tory. The  "  Great  Charter  of  the  Realm" 
■was  signed  by  King  John  in  121.5,  and 
confirmed  by  his  successor  Henry  III.  It 
is  reported  to  have  been  chiefly  drawn  up 
by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  and  Stephen 
Langton.  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Its 
most  important  articles  are  those  which 
provide  that  no  freeman  shall  be  taken 
or  imprisoned  or  proceeded  against.  "  ex- 
cept by  the  lawful  judgment  of  hi.s  peers 
or  by  the  law  of  the  land,"  and  that  no 
scutage  or  aid  should  be  imposed  in  the 
kingdom  (except  certain  feudal  dues  from 
tenants  of  the  crown)  unless  by  the  com- 
mon council  of  the  kingdom.  The  re- 
maining and  greater  part  of  it  is  directed 
against  abuses  of  the  king's  power  as 
feudal  superior. 

CHARTE,  in  French  history,  origi- 
nally used  to  indicate  the  rights  and 
privileges  granted  by  the  French  kings 
to  various  towns  and  communities  ;  but 
recently  to  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
French  monarchy,  as  established  on  the 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814.  The 
Charte  consisted  of  69  articles,  and  was 
founded  on  prinf^iples  analogous  to  those 
of  the  British  constitution,  as  embodied 
originally  in  the  Magna  Charta,  and  sub- 
sequently extended  in  the  Bill  of  Rights. 

CHARTER,  in  law,  a  written  instru- 
ment, executed  with  usual  forms,  where- 
by the  king  grants  privileges  to  towns, 
corporations,  &c. ;  whence  the  name  of 
Magna  Charta,  or  the  Great  Charter  of 
Liberties  granted  to  the  people  of  the 
whole  realm. 

CHA'RTER-PARTY,  in  mercantile 
law,  is  defined  to  be  a  contract,  by  which 
the  owner  or  master  of  a  ship  hires  or 
lets  the  whole  or  a  principal  part  of  it  to 
a  freighter  for  the  conveyance  of  goods, 
under  certain  specified  conditions,  on  a 
determined  voyage  to  one  or  more  places. 
A  charter-party  is  generally  under  seal ; 
but  a  printed  or  written  instrument  sign- 
ed by  the  parties,  called  a  memorandum 
of  a  charter-ptirty,  is  binding  if  no  char- 
ter-party be  executecl,  A  voyage  may 
be  performed  in  part  under  a  charter- 
party,  and  in  part  under  a  parol  agree- 
ment; but  the  terms  of  a  charter-party 


cannot  be  altered  by  parol  evidence,  al- 
though they  may  bo  explained  by  mer- 
cantile usage.  The  instrument  expresses 
the  freight  to  be  paid,  and  generally,  but 
not  necessarily,  the  burden  of  the  ship  ; 
together  with  some  usual  covenants,  and 
others  at  the  discretion  of  the  parties. 

CHAR'TULAllY,  in  diplomatics,  a  col- 
lection of  the  charters  belonging  to  a 
church  or  religious  house. 

CH  ARYB'lJIS,  a  much-dreaded  vortex 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Sicilian  straits, 
celebrated  for  its  engulfing  perils,  by  the 
ancient  writers.  It  is,  however,  no  long- 
er dreadful  to  navigators,  who,  in  a  quiet 
sea,  and  particularly  with  a  south  wind, 
cross  it  without  danger. 

CHASE,  in  law,  a  part  of  a  forest  for 
game,  which  may  be  possessed  by  a  sub- 
ject :  though  a  forest  cannot.  The  word 
chase  has  also  several  meanings  in  mar- 
itime language  ;  as,  chase-guns,  that  lie 
at  the  head,  to  fire  on  a  vessel  that  is 
pursued,  in  distinction  to  stern-chasers, 
which  fire  on  the  pursuer. — With  hunts- 
men, the  chase  is  a  figurative  expression 
for  their  sport  in  general. 

CHA'SING,  in  sculpture,  the  art  of 
embossing  on  metals,  or  representing  fig- 
ures thereon  by  a  kind  of  basso-relievo, 
punched  out  from  behind,  and  carved  on 
the  front  with  small  gravers.  The  metals 
usually  chased  are  gold,  silver,  and 
bronze,  and  among  the  ancients,  iron 
also.  The  remains  of  ancient  art  show 
to  what  a  degree  of  perfection  it  was  car- 
ried;  and  in  our  own  times,  some  very 
tine  works  have  been  executed. 

CHASSEURS',  a  French  term  for  a  se- 
lect body  of  light  infantry,  formed  on  the 
left  of  a  battalion,  and  who  are  required 
to  be  particularly  light,  active,  and  cour- 
ageous.—  Chasseurs  a  cheval,  a  kind  of 
light  horse  in  the  French  service. 

CHA'SUBLE,  Chesable,  Chesible, 
called  also  a  vestment,  the  upper  or 
last  vestment  put  on  by  the  priest  before 
celebrating  the  mass.  In  form  it  is  near- 
ly circular,  being  slightly  pointed  before 
and  behind,  having  an  aperture  in  the 
middle  for  the  head  to  pass  through,  and 
its  ample  folds  resting  on  either  side 
upon  the  arms.  It  is  richly  decorated 
with  embroirlery  and  even  with  jewels. 

CHA'TEAU,  a  French  word,  formerly 
u.sed  for  a  castle,  or  baronial  seat  in 
France  ;  but  now  simply  for  a  country 
seat. 

CHEF-D'fEU'VRE,  a  work  of  the 
highest  excellence  in  itself,  or  relatively 
to  the  other  works  of  the  same  artist. 
Thus  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  or  the  Trans- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


ch; 


figuration  of  Raffaclle,  arc  chef-d'ceuvres 
pf  sculpture  ami  i)ainting. 

CHENIS'CUS, 
in  works  of  ancient 
art,  ships  are  seen 
with  ornamental 
prows,  shaped  to 
represent  the 
head  and  neck  of 
a  goose,  or  other 
aquatic  bird  ;  this 
part  was  called 
cheniscus,  and 
was  constructed 
of  bronze  and  oth- 
er materials. — 
Sometimes,  but 
rarel}',  the  chenis- 
cus is  affixed  to 
the  stern  of  a  ship. 
CHEll  L'BIM, 
in  Christian  Art,  a 
higher  cla?s  of  an^iels,  the  nearest  to  the 
throne  of  God,  of  which  they  are  the  sup- 
porters. Their  forms  are  known  by  the 
poetical  writings  of  the  Old  Testament. 
They  appear  first  as  guardians  of  Para- 
dise, whence  our  first  parents  were  e.x- 
pelled  by  a  cherub  with  a  flaming  sword. 
Jehovah  rested  between  the  wings  of  the 
cherubim  on  the  cover  of  the  ark  ;  and  in 
the  history  of  Ezekiel  they  are  repre- 
sented with  four  wings,  two  of  whicli  cov- 
ered the  body  and  drew  the  chariot  of  the 
Lord  through  the  air.  In  the  heavenly 
hierarchy  the  cherubim  form  one  of  the 
three  high  angel  choirs — seraphim,  cher- 
ubim, and  angels,  which  constitute  the 
first  and  upper  order  of  angels ;  they 
rank  next  to  the  seraphim. 

CIIER'SONESE,  a  tract  of  land,  of  any 
indefinite  extent,  which  is  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  water,  but  united  to  a  larger 
tract  by  a  neck  of  land  or  isthmus. 

CHE  VAL-DE-FIUSE,  (generally  used 
in  the  plural,  Chevaux-de-fripe,  l"r. 
pron.  slievo  de  frecz,)  spikes  of  wood, 
pointed  with  iron,  five  or  six  feet  long, 
fixed  in  a  strong  beam  of  wood,  and  used 
iis  a  fence  against  cavalry,  or  to  stop  a 
breach,  <fec. 

CIIIARO  OSCU'RO,  (an  Italian  phrase, 
meaning  clear-obscure,)  is  the  art  of  dis- 
tributing lights  and  shadows  in  painting. 
The  aim  of  paintings  is  to  form  a  i)ieture 
by  moans  of  light  and  shade,  and  by  col- 
ors and  their  gradations;  the  more  truly 
painting  accomplishes  this  end,  the  more 
artistic  it  will  be.  Correggio  and  Rem- 
brandt are  famous  for  their  chiaro-oscuro. 
According  to  the  common  acceptation  of 
the  term  in  the  language  of  art,  chiaro 


oscuro  means  not  only  the  mutable  ef- 
fects produced  by  light  and  shade,  but 
also  the  permanent  dilferences  in  bright- 
ness and  darkness. 

CHICA'NERY,  mean  or  unfair  arti- 
fices to  perplex  a  cause  or  to  obscure  tho 
truth ;  applied  either  in  a  legal  sense, 
by  whicli  justice  is  somehow  intended  to 
be  perverted ;  or  to  disputatious  sophis- 
try. 

CHIEF,  a  term  signifying  the  head, 
or  principal  part  of  a  thing  or  person. 
Thus  we  say,  the  chief  of  a  party,  tho 
chief  of  a  family,  &c. 

CHIEF'TAI^N,  a  captain  or  comman- 
der of  any  class,  family,  or  body  of  men  ; 
thus,  the  Highland  chieftains,  or  chiefs, 
were  the  principal  noblemen  or  gentlemen 
of  their  respective  clans. 

CHIL'IAD,  the  sum  or  number  of  one 
thousand.  Hence  chiliurck  denotes  the 
military  commander  or  chief  of  a  thou- 
sand men  :  chillarchy,  a  body  consisting 
of  1000  men  :  chilialiedron,  a  figure  of 
1000  equal  sides  :  and  chiliagoa,  a  figure 
of  1000  angles  and  sides. 

ClIILL'ED.  AVhen  a  cloudiness  or 
dimness  appears  on  the  surface  of  a  pic- 
ture that  has  been  varnished,  it  is  called 
blooming,  and  we  say  the  varnish  has 
chilled.  This  defect  arises  from  the 
presence  of  moisture,  either  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  picture,  or  in  the  brush,  or  in 
the  varnish  itself,  and  can  easily  be 
avoided  by  making  the  former  thorough- 
ly dry,  and  the  latter  hot  before  it  is  ap- 
plied. 

CHIM.E'RA,  a  misshapen  monster  in 
Grecian  mythology,  described  by  Homer 
as  having  a  lion's  head,  a  goat's  body, 
and  the  tail  of  a  dragon.  The  chimaera 
appears  in  .Vrt  as  a  lion,  except  that  out 
of  the  back  grow  the  head  and  neck  of  a 
goat,  and  gigantic  carvings  of  it  are 
found  on  rocks  in  Asia  Minor,  according 
to  Homer  tlie  native  country  of  the  mon- 
ster. There  arc  innumerable  small  an- 
tique statues  of  chimaera,  and  Bollero- 
phon,  by  whom  the  chiman-a  was  killed, 
of  which  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is 
in  tho  Utligi  palace  at  Florence.  In 
Christian  Art,  the  chima'ra  is  a  symbol 
of  cunning.  It  is  frequently  seen  on  tho 
modillions  and  cajiitals  -of  architectural 
works  executed  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries,  and  again  in  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries. 

CHIMES,  the  musical  .sounds  of  bells 
struck  with  hammers,  arranged  and  set 
in  motion  by  clock-work.— In  a  clock, 
a  kind  of  ])eriodical  music,  produced  at 
certain  hours  by  a  particular  apparatus. 


Cm] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


77 


CHIM'NEY,  in  architeeture,  a  body 
of  brick  or  stone  erected  in  a  building, 
containing  a  funnel  to  convey  smoivc  anil 
Other  volatile  matter  through  the  roof 
from  the  grate  or  hearth.  How  far  the 
Greek  and  Roman  architects  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  construction  of  chim- 
neys is  a  matter  of  dispute.  No  traces 
of  t^iem  have  been  discovered  in  the 
ruins  of  Pompeii,  and  Vitruvius  gives  no 
rules  for  erecting  them.  The  first  certain 
notice  of  chimneys,  as  we  now  build  them, 
is  believed  to  be  that  contained  in  an  in 
scription  of  Venice,  over  the  gate  of  an 
edifice,  which  states  that  in  1347  a  great 
many  chimnej'S  were  thrown  down  by  an 
earthquake. 

CrIl'XA-^YAIlE,  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  kinds  of  earthenware,  takes  its 
name  from  China,  whence  the  Dutch  and 
English  merchants  first  brought  it  into 
Europe.  It  is  also  called  porcelain,  from 
the  Portuguese  porcellana,  a  cup  or  ves- 
sel. The  Japan  china  is  considered  supe- 
rior to  all  other  of  oriental  manufacture, 
in  its  close  and  compact  granular  to.\- 
ture,  its  sonorosity  when  struck,  its  ex- 
treme hardness,  its  smooth  and  shining 
appearance,  and  its  capability  of  being 
used  to  boil  liquids  in.  With  the  Chinese 
potters,  the  preparation  of  the  clay  is 
constantly  in  operation  ;  and  usually  re- 
mains in  the  jjits  from  ten  to  twent}' 
years  prior  to  being  used ;  for,  the  lon- 
ger it  remains  there,  the  greater  is  its 
value.  The  Dresden  china  has  some 
qualities  which  render  it  decidedly  supe- 
rior to  the  oriental.  Its  texture  exhibits 
a  compact,  shining,  uniform  mass,  re- 
sembling white  enamel,  while  it  pos- 
sesses firmness,  solidity,  and  infusibility 
by  heat. 

CIII'NESE  WHITE,  an  empirical 
name  given  to  the  white  oxide  of  zinc,  a 
valuable  pigment  recently  introduced 
into  the  Arts  as  a  substitute  for  the  prep- 
arations of  white  lead.  It  is  little  liable 
to  change,  either  by  atmospheric  action 
or  by  mixture  with  other  pigments.  Its 
only  defect  appears  to  be  a  want  oi  body, 
as  compared  with  white  lead. 

CHI'ROfiRAPH,  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  signified  any  public  instrument 
of  gift  or  conveyance,  attested  by  the 
subscription  and  crosses  of  witnesses. 
Any  deed  requiring  a  counterpart  was 
engrossed  twice  on  the  same  piece  of 
parchment,  with  a  sjiaee  between,  on 
which  was  written  chiro'srujili,  through 
which  the  pnrchmcnt  was  cut,  and  one 
part  given  to  each  party.  It  was  also 
anciently  used  for  a  fine :  the  manner  of 


engrossing  the  fines,  and  cutting  the 
parchment  in  two  pieces,  is  still  retained 
in  the  chirogriipher's  office,  in  the  Court 
of  Couiiiion  Pleas. 

ClIlllOL'uay,  the  art  or  practice  of 
communicating  thoughts  by  signs  made 
by  the  hands  and  fingers;  as  a  substitute 
for  language. 

ClIIU'OMANCY,  a  species  of  divina- 
tion, drawn  from  the  different  lines  and 
lineaments  of  a  person's  hand  ;  by  which 
means,  it  is  pretende;!  the  inclinations 
may  be  discovered.  The  modern  word  is 
palmUitry. 

CIIIRUN'OMY,  in  antiquity,  the  art 
of  representing  any  past  transaction  by 
the  gestures  of  the  body,  more  especially 
by  the  motions  of  the  hands :  this  made 
a  part  of  liberal  education  :  it  had  the 
approbation  of  Socrates,  and  was  ranked 
bv  Plato  among  the  political  virtues. 

'CIIIS'LEU,  the  ninth  month  of  the 
Jewish  year,  answering  to  the  latter 
part  of  November  and  the  beginning  of 
December. 

Cni'TON,  the  under-garment  of  the 
Greeks,  corresponding  to  the  tunic  of  the 
Romans,  mentioned  as  early  as  llomcr ; 
it  was  made  of  woollen  cloth.  After  the 
Greek  migration  it  was  called  c/ii^o«(Scos, 
while  the  light  loose  garment  or  hima- 
tion  was  also  called  c/ilania,  or  chlanis. 
The  Doric  chiton,  worn  by  men,  was 
short  and  of  wool ;  that  of  fte  Athenians 
and  lonians,  of  linen,  in  earler  times 
worn  long,  but  with  the  former  people, 
after  the  time  of  Pericles,  it  was  shorter- 


78 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LIIEKATLKE 


[CHI 


The  chiton,  worn  by  freemen,  had  two 
sleeves,  that  of  workmen  and  slaves  only 
one.  A  girdle  (called,  when  worn  by 
men,  zonia)  was  required  when  the  gar- 
ment was  long,  but  that  of  the  priests 
was  not  girded.  The  Doric  chiton  for 
women  was  made  of  two  pieces  of  stufiF 
sewn  together,  and  fastened  on  the  shoul- 
ders by  clasps.  In  Sparta  it  was  not 
sewn  up  the  sides,  but  only  fastened,  and 
had  no  sleeves.  The  chiton  appears  to 
have  been  generally  gray  or  brown. 
Women  fond  of  dress  had  saffron-colored 
clothing ;  and  the  material  (cotton  or 
fine  linen)  was  striped,  figured,  or  em- 
broidered with  stars,  flowers,  &c-  With 
regard  to  statues,  we  need  only  remark 
that  Artemis,  as  a  huntress,  wears  a  gir- 
dle over  the  chiton,  which  is  fastened  on 
the  shoulders  and  folds  over  the  bosom. 
Pallas  Athene  often  wears  a  double 
chiton,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  leaving 
the  arms  free.  On  the  statues  of  ama- 
zons  the  chiton  is  sleeveless,  clasped  up 
in  two  places,  leaving  the  breast  uncover- 
ed, and  drawn  up  sufficiently  to  show  even 
above  the  knee. 

CHIVALRY,  the  name  anciently  giv- 
en to  knighthood,  a  military  dignity; 
also  the  martial  exploits  and  qualifica- 
tions of  a  knight.  Chivalry,  as  a  military 
dignity,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have 
taken  its  rise  soon  after  the  death  of 
Charlemagne,  and  by  others  as  arising 
out  of  the  crusades,  because  in  these  e.x- 
peditions  many  chivalrous  exploits  were 
performed,  and  a  proud  feeling  of  hero- 
ism was  engendered.  The  general  sys- 
tem of  manners  and  tone  of  sentiments 
which  the  institution  of  knighthood, 
strictly  pursued,  was  calculated  to  pro- 
duce, and  did  in  part  produce,  during  the 
middle  ages  in  Europe,  is  comprehended 
in  ordinary  language  under  the  term  of 
chivalry.  This  imaginary  institution  of 
chivalry,  such  as  it  is  represented  in  the 
old  romances,  had  assuredly  no  full  ex- 
istence at  any  period  in  the  usages  of 
actual  life.  It  was  the  ideal  perfection 
of  a  code  of  morals  and  pursuits  which 
was  in  truth  only  partially  adopted;  and 
bore  the  same  relation  to  the  real  life  of 
the  middle  age?,  which  the  philosophical 
excellence  aimed  at  by  the  various  sects 
of  antiquity  bore  to  the  real  conduct  of 
their  professors.  But,  in  both  instances, 
a  system  of  abstract  jierfection  was  pro- 
pouniled  in  theory,  which,  although  the 
defect  of  human  nature  prevented  it  from 
being  reduced  into  practice,  yet  exercised 
a  very  important  influence  in  modelling 
the  minds,  and  even  controlling  the  ac- 


tions, of  those  who  adopted  it.  The  vivi- 
fying principle  of  ancient  philosophy  wa? 
ideal  virtue  ;  that  of  chivalry,  the  ideal 
point  of  honor.  The  origin  of  chivalry  has 
often  been  traced  to  the  German  tribes;  nor 
has  its  spirit  ever  penetrated  very  deeply 
into  the  usages  of  any  country  in  which 
these  tribes  have  not  either  produced  the 
ancestors  of  the  great  body  of  the  nation, 
or  at  least  the  conquering  and  governing 
class,  which  transfused  its  habits  and 
sentiments  into  fliat  body.  Thus  Ger- 
many and  France,  and  England,  whose 
gentry  derive  their  origin  from  both, 
have  been  the  countries  most  distinguish- 
ed for  the  prevalence  of  this  institution. 
The  martial  spirit  of  the  Spaniards  was, 
indeed,  partly  animated  by  it ;  but  in 
their  country  it  always  bore  something 
of  the  character  of  a  foreign  importation, 
modified  by  the  circumstances  of  their 
juxtaposition  with  the  Arab  race.  In 
Italy,  it  existed  only  among  those  classes 
which  imitated  the  manners  of  France 
and  Germany,  and  never  entered  into 
the  general  character  of  the  natives,  not- 
withstanding the  popularity  of  the  ro- 
mances of  chivalry.  Among  the  Slavonic 
nations  it  has  never  prevailed  extensive 
ly  ;  although  the  feudal  constitution  of 
Polish  society  derived  a  certain  tincture 
from  it,  it  never  penetrated  into  Russia. 
It  has  often  been  remarked,  that  it  is 
only  within  the  last  two  or  three  genera- 
tions that  the  nobility  of  that  country,  by 
their  intercourse  with  the  nations  of 
Western  Europe,  have  derived  something 
of  the  spirit  of  the  chivalrous  code,  so  far 
as  it  still  subsists  among  ourselves  :  the 
point  of  honor,  and  its  peculiar  concomi- 
tant the  usage  of  the  duel,  were  scarcely 
known  in  Russia  before  the  present  cen- 
tury. It  is  to  the  14th  century,  and 
especially  to  that  part  of  its  chronicles 
preserved  by  the  true  annalist  of  chival- 
ry, Froissart,  that  we  must  look  for  the 
period  when  the  line  between  real  soci- 
ety and  that  represented  in  romances  was 
most  nearly  broken  down.  When  the 
usages  of  chivalry  were  most  flourishing, 
all  men  of  noble  birth,  (except  the  high- 
est) were  supposed  to  pnss  through  three 
orders  or  gradations.  They  first  lived  aa 
pages  in  the  train  of  nobles  and  chiefs  of 
high  rank;  next,  as  esquires,  they  at- 
tached themselves  to  the  person  of  some 
individual  knight,  to  whom  they  were 
bound  by  a  strict  law  of  obedience,  and 
for  whom  they  were  bound  to  incur  every 
danger,  and,  if  necessary,  sacrifice  their 
lives ;  and,  thirdly,  they  were  promoted 
to   the    rank  of  knighthood.      However 


CHO] 


AND    TIIE    FINE    ARTS. 


79 


great  the  distinction  might  be  between 
knights  ir.  point  of  rank  and  wealth,  cus- 
tom cstablishcil  a  species  of  equality 
among  all  of  the  same  order,  which  may 
be  said  to  subsist  among  gentlemen  of  the 
present  day.  They  formed,  all  over  Eu- 
rope, a  common  corporation,  as  it  were, 
possessing  certain  rights,  and  owing  each 
other  certain  mutual  duties  and  forbear- 
ances. They  were  united,  not  by  the  ties 
of  country,  but  by  those  of  feudal  obe- 
dience, which  attached  every  knight  to 
the  banner  of  his  liege  lord,  from  whom 
he  held  his  fee;  but  little  or  rather  no 
dishonor  attached  to  knights  who  were 
under  no  such  feudal  tie,  if  they  chose 
their  own  chieftain  wherever  they  thought 
fit :  they  were  free  adventurers,  whose 
order  was  a  passport  in  every  service  ;  and 
in  the  actual  conflict,  the  hostility  of 
knights  was  moderated  by  usage.  Thus, 
it  was  dishonorable  in  any  knight  to  take 
a  knight's  life  if  disarmed,  and  not  set 
him  free  when  a  prisoner  on  receiving  a 
fitting  ransom.  AVith  regard  to  the  point 
of  honor,  which  forms  the  most  important 
feature  in  the  usages  of  chivalry,  the 
principal  objects  were  religious  belief; 
fealty  to  the  feudal  superior;  devotion 
to  some  one  selected  lady ;  and,  finally, 
the  general  character  for  honor  and  cour- 
tesy which  it  w^as  incumbent  on  a  knight 
to  maintain  ;  for  although  his  imaginary 
duties,  as  a  knight  errant,  to  avenge 
wrong  and  succor  the  oppres.sed  on  every 
oeca.sion,  were  not  of  course  very  strictly 
put  in  practice,  yet  his  vow  to  perform 
those  duties  attached  to  his  character  a 
certain  degree  of  sacredness  which  it  was 
necessal^'  to  maintain.  Chivalrous  honor 
was  chiefly  supported  in  two  ways  :  first, 
bj'  the  single  combat  or  duel,  whether  on 
account  of  serious  provocation  or  by  way 
of  trial  of  strength ;  secondly,  by  the 
performance  of  vows,  often  of  the  most 
frivolous  and  extravagant  nature.  These 
latter  were  generally  undertaken  for  the 
honor  of  the  ladies.  The  commencement 
of  extravagances,  however,  was  rather  a 
sign  of  the  decline  of  the  true  spirit  of 
chivalry.  It  decayed  with  the  progress 
of  mercenary  armies  and  the  decline  of 
feudal  institutions  through  the  15th  cent- 
ury; in  the  16th,  it  was  little  more  than 
a  lively  recollection  of  past  ages,  which 
knights  such  as  Baj'ard,  and  sovereigns 
Buch  as  Francis  I.  and  Henry  VIIT. 
strove  to  revive  ;  and  finally,  it  became 
extinguished  amid  religious  di.-cords, 
leaving  as  its  only  relic  the  code  of  hon- 
or, which  is  still  considered  as  governing 
the  conduct  of  the  gentleman. 


CIILA'MYS,  in  antiquity,  a  military 
habit  worn  over  the  tunica.  It  belonged 
to  the  patricians,  and  was  the  same  in 
the  time  of  war,  that  the  toga  was  in  tho 
time  of  peace.  It  was  a  light  cloak,  or 
rather  scarf,  the  ends  of  which  were  fas- 
tened on  the  shoulder  by  a  clasp  or  buckle. 
It  hung  with  two  long  points  as  far  as 
the  thigh,  and  was  richly  ornamented 
with  purple  and  gold.  When  the  /?6u^a 
was  unclasped  the  chlamys  bung  on  the 


left  arm,  as  with  Hermes,  or  served  as  a 
kind  of  shield,  as  Poseidon,  on  the  old 
coins,  protects  his  arm  with  the  chlamys. 
It  is  fastened  on  the  right  shoulder,  in 
the  statues  of  Theseus  and  the  heroic 
Ephebes,  in  a  wrestling  attitude,  covering 
the  breast  and  enveloping  the  left  arm, 
which  is  somewhat  raised.  The  figures 
of  Heracles  and  Hermes,  are  quite  cov- 
ered by  the  chlamys,  even  below  the 
bod}',  whence  the  Hermes  pillar  tapers ; 
the  right  hand  lies  on  the  breast  under 
the  chlamys,  and  the  left  arm,  covered 
to  the  wrist,  hangs  by  the  side  ;  in  tho 
centre  of  the  breast  depends  a  lion's  claw 
at  the  opening  of  the  scarf.  In  the 
Hermes'  statues,  the  chlamys,  when  fas- 
tened on  the  right  shoulder,  forms  a  tri- 
angle from  the  neck. 

CHOIR,  in  architecture,  the  part  of  a 
church  in  which  the  choristers  sing  divine 
service.  In  former  times  it  was  raised 
separate  from  the  altar,  with  a  pulpit  on 
each  side,  in  which  the  epistles  and  gos- 
pels were  sung,  as  is  still  the  case  in 
several  churches  on  the  continent.      It 


so 


CYCLOi'EDIA     OF    I.irEKATl  RE 


[cnR 


was  separated  from  the  nave  in  the  tiino 
of  Constantine.  In  nunneries,  the  choir 
is  a  large  apartment,  separateil  hj'  a 
grate  from  the  body  of  tlic  church,  whercs 
the  nuns  chant  the  service.  This  term  is 
used  also  in  music  to  signify  a  band  of 
singers  in  different  parts. 

C  11 0  R  A'G  I C  M  0  X  U  M  E  N  T  S,  the 
small  monuments  to  which  we  apply  this 
term  originated  in  the  time  of  Pericles, 
who  built  an  Odeon  at  Athens  for  musical 
contests,  not  of  single  persons,  but  of 
choruses.  The  richest  and  most  respecta- 
ble man  was  chosen 
from  the  ten  Athe- 
nian tribes,  as  cho- 
ragus,  to  make  the 
necessary  arrange- 
ments, in  return 
for  which  distinc- 
tion he  had  to  de- 
fray the  expenses. 
If  his  chorus  were 
victorious,  he  had 
also  the  right  of 
placing  upon  a 
monument  erected 
at  his  own  cost,  the 
tripod,  which  was 
given  as  the  prize.  The  rich  citizens 
whose  chorus  conquered  in  these  contests 
displayed  great  splendor  in  their  monu- 
ments, which  were  so  numerous  that  at 
Athens  there  was  a  street  formed  entirely 
of  them  called  the  "  Street  of  the  Tri- 
pods." 

CHORD,  in  music,  the  union  of  two  or 
more  sounds  uttered  at  the  same  time, 
forming  an  entire  harmony  ;  as  a  third, 
fifth,  and  eighth. 

CHOKEG'RAPIIY,  the  art  of  repre- 
senting dancing  by  signs,  as  singing  is  by 
notes. 

CIIORE'US,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  foot 
of  two  syllables ;  the  first  long,  and  the 
second  short;  the  trochee. 

CJIOUIAM'BUS,  in  ancient  poetry,  a 
foot  compounded  of  a  trochee  and  an  iam- 
bus. 

CHOROG'RAPHY,  the  art  of  delineat- 
ing or  describing  some  (larticular  country 
or  province :  it  ditlers  from  p^co'jraplnj 
as  a  description  of  a  particular  country 
differs  from  that  of  the  whole  earth  ;  and 
from  lujit)'j;rap/nj  as  tlie  description  of  a 
country  from  that  of  a  town  or  <listrict. 

CHORUS,  in  ancient  dramatic  poetry, 
one  or  more  persons  present  on  the  stage 
during  the  representation,  uttering  an 
occasional  commentary  on  tho  piece,  pre- 
paring (lie  audiiMicc  lor  events  that  aro 
to   follow,   or    explaining    circumstances 


that  cannot  be  distinctly  represented. 
Several  examples  may  be  referred  to  by 
the  English  reader,  in  the  plaj-s  of  Shaks- 
peare.  In  tragedy,  the  chorus  was  at 
first  the  sole  performer;  at  present  it  is 
wholly  discontinued  on  the  stage. — Cho- 
rus, in  music,  is  when,  at  certain  periods 
of  song,  the  whole  company  are  to  join 
the  singer  in  repeating  certain  couplet:) 
or  verses. 

CHREMATIS'TICS,  the  science  of 
wealth ;  a  name  given  by  Continental 
writers  to  the  science  of  political  econo- 
my, or  rather  to  what  in  their  view  con- 
stitutes a  portion  of  the  science.  They 
consider  political  economy  as  a  term  more 
properly  applicable  to  the  whole  range 
of  subjects  which  comprise  the  material 
welfare  of  states  and  citizens,  and  chre- 
matistics  as  merely  a  branch  of  it. 

CHRESTOM'ATIIY,  according  to  the 
etymology,  that  which  it  is  useful  to 
learn.  The  trrecks  frequently  formed 
commonplace  books  by  collecting  the  va- 
rious passages  to  which,  in  the  course 
of  reading,  they  had  affixed  the  mark 
X  (xP'T^ros,  useful.)  Hence  books  of  ex- 
tracts chosen  with  a  view  to  utility  have 
received  this  name. 

CHRISM,  or  CHRIS'OM,  in  the  Ro- 
mish and  Greek  churches,  Un  unction  or 
anointing  of  children,  which  was  for- 
merly practised  as  soon  as  they  were 
born. 

CHRIS'TENDOM,  a  word  sometimes 
employed  in  sucli  a  sense  as  to  compre- 
hend all  nations  in  which  Christianity 
prevails :  more  commonly,  all  realms 
governed  under  Christian  sovereigns  and 
institutions.  Thus  European  Turkey, 
although  three  fourths  of  its  inhabitants 
are  Christians,  is  not  in  ordinary  lan- 
guage included  within  the  term  Christen- 
dom. 

CHRT.S'TENIXG,  a  term  particularly 
applied  to  infant  bafitism,  denoting  the 
ceremony  of  admitting  a  person  into  the 
communion  of  the  Ciiristian  church  by 
means  of  baptism,  or  sjirinking  with  wa- 
ter. 

CHRISTIANITY,  the  religion  of  Je- 
sus Christ.  From  the  period  when  the 
disciples  •' were  called  Christians  first  in 
Antioch"  down  to  the  present  day,  the 
main  doctrines  of  tho  gospel,  and  tho 
great  moral  princijiles  wlii'-h  it  reveals 
and  confirms,  have  been  preserved  with- 
out interruption  in  tho  church.  But  not- 
withstanding this  substantial  unity,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  character  of 
tho  religion  lias  been  very  materially 
colored  throughout  all  its  history  by  tho 


chr] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


81 


circumstances  and  genius  of  tlifferent  na- 
tions and  ages.  Tlie  foundation  of  a 
Christian's  faith  and  practice,  his  ultimate, 
and,  in  truth,  only  ajipeal,  must  be  to  the 
facts,  the  doctrines,  and  the  precepts  of 
the  Scriptures,  especially  to  those  of  the 
New  Testament. 

CIIRIST'MAS,  the  festival  observed 
in  the  Christian  church  on  the  '25th  of 
December,  in  commemoration  of  our  Sa- 
viour's nativity;  and  celebrated  in  the 
church  of  England  by  a  particular  ser- 
vice set  apart  for  that  holy  day. 

CHRTS'TOrilER,  St.  "We  frequently 
aieet  with  this  saint  in  old  woodcuts ;  he 
is  represented  as  a  giant,  liis  staff  being 
the  stem  of  a  large  tree,  and  he  is  carry- 
ing the  infant  Jesus  on  his  shoulders 
across  a  river.  This  was  a  favorite  sub- 
ject with  the  artists  of  the  middle  ages, 
and  the  saint  is  placed  in  the  side  en- 
trances of  German  churches  as  the  sym- 
bol of  the  transition  from  heathenism  to 
Christianity.  The  incidents  in  the  life 
of  this  saint  chosen  for  illustration  by 
painters,  consist  of  the  passage  of  the 
river,  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  at 
Samos,  and  his  martyrdom. 

CHROMAT'IC,  in  music,  an  epithet 
descriptive  of  that  which  proceeds  by  sev- 
eral consecutive  semitones. 

CHROME  GREEN,  a  beautiful  dark- 
green  pigment,  prepared  from  the  oxide 
of  chromium.  Different  shades  of  this 
pigment  are  used  in  porcelain  and  in  oil- 
painting.  Mixed  with  Prussian  blue  and 
chrome  yellow  it  is  called  green  cin- 
nabar. 

CHROME  RED,  the  pigment  known 
at  present  by  this  name  is  not  prepared 
from  chrome,  but  is  a  beautiful  prepa- 
ration of  red  lead.  The  name  chrome 
red  was  given  to  it  by  speculators,  in 
order  to  secure  a  good  sale  and  a  high 
price.  Red  lead  is  an  oxide  of  lead, 
while  chrome  red  is  a  chromate  of 
lead,  which  is  a  durable  pigment,  and 
admissible  in  oil-painting. 

CHROME  JELLOW,  the  most  poison- 
ous of  the  chrome  pigments,  and  to  be 
entirely  rejected  in  oil-painting :  it  is 
not  durable.  When  mixed  with  white 
lead  it  turns  to  a  dirty  gray.  By  itself, 
and  as  a  water-color  pigment,  it  is  less 
objectionable. 

CHRON'IC,  an  epithet  for  inveterate 
diseases,  or  those  of  long  duration. 

CHRONICLE,  in  literature,  an  his- 
torical register  of  events  in  the  order  of 
tirao.  Most  of  the  historians  of  the  mid- 
dle ages  were  chroniclers  who  set  down 
the  events  which  happened  within  the 
6 


range  of  their  information,  a<  cording  to 
the  succession  of  years. 

CHRONICLES,  the  name  of  two 
books  in  the  canon  scripture.  They  con- 
sist of  an  abridgment  of  sacred  history 
from  its  commencement  down  to  the  re- 
turn of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  and  are  called  by  the  Scptua- 
gint  Tra[)a\uTtoiuva,  (lit.  things  omitted,) 
because  they  contain  many  supplemental 
relations  omitted  in  the  other  historical 
books.  It  has  been  generally  supposed 
that  the  Chronicles  were  compiled  by- 
Ezra,  though  circumstances  are  not  want- 
ing to  diminish  the  probability  of  this 
conjecture.  Eichhorn  gives  as  his  rea- 
sons for  attributing  them  to  Ezra  their 
similarity  in  point  of  style,  idiom,  and 
orthography  to  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Ezra;  while  the  opponents  of  this  view 
base  their  opinion  on  the  discrepancies 
that  occur  throughout  Chronicles  and 
Kings,  in  regard  to  facts,  dates,  numbers, 
names,  and  genealogies. 

CHRON'OGRAM,  an  inscription  in 
which  a  certain  date  or  epoch  is  expressed 
by  numeral  letters. 

CURONOL'OGY,  the  science  which 
determines  the  dates  of  events,  and  the 
civil  distinctions  of  time.  The  divisions 
of  time  are  either  natural  or  artificial ; 
the  natural  divisions  of  time  are  the  year, 
month,  week,  day,  and  hour,  deduced 
from  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  suited  to  the  purposes  of  civil  life  : 
the  artificial  divisions  of  time  are  the 
cycle  or  period,  the  epoch,  and  the  aera 
or  epoch,  which  have  been  framed  for  the 
purposes  of  history.  In  order  to  ascer- 
tain and  register  the  intervals  of  time 
between  different  events,  two  things  must 
necessarily  be  assumed :  1st,  an  epoch 
or  fixed  point  in  time  to  which  all  events, 
whether  preceding  or  succeeding  may  be 
referred  ;  and  2d,  a  measure  or  definite 
portion  of  time,  by  which  the  intervals 
between  the  fixed  epoch  and  other  events 
may  be  estimated.  Of  these  the  first  is 
entirely  arbitrary,  and  the  second  arbi- 
trary to  a  certain  extent ;  for  though 
certain  periods  are  marked  out  by  the 
recurrence  of  natural  phenomena,  yet  a 
choice  of  these  phenomena  must  be  made. 
It  is  on  account  of  the  arbitrary  nature 
of  these  two  elements,  on  which  all  chron- 
ological reckoning  depends,  that  so  much 
confusion  and  uncertainty  exist  respect- 
ing the  dates  of  historical  events.  The 
diversity  of  epochs  which  have  been  as- 
sumed as  the  origin  of  chronological 
reckoning,  is  a  natural  consequence  of 
the  manner  in  which  science  and  civili- 


82 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[cHb 


lation  havG  spread  over  the  workl.  In 
the  early  ages  the  different  communities 
or  tribes  into  which  manl<ind  were  divided 
began  to  date  their  years  each  from  some 
event  remarlcable  only  in  reference  to 
its  own  individual  hiiiory,  but  of  which 
other  tribes  were  either  ignorant,  or  re- 
garded with  indifference.  Hence  not 
only  different  nations,  but  almost  every 
individual  historian  or  compiler  of  an- 
nals, adopted  an  epoch  of  his  own.  Events 
of  local  or  temporary  interest  were  also 
constantl_v  occurring  in  every  commu- 
nity which  would  appear  of  greater  im- 
portance than  those  which  were  long 
past,  and  constantly  be  adopted  as  new 
historical  dates.  The  foundation  of  a 
monarchy  or  a  city,  or  the  accession  of  a 
king,  were  events  of  this  cla.ss;  and  ac- 
cordingly are  epochs  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  the  ancient  annals.  Religion 
also  came  in  to  increase  the  confusion 
caused  by  political  changes.  Soon  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  the 
various  sects  began  to  establish  eras, 
commencing  with  events  connected  with 
the  appearance  of  Christ ;  but  no  regard 
was  given  to  uniformity.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  Mohammedans  employ  dates 
having  reference  to  the  origin  of  their 
faith.  All  these  circumstances  have  con- 
spired to  render  it  a  task  of  extreme  dif- 
ficulty for  modern  historians  to  ascertain 
the  order  of  the  political  occurrences  of 
ancient  times.  But  it  is  not  merely  the 
number  of  chronological  epochs  and  the 
various  origins  of  eras  that  have  caused 
the  perple.\ity ;  the  measure  by  which 
long  intervals  were  compared  varied  in 
different  countries,  and  in  different  ages, 
and  lience  arises  another  source  of  confu- 
sion in  arranging  the  order  of  time.  In 
the  scripture  history,  the  lapse  of  time 
is  frequently  estimated  by  generations 
or  reigns  of  kings.  Some  of  the  histori- 
ans of  early  Greece  reckoned  by  the  suc- 
cession of  the  priestesses  of  Juno  ;  others 
by  that  of  the  cphori  of  Sparta ;  and 
others  again  by  the  archons  of  Athens. 
Even  when  the  length  of  the  solar  year 
began  to  be  used  as  the  measure  of  time, 
uniformity  was  not  obtained.  The  length 
of  the  solar  year  is  a  fi.ved  element  in 
nature,  and  liable  to  no  variati')n.  But 
neither  the  commencement  or  termina- 
tion of  the  year  is  marked  by  any  con- 
spicuous sign.  Its  precise  length  can 
only  be  ascertaine;!  by  a  long-continued 
series  of  astronomical  observations.  Rude 
nations  were  therefore  unacquainted  with 
it ;  and  even  when  it  liad  become  known 
with  considerable    accuracy,   it  was   still 


necessary  to  form  a  civil  year,  and  adapt 
it  to  the  seasons,  the  solar  j'ear  not  being 
composed  of  an  e.\act  number  of  days. 
Most  nations  had  recourse  to  intercala- 
tions for  this  purpose.  For  these  rea- 
sons, and  numerous  others  that  might 
easily  be  .adduced,  it  is  very  seldom  that 
the  precise  interval  between  the  events 
mentioned  in  ancient  history  and  modern 
dates  can  be  determined  with  any  degree 
of  certainty,  and  great  discrepancies  exist 
among  the  computations  of  different  chro- 
nologers. 

ClIKYSELEPHAN'TINE.  religious 
images  of  gold  and  ivory.  These,  the 
earliest  images  of  the  gods  in  Greece, 
were  of  wood,  gilt,  or  inlaid  with  ivory, 
whence  were  derived  aerolites,  the  heads, 
arms,  and  feet  of  which  were  of  marble, 
the  body  still  of  wood,  inlaid  with  ivory, 
or  quite  covered  with  gold.  From  this 
arose  the  chryselephantine  statues,  of 
which  the  foundation  was  of  wood,  cov- 
ered with  ivory  or  gold,  with  drapery 
and  hair  of  thin  plates  of  gold,  chased  ; 
and  the  rest  of  the  exterior  was  of  ivory, 
worked  in  a  pattern  by  the  scraper  and 
file,  with  the  help  of  isinglass.  The  ivory 
portion  of  these  works  belongs  to  sculp- 
ture, and  the  gold  part  to  toreutic  art; 
they  were  long  in  favor  as  temple  statues, 
as  marble  and  brass  were  used  for  com- 
mon purposes. 

CIIRYS'OCOLLA,  {Gr.  gold  green.; 
The  Greek  term  for  a  green  jiiginent 
prepared  from  copper,  (green  vcrditer) 
and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ancient 
greens,  Armenian  green  ;  it  was  obtained 
by  grinding  varieties  of  malachite  and 
green  carbonate  of  copper,'also  by  decom- 
posing the  blue  vitriol  of  Cyprus,  {sul- 
phate of  copper)  as  a  secondary  form 
of  dissolved  copjier  ore.  This  pigment 
is  identical  in  color  with  our  different 
shades  of  mountain  green  ;  the  best  was 
brought  from  Armenia;  a  second  kind 
was  found  near  copper  mines  in  Mace- 
donia; the  third,  and  most  valuable,  was 
brought  from  Spain.  Chrysocolla,  called 
by  ancient  painters  pea  or  grass  srreen, 
was  valued  in  proportion  as  its  color  ap- 
proached to  the  color  of  a  seed  beginning 
to  sprout. 

CHURCH,  in  religious  affairs,  is  a 
word  which  is  used  in  several  senses ; 
1.  The  collective  body  of  persons  pro- 
fessing one  and  the  same  religion ;  or 
that  religion  itself:  thus,  we  say,  the 
Church  of  Christ.  2.  Any  particular 
congregation  of  Christians  associating  to- 
gether, as  the  Church  of  Antioch.  3.  A 
particular  sect  of  Christians,  a«  the  Greek 


cil] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


83 


Church  or  the  Church  of  England.  4.  The 
body  of  ecclesiastics,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  lait}'.  5.  The  huilding  in  which  a 
congregation  of  Christians  assemble. — 
Cliurck,  in  architecture,  a  building  ded- 
icated to  the  performance  of  Christian 
worship.  Among  the  first  of  the  churches 
■vvas  that  of  St.  Peter's  at  Home,  about 
the  j'ear  326,  nearly  on  the  site  of  the 
present  church ;  and  it  is  supposed  that 
the  first  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constan- 
tinople was  built  somewhat  on  its  model. 
That  which  was  afterwards  erected  by 
Justinian  seems  in  its  turn  to  have  af- 
forded the  model  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice, 
which  was  the  first  in  Italy  constructed 
with  pendentives  and  a  dome,  the  former 
affording  the  means  of  covering  a  square 
plan  with  an  hemispherical  vault.  The 
lour  most  celebrated  churches  in  Europe 
erccte<l  since  the  revival  of  the  arts  are, 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  which  stands  on  an 
area  of  227,069  feet  superficial ;  Sta.  Ma- 
ria del  Fiore  at  Florence,  standing  on 
84,802  feet ;  St.  Paul's,  London,  which 
stands  on  84,02.5  feet ;  and  St.  Genevieve, 
at  Paris,  60,287  feet. 

CIBA'RI^E  LE'GES,  in  Roman  histo- 
ry, were  sumptuary  laws,  the  intention 
of  which  was  to  limit  the  expense  of 
feasts,  and  introduce  frugality  amongst 
the  people,  whose  extravagance  at  table 
was  notorious  and  almost  incredible. 

CIBO'RIUM,  in  architecture,  an  in- 
sulated erection  open  on  each  side,  with 
arches,  and  having  a  dome  of  ogee  form 
carried  or  suppo»ted  by  four  columns.  It 
is  also  used  to  denote  the  coffer  or  case 
which  contains  the  Host.  The  ciborium 
is  often  merely  an  addition  to  the  high 
altar,  and  is  then  a  synedoehe.  In  the 
early  Christian  times,  the  ciborium  was 
merely  a  protection  to  the  altar  table, 
first  a  tabernacle,  then  a  baldachin  over 
the  altar,  of  which,  the  canopy  used  at 
solemn  processions  and  under  which  the 
priest  wears  the  casula,  still  reminds  us. 
The  ciborium  was  generally  supported  by 
four  pillars,  and  is  above  the  altar;  be- 
tween the  pillars  were  curtains,  which 
were  opened  only  while  believers  made 
their  offerings,  but  closed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  catechumens  or  infidels. —  Cibo- 
rium also  signifies  a  vessel  in  which  the 
blessed  Eucharist  is  reserved.  In  form 
it  nearly  resembles  a  chalice  with  an 
arched  cover,  from  which  it  derives  its 
name.  The  most  splendid  ciboria  are 
those  belonging  to  ancient  German  art ; 
the  finest  of  these,  which  was  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  Cologne  in  the  preceding  cen- 
tury, exists  no  longer.  The  most  remark- 


able ciboria  in  Italy  are  the  tabernacle 
over  the  high  altar  of  St.  Paul's  at  Rome, 
that  in  the  cathedral  at  Milan,  and  that 
in  the  church  of  the  Lateran. 

CICERONE,  a  name  originally  given 
by  the  Italians  to  those  persons  who 
pointed  out  to  travellers  tho  interesting 
objects  with  which  Italy  abounds ;  but 
applied  universally  at  present  to  any  in- 
dividual who  acts  as  a  guide.  This  ap- 
plication of  the  term  cicerono  has  proba- 
bly its  origin  in  the  ironical  exclamation, 
"E  un  Cicerone,"  (he  is  a  Cicero,)  being 
elicited  from  tho  traveller  by  the  well- 
known  garrulity  of  the  Italian  guides.  A 
good  Cicerone  must  possess  accurate  and 
extensive  knowledge,  and  many  distin- 
guished archaeologists  have  undertaken 
this  office,  which,  while  serving  others, 
affords  them  also  an  opportunity  of  mak- 
ing repeated  examinations  of  the  works 
of  art,  and  enabling  them  to  increase 
their  familiarity  with  them. 

CICERO'NIANS,  epithets  given  by 
Muretus,  Erasmus,  &c.,  to  those  moderns 
who  were  so  ridiculously  fond  of  Cicero, 
as  to  reject  every  Latin  word,  as  obsolete 
or  impure,  that  could  not  be  found  in 
some  one  or  other  of  his  works.  The 
word  Ciceronian  is  also  used  as  an  epithet 
for  a  diffuse  and  flowing  style  and  a  ve- 
hement manner. 

CICISBE'O,  a  word  synonymous  with 
cavalier  servente,  and  applied  to  a  class 
of  persons  in  Italy  who  attend  on  mar- 
ried ladies  with  all  the  respect  and  devo- 
tion of  lovers.  Formerly  the  establish- 
ment of  a  fashionable  lady  was  not  con- 
sidered complete  without  a  cicisbeo,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  accompany  her  to  private 
parties  and  public  amusements,  to  escort 
her  in  her  walks,  and  in  short  to  be  al- 
wa5's  at  her  side  ready  for  her  commands. 
This  practice  is  now,  however,  on  the  de- 
cline. 

CID,  the  name  given  to  an  epic  poem 
of  the  Spaniards  which  celebrates  the  ex- 
ploits of  their  national  hero,  Roderigo 
Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  written  in  the  13th  century, 
about  150  years  after  the  hero's  death  ; 
but  unfortunately  the  author's  name  has 
not  been  transmitted  to  posterity. 

CID'ARLS,  in  antiquity,  the  mitre  used 
by  the  Jewish  high-priests. 

CILI'CIUM,  in  Hebrew  antiquity,  a 
sort  of  habit  made  of  coarse  stufiF,  former- 
ly in  use  among  the  Jews  in  times  of 
mourning  and  distress.  It  is  the  same 
with  what  the  Septuagint  and  Hebrew 
versions  call  sackefoth. 

CIM'BRIC,  pertaining  to  the  Cimbri, 


84 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LirERAITRE 


[CIR 


the  inhabitants  of  the  Cimbric  Chersonese, 
now  Jutland. 

CIMME'RIAX,  pertaining  to  Cim- 
■meriuin,  a  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pa- 
lus  Mwotis,  which  the  ancients  pretended 
was  involved  in  darkness ;  whence  the 
jjhrase  "Cimmerian  darkness"  to  denote 
ii  deep  or  continual  obscurity.  The  coun- 
try is  now  called  the  Crimea. 

"CIXCTO'KIUM,  a  leathern  belt  worn 
round  the  waist,  to  which  the  swords 
worn  by  the  officers  of  the  Koman  army 
were  suspended.  The  common  men  wore 
their  swords  suspended  from  a  balteus, 
which  is  worn  over  the  right  shoulder. 

CINCTURE,  in  architecture,  a  ring, 
list,  or  orlo,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  a 
column,  separating  the  shaft  at  one  end 
from  the  base,  and  at  the  other  from  the 
capital. 

CIN'NABAR,  one  of  the  red  pigments 
known  to  the  ancients,  called  also  by 
I'liny  and  Vitruvius  minium  ;  supposed 
to  be  identical  with  the  modern  vermil- 
ion, (the  hisulphuret  of  mercury,)  and 
(he  most  frequently  found  in  antique 
paintings.  The  Roman  cinnabar  appears 
to  have  been  dragon's  blood,  a  resin 
obtained  from  various  species  of  the  cal- 
amus palm,  found  in  the  Canary  Isles. 
It  is  beyond  a  doul>t  that  the  Greeks  ap- 
plied the  term  cinnabari,  generally 
meaning  cinnabar,  to  this  resin.  Cinna- 
bar, as  well  as  dragon's  blood,  was  used 
in  monochrome  pamting  ;  afterwards 
ruddle,  especially  that  of  Sinopia,  was 
j)referred,  because  its  color  was  less  daz- 
zling. The  ancients  attached  the  ideas 
of  the  majestic  and  lioly  to  cinnabar, 
therefore  they  painted  witli  it  the  statues 
of  Pan,  as  well  as  those  of  Jupiter  Cap- 
itolinus  and  Jupiter  Triuiiiphans.  It 
was  used  upon  gold,  marble,  and  even 
tombs,  and  also  for  uncial  letters  in  writ- 
ing, down  to  recent  times.  The  Byzan- 
tine emperors  preferred  signing  with  it. 
Its  general  use  was  for  walls,  on  which 
nnuli  miiney  was  spent:  in  ])laces  wliich 
were  diimp  and  e,\i)0S('d  to  the  weather 
it  became  black,  unless  protected  by  en- 
caustic wax. 

CINQUE  CENTO,  this  generic  term, 
which  is  a  mere  abbreviation  tw  five  hun- 
dred, is  used  to  designate  the  style  of  Art 
which  arose  in  Italy  shortly  after  the 
year  1.'500,  and  therefore  strictly  the  Art 
of  the  si.\teenth  century.  The  charac- 
teristics of  this  style  are,  a  sensuous  de- 
velopment of  Art  as  the  highest  aim  of 
the  artist,  and  an  illustration  of  subjects 
drawn  from  cla;-sical  niytlioldgy  and  his- 
tory. 


CINQUE-FOIL,  a  figure  of  five  equal 
segments  derived  from  the  leaf  of  a  plant 
so  called,    particularly  adapted    for   the 


representation  of  the  mysteries  of  th« 
Rosary.  It  is  frequently  seen  in  irregu 
lar  windows,  one  of  which  is  engraved  a; 
a  specimen. 

CINQUE-PORTS,  the  five  ancient  port; 
on  the  east  coast  of  England,  opposite  tt 
France,  namelj',  Dover,  Hastings,  Hythe, 
Romnej',  and  Sandwich,  to  which  wer"; 
afterwards  added,  as  appendages,  AVin- 
chelsea  and  Rye.  As  places  whero 
strength  and  vigilance  were  necessary, 
and  where  ships  might  put  to  sea  in  case; 
of  sudden  emergency,  they  formerly  re- 
ceived considerable  attention  from  gov- 
ernment. They  have  several  privileges, 
and  are  within  the  jurisdiction  of  thi? 
Constable  of  Dover  Castle,  who,  by  his 
office,  is  called  AVarden  of  the  Cinque- 
Ports. 

CI'PIIER,  or  CY'PIIER,  one  of  the 
Arabic  characters,  or  figures,  used  in  com- 
putation, formed  thus  0.  A  cipher  stand- 
ing by  itself  signifies  nothing;  but  when 
placed  at  the  right  hand  of  a  figure,  it 
increases  its  value  tenfold. — By  cipher 
is  also  denoted  a  secret  or  disguised  man- 
ner of  writing;  in  which  certain  charac- 
ters arbitrarily  invented  and  agreed  on 
by  two  or  more  persons,  are  made  to 
stand  for  letters  or  words. 

CIP'OLIN,  a  green  marble  from  Rome, 
containing  white  zones. 

CIP'PUS,  in  antiquity,  a  low  column, 
with  an  inscription  erected  on  the  high- 
roads, or  other  places,  to  show  the  way 
to  travellers,  to  serve  as  a  boundary,  to 
mark  the  grave  of  a  deceased  person, 
&c. 

CIRCE'AN,  pertaining  to  Circe,  the 
fabled  daughter  of  Sol  and  Perseus,  who 
was  supposed  to  possess  grciit  knowledge 
of  magic  and  venomous  herbs,  by  which 
she  was  able  to  charm  and  fascinate. 

CIRCEN'SIAN  GAMES,  (Circenses 
Lttdi.)  a  general  term,  under  which  was 
comprehended  all    combats  exhibited  in 


cir] 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


the  Roman  circu?,  in  imitation  of  the 
Olympic  games  in  tJ recce.  Most  of  tiie 
fe.ists  of  the  Romans  were  accompanied 
with  Circensiaii  games  ;  and  the  magis- 
trates, and  other  officers  of  tlic  republic, 
frequently  presented  the  i)eo])le  with 
them,  in  order  to  gain  their  favor;  but 
the  grand  games  were  held  for  five  days, 
commencing  on  the  ITsth  of  .September. 

CIR'CLE,  the  circle  has  always  been 
considered  as  the  emblem  of  Heaven  and 
Eternity,  hence  many  figures  in  Chris- 
tian design  are  constructed  on  its  prin- 
ciple, such  as  the  Rotation  of  the  Seasons, 
which  are  constantly  returning;  or  the 
Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  and  other  sub- 
jects which  are  found  in  the  great  wheel- 
windows  of  painted  churches. 

CIR'CULATINtt  ME'DIUM,  a  term 
in  commerce,  signifying  the  medium  of 
exchanges,  or  purchases  and  sales,  wheth- 
er this  medium  be  gold  or  silver  coin, 
paper,  or  any  other  article ;  and  it  is 
therefore  of  a  more  comprehensive  na- 
ture than  the  term  money.  All  people 
have  a  circulating  medium  of  some  de- 
scription, and,  accordingly,  we  find  all  the 
tribes  of  savages  hitherto  discovered  re- 
ferring to  some  article  in  estimating  the 
value  of  the  various  commodities  which 
compose  their  capital.  But  from  the  ear- 
liest times,  the  precious  metals,  where 
they  could  be  had,  have  been  preferred 
for  this  purpose,  because  they  comprised 
a  sufficient  value  in  a  small  compass  and 
weight  to  be  a  convenient  medium. 

CIRCUM AM'BIENT,  an  epithet  given 
to  anything  that  surrounds  or  encom- 
passes another  on  all  sides;  chiefly  used 
in  speaking  of  the  air. 

CIRCU.MCI'SION,  the  initiatory  rite 
of  the  Jewish  covenant ;  which,  as  is  re- 
corded, was  first  enjoined  to  Abraham  by 
God,  and  after  his  posterity  had  neglected 
it  during  tiieir  wanderings  through  the 
desert,  was  solemnly  renewed  upon  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan.  This  custom  has 
been  long  ])revalent  amr)ng  Eastern  na- 
tions. Herodotus  refers  to  it  as  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians,  and 
as  borroweii  from  them  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians and  Syrians.  It  does  not  apj)ear, 
however,  to  have  been  considered  by  these 
nations  in  the  light  of  a  religious  cere- 
mony. It  is  enforced  by  the  Koran  upon 
all  the  disciples  of  Mahomet,  whether 
from  an  idea  of  salubrity  vulgarly  at- 
tributed to  it  in  the  East,  or  merely  as  a 
distinguishing  rite. 

CIR'CUMFLEX,  in  grammar,  an  ac- 
cent serving  to  note  or  distinguish  a  syl- 
lable of  an  intermediate  sound  between 


acute  and  grave :  generally  somewhat 
long. 

CiRCUMFORA'NEOUS,  an  epithet 
for  wandering"  about. —  Circumjhraneous 
musicians,  male  and  female,  are  daily 
seen  at  the  doors  of  hotels  in  France  ;  and 
sometimes  they  enter  the  room,  expecting 
a  few  sous  for  their  reward.  IS'or  are 
characters  of  a  similar  description  by  any 
means  rare  in  London  or  New  York. 

CIRCUMLOCUTION,  a  paraphrasti- 
cal  method  of  expressing  one's  thoughts, 
or  saying  in  many  words  that  which 
might  have  been  said  in  few. 

CIRCUxMPOTA'TION,  in  antiquity,  a 
funeral  entertainment  which  was  given 
in  honor  of  the  deceased  to  the  friends 
that  attended.  It  was  afterwards  abol- 
ished by  law. 

CIRCUMROTA'TION,  the  act  of  roll- 
ing or  revolving  round,  as  a  wheel. 

CIRCUMSTAN'TIAL  EVIDENCE, 
in  law,  is  that  kind  of  evidence  obtained 
from  circumstances  which  necessarily  or 
usually  attend  facts  of  a  particular  na- 
ture. It  is  used  to  corroborate  personal 
evidence. 

CIRCUMVALLA'TION,  or  line  of 
circumvallation,  in  the  art  of  war,  is  a 
trench  bordered  with  a  parapet,  thrown 
up  round  the  besieger's  camp,  by  way  of 
security  against  any  army  that  may  at- 
tempt to  relieve  the  place  besieged,  or  to 
prevent  desertion. 

CIRCUS,  a  straight,  long,  narrow 
building,  whose  length  to  its  breadth  was 
generalij'  as  five  to  one.  It  was  divided 
down  the  centre  by  an  ornamented  bar- 
rier called  the  spina,  and  was  used  by  the 
Romans  for  the  exhibition  of  public  spec- 
tacles and  chariot  races.  There  were 
several  of  these  at  Rome,  of  which  the 
most  celebrated  was  the  Circus  Maximus. 
Julius  Ca!sar  improved  and  altered  the 
Circus  Maximus  ;  and  that  it  might  serve 
for  the  purpose  of  a  naumachia,  supplied 
it  with  water.  Augustus  added  to  it  the 
celebrated  obelisk  now  standing  in  the 
Piazza  del  Popolo.  No  vestiges  of  this 
circus  remain.  Besides  these  were  at 
Rome  the  circi  of  Flaminius,  near  the 
Pantheon  ;  Agonalis,  occupying  the  site 
of  what  is  now  the  Piazza  Navona;  of 
Nero,  on  a  portion  whereof  St.  Peter's 
stands  ;  Florus.  Antoninus,  and  Aurelian, 
no  longer  even  in  ruins ;  and  that  of  Ca- 
racalla,  which  was  738  feet  in  length,  and 
is  sufficiently  perfect  in  the  present  day 
to  exhibit  its  plan  and  distribution  in  tlie 
most  satisfactory  manner.  The  specta- 
cles exhibited  in  the  circus  were  callcl 
the  Circcnsian  games,  and  consisted  chief- 


so 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LMERATURE 


CIV 


ly  of  chariot  and  horse  races.  The  Ro- 
mans were  passionately  fond  of  them,  and 
more  particularly  of  the  chariot  races, 
which  excited  so  great  an  interest  in  the 
times  of  the  emperors  as  to  divide  the 
whole  population  of  the  city  into  factions, 
known  by  the  names  of  the  colors  worn 
by  the  different  charioteers.  The  disputes 
of  these  factions  sometimes  led  to  serious 
disturbances,  and  even  bloodshed.- — In 
modern  times,  the  word  is  applied  to  de- 
signate a  circular  enclosure  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  feats  of  horsemanship. 

CIST,  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  a 
chest  or  basket.  It  is  a  term  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  mystic  baskets  employed  in 
processions  connected  with  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries.  They  were  originally  of  wick- 
er-work, and  when  afterwards  made  of 
metal  the  form  and  texture  were  preserv- 
ed in  imitation  of  the  original  material. 
When  sculptured  on  antique  monuments 
it  indicates  some  connection  with  the  mys- 
teries of  Ceres  and  Bacchus.  The  cista 
found  at  Preneste,  and  now  in  the  Col- 
legia Romano,  is  of  surpassing  beauty  ; 
on  it  is  represented  the  expedition  of  the 
Argonauts  in  a  style  not  unworthy  of 
Grecian  art,  but  by  the  inscription  ap- 
parently of  Italian  workmanship. 

CISTER'CIANS,  in  church  history,  a 
religious  order  founded  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury by  St.  Robert,  a  Benedictine. 

CITA'TION,  in  ecclesiastical  courts,  is 
the  same  with  summons  in  civil  courts. — 
A  citation  is  also  a  quotation  of  some 
law,  authority,  or  passage  from  a  book. 

CITH'ARA,  in  antiquity,  a  musical  in- 
strument, the  precise  structure  of  which 
is  not  known. 

CITHARIS'TIC,  an  epithet  for  any- 
thing pertaining  to  or  adapted  for  the 
harp. 

CITII'ERN,  an  ancient  stringed  instru- 
ment, supposed  to  bear  a  resemblance  to 
the  guitar. 

CITY,  a  large  town,  incorporated  and 
governed  by  particular  officers.  In 
Great  Britain,  it  means  a  town  having  a 
bishop's  see,  and  a  cathedral ;  but  this 
distinction  is  not  always  observed  in  com- 
mon discourse. — War  having  rendered  it 
requisite  that  cities  should  be  defensible 
posts,  the  smallness  of  the  space  they  oc- 
cupied became  a  consideration  of  impor- 
tance. Their  inhabitants  were  taught  to 
«rowd  themselves  together  as  much  as 
possible  ;  and  among  the  expedients  re- 
torted to  was  that  of  building  apartments 
over  one  another,  thereby  multiplying 
the  number  of  dwellings  without  in- 
creasing the  superficial  magnitude  of  the 


place.  Trade,  too,  by  requiring  a  mul- 
titude of  persons  upon  one  spot,  hai 
always  been  the  foundation  of  what  wq 
now  call  cities.  Cities  usuallj'  possess, 
by  charter,  a  variety  of  peculiar  privi- 
leges ;  and  these  charters,  though  the^i 
now  sometimes  appear  to  be  the  support- 
ers of  a  narrow  policy,  were,  in  their  in- 
stitution, grants  of  freedom  at  that  time 
nowhere  else  jjossessed  ;  and  by  these  the 
spell  that  maintained  the  feudal  tyranny 
was  broken. — City,  (civitas,)  among  the 
ancients,  was  used  in  synonymous  sense 
with  what  we  now  call  an  imperial  city  ; 
or,  rather,  answered  to  those  of  the  Swiss 
cantons,  the  republics  of  Venice,  Genoa, 
&c.,  as  being  an  independent  state,  with 
territories  belonging  to  it. 

CIVIC  CROWN,  (corona  cirica,)  in 
antiquity,  a  crown,  or  garland  composed 
of  oak-leaves,  given  by  the  Romans  to 
any  soldier  who  had  saved  the  life  of  a 
citizen.  Various  marks  of  honor  were 
connected  with  it :  the  person  who  re- 
ceived the  crown  wore  it  at  the  theatre ; 
and  when  he  entered,  the  audience  rose 
up  as  a  mark  of  respect. 

CIVIL,  an  epithet  applicable  to  what- 
ever relates  to  the  community  as  a  body, 
or  to  the  policy  and  the  government  of 
the  citizens  and  subjects  of  a  state.  It  is 
opposed  to  criminal :  as  a  civil  suit,  a 
suit  between  citizens  alone,  and  not  be- 
tween the  state  and  a  citizen.  It  is  also 
distinguished  from  ecclesiastical,  which 
respects  the  church  ;  and  from  ?« ilitary, 
which  includes  only  matters  relating  to 
the  army  and  navy. — The  popular  and 
colloquial  use  of  the  word  cicil,  means 
complaisant,  polite. —  Civil  Law,  is  prop- 
erly the  peculiar  law  of  each  state, 
country,  or  city;  but  as  a  general  and 
appropriate  term,  it  means  a  body  of 
laws  composed  out  of  the  best  Roman  and 
Grecian  laws,  comprised  in  the  Institutes, 
Code  and  Digest  of  Justinian,  Ac,  and, 
for  the  most  part,  received  and  observed 
throughout  all  the  Roman  dominions  for 
above  1200  years.  This  law  is  used  un- 
der certain  restrictions  in  the  English 
ecclesiastical  courts,  as  also  in  the  uni- 
versity courts  and  tlic  court  of  admiralty. 
—  Civil  List,  the  revenue  appropriated 
to  support  the  civil  government ;  also  the 
officers  of  civil  government  who  are  paid 
from  the  public  treasury. —  Civil  Death, 
in  law,  that  which  cuts  off  a  man  from 
civil  society,  or  its  rights  and  benefits,  as 
banishment,  outlawry,  <fec. ;  as  distin- 
guished from  natural  death. — CivilWar, 
a  war  between  people  of  the  same  state, 
or  the  citizens  of  the  same  city. —  Cixiii 


cla] 


AM)    THE     FINE    AUTS. 


87 


Year,  the  legal  year,  or  that  form  of  the 
year  which  each  nation  has  adopted  for 
computing  their  time  by.  The  civil  year 
in  England  and  other  countries  of  Europe 
consists  of  365  days  for  the  common  year, 
and  366  days  for  leap  year. —  Civil  Ar- 
chiteclure,  the  architecture  which  is  ap- 
plied to  buildings  constructed  for  the 
purposes  of  civil  life,  in  distinction  from 
military  and  naval  architecture. 

CIVIL'IAN,  a  doctor  or  professor  of 
the  civil  law ;  or  in  a  more  extended 
sense,  one  who  is  versed  in  law  and  gov- 
ernment. 

CLAN,  a  family  or  tribe,  living  under 
one  chief.  This  appears  to  have  been  the 
original  condition  of  the  savages  of  north- 
ern Europe  ;  and  from  this  we  ought  to 
trace  the  germ  of  the  feudal  system.  All 
the  members  of  a  clan  held  their  lands 
of  the  chief,  followed  him  to  war,  and 
were  expected  to  obey  him  in  peace. 
The  clans  of  the  Scottish  Highlands  are 
tribes  consisting  of  many  families  all 
bearing  the  same  surname,  which  accord- 
ing to  tradition  descend  from  a  common 
ancestor.  But  it  is  more  probable  that 
most  clans  were  formed  of  an  aggregate 
of  different  families,  the  inferior  stamling 
to  the  superior  in  the  same  sort  of  rehi- 
tion  as  the  Roman  clients  to  their  patrons, 
and  by  degrees  assuming  the  same  name. 
Some  clans,  however,  are  divided  into 
branches,  each  possessing  a  distinct  sur- 
name. The  chieftainship  of  everj^  clan 
descends  regularly  through  heirs  male  ; 
but  in  the  earliest  times  of  their  history 
the  rights  of  primogeniture  were  not 
very  distinctly  defined. — The  word  clan 
is  also  sometimes  used  in  contempt,  for  a 
sect  or  society  of  jjersons  united  by  some 
common  interest  or  pursuit. 

CLANG,  a  sh.arp,  shrill  sound,  imply- 
ing a  degree  of  harshness  in  the  sound ; 
as,  the  clang  of  arms.  The  words  clank 
and  clink  denote  a  more  acute  and  less 
harsh  sound  than  clang. 

CLARE-OBSCURE,  Claro-Obscuro, 
Latin;  Chiaro-oscuro,  Italian;  and 
Clair  -  obscur,  French ;  a  phrase  in 
painting,  signifying  light  and  shade.  In 
pictural  criticism,  it  means  the  relief  that 
is  produced  by  light  and  shade,  independ- 
ently of  color.  In  the  art  it.solf,  it  de- 
notes that  species  of  painting  or  design, 
in  which  no  attempt  is  made  to  give 
colors  to  the  objects  represented,  and 
where,  consequently,  light  and  shade  are 
everything. 

CLAR'ICHORD,  or  CLAVICHORD,  a 
musical  instrument  sometimes  called  a 
manichord.     It  has  fifty  stops,  or  keys, 


and  seventy  strings  ;  and  is  in  the  form 
of  a  spinnet.  The  tone  is  soft  and  sweet. 
Hence  it  is  a  favorite  instrument  with 
nuns. 

CLAR'ION,  a  kind  of  trumpet,  whose 
tube  is  narrower,  and  its  tone  more  acuto 
and  shrill,  than  that  of  the  common  trum- 
pet. 

CLAR'IONET,  a  wooden  musical  wind 
instrument,  whose  mouth  partakes  of  the 
trumpet  form,  and  is  played  by  holes  and 
keys  :  said  to  have  been  invented  about 
the  year  1600  by  John  Christopher  Den- 
ner  of  Leipsic.  Like  the  oboe  it  is  played 
with  a  reed  mouth-piece  though  it  is  of 
somewhat  different  form. 

CLASS,  a  term  applied  to  the  scientific 
division  or  arrangement  of  any  subject; 
as  in  the  Linna-an  system,  where  ani- 
mals, plants,  and  minerals,  are  divided 
into  classes,  each  of  which  is  to  be  subdi- 
vided by  a  regular  downward  progres- 
sion, into  orders,  genera,  and  species, 
with  occasional  intermediate  subdi- 
visions, all  subordinate  to  the  division 
which  stands  immediately  above  them. 
Classes  are  natural  or  artificial,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  founded  on  natural  re- 
lations or  resemblances,  or  when  formed 
arbitrarily. — Class  also  denotes  a  num- 
ber of  students  in  a  college  or  school,  of 
the  same  standing,  or  pursuing  the  same 
studies. 

CLASSI'CAL,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  term 
denoting  such  an  arrangement  of  a  sub- 
ject that  all  the  accessories  or  parts  are 
suitable  to  the  general  design,  and  such 
that  nothing  be  introduced  which  does 
not  strictly  belong  to  the  particular  class 
under  which  it  is  placed.  In  antiquity, 
the  Roman  people  were  divided  into 
classes,  and  the  highest  order  were,  by 
pre-eminence,  termed  classical.  Hence 
the  name  came  to  signify  the  highest  and 
purest  class  of  writers  in  any  language  ; 
although,  down  to  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  the  term  was  used  merely  to  de- 
note the  most  esteemed  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  Nothing  marks  more  strongly 
the  increased  attention  to  modern  liter- 
ature, than  the  now  universal  applica- 
tion of  the.  term  to  modern  languages 
also,  and  the  establishment,  in  this  man- 
ner, of  a  line  between  those  authors  whom 
we  regard  as  models  and  authorities  in 
point  of  style,  and  those  who  are  not  so 
highly  esteemed.  An  author  is  said  to 
be  classical  if  public  opinion  has  placed 
him  in  the  former  order;  language,  or  an 
expression,  to  be  classical,  if  it  be  such  as 
has  been  used  in  a  similar  sense  and  un- 
der similar  rules  of  construction  by  those 


88 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[CLl 


authors.  The  epithet  classical,  as  ap- 
plied to  ancient  authors,  is  deterniinetl 
less  by  the  purity  of  their  style  than  by 
the  period  at  which  they  wrote.  Thus 
we  speak  of  the  classical  age  of  Greek  or 
Latin  writing.  AVith  respect  to  the  for- 
mer, the  classical  age  begins  with  Homer, 
the  earliest  Greek  writer  with  whom  we 
are  acquainted.  The  pui-est  age  of  Greek 
classical  literature  may  be  said  to  end 
about  the  time  of  the  Macedonian  con- 
quest, or  about  300  B.C.  ;  but,  in  a  wider 
sense,  it  extends  to  the  time  of  the  An- 
tonincs,  and  embraces  a  much  larger 
catalogue  of  authors  ;  while  the  centuries 
subsequent  to  that  time  produced  a  few, 
who,  by  the  purity  of  their  style,  deserve 
to  be  ranked  with  earlier  classics.  The 
Latin  classical  period  is  shorter ;  its 
earliest  writer  is  Plautus,  and  the  lan- 
guage may  be  said  to  have  lost  its  classi- 
cal character  about  the  same  time  with 
the  Greek,  i.  e.  the  reigns  of  the  Anto- 
nines ;  although  this  limit  is  arbitrary, 
and  some  later  writers,  even  down  to 
Claudian,  are  generally  included  among 
classics.  Within  the  Latin  classical  era 
there  is  a  more  restricted  period  of  the 
purest  Latinity,  comprising  the  age  of 
Cicero  and  that  of  Augustus. 

CLASS'IFICA'TION,  in  the  Fine  Arts, 
an  arrangement  by  which  objects  of  the 
fine  arts  are  distributed  in  classes ;  as, 
for  instance,  in  galleries  of  paintings, 
the  works  should  be  arranged  in  schools, 
each  school  being  subject  to  a  chrono- 
logical order  of  the  masters.  In  numis- 
matology, the  coins  should  be  arranged 
by  countries,  and  these  again  in  chrono- 
logical order  of  the  monarchs ;  and  the 
like  of  other  branches  of  the  Arts. 

CLAUSE,  in  law,  an  article  in  a  con- 
tract or  other  writing ;  a  distinct  part 
of  a  contract,  Avill,  agreement,  charter, 
Ac. — In  language,  a  subdivision  of  a  sen- 
tence, in  which  the  words  are  insepara- 
bly connected  with  each  other  in  sense, 
and  cannot,  with  propriety,  be  separated 
by  a  point. 

CLAUS'TRAL,  relating  to  a  cloister 
or  religious  house  ;  as,  a  claustral  prior. 

CLI5F,  or  CLIFF,  a  character  in  music, 
placed  in  the  beginning  of  a  stave  to  de- 
termine the  degree  of  elevation  occupied 
by  that  stave,  in  tlie  general  claviary  or 
system,  and  to  point  out  the  names  of  the 
notes  which  it  contains  in  the  line  of  that 
clef. 

CLEPSAM'MIA,  an  ancient  instru- 
ment for  measuring  time  by  sand,  like  an 
hour-glass. 

CLEP'SYDKA,  a  Roman  and  Grecian 


timepiece,  or  water  clock  ;  an  instrument 
to  measure  time  bj'  the  fall  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  water. 

CLER'GY,  a  general  name  given  to 
the  body  of  ecclesiastics  of  the  Christian 
church,  in  distinction  from  the  laity. 
The  revenues  of  tlie  clergy  were  ancient- 
ly more  considerable  than  at  present. 
Ethelwulf,  in  85.5,  gave  them  a  tithe  of 
all  goods,  and  a  tenth  of  all  the  lands  in 
England,  free  from  all  secular  services, 
taxes,  <fcc.  The  charter  whereby  this  was 
granted  them,  was  confirmed  by  several 
of  his  successors ;  and  William  the  Con- 
queror, finding  the  bishoprics  so  rich, 
created  them  into  baronies,  each  barony 
containing  at  least  thirteen  knights' 
fees. 

CLERK,  a  word  originally  used  to 
denote  a  learned  man,  or  man  of  letters  ; 
whence  the  term  is  appropriated  to 
churchmen,  who  were  called  clerks  cr 
clergymen ;  the  nobility  and  gentry 
being  bred  to  the  exercise  of  arms,  and 
none  left  to  cultivate  the  sciences  but 
ecclesiastics.  In  modern  usage,  the 
word  clerk  means  a  writer ;  one  who  is 
employed  in  the  use  of  the  pen,  in  an 
ottice,  public  or  private,  either  for  keep- 
ing accounts,  or  entering  minutes.  In 
some  cases  clerk  is  sj'nonymous  with  sec- 
retary, but  not  always.  A  clerk  is  al- 
ways an  officer  subordinate  to  a  higher 
officer,  board,  corporation,  or  private 
individual ;  whereas,  a  secretary  may 
either  be  a  subordinate  ofliccr,  or  the 
head  of  an  office  or  department. 

CLICHE',  the  impression  of  a  die  in  a 
mass  of  melted  tin  or  fusible  metal.  Med- 
allists or  die-sinkers  employ  it  to  make 
proofs  of  their  work,  to  judgo  the  effect, 
and  stage  of  progress  of  their  work  be- 
fore the  die  is  hardened.  The  term 
cliche  is  also  applied  to  the  French  ster- 
eotype casts  from  woodcuts. 

CLI'ENT,  a  person  who  seeks  advice 
of  a  lawyer,  or  commits  his  cause  to  the 
management  of  one,  cither  in  prosecut- 
ing a  claim,  or  defending  a  suit  in  a 
court  of  justice. — Among  the  Romans,  a 
client  meant  a  citizen  who  put  himself 
under  the  protection  of  a  man  of  distinc- 
tion and  influence,  who  was  accordingly 
called  his  patron.  This  relation  was  in 
many  respects  similar  to  that  of  a  serf 
to  his  feudal  lord,  but  bore  a  much  miMt^r 
form.  It'was  the  duty  of  the  iiatron  to 
watch  over  the  interests  of  his  clients  and 
protect  them  from  aggression,  and  ap- 
pear for  them  in  lawsuits.  He  also  fre- 
quently made  them  grants  of  land  on 
lease.     In  return  the  client  was  bound  to 


CLO] 


AM)    TUK     FINE    ARTS. 


8i) 


defend  his  patron,  ami  contribute  towanls 
any  extraordinary  c.\]ien.scs  hu  might  be 
subjeut  to;  as  the  iiortionin;:;  his  (l;ingh- 
ters,  the  payiuent  of  a  lino  iinposeil  tiy 
the  state,  &<i.  lie  mislit  not  appear  as 
accuser  or  witness  aj^ainst  him  injudicial 
proceedings,  a  prohibition  which  was  re- 
ciprocal. If  he  committed  any  offence 
against  his  patron,  he  was  oblige  1  to  sub- 
mit to  him  as  his  .ju<lge ;  and  in  ancient 
times  it  appears  that  the  power  of  life 
and  death  was  held  by  the  latter.  On 
the  other  hand  his  security  against  op- 
pression at  the  hands  of  his  patron  lay 
in  the  injunctions  and  authority  of  reli- 
gion, which  rendered  the  bond  of  union 
inviolably  sacred,  as  that  between  father 
and  son.  The  origin  of  this  relation  can- 
not now  be  traced ;  but  it  seems  to 
have  existed,  with  various  modifications, 
throughout  Italy  and  Greece.  In  Home 
it  appears  at  the  foundation  of  the  city 
by  Romulus,  when  every  family  not  in- 
cluded among  the  patricians  was  obliged 
to  find  itself  a  patron  from  their  number. 
The  body  of  clients  was  afterwards  in- 
creased by  the  institution  by  which  foreign- 
ers, who,  as  allies  of  Rome,  had  a  share 
in  its  franchise,  might  choose  themselves 
patrons  on  their  coining  to  settle  in  the 
city.  The  obligations  of  clients  were  he- 
reditary, and  could  not  be  shaken  off  un- 
less through  the  decay  of  the  family  of 
the  patron.  This  body  alone  in  earlier 
times  furnished  artisans  and  shopkeepers ; 
they  had  votes  in  the  Comitia  Centuriata  ; 
and  though  generally  confounded  with 
the  plebeians,  were  undoubtedly  perfect- 
ly distinct  from  them,  as  we  continually 
meet  in  history  with  instances  of  their 
joining  the  patricians  in  opposition  to 
the  former;  and  when  some  of  the  ple- 
beian houses  became  powerful,  they  them- 
selves attached  bodies  of  clients. 

CLIMACTER'ICAL  YEAR,  certain 
years  in  the  life  of  man  have  been  from 
great  antiquity  supposed  to  have  a  pecu- 
liar importance,  and  to  be  liable  to  sin- 
gular vicissitudes  in  his  health  and  fur- 
tunes.  This  superstitious  belief  is  sup- 
posed to  have  originated  in  the  doctrines 
of  Pythagoras.  The  well-known  notice 
of  the  climacterical  year,  sixty-three, 
supposed  to  be  particularly  dangerous  to 
old  men,  in  a  letter  of  Augustus  Cajsar 
preserveil  by  Aulus  (Jellius,  evinces  its 
prevalence  among  the  Romans.  This 
year  has  been  called  by  some  astrological 
writers  "  heroicus,"  as  having  been  pe- 
culiarly fatal  to  great  men.  The  virtue 
of  this  year  seem.s  to  consist  in  its  being 
a  multipls  of  the   two  mystical  numbers, 


seven  and  nine.  It  is  certainly  singular 
that  usage  shouM  have  attached  in  all 
countries  ])eculiar  distinction  to  those 
years  which  are  denoted  by  compounds 
of  the  number  seven.  Thus  fourteen  has 
been  fixed  for  various  purposes  as  the 
epoch  of  puberty,  twenty-one  of  full  age  ; 
thirty-five  has  been  selected  by  Aristotle 
as  the  period  when  the  body  is  in  its 
highest  physical  vigor.  The  same  au- 
thor supposes  the  vigor  of  the  mind  to  be 
perfected  at  forty-nine :  sixty-three  is 
the  grand  climacterical  year;  seventy 
the  limit  of  the  ordinary  age  of  man. 
Bodinus  sa^'s  that  seven  is  the  climacter- 
ical number  in  men  and  six  in  women. 
The  term  climacteric  disease  has  more 
lately  been  applied  to  that  declension  of 
bodily  and  vital  powers  which  is  fre- 
quently observed  to  come  on  in  the  latter 
period  of  life,  and  from  which  many  per- 
sons again  rally  so  as  to  attain  extreme 
old  age. 

CLI'MAX,  a  figure  in  rhetoric,  con- 
sisting of  an  assemblage  of  particulars, 
rising,  as  it  were,  step  by  step,  and  form- 
ing a  -whole  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
last  idea  in  the  former  member  becomes 
the  first  in  the  latter,  till  the  climax,  or 
gradation,  is  completed.  Its  strength 
and  beauty  consist  in  the  logical  connec- 
tion of  the  ideas,  and  the  pleasure  the 
mind  receives  from  perfect  conviction  ;  as 
may  be  perceived  in  the  following  exam- 
ple :  "  There  is  no  enjoyment  of  property 
without  government ;  no  government 
without  a  magistrate ;  no  magistrate 
without  obedience ;  and  no  obedience 
where  every  one  acts  as  he  pleases." 

CLIN'ICAL,  in  its  literal  sense,  means 
an3'thing  pertaining  to  a  bed.  Thus,  a 
clinical  lecture  is  a  discourse  from  notes 
taken  at  the  bedside  by  a  physician, 
with  a  view  to  practical  instruction  in 
the  healing  art.  Clinical  medicine  is 
the  practice  of  medicine  on  patients  in 
hospitals,  or  in  bed.  And  the  term  clink 
was  also  applied  by  the  ancient  church 
historians,  to  one  who  received  baptism 
on  his  death-bed. 

CLI'O,  in  mythology,  the  muse  who 
was  u'sually  supposed  to  preside  over  his- 
tory, t.'ough  she  sometimes  invaded  the 
province  of  her  sister  Calliope,  the  god- 
dess of  epic  poetry.  In  his  uiagnificent 
ode  addressed  to  Augustus,  Horace  in- 
vokes Clio  as  the  patroness  of  the  flute 
or  the  lyre,  or  in  other  words  of  lyric 
poetry. 

CLOA'CA,  an  ancient  common  sewer 

CLOCK,  a  machine  for  measuring  time, 
called,  when  first  invented,  a  nocturnal 


90 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATURE 


[coc 


dial,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  sun-dial. 
This  machine  consists  of  wheels  movscl  by 
weights,  so  constructed  that  by  a  uniform 
vibration  of  a  pendulum,  the  hours,  min- 
utes, and  seconds  are  measurcil  with 
great  exactness;  and  it  indi(^ates  the 
hour  by  the  stroke  of  a  small  hammer 
on  a  bell.  The  invention  of  clocks  has 
been  ascribed  to  Boethius,  about  the  year 
510;  but  clocks,  like  tiiose  now  used, 
were  either  first  invented,  or  revived, 
between  two  and  tliree  centuries  ago.  The 
clock  measures  even  24  hours,  but  the 
.solar  day  is  unequal,  according  to  the 
situation  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  and  the 
declination  of  the  sun.  Hence  the  clock 
is  sometimes  a  few  minutes  faster  or 
slower  than  the  sun. 

CLOIS'TER,  the  principal  part  of  a 
regular  monastery,  consisting  of  a  square, 
erected  between  the  church,  the  chapter- 
house, and  the  refectory,  and  over  which 
is  the  dormitory.  In  a  general  sense, 
cloisters  mean  covered  passages,  such  as 
were  formerly  attached  to  religious 
houses. 

CLYPE'US,  part  of  the  armor  worn  by 
the  heavy  infantry  of  the  Greeks,  and  a 
portion  of  the  Roman  soldiery,  consisting 
of  a  large  shield  or  buckler,  circular  and 
concave  on  the  inside,  sufficiently  large 
to  cover  the  body  from  the  neck  to  the 
middle  of  the  leg.  It  was  formed  of  ox- 
hide stretched  upon  a  frame  of  wicker- 
work,  and  strengthened  with  plates  of 
metal ;  sometimes  it  was  formed  entirely 
of  bronze. 

COACH,  a  vehicle  of  pleasure,  distin- 
guished from  others  chiefly  from  being  a 
covered  bo.x  hung  on  leathers.  The  old- 
est carriages  used  by  the  ladies  in  Eng- 
land were  called  whirlicotes  ;  and  we  find 
that  the  mother  of  Richard  IT.,  who,  in 
1360,  accompanied  him  in  his  flight,  rode 
in  a  carriage  of  this  sort.  But  coaches, 
properly  so  called,  were  introduced  into 
England  from  Germany,  or  France,  in 
1580,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1601, 
the  year  before  the  queen's  death,  an  act 
was  passed  to  prevent  men  from  riding 
in  coaches,  as  being  effeminate  ;  but  in 
twenty-five  years  afterwards  hackney- 
coaches  were  introduced. 

COADJU'TOR,  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters, the  assistiint  of  a  bishop  or  other 
prelate,  (in  some  instances  even  of  a  canon 
or  prebendary,  but  the  latter  usage  was 
irregular.)  These  assistants,  in  Franco 
and  other  countries,  were  instituted  by 
the  pope.  A  coadjutor  was  equal  in  rank 
to  the  dignitary  whose  functions  he  might 
on  occasion  sui)ply  ;  hence  the  coadjutor 


of  a  bishop  was  himself  consecrated  a 
bishop  ill  partibus  infidelium.  The  cele- 
brated Cardinal  de  Ketz  was  known  by 
the  title  of  the  Coadjutor  of  Paris  during 
the  most  active  period  of  his  career,  hav- 
ing the  administration  of  the  temporali- 
ties of  that  see,  which  belonged  to  his 
uncle  the  Archbishop  de  Retz.  Coadju- 
tors usually  succeeded  their  principals  in 
thoir  dignities  ;  and  hence  arose  an  abuse 
which  tended  towards  making  ecclesias- 
tical dignities  hereditary,  nephews  and 
other  relatives  of  bishops  being  named 
their  coadjutors.  The  institution  o^  co- 
adjutors to  bishoprics  is  preserved  by  the 
French  concordat  of  1801. 

COAD'UNATE,  two  or  more  parts 
joined  together. 

COAT,  a  garment  worn  commonly  up- 
permost. Also,  a  thin  covering  laid  or 
done  over  anyth  ng,  as  a  coat  of  paint, 
<tc. —  Coat  of  arms,  in  the  modern  ac- 
ceptation, is  a  device,  or  assemblage  of 
devices,  supposed  to  be  painted  on  a 
shield ;  which  shield,  in  the  language  of 
heraldry,  is  called  the  field. —  Coat  of 
mail,  a  piece  of  armor  made  in  the  form 
of  a  shirt,  and  wrought  over  veith  a  kind 
of  net- work  of  iron  rings. 

COA  VES'TLS,  THE  CoAN  Robe,  a  gar- 
ment worn  chiefly  by  dancing  girls,  cour- 
tesans, and  other  women  addicted  to 
pleasure,  of  texture  so  fine  as  to  be  near- 
ly transparent,  and  through  which  the 
forms  of  the  wearers  were  easily  seen. 

CO'BALT  BLUE,  a  beautiful  pig- 
ment compounded  of  alumina  and  phos- 
phate of  cobalt.  It  was  discovered  in 
1802  by  the  French  chemist  Thenard. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  its  durability, 
although,  when  imperfectly  prepared,  it 
is  subject  to  change.  Cobalt  is  the  color- 
ing matter  of  smalts. 

CO'BALT  GREEN,  a  preparation  of 
cobalt,  the  green  color  of  which  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  iron  :  it  works  well  both 
in  oil  and  water. 

COCHINEAL,  a  dried  insect  in  the 
form  of  a  small,  round  grain,  flat  on  one 
side,  either  red,  brown,  powdered  with 
white,  or  blackish  brown.  This  val- 
ual)le  insect  was  first  introduced  into 
Europe  about  the  year  1523.  It  is  im- 
ported from  Mexico  and  New  Spain.  It 
feeds  on  several  species  of  cactus.  It  is 
small,  rugose^  and  of  a  deep  mulberry  col- 
or. They  are  scraped  from  the  plants 
into  bags,  killed  by  boiling  water,  and 
dried  in  the  sun.  Those  are  preferred 
which  are  plump,  of  a  peculiar  silvery 
appearance,  and  which  yield  a  brilliant 
crimson  when  rubbed  to  powder.     This 


cceJ 


ANIJ    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


91 


splendid  coloring  material  is  soluble  in 
water,  and  is  used  for  making  the  red 
lake  pigments  known  l\v  the  names  car- 
mine, Florentine,  and  other  lakes.  Coch- 
ineal is  soniotinies  adulterated  by  the 
admixture  of  a  manufactured  article  com- 
posed of  colored  dough.  This  is  detected 
by  the  action  of  boiling  water,  which  dis- 
solves and  di.'iintegrates  the  imitation, 
but  has  little  effect  upon  the  real  insect. 
The  principal  component  of  cochineal  is 
a  peculiar  coloring  matter,  which  has 
received  the  names  of  carininiuin  and 
cocliinclia. 

COCK,  this  bird  is  regarded  as  the  em- 
blem of  watchfulness  and  vigilance  ;  and 
from  a  very  early  period  its  image  was 
placed  on  the  summit  of  church  crosses. 
A  cock,  in  the  act  of  crowing,  is  intro- 
duced among  the  emblems  of  our  Lord's 
passion,  in  allusion  to  the  sin  of  St.  Feter. 

COCKADE',  (from  Guatrde,)  a  plume 
of  cock's  feathers,  with  which  the  Croats 
ft'lonied  their  c:ips.  A  bow  of  colored 
ribbons  was  adopted  for  the  cockade  in 
France.  During  tiie  French  revolution, 
tiie  tri-eolored  cockade  became  the  na- 
tional di.stinction. 

COCK'XEY,  a  contemptuous  appella- 
tion of  a  citizen  of  London.  Various  deri- 
vations have  been  assigned  to  this  word, 
all  of  which  are  more  distinguished  for 
ingenuity  than  probability.  But  what- 
ever may  be  the  origin  of  the  term,  its 
antiquity  cmnot  be  disjmted,  as  it  is 
mentioned  in  some  verses  generally  at- 
tributed to  Hugh  Bagot,  Earl  of  Norfolk, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  : — 

Were  I  in  my  ca.stle  at  Bungey, 
Upon  the  river  of  Waverney, 
1  would  not  care  for  the  king  of  Cockency 
(i.e.  of  London,) 

COCK'PIT,  the  after  part  of  the  orlop 
deck,  or  deck  below  the  lower  deck,  and 
altogether  below  the  water.  Here,  in 
line-of-battle  ships,  arc  the  cabins  of  sev- 
eral of  the  officers.  The  cock-pit  is  ap- 
propriated to  the  use  of  the  wounded  in 
time  of  action.  There  is  also  a  fore  cock- 
pit in  the  fore  part  of  the  ship,  and  some- 
times an  after  cock-pit.— CotA--/)i/  is  the 
name  given  to  the  place  where  game- 
cocks fight  their  battles.  The  room  in 
Westminster  in  which  her  Majesty's  privy 
council  hold  their  sittings  is  called  the 
cork-pit,  from  its  having  been  the  site  of 
what  was  formerly  the  cock-pit  belonging 
to  the  palaoc  at  Whitehall. 

COCY'TUS.  in  mythology,  the  river  of 
I<amentations,  which  was  one  of  the 
streams  th.at  washed  the  shores  of  the 
mythological  hell,  and  prevented  the  im- 


prisoned   souls   from    returning    to    the 
earth.      Milton  alludes  to  it  thus  : — 

Cocylus  named  of  lamentations  loud 
Heurd  on  the  rueful  stream. 

CO'DA,  in  music,  the  passage  at  the 
end  of  a  movement  which  follows  a  lenscth- 
ened  perfect  cadence.  In  some  cases  it 
consists  of  merely  one  phrase,  in  others 
it  is  carried  to  a  great  extent.  At  the 
conclusion  of  a  canon  or  fugue,  it  often 
serves  to  end  the  piece  which  might  oth- 
erwise be  carried  on  to  infinity. 

CODE,  (from  codex,  a  roll,  or  volume,) 
a  collection  or  system  of  laws.  The  col- 
lection of  laws  or  constitutions  made  b.y 
order  of  the  emperor  Justinian  is  distin- 
guished by  the  appellation  of  code  by 
way  of  eminence. — The  Code  Napoleon, 
or  civil  code  of  France,  proceeding  from 
the  French  Revolution,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  Napoleon,  while  consul,  effected 
great  changes  in  the  laws  of  France.  It 
was  a  work  of  great  magnitude,  and  will 
remain  a  perpetual  monument  of  the 
state  of  things  as  they  then  existed  in 
that  country. 

COD'ICIL,  a  supplement  to  a  will,  con- 
taining anything  which  the  testator  wishes 
to  add  ;  or  any  explanation,  alteration,  or 
revocation,  of  what  his  will  contains. 

CODET'TA,  in  music,  a  short  passage 
which  connects  one  section  with  another, 
and  not  composing  part  of  a  regular  sec- 
tion. 

CO'DEX,  a  manuscript ;  in  its  original 
sense  (Latin)  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree, 
which  was  used  for  the  purposes  of  writ- 
ing. The  word  was  thence  transferred 
by  the  Romans  to  signify  a  piece  of 
writing  on  whatever  material ;  e.  g.  with 
the  stylus  on  tablets  lined  with  wax,  or 
on  a  roll  of  parchment  or  paper.  In 
modem  Latin  a  manuscript  volume. 
Codex  rescriptus,  or  ■palimpsestus,  is  a 
manuscript  consisting  of  leaves,  from 
which  some  earlier  writing  has  been 
erased  in  order  to  afford  room  for  the 
insertion  of  more  recent.  Many  such 
codices  exist ;  and  from  the  imperfect 
nature  of  the  erasing  process,  the  earlier 
writing  has,  in  some  instances,  been  re- 
stored. Considerable  fragments  of  clas- 
sical works,  previously  considered  as 
lost,  have  been  thus  recovered  by  the 
Abate  Mai  from  among  the  contents  of 
the  Ambrosian  Library  at  ]\Iilan. 

Cffi'NA,  the  principal  meal  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  time  of  the 
ccEtia,  or  supper,  was  tlie  ninth  hour,  an- 
swering to  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
with  us,  and  it  consisted  of  throe  courses 


92 


CYCLOrEDIA  OF  LITERATURE 


LCOL 


They  made  a  libation  both  before  and 
after  supjier,  and  concluded  the  evening 
with  much  festivity. 

CGiXAC'ULUM,  in  ancient  architect- 
ure, the  eating  or  snjiper  room  of  the 
Romans.  In  the  early  periods  of  the 
Roman  history,  the  upper  story  of  their 
houses,  which  rarely  consisted  of  more 
than  two,  seems  to  have  been  called  by 
this  name. 

CCENA'TIO,  in  ancient  architecture, 
an  apartment  for  taking  refreshment  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  Roman  houses. 

CCEX'OBITE,  one  who  lives  under  a 
rule  in  a  religious  community,  as  distin- 
guished from  an  anchoret  or  hermit, 
who  lives  in  solitude. 

COETA'XEOUS,  an  epithet  denoting 
of  the  same  age,  or  beginning  with  an- 
other. The  word  coeval  is  synonymous 
with  it ;  contemporary  implies,  existing 
at  the  same  time. 

COFTER,  in  architecture,  a  sunk 
panel  in  vaults  and  domes,  and  also  in 
the  soffit  or  under  side  of  the  Corinthian 
cornice,  usually  decorated  in  the  centre 
with  a  flower. 

COG'NIZANCE,  in  law,  an  acknowl- 
edgment of  a  fine,  of  taking  a  distress, 
&c.  It  also  signifies  the  power  which 
a  court  has  to  hear  and  determine  a  par- 
ticular species  of  suit. 

COGXO'MEN,  in  antiquities,  the  last 
of  the  three  names  by  which  all  Romans, 
at  least  those  of  good  family,  were  desig- 
nated. It  served  to  mark  the  house  to 
which  they  belonged,  as  the  other  two 
names,  viz.,  the  prcenomen  and  iiomen, 
served  respectively  to  denote  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  class  to  which  his  family 
belonged. 

COHORT',  a  military  body  among  the 
Romans,  consisting  of  the  tentli  of  a 
legion,  or  from  five  to  six  liundrL'd  men. 

COIN,  a  piece  of  metal  stamped  with 
certain  marks,  ami  made  current  at  a 
certain  value.  Strictly  speaking,  coin 
differs  from  money  as  the  species  differs 
from  the  genus.  Money  is  any  matter, 
wiiether  metal,  or  paper,  or  beads,  or 
jihells,  &(i.,  which  have  currency  as  a 
medium  in  commerce.  Coin  is  a  jiarticu- 
lar  species  always  made  of  metal,  and 
struck  according  to  a  certain  process 
called  coining.  The  British  coinaire  is 
wholly  performed  at  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don, where  tlicre  is  a  corj/oration  for  the 
purpose,  under  tlie  title  of  the  Mint.— 
Current  coin,  is  coin  legally  stamped 
fci;d  circulating  in  trade — Counterfeit 
coin,  that  which  is  forged  or  stamped 
without  authority. 


COLIPH'IUM,  in  antiquity,  a  sort  of 
coarse  bread  which  wrestlers  used  to  eat 
ip  order  to  make  them  strong  and  mus- 
cular. 

COLISE  UM,  an  elliptical  ampliithea- 
tre,  at  Rome,  built  by  Vespasian,  ic 
which  were  statues  representing  all  the 
provinces  of  the  empire,  and  in  the  mid- 
dle stood  that  of  Rome,  holding  a  golden 
apple  in  her  hand.  This  immense  struc- 
ture was  1612  feet  in  circumference,  con- 
tained eighty  arcades,  and  would  hold 
100,000  spectators.  Down  to  the  13th 
century,  this  unrivalled  monument  of 
ancient  grandeur  remained  almost  unin- 
jured ;  afterwards  Pope  Paul  II.  took 
all  the  stones  from  it  which  were  used 
for  the  construction  of  the  palace  of  St. 
Mark,  and  in  later  times  some  other 
palaces  were  erected  from  its  fragments. 
At  present,  care  is  taken  not  to  touch 
the  ruins  of  the  Coliseum,  but  it  is 
gradually  crumbling  away  of  itself,  and 
in  a  few  centuries,  perhaps,  nothing 
more  may  be  seen  of  its  upper  part ; 
the  lower  part,  however,  may  safely  bid 
defiance  to  the  ravages  of  time.  Bene- 
dict XYI.  caused  a  cross  to  be  erected  in 
the  centre  of  the  arena,  where,  every 
Sunday  afternoon.  Catholic  worship  is 
performed.  The  great  object  of  this 
magnificent  building  was  to  exhibit  the 
brutal  spectacles  of  the  gladiators  con- 
tending with  wild  beasts.  AVe  accord- 
ingly read,  that  on  the  triumph  of  Tra- 
jan over  the  Dacians,  11,000  animals 
were  killed  in  the  amphitheatres  at 
Rome  ;  and  1000  glailiators  fought  during 
123  days.  The  gladiators  at  first  were 
malefactors,  who  fought  for  victory  and 
life;  or  captives  and  slaves,  who  were 
made  to  fight  for  their  freedom ;  but 
after  a  time  many  lived  by  it  as  a  pro- 
fession ;  and  these  exhibitions  continued, 
with  modification^,  for  above  500  years. — 
A  very  large  and  most  ingeniously  con- 
structed building,  erected  in  the  Regent's 
Park,  London,  is  called  the  Coliseum,  or 
Colosseum. 

COLLAPSE',  to  clo.sc  by  falling  to- 
getlior ;  as,  the  fine  canals  or  vessels  of 
the  body  collapse  in  old  age  ;  or,  as  a  bal- 
loon collapses  when  the  gas  escapes  from 
it. 

COL'L.\R,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  chain 
put  round  the  neck  of  slaves  that  had  run 
away,  after  they  were  taken. — In  a  mo'l- 
ern  sense,  it  denotes  an  ornament  consist- 
ing of  a  chain  of  gold,  enaoielled,  &c  , 
frequently  .«iot  with  ciphers  or  other  de- 
vices, with  the  badge  of  the  order  hang- 
ing  at   the    bottom,    and   worn    by   the 


col] 


AND    TIIR     FINE     AliTS. 


93 


knights  of  several  military  onlors  over 
their  shouMers. 

COLLAT'ERAL,  in  genealogy)  signi- 
fies descending  from  the  same  stocit  or 
ancestor,  but  not  in  a  direct  line  ;  and  is 
therefore  distinguished  from  lineal. — C'(jI- 
lateral  sccurili/,  in  law,  is  security  for  the 
performance  of  covenants  on  the  pay- 
ment of  money,  besides  the  principal  se- 
curitv. 

COLLA'TIOX,  in  the  canon  law,  the 
presentation  to  a  benefice,  by  a  bishop, 
who  has  it  in  his  own  gift  or  pa)  ronage. 
When  the  patron  of  a  church  is  not  a 
bishop,  he  presents  his  clerk  for  admis- 
sion, and  the  bishoj)  institutes  him;  but 
collation  includes  both  presentation  and 
institution. — Collation,  in  law,  the  com- 
parison of  a  copy  with  its  original,  to  as- 
certain its  conformity ;  or  the  report  of 
the  officer  who  made  the  comparison. 
Hence,  a  collator  means  one  who  com- 
pares copies  or  manuscripts.  And  from 
the  same  is  derived  the  term  Collating 
among  printers,  by  which  is  meant  the 
examining  the  whole  number  of  sheets 
belonging  to  a  book,  in  order  to  see  if 
they  are  all  gathered  properly. 

COL'LECT,  a  short  and  comprehensive 
prayer,  particularly  such  prayers  as  are 
appointed  with  the  epistles  and  gospels 
in  the  public  service  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

COLLECTA'XEA,  in  literature,  notes, 
observations,  or  any  matter  collected  from 
a  variety  of  works. 

COLLECTIVE,  in  grammar,  an  epi- 
thet for  any  noun  which  comprehends 
many  persons  or  things  ;  as  a  multitude, 
a  company,  a  congregation,  an  army,  Ac. 

COL'LEGE,  in  its  usual,  though  some- 
what limited  sense,  is  a  public  place  en- 
dowed with  certain  revenues,  where  the 
several  parts  of  learning  are  taught,  and 
where  the  students  reside,  under  a  regu- 
lar discipline.  An  assemblage  of  several 
of  these  colleges  is  called  a  university . 
The  establishment  of  colleges  or  univer- 
sities forms  a  remarkable  period  in  lite- 
rary history  ;  for  the  schools  in  cathedrals 
and  monasteries  were  confined  chiefly  to 
the  teaching  of  grammar  ;  and  there  were 
only  one  or  two  masters  employed  in  that 
charge ;  but  in  colleges,  professors  are 
appointed  to  teach  all  the  branches  of 
scienc3. — There  are  colleges  of  physicians 
and  surgeons,  a  college  of  philosophy,  a 
college  of  heralds,  a  college  of  civilians, 
Ac. 

COLLE'GIATE  CHURCHES,  are 
those  that,  without  a  bishop's  see,  have 
the  ancient  retinue  of  a  bishop  ;  such  as 


the  church  of  St  Peter's,  AVosttninster. 
This  was  anciently  a  cathedral  ;  but  the 
revenues  of  the  monastery  being  vested 
in  the  dean  and  cha])ter  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment, it  became  a  collegiate  church. 

COLLOCA'TIO,  in  antiquity,  a  cere- 
iiiony  at  the  funerals  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  which  consisted  of  placing  the 
corpse,  laid  on  a  bier,  near  the  threshold 
of  the  house,  that  all  might  see  whether 
he  had  met  his  death  by  violence  or  not. 

COLLU'SION,  in  law,  a  deceitful  agree- 
ment or  compact  between  two  persons  to 
bring  an  action  one  against  the  other  for 
some  fraudulent  or  unlawful  purpose. 

COLOGNE-EARTH,  a  substance  used 
in  painting,  much  approaching  to  umber 
in  its  structure,  and  of  a  deep  brown.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  wood 
long  buried  in  the  earth. 

CO'LON,  in  grammar,  a  point  marked 
thus  {:)  to  divide  a  sentence. 

COLO'XEL,  the  chief  commander  of  a 
regiment,  whether  infantry  or  calvary. — 
LiEUTENANr-CoLO.VEL,  the  second  otiicer 
in  a  regiment,  who  commands  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  colonel. 

COLONNADE',  a  range  of  pillars  run- 
ning quite  round  a  building. 

COL'ONY,  a  company  or  body  of  peo- 
ple removed  from  their  mother  country 
to  a  remote  province  or  country,  where 
they  form  a  settlement  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  government.  Also,  the  place 
where  such  a  settlement  is  formed,  as  the 
colonies  belonging  to  Great  Britain  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  North  Ameri- 
ca, (4c. 

COL'OPHON,  in  bibliography,  the 
postscript  contained  in  the  last  sheet  of  an 
early  printed  work  (before  the  introduc- 
tion of  title-pages,)  containing  the  prin- 
ter's name,  date,  .fee.,  is  so  termed,  from 
a  fanciful  allusion  to  a  Greek  satirical 
proverb,  in  which  the  people  of  Colophon, 
in  Asia  Minor,  are  reproached  with  be- 
ing always  the  hindmost. 

COL  OK,  the  type  of  color  is  found  in- 
the  prismatic  spectrum  or  the  rainbow. 
In  which  we  discover  that  a  ray  of  white 
light  in  capable  of  being  decomposed  into 
three  primitive  colors — red,  blue,  and 
yellow ;  these,  by  their  mi.vture,  produce 
three  other  colors,  which  are  termed  sec- 
ondary ;  thus,  the  union  of  red  with  blue 
yi«lds,  when  in  varied  proportions,  the 
different  hues  of  purple  and  violet ;  red, 
mi.\ed  with  yellow,  yields  orange  :  yel- 
low, with  blue,  produces  green.  Every 
hue  in  nature  is  a  compound  of  two  or 
more  of  the  primitive  colors  in  various 
proportions.     Grays  and  browns  are  com- 


94 


CVri.OPF.DIA    OF    I.ITKRATURR 


[col 


pounds  of  all  three  of  the  primary  colors 
in  unequal  proportions.  Black  results 
from  a  mixture  of  blue,  red,  and  yellow 
of  equal  intensity  and  in  equal  propor- 
tions. Of  mate  <'al  colors  (pigments)  tiiere 
is  but  one  (ultramarine)  that  approaches 
the  purity  of  the  type  in  the  spectrum — 
all  the  others  are  more  or  less  impure  ; 
thus  we  cannot  obtain  a  pure  rod  pig- 
ment, since  all  are  more  or  less  alloyed 
with  blue  or  yellow.  If  we  could  obtain 
a  red  and  a  jellow  of  the  same  purity 
and  transparency  as  ultramarine,  we 
should  need  no  other  pigments  for  our 
palette,  since,  by  judicious  mixture,  they 
would  yield  every  tint  in  nature. — Local 
colors  are  those  peculiar  to  each  individ- 
ual object,  and  serve  to  distinguish  them 
from  each  other. —  Complementarij  colors 
are  composed  of  the  opposites  of  any  given 
oolor.  if  this  color  is  a  primitive,  such 
as  blue,  the  coniplementari/  color  is  com- 
posed of  the  other  two  primitive  colors, 
viz.,  red  and  yellow,  or  orange  ;  the  com- 
plementary color  to  any  secondary  is  the 
other  primitive  color;  thus  the  comple- 
mentary to  green  (composed  of  blue  and 
yellow,)  is  red,  and  so  on,  for  the  remain- 
der.— Harmony  of  colors  results  from  an 
equal  distribution  of  the  three  primary 
colors,  either  pure,  or  compounded  with 
each  other,  as  graj's  and  browns. —  Con- 
trast of  color  is  either  simple  or  com- 
pound. Each  of  the  primitive  colors 
forms  a  contrast  to  the  other  two  ;  thus 
blue  is  contrasted  by  yellow  and  by  red — 
either  of  these  forms  a  simple  contrast  to 
blue  ;  but  by  mixing  yellow  and  red  to- 
gether, we  produce  orange,  which  is  a 
compound  contrast,  consequently  orange, 
the  complementary  color,  is  the  most 
powerful  contrast  that  can  be  made  to 
blue.  Colors  are  regarded  as  warm  or 
cold,  positive  or  negative;  thus  blue  is  a 
cold,  and  orange  a  warm,  color.  Red, 
neither  warm  nor  cold.  All  warm  colors 
are  contrasts  to  cold  colors. — Symbolic 
colors.  Colors  had  the  same  signification 
amongst  all  nations  of  remotest  antiquity. 
Color  was  evidently  the  first  mode  of 
transmitting  thought  and  preserving 
memorj' ;  to  each  color  appertained  a  re- 
ligious or  political  idea.  The  history  of 
symbolic  colors  testifies  to  a  triple  origin 
marked  by  the  three  epochs  in  the  history 
of  religion — the  divine,  the  consecrated, 
and  the  profane.  The  first  regubvted  the 
costume  of  Aaron  and  the  Levite-i,  the 
rites  of  worship,  &c.  Religion  gave  l)ii-th 
to  the  Arts.  It  was  to  ornament  temples 
that  sculpture  and  painting  were  first  in- 
troduced,  whence  arose  the  consecrated 


language.  The  ;j)-q/a;;e  language  of  col- 
ors was  a  degradation  from  the  divine 
and  consecrated  languages. 

COL'ORATURE,  m  music,  all  kinds  of 
variations,  trills,  &c.  intended  to  make  a 
song  agreeable. 

COLU'RES  FLO'RIDI.the  name  given 
by  the  ancients  to  the  expensive  and 
brilliant  pigments,  as  distinguished  from 
the  four  hard  rough  principal  pigments 
of  earlier  times.  The  colores  floridi  were 
supplied  by  the  employer,  and  often  pur- 
loined by  the  artist :  they  were  chryso- 
coUa;  indicum  {indigo  introduced  into 
Rome  in  the  time  of  the  emperors;) 
ca-ruleum  (a  blue  smalt  made  at  Alex- 
andria, from  sand,  saltpetre,  and  copper  ;) 
and  cinnibaris,  which  was  partly'  natural 
and  partly  artificial  vermilion  ;  but  also 
an  Indian  pigment,  procured  from  the 
sap  of  the  pterocarpns  draco,  and  called 
also  dragon's  blood.  Other  pigments  were 
called  colores  austeri. 

COL'ORIST,  a  painter  whose  works  are 
remarkable  for  beauty  of  color.  Titian, 
Correggio,  Paul  Veronese,  Rubens,  Van- 
dyke, are  in  the  first  rank  of  colorists. 
The  Venetian  and  the  Flemish  schools 
have  supplied  the  greatest  number  of 
colorists,  as  well  as  the  best ;  always  ex- 
cepting Correggio,  the  founder  of  the 
Lombard  school,  who  is  by  many  re- 
garded equal  to  Titian.  Color  being,  as 
well  as  design,  an  essential  part  of  a  pic- 
ture, every  colorist  is,  at  the  same  time, 
more  or  less  a  draughtsman.  But  expe- 
rience shows,  and  theory  furnishes  good 
reasons  for  believing,  that  these  two 
qualities,  which  many  artists  possess  to- 
gether in  a  moderate  degree,  are  rarely 
found  in  an  eminent  degree,  united  in  the 
same  individual,  and  still  loss  in  the 
same  picture. 

CC-LiOS'SAL,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  term 
applied  to  any  work  of  art  remarkable 
for  its  extraordinary  dimensions.  It  is, 
however,  more  applied  to  works  in  sculp- 
ture than  in  the  other  arts.  It  seems 
probable  that  colossal  statues  had  their 
origin  from  tlie  attempt  to  astonish  by 
size  at  a  period  when  the  science  of  pro- 
portion and  that  of  imitation  were  in 
their  infancy.  Colossal  statues  of  the  di- 
vinities were  common  both  in  Asia  and 
Egypt.  By  the  description  of  the  palace 
or  temple  attributed  to  Semiramis  it 
abounded  with  colossal  statues,  among 
which  was  one  ot  Jupiter  forty  feet  in 
height.  In  Babylon  wc  learn  from  Dan- 
iel that  the  palaces  were  filled  with 
statues  of  an  enormous  size,  and  in  the 
present  day  t^^e  ruins  of  India  present  us 


com] 


AND    TUR    FINE    AIITS. 


with  statues  of  extraordinary  dimensions. 
The  Egyptians  surpassed  the  Asiatics  in 
these  gigantic  monuments,  considering 
the  beautiful  finish  they  gave  to  such  a 
hard  material  as  granite.  Sesostris,  ac- 
cording to  history,  appears  to  have  been 
the  fir^t  who  raised  these  colossal  masses, 
the  statues  of  himself  and  his  wife,  which 
he  placed  before  the  temple  of  Vulcan, 
having  been  thirty  cubits  in  height.  This 
e.tample  was  imitated  by  his  successors, 
as  the  ruins  of  Thebes  sufficiently  testify. 
The  taste  for  colossal  statues  prevailed 
also  among  the  Greeks.  The  great  Phi- 
dias contributed  several  works  of  this 
order.  The  statue  of  Apollo  at  Khodes, 
was  executed  by  Cnares,  a  disciple  of  Ly- 
sippus,  who  devoted  himself  to  this  objeiJt 
during  twelve  years.  It  was  placed  at 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  with  the  right 
foot  standing  on  one  side  the  land  and 
the  left  on  the  other.  It  was  of  brass, 
and  is  said  to  have  existed  nearly  four- 
teen centuries,  before  the  period  in  which 
it  fell  by  the  shock  of  an  earthquake. 
When  the  Saracens  became  possessed  of 
Rhodes,  they  found  the  statue  in  a  pros- 
trate state,  and  sold  it  to  a  Jew,  by 
whom  900  camels  were  laden  with  the 
materials.  The  colossus  at  Tarentum  by 
Lysippe  was  no  less  than  forty  cubits 
in  height  ;  and  the  difficulty  of  removing 
it,  rather  than  tlie  moderation  of  the 
conqueror,  prevented  Fauius  carrying  it 
oflf  with  the  Hercules  from  the  same  city. 
Bul.  the  proposition  made  to  Alexander 
of  cutting  Mount  Athos  into  a  statue,  in 
one  of  whose  hands  a  city  was  to  be 
placed  capable  of  holding  ten  thousand 
inhabitants,  whilst  in  the  other  he  was  to 
bold  a  vessel  pouring  out  the  torrents 
from  the  mountain,  exceeds  all  others  in 
history.  Before  the  time  of  the  Romans 
colossal  statues  were  frequently  executed 
in  Italy.  The  first  monument  of  this 
nature  set  up  in  Rome  was  one  placed  in 
the  capitol  by  Sp.  Carvillius  after  his 
victory  over  the  Samnites.  This  was  suc- 
ceeded in  after-times  by  many  others,  of 
which  those  now  on  Monte  Cavallo,  said 
to  be  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  are  well 
known  to  most  persons.  In  modern  times 
the  largest  that  has  been  erected  is  that 
of  S.  Carlo  Boromeo  at  Arena  near  Milan. 
This  gigantic  statue  is  upwards  of  sixty 
feet  in  height. 

COLUMBA,  St.,  this  saint  is  repre- 
sented with  a  crown  upon  her  head,  and 
standing  on  a  pile  of  burning  wood,  an 
angel  by  her  side;  sometimes  she  holds 
a  sword.  According  to  the  legend,  the 
ongel  is  said  to  have  extiugixshed  the 


flames  with  his  wings  whereupon  she  was 
beheaded  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Au- 
relian,  at  Cordova,  a.d.  273.  The  idea 
that  she  was  of  royal  blood  appears  to 
have  arisen  from  the  crown,  wliich.  on 
the  contrary,  refers  to  her  being  a  mar- 
tyr. 

COLUMBA'RIUM,  in  architecture,  a 
pigeon-house  or  dovecote.  From  the 
similarity  the  arched  and  sq.nare-headed 
recesses  in  the  walls  of  cemeteries,  which 
were  made  to  receive  the  cinerary  urns, 
I  were  also  called  columbaria. 

COLUM'BIAN,  an  epithet  for  any- 
thing pertaining  to  America,  from  its 
having  been  discovered  by  Columbus. 

COL'UMN,   in    architecture,    a   cj'lin- 
drical  pillar,  or  long  round  body  of  wood, 
!  stone,  or  iron,  which  serves  either  for  the 
support  or  ornament  of  a  building.     It 
consists  of  a  capital,  which  is  the  top  or 
head;  the  shaft,  which  is  the  cylindrical 
part;  and  the  base,  or  that  on  which  it 
rests.     Columns  are  distinguished  as  to 
their  form  into  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic, 
,  Corinthian,  and  Composite.     The  Tuscan 
is  characterized  by  being   rude,   siuiple 
{  and  massy  ;  the  Doric  is  next  in  strength 
!  and  massiveness  to  the  Tuscan  ;  the  Ionic 
!  is   more   slender    than    the   Tuscan    and 
Doric ;   the  Corinthian  is   more  delicate 
in  its  form  and  proportions,  and  enriched 
I  with  ornaments ;  and  the  Composite  is  a 
species  of  the  Corinthian.     In  strictness, 
1  the  shaft  of  a  column  consists  of  one  en- 
1  tire  piece;   but  it  is  often  composed  of 
!  different  pieces,  so  united  as  to  have  the 
j  appearance    of  one   entire    piece.  —  The 
word  column  has  also  many  other  mean- 
ings ;  as,  a  division  of  a  page,  which  may 
contain  two  or  more  columns.     A  large 
body  of  troops  drawn  up  in  order ;  as,  a 
solid  column.     Any  body  pressing  on  its 
base,  and  of  the   same   diameter  as  its 
base  ;  as,  a  column  of  water,  air,  or  mer- 
cury. 

COM'EDY.  (From  the  Greek  words 
tw/"),  village,  and  mSh-  a  song;  because 
the  original  rude  dialogues,  intermixed 
with  singing  and  dancing,  out  of  which 
the  early  Greek  comedy  arose,  were  sung 
by  rustic  actors  at  village  festivals.)  A 
species  of  drama,  of  which  the  character- 
istics in  modem  usage  are,  that  its  inci- 
dents and  language  approach  nearly  to 
those  of  ordinary  life  ;  that  the  termina- 
tion of  its  intrigue  is  happy;  and  that  it 
is  distinguished  by  greater  length  and 
greater  complexity  of  ]»lot  from  the  light- 
er theatrical  piece  entitled  a  farce.  The 
original  Attic  comedy  was  a  burlesque 
tragedy  in  form,  in  substance  a  satire  on 


96 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEaAU'RE 


[com 


indivii-uals,  and  fouiitle.I  on  political  or 
other  matters  i^f  |iubiic  interest.  The 
modern  comedy  is  duriveii  from  the  new 
coined)'  of  the  Greeks,  of  which  Menander 
and  Philemon  were  the  principal  authors, 
and  which  has  been  preserved  to  lis 
through  the  Latin  imitations  of  Plautus 
and  'i'erenee.  According  to  Bossu,  com- 
edy difters  from  tragedy  in  this,  that 
comic  writers  invent  both  the  names  of 
the  persons  and  the  actions  which  they 
represent ;  whereas  the  tragic  writers  in- 
vent only  the  latter,  taking  the  former 
from  history.  Among  us,  comedy  is  dis- 
tinguished from  farce,  as  the  former  rep- 
resents nature  as  she  is,  the  other  dis- 
torts and  overcharges  her;  but  whether 
it  be  to  recommend  virtue  or  to  render 
folly  ridiculous,  the  real  intention  and 
effect  are  amusement. 

COMI'TIA,  in  Pioman  antiquity,  an 
assembly  of  the  people,  either  in  the 
Comitium  or  Campus  Martius,  for  the 
election  of  magistrates,  or  consulting  on 
the  important  affairs  of  the  republic.  The 
people  originally  gave  their  votes  vird 
voce,  but  in  process  of  time  this  was  su- 
perseded by  the  use  of  tablets.  The 
comitia  were  of  three  kinds,  distin- 
guished by  the  epithets,  Curiata,  Ceii- 
turiata,  and  Tributa.  1.  The  comitia 
curiata  were  the  a.ssemblies  of  the  pa- 
trician houses  or  populus ;  and  in  these, 
before  the  plebeians  attained  political 
importance,  was  vested  the  supreme  pow- 
er of  the  state.  The  name  curiata  was 
given  because  the  people  voted  in  curia, 
each  curia  giving  a  single  vote  represent- 
ing the  sentiments  of  the  majority  of  the 
members  composing  it ;  which  was  the 
manner  in  which  the  tribes  and  centuries 
also  gave  their  suffrages  in  their  respec- 
tive comitia.  After  the  institution  of  the 
comitia  centuriata,  the  functions  of  the 
curiata  were  nearly  confined  to  the  elec- 
tion of  certain  priests,  and  passing  a  law 
to  confirm  the  dignities  imposed  by  the 
people.  2.  The  comitia  centuriata  were 
the  iissemblics  of  the  whole  Roman  peo- 
ple, including  patricians,  clients,  and 
plebeians,  in  which  they  vot/jd  by  cen- 
turies. By  the  constitution  of  the  cen- 
turies, those  comitia  were  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  plebeians,  and  so  served  ori- 
ginally as  a  counterpoise  to  the  powers 
of  the  comitia  curiata,  for  wliich  pur- 
pose they  were  first  instituted  by  the  law- 
giver king  Servius  Tullius.  Tliese  comi- 
tia quic'ily  obtained  the  chief  importance, 
and  jiublic  matters  of  the  greatest  mo- 
ment were  transacted  in  them  ;  as  the 
elecWons  of  consuls,  priutors,  an  1  censors. 


and  the  passing  laws  and  trials  for  high 
treason.  3.  The  comitia  tributa  were  the 
assemblies  of  the  plebeian  tribes.  They 
were  first  instituteil  after  the  c.vpulsiou 
of  the  kings ;  and  in  them  were  trans- 
acted matters  pertaining  to  the  plebeians 
alone,  as  the  election  of  their  tribunes 
and  iodilcs. 

COM 'MA,  in  grammar,  a  point  or  char- 
acter marked  thus  (  ,  )  denoting  the  short- 
est pause  in  reading,  and  separating  a 
sentence  into  divisions  or  members. — In 
theoretic  music,  it  is  a  term  to  show  the 
exact  proportions  between  concords. 

COMMANDANT',  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  place  or  of  a  bod}'  of  forces. 

COMMAND'ER,  the  chief  officer  of  an 
armj^,  or  one  who  has  the  command  of 
a  body  of  men.  The  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  British  army  is  he  who  has 
the  supreme  command  over  all  the  land 
forces  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  naval 
service  the  chief  admiral  in  any  port  or 
station  is  so  called. — The  commander  of 
a  ship,  otherwise  called  the  master,  is  an 
officer  ne.Yt  in  rank  to  a  post  captain, 
who  has  the  command  of  a  ship  of  war 
under  18  guns,  a  sloop,  etc. 

COMMENCE'MEXT,  an  annual  pub- 
lic assembly  of  a  university,  or  the  day 
on  which  degrees  are  publicly  conferred 
on  students  who  have  finished  a  collegiate 
education. 

COMMEXD'AM,  in  ecclesiastical  law, 
the  trust  or  administration  of  the  reve- 
nues of  a  benefice  given  to  a  layman  to 
hold  as  a  deposit  for  si.x  months,  in  or- 
der to  repairs,  Ac,  or  to  an  ecclesiastic  to 
perform  the  pastoral  duties  till  the  bene- 
fice is  provided  with  a  regular  incumbent. 
In  England,  the  right  of  granting  bene- 
fices ill  commendam  is  vested  in  the 
crown  by  a  statue  of  Ilenry  VIII. — One 
who  holds  a  living  in  commendam  is  call- 
ed a  commendatory. —  Commcndctury 
letters,  arc  letters  sent  from  one  bishop 
to  another  in  behalf  of  any  of  the  cler- 
gy, &c. 

COMMEXTACTLUM,  in  antiquity,  a 
wand  whicli  those  who  were  going  to  sac- 
rifice held  in  their  hand,  to  make  pe<)plo 
stand  out  of  the  wav. 

COM'MEXTARY,  an  e.xplanation  of 
the  obscure  passages  in  an  author;  or  an 
historical  narrative,  as,  the  Commentaries 
of  Ca-sar. 

COM'MERCE,  in  a  general  sense,  is 
the  interiyurse  of  nations  in  each  other's 
produic  ct  manufactures,  in  whidi  tho 
superfluities  of  one  are  given  for  tiioso 
of  another,  and  then  rc-e.\chaiiged  with 
other  nations  for  mutual  wants.      Com- 


comJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


97 


merce  is  b^vth  fo-'^p^n  an'l  ir.'.jr.d.  For- 
eign commerce  is  the  trade  which  one 
nation  ciirrios  on  with  another ;  inlaniJ 
commerce,  or  inlanil  trade,  is  tho  trade 
in  the  exchange  of  commodities  between 
citizens  of  the  same  nation.  The  benefits 
of  commercial  intercourse  have  been  felt 
and  admitted  from  the  earliest  times; 
but  they  have  never  been  so  highly  aj)- 
preciated,  or  carrio  I  to  such  an  extent  as 
at  present.  It  gives  a  stimulus  to  in- 
dustry ;  supplies  mankind  with  enjoy- 
ments to  which  they  would  otherwise  be 
strangers,  tends  greatly  to  obliterate  un- 
founded prejudices  between  nations  ;  ox- 
cites  a  .spirit  of  laudable  competition 
aujong  all  classes  ;  enables  one  country 
to  profit  by  the  inventions  of  another; 
diffuses  the  blessings  of  civilization  to 
the  most  remote  corners  of  the  eartli  ; 
enlarges  the  powers  and  faculties  of  the 
mind;  a:rl  advances  human  knowledge 
by  the  improvements  which  it  carries  into 
every  art  and  science.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  it  has  con- 
tributed to  unjust  aggressions,  and  that 
the  peace  and  welfare  of  man  liave  often 
been  made  subservient  to  commercial 
avarice.  Yet  much  as  the  evils  attribut- 
ed to  commerce  have  been  deplored  by 
some  moral  writers,  we  cannot  but  adopt 
the  sentiments  of  one  who  says,  "  To  com- 
merce, with  all  its  mischiefs,  with  all  its 
crimes,  committed  upon  every  shore,  its 
depopulation  of  fields,  and  corruption  of 
cities,  to  commerce  we  must  attribute 
that  growing  intimacy  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  human  race  from  which  great 
benefits  have  redounded,  and  greater  still 
may  spring." 

COMMISSA'KIATE,  the  whole  body 
of  oflScers  in  the  commissary's  depart- 
ment. 

COM'MIS.SARY,  in  a  general  sense, 
one  who  is  sent  or  delegated  to  execute 
some  office  or  duty,  as  the  representative 
of  his  superior. — In  military  affairs,  an 
officer,  who  has  the  charge  of  furnishing 
provisions,  clothing,  &c.  for  an  army. 
There  are  various  separate  duties  de- 
volving on  commissaries,  and  they  have 
names  accordingly  :  as  the  coinmissary- 
(reneral,  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  de- 
partment; deputy-commissaries.  Ac. — In 
ecclesiastical  law,  an  oflicer  of  the  bishop 
who  exercise.'  spiritual  jurisdiction  in 
distant  part.*"  jf  the  diocese. 

COMMI.S.SION,  in  law,  the  warrant, 
cr  letter.'  patent  by  which  one  is  author- 
ized to  exercise  jurisdiction. —  In  mili- 
tary affairs,  the  warrant  or  authority  by 
whioh  one  holds  any  post  in  the  army  : 
7 


in  distinction  to  the  inferior  or  non-com- 
missioned officers.  —  In  commerce,  the 
order  by  which  any  one  traffics  or  nego- 
tiates for  another  ;  also  the  per  ccntage 
given  to  factors  and  agents  for  transact- 
ing the  business  of  others. 

COM.MIS'SIONER,  a  person  author- 
ized by  commission,  letters-patent,  or 
other  lawful  warrant,  to  examine  any 
matters,  or  execute  any  public  office,  &c. 

COMMIT'MENT,  is  the  sending  a 
person  to  prison  by  warrant  or  order, 
either  for  a  crime  or  contumacy. 

COMMIT  TEE,  certain  persons  electe  I 
or  appointed,  to  whom  any  matter  or 
business  is  referred,  either  by  a  legisla- 
tive body,  or  by  any  corporation  or  soci- 
ety.— A  Committee  of  the  Legislature, 
signifies  a  certain  number  of  members 
appointed  by  the  house  to  proceed  on 
some  specific  business.  The  whole  house 
frequently  resolves  itself  into  a  com- 
mittee, in  which  case,  each  member  has 
a  right  to  speak  as  often  as  he  pleases. 
When  the  house  is  not  in  committee, 
each  gives  his  opinion  regularly,  and  i* 
only  allowed  to  speak  once,  unless  to  ex- 
plain himself. — Standing  committees  are 
such  as  continue  during  the  existence  of 
the  legislature.  Special  committees  are 
appointed  to  consider  and  report  on  par- 
ticular suliici'ts. 

C0.M.M<)|»'1TY,  in  commerce,  any  mer- 
chandise wliich  a  person  deals  in. — Staple 
commodities,  such  wares  and  merchan- 
dises as  arc  the  proper  produce  or  manu- 
facture of  the  countrv. 

COMMODORE,  an  officer  in  the  navy, 
invested  with  the  command  of  a  detaeli- 
mont  of  ships  of  war  destined  for  a  par- 
ticular purpose. — The  Commodore  of  a 
convoy  is  the  leading  ship  in  a  fleet  of 
merchantmen,  and  carries  a  light  in  her 
top  to  conduct  the  other  ships. 

COM'MON,  a  tract  of  ground,  or  open 
space,  the  use  of  which  is  not  appropri- 
ated to  an  individual,  but  belongs  to  the 
public,  or  to  a  number.  The  right  which 
a  person  has  to  pasture  his  cattle  on  land 
of  another,  or  to  dig  turf,  or  catch  fish, 
or  cut  wood,  or  the  like,  is  called  common 
of  pasture,  or  turbary,  of  piscary,  and  of 
estovers. 

COMMON  COUN'CIL,  the  council  of 
a  city  or  corporate  town,  empowered  to 
make  by-laws  for  the  government  of  the 
citizens.  It  is  generally  used  in  speak- 
ing of  a  court  in  the  city  of  London,  com- 
posed of  the  lord  mayor,  aldermen,  and 
a  certain  number  of  citizens  called  com- 
mon-councilmen.  The  city  of  London  is 
divided  into  24  wards  ;  the  chief  magis- 


98 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEIIATL'RE 


[c'Oi 


trate  of  each  wanl  has  the  title  of  alder- 
uiaii ;  the  24  alilernien,  with  the  lord 
mayor,  form  the  court  of  aldermen  ;  and 
certain  inhabitants  chosen  out  of  each 
ward,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  al- 
dermen with  their  advice  in  public  af- 
fairs, form  the  court  of  common  council. 

COMMON  LAW,  the  law  that  receives 
its  binding  force  from  immemorial  usage 
and  universal  reception,  in  distinction 
frcm  the  written  or  statute  law ;  and 
which  chiefly  originated  in  judicial  deci- 
sions founded  on  natural  justice  and 
equity,  or  on  local  customs. 

COMMOXPLACE-BOOK,  a  register 
of  such  thoughts  and  observations  as 
occur  to  a  person  of  reading  or  reflection. 

COMMON  PLEAS,  a  superior  court 
where  pleas  or  causes  are  heard  between 
siibject  and  subject. 

COMMON  ]>RAYER  BOOK,  the  name 
given  to  the  collection  of  all  the  offices 
of  regular  and  occasional  worship  accord- 
ing to  the  forms  of  the  church  of  England. 
.The  basis  of  this  book  is  to  be  found  in 
the  King's  Primer,  set  forth  in  1546  by 
Henry  VIII.,  which  was  intended  to  con- 
vey instruction  to  the  people  in  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  church  service  ; 
but  contained  little  more  than  the  Creed, 
Lord's  Prayer,  Commandments,  and  Lit- 
any. This  Primer  underwent  two  revi- 
sions and  republications  under  Edward 
VI.,  whose  second  Liturgy  approaches 
very  near  in  its  contents  to  that  which 
exists  at  present.  It  was  at  that  review 
that  the  Sentences,  Exhortation,  Confes- 
sion, and  Absolution  were  prefixed  to  the 
Daily  Service  ;  the  Decalogue  was  intro- 
duced into  the  Communion  Service  ;  and 
certain  remnants  of  the  Romish  customs 
were  finally  abolished,  as  the  sign  of  the 
cross  in  confirmation  and  matrimony,  the 
anointing  of  the  sick,  and  the  prayers  for 
the  dead.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth, 
another  review  of  the  Liturgy  was  insti- 
tuted ;  but  the  alterations  effected  were 
little  more  than  in  the  selection  of  the 
lessonsi  At  the  review  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  after  the  conference  with  the 
Presbyterians  at  Hampton  Court,  no 
change  of  importance  was  introduced, 
except  the  addition  of  the  explanation  of 
the  Sacraments  in  the  Catechism.  Again, 
when  on  the  restoration  of  Charles  11.  a, 
conference  had  been  held  with  the  dis- 
senters at  the  Savoy,  the  subject  of  the 
common  prayer  book  was  reconsidered  in 
convocation.  The  services  for  the  'AOth 
of  January  and  29th  of  May  were  then 
ndderl,  as  also  the  form  to  be  used  at  Sea. 
A  few  trifling  alterations  were  made  also 


in  the  other  services;  but  these  were  tbo 
last  that  have  been  ciTected.  On  tho 
accession  of  William  III.  another  revis- 
ion took  place,  and  a  considerable  num 
ber  of  alterations  were  proposed  and  sup- 
ported by  many  of  the  bishops  and 
clergy ;  but  they  were  rejected  by  con- 
vocation, and  have  never  since  been  re- 
vived by  authority. 

COM'MONS,  the  lower  house  of  Par- 
liament, consisting  of  the  representatives 
of  cities,  boroughs,  and  counties,  chosen 
by  men  possessed  of  the  property  or 
qualifications  required  by  law.  This 
body  is  called  the  House  of  Commons ; 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the 
British  constitution.  Tho  origin  of  this 
assembly  ought,  perhaps,  to  be  attributed 
to  the  necessity  under  which  the  first 
Edward  perceived  himself  of  counteract- 
ing a  powerful  aristocracy.  Tiie  feudal 
system  had  erected  a  band  of  petty  mon- 
archs  from  whom  the  crown  was  in  per- 
petual danger.  It  is  to  the  struggles  of 
those  men  vrith  regal  authoritj',  in  the 
course  of  which,  in  order  to  strengthen 
their  opposition,  they  were  obliged  to 
make  common  cause  with  the  people, 
that  the  existence  of  English  liberty  may 
be  attributed.  In  a'word,  the  House  of 
Commons  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  feu- 
dal fabric,  gained  ground  as  that  decayed, 
pressed  on  its  weaker  parts,  and,  finally, 
levelled  it  with  the  dust.  Though  each 
member  is  elected  by  a  distinct  body  of 
people,  he  is,  from  the  moment  of  his 
election,  the  representative,  not  of  those 
particular  persons  only,  but  of  the  king- 
dom at  large  ;  and  is  to  consider  himself 
not  merely  as  the  organ  througli  which 
his  constituents  may  speak,  but  as  one 
who,  having  been  intrusted  with  a  gene- 
ral charge,  is  to  perform  it  to  the  best  of 
his  judgment.  In  performance  of  this 
great  function,  his  liberty  of  speech  is 
bounded  only  by  those  rules  of  decency 
of  which  the  house  itself  is  tho  judge ; 
and  while,  on  the  one  hand,  he  is  free  to 
propose  what  laws  ho  pleases,  on  the 
other,  he  is  exposed,  as  a  private  man, 
to  the  operation  of  the  laws  he  makes. 
This  assembly  is  composed  of  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty-eight  members;  and 
though  many  small  boroughs  were  dis- 
franchised by  the  Reform  Bill,  the  elect- 
ive franchise  was  given  to  several  places 
of  ri.'^ing  importance,  and  a  variety  of 
alterations  took  place  by  adding  to  tho 
number  of  rei)resentatives  of  counties, 
Ac,  so  that  the  total  number  of  mem- 
bers remains  the  same. 

COMMONWEALTH',    in    a    general 


com] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


99 


sense,  aji|)lie.s  to  the  social  state  of  a 
country,  without  leganling  its  f'orui  of 
government. — In  tiio  usual,  though  more 
restricted  sense,  a  republic,  or  that  form 
of  government  in  which  the  ailministra- 
tion  of  public  aifairs  is  open  to  all  with 
few,  if  any,  exceptions. 

COMM'U'jMION,  the  act  of  comrauni- 
eating  in  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist, 
or  the  Lord's  Supper. —  Comniunion  Scr- 
cice,  the  ofKce  for  the  administration  of 
the  holy  sacrament. —  Com  in  union  Table, 
the  table  erected  at  the  east  end  of  a 
church,  round  which  the  communicants 
kneel  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

COMMU'NITY,  a  society  of  people 
living  in  the  same  place,  under  the  same 
laws  and  regulations,  and  who  have  com- 
mon rights  and  privileges.  History  shows 
that  the  establishment  of  communities 
has  been  one  of  the  greatest  advances  in 
human  improvement :  and  they  have 
proved,  in  different  ages,  the  era  lie  and 
the  support  of  freedom. 

COMMUTA'TION,  in  law.  the  change 
of  a  penalty  or  punishment  from  a  greater 
to  a  less  ;  as  when  death  is  commuted  fjr 
transportation  or  imprisonment. 

COM'PACT,  a  word  denoting  an  agree- 
ment or  contract,  but  generally  applied 
iu  a  political  sense;  as,  a  compact  or 
agreement  entered  into  between  nations 
and  states  for  any  particular  object. 

COM'PANY,  in  a  commercial  sense,  a 
society  of  merchants,  mechanics,  or  other 
traders,  joined  together  in  a  common  in- 
terest. The  term  is  also  applied  to  large 
associations  set  on  foot  for  the  purpose 
of  commerce  ;  as,  the  East  India  Com- 
pany ;  a  banking  or  insurance  company, 
Ac.  When  companies  do  not  trade  upon 
a  joint  stock,  but  are  obliged  to  admit 
any  person  properly  qualified,  upon  pay- 
ing a  certain  fine,  and  agreeing  to  sub- 
rait  to  the  regulations  of  the  company, 
each  member  trading  upon  his  own  stock, 
and  at  his  own  risk,  they  are  called  regu- 
lated companies ;  when  they  trade  •upon 
a  joint  stock  each  member  sharing  in 
the  common  profit  or  loss,  in  proportion 
to  his  share  in  the  stock,  they  are  called 
joint  stock  com]>anies. — In  military  af- 
fairs, a  small  body  of  foot,  consisting 
usually  of  a  number  from  60  to  100  men, 
commanded  by  a  captain,  who  has  under 
him  a  lieutenant  and  ensign. — Also,  the 
whole  crew  of  a  ship,  including  the  offi- 
cers. 

COMPAR'ISOX,  in  a  general  sen.se, 
the  consideration  of  the  relation  between 
two  persons  or  things,  when  opposed  and 
set    against    each    other,    by   which  we 


judge  of  their  agreement  or  difference. — 
Comparison  of  ideas,  among  logicians, 
that  operation  of  the  mind  whereby  it 
compares  its  ideas  one  with  aiiotlier,  in 
regard  of  e.vtent,  degree,  time,  place,  or 
any  other  circumstance,  and  is  the  ground 
of  relations. —  Comparison,  in  rhetoric, 
a  figure  by  which  two  things  are  con- 
sidered with  regard  to  a  third,  whu  li  is 
common  to  them  both;  as,  a  hero  is  like 
a  lion  in  courage.  Here  courage  is  com- 
mon to  hero  and  lion,  and  constitutes  the 
point  of  resemblance. 

COMPART'MENT,  in  architecture,  a 
proj)ortionable  division  in  a  building,  nr 
some  device  marked  in  an  ornamental 
part  of  the  building. 

COMI'ENSA'TION,  in  civil  law,  a  sort 
of  right,  whereby  a  person,  who  has  been 
sued  for  a  debt,  demands  that  the  debt 
may  be  compensated  with  what  is  owing 
him  by  the  creditor,  which,  in  that  case, 
is  equivalent  to  payment. 

COMl'ERTO'RltlM,  a  judicial  inquest 
in  the  civil  law,  made  by  delegates  or 
commissioners,  to  find  out  and  relate  the 
truth  of  a  cause. 

COMPITA'LIA,  a  Roman  feast  cele- 
brated in  honor  of  the  Lares  and  Penates. 
Under  Tarquinius  Superbus,  it  is  said 
that  human  victims  were  sacrificed  at  this 
solemnity.  The  gods  invoked  at  it  were 
termed  Compitales,  as  presiding  over  the 
streets. 

COMPLEX'ION,  among  physicians, 
the  temperament,  habitude,  and  natural 
disposition  of  the  body  ;  but,  in  general 
use,  the  word  means  the  color  of  the  skin. 

CO.M'PLEX  TERMS,  and  COM'PLEX 
IDE'AS,  in  logic,  are  such  as  are  com- 
pounded of  several  simple  ones. 

COMPLU'VIUxM,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, an  area  in  the  centre  of  the  Roman 
houses,  so  constructed  that  it  might  re- 
ceive the  waters  from  the  roT.'s.  It  is 
also  the  gutter  or  eave  of  a  roof. 

COMPO'SIXG,  that  branch  of  the  art 
of  printing  which  consists  in  taking  the 
types  or  letters  from  the  cases,  aud  ar- 
ranging them  in  such  an  order  as  to  fit 
them  for  the  press.  The  instrument  in 
which  they  are  adjusted  to  the  length  of 
the  lines  is  called  a  composing-stick. 

COM'POSITE  OR'DER,  in  architec- 
ture, one  of  the  five  orders  of  architecture, 
and,  as  its  name  im])orls,  composed  of 
two  others,  the  Corinthian  and  the  Ionic 
Its  capital  is  a  vase  with  two  tiers  of 
acanthus  leaves,  like  the  Corinthian  ;  but 
instead  of  stalks,  the  shoots  appear  small 
and  adhere  to  the  vase,  bending  round  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  face  of  the  capi- 


100 


CrCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


COM 


till;  the  vase  i.-  terminated  by  a  fillet 
over  which  is  nn  astragal  crowned  by  an 
ovolo.  The  volutes  roll  themselves  over 
the  ovolo  to  meet  the  tops  of  the  upper 
row  of  leaves,  whereon  they  seem  to  rest. 
The  corners  of  tlie  abacus  are  supported 
by  an  acanthus  loaf  bent  upwards.  The 
abacus  resembles  that  of  the  Corinthian 
capital.  In  detail  the  Composite  is 
richer  than  the  Corinthian,  but  less  light 
and  delicate.  Its  architrave  has  usually 
only  two  fasciaj,  and  the  cornice  varies 
from  the  Corinthian  in  having  double 
modillions.  The  column  is  ten  diame- 
ters high.  The  principal  examples  of  this 
order  are  the  Temple  of  Bacchus  at  Rome, 
the  arch  of  Septimius  Severus,  those  of 
the  Goldsmiths  and  of  Titus,  and  that  in 
the  baths  of  Diocletian. 

COMPOSI'TION,  in  a  general  sense, 
the  putting  together,  and  uniting  of  sev- 
eral things,  so  as  to  form  of  the  whole  one 
mass  or  compound — Composition  of  ideas, 
an  act  of  the  mind,  whereby  it  unites  sev- 
eral ideas  into  one  conception,  or  complex 
idea. — In  literature,  the  act  of  inventing 
or  combining  ideas,  furnishing  them  with 
words,  arranging  them  in  order,  and  com- 
mitting them  to  writing. — In  logic,  a 
method  of  reasoning,  whereby  we  proceed 
from  some  general  self-evident  truth,  to 
other  particular  and  singular  ones.  This 
method  of  reasoning  is  opposed  to  analy- 
sis, which  begins  with  first  principles, 
and,  by  a  train  of  reasoning  from  tljem. 
deduces  the  propositions  or  truths  souglif  ; 
but  composition  or  synthesis  coUiH-ts  the 
scattered  parts  of  knowledge,  and  com- 
bines them  into  a  system,  so  tlitit  the  un- 
derstanding is  enabled  distinctly  to  follow 
truth  through  its  different  stages  of  gra- 
dations.— In  music,  the  art  or  act  of  form- 
ing tunes,  either  to  be  performe  1  vocally 
or  instrumentally — In  commerce,  an 
agreement  entered  into  between  an  in- 
solvent debtor  and  his  creditor,  by  which 
the  latter  accepts  a  part  of  the  debt  in 
compensation  for  the  wliole.— In  paint- 
ing, this  word  expresses  the  idea  of  a 
whole  created  out  of  single  parts,  and  to 
this  idea  the  whole  ought  to  conform.  In 
the  whole  there  ought  never  to  be  too 
much  or  too  little  ;  all  parts  must  be  ne- 
cessary, an<l  must  refer  to  one  another, 
being  understood  only  under  such  rela- 
tionship. This  does  not  imply  that  every 
part  must  be  co-ordinate,  some  parts 
must  bo  of  more  imjiortance  than  others, 
and  all  must  be  subordinate  to  a  centre- 
point,  which  raises  them,  while  it  is  raised 
by  them.  This  quality,  which  is  seen  in 
natural  landscape,  we  call  organism;  we 


desire  to  produce  it  in  art,  and  require 
pictures  to  be  organic.  This  is  valid  as 
well  in  simple  composition  as  in  com- 
pound, which  as  a  composition  of  compo- 
sitions, represents  many  wholes  All 
this,  though  not  attained,  is  at  least  at- 
tempted by  those  who  call  themselves  ar- 
tists. The  following  is  less  acknowledged 
but  not  less  important,  viz.,  every  com- 
position consists  of  three  elements,  whoso 
one-sided  predominance  in  painters  and 
connoisseurs  produces  three  schools  of 
error  ;  while  the  fervent  working  together 
of  these  elements  alone  makes  the  work 
a  living  whole,  and  gives  it  that  which  is 
expressed  by  the  Latin  word  compositio — 
a  quieting  satisfying  effect.  The  artist's 
subject  furnishes  the  Jirst  element.  Eve- 
ry subject  has  its  own  law  of  representa- 
tion, which  the  artist  must  clearly  under- 
stand if  he  would  depict  it  truly  upon  the 
canvas.  This  comprehension  is  to  be  ac- 
quired only  by  his  forgetting  himself  in 
the  contemplation  of  his  subject.  It  is 
the  power  of  doing  this  which  we  prize  so 
highly  in  poetry  under  the  term  objec- 
tivity. By  thus  treating  the  subject  the 
artist  becomes  a  splendid  organ,  through 
which  nature  speaks  like  a  history  to 
sentient  man  :  thus  followed  out,  the  ma- 
jesty of  Rome  in  Rubens,  and  the  cheer- 
fulness of  nature  in  Claude,  are  conveyed 
to  posterity.  The  second  element  of 
composition  is  fixed  by  the  given  space 
which  is  to  be  filled  by  color,  form  and 
light,  harmonized  according  to  the  laws 
of  art ;  then  a  history  adorning  a  space 
becomes  the  property  of  art.  The  third 
element  lies  in  the  mind  of  the  artist;  as 
"  woman's  judgment  is  tinged  by  her  af- 
fections," so  the  artist  who  cannot  imbuo 
his  subject  with  his  own  feelings  will  fail 
to  animate  his  canvas.  For  though  every 
legitimate  subject  dictates  the  laws  of  its 
representation,  yet  every  cultivated  man 
sees  objects  in  his  own  light,  and  no  one 
may  say  that  he  alone  sees  rightly,  lie 
who  knows  not  how  to  give  that  to  his 
pictures,  by  which  they  become,  not  from 
manner  but  from  subject,  his  pictures,  is 
no  artist,  but  a  mere  copyist,  even  could 
he  imitate  Phidias  or  Scopas  perfectly. 
Excess  of  individualism  leads  the  artist 
to  depict  /i /;(;*•(//' in.<t cad  of  the  subject,  to 
sacrifice  this  is  a  favorite  caprice,  and  in 
allegorizing  his  own  dreams  to  confuse 
the  action  as  well  as  the  spectator ;  but 
if  ho  represent  it  truthfully,  working  it 
with  pictorial  effect  and  stamping  it  with 
his  genius,  ho  has  composed,  and  his  work 
is  completed,  satisfying  all  requisitions. 
COMPO  SITOR.'in  printing,  the  work- 


con] 


AND    TlIK    FIXE    AKTS. 


101 


man  who  arranges  the  types  in  lines  and 
pages,  ami  prepares  them  for  being 
printed  off. 

CO.MPriUJA'TION,  an  ancient  mode 
of  trial  both  in  civil  and  criminal  cases. 
In  the  latter,  by  the  law  of  the  Saxons 
(which  William  the  Conqueror  contirnied 
in  this  respect,  at  least  as  to  its  main 
features,)  the  accused  party  was  allowed 
to  clear  himself  by  the  oath  of  as  many 
of  his  neighbors  to  his  innocence  as 
amounted  in  collective  worth,  according 
to  the  legal  arithmetic  of  the  Anglo- 
Sa.xons,  to  one  pound  if  he  could  in  the 
first  instance  (being  a  villein)  obtain  the 
te.-itimonj'  of  his  lord  that  he  had  not 
been  previously  convicted.  If  other- 
wise, he  is  bound  to  undergo  ordeal,  or 
wage  his  law  with  a  greater  number  of 
compurgators.  Compurgation  in  crimi- 
nal cases  was  abolished  in  general  by 
Henry  II. 's  assizes,  the  ordeal  being  en- 
forced in  lieu  of  it. 

CON,  in  language,  a  Latin  inseparable 
preposition  or  prefix  to  other  words. 
Ainsworth  remarks  that  con  and  cu;n 
have  the  same  signification,  but  that  ciini 
is  used  separately,  and  con  in  composi- 
tion.— In  the  phrase  ^ro  and  coft,  for  and 
against,  con  denotes  the  negative  side  of 
a  question. 

COXCATEXA'TION,  a  term  chiefly 
used  in  speaking  of  the  mutual  depen- 
dence of  second  causes  upon  each  other. 

CONCEP'TION,  in  mental  philosophy, 
that  faculty  or  act  of  the  mind  by  which 
we  combine  a  number  of  individuals  to- 
gether by  means  of  some  mark  or  char- 
acter common  to  them  all.  We  may  ob- 
serve, for  instance,  that  equilateral,  isos- 
celes and  scalene  triangles  all  agree  in 
one  respect,  that  of  having  three  sides ; 
and  from  this  perceived  similitude  we 
form  the  conception  trians^le. 

CONCERTAN'TE,  in  "music,  a  term 
expressive  of  those  parts  of  a  musical 
composition  that  sing  or  play  throughout 
the  piece,  as  distinguished  from  those 
that  play  only  occasionally  in  particular 
places. 

CONCER'TO,  in  mu.sic,  a  piece  com- 
posed for  a  particular  instrument,  which 
bears  the  greatest  part  in  it,  or  in  which 
the  performance  is  partly  alone  and 
partly  accompanied  by  other  parts. 

CO'NCES'SIOX,  in  rhetoric  or  debate, 
the  yielding,  granting,  or  allowing  to  the 
oppo.site  party  some  point  or  fact  that  may 
bear  dispute,  in  order  to  show  that  even 
admitting  the  point  conceded,  the  cause 
can  be  mniut.iined  lai  other  grounds. 

CONCETTI.     (Rendered   by   Engli:<h 


writers  on  rhetoric,  conceits.)  Ingenioug 
thoughts  or  turns  of  expression,  points, 
jeux  d'esprit,  &c.,  in  serious  composition. 
In  the  16th  century,  the  taste  for  this 
s[)ecies  of  brilliancy,  often  false  and  al- 
ways dangerous,  spread  rapidly  in  the 
poetical  composition  of  European  nations, 
especially  in  Spain  and  Italy ;  where  the 
name  of  concetti  was  applied  rather  in  a 
goo<l  than  in  a  bad  sense,  the  critical 
taste  being  much  perverted.  Tasso  is 
not  free  from  concetti.  After  his  time 
they  became  offensively  prominent  in 
Italian  poetry  for  a  century  afterwards  : 
Marino  and  Filicaia  offer  strong  exam- 
ples. In  France,  the  mode  of  concetti 
was  equally  prevalent  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  was  peculiarly  in  vogue  with 
the  fair  critics  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet, 
so  well  known  by  Molierc's  "  Precieuses 
Ridicules."  In  England,  Donne  and  Cow- 
ley are  instances  of  a  style  full  of  concetti. 

CONCIN'NOUS,  in  'music,  an  epithet 
for  a  performance  in  concerts,  which  is 
executed  with  delicacy,  grace,  and  spirit. 

CONCIONATO'RE.'^,  in  law,  the  com- 
mon councilmen  of  the  city  of  London. 

CONCLAMA'TIO,  in  antiquity,  the 
funeral  cry  over  the  body  of  a  deceased 
person  previous  to  its  being  burnt ;  by 
which  it  was  expected  to  recall,  as  it 
were,  the  soul  of  the  deceased  from  ever- 
lasting sleep. 

CONCLAVE  the  place  in  which  the 
cardinals  of  the  Romish  church  meet  for 
the  election  of  a  pope.  It  consists  of  a 
range  of  small  cells  or  apartments  stand- 
ing in  a  line  along  the  halls  or  galleries 
of  the  Vatican. —  Conclave  is  also  used 
for  the  assembly  or  meeting  of  the  car- 
dinals when  shut  up  for  the  election  of  a 
pope.  This  begins  the  day  following  the 
funeral  of  the  ileceased  pontiff.  The  car- 
dinals are  locked  up  in  separate  apart- 
ments and  meet  once  a  day  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Vatican,  (or  other  pontifical  pal- 
ace,) where  their  votes,  given  on  a  slip 
of  paper,  are  examined.  This  continues 
until  two  thirds  of  the  votes  are  found  to 
be  in  favor  of  a  particular  candidate. 
The  ambassadors  of  France,  Austria,  and 
Spain  have  each  the  right  to  put  in  a  veto 
against  the  election  of  one  cardinal,  who 
may  be  unacceptable  to  their  respective 
courts. 

CONCLU'SION,  in  logic,  that  propo.si- 
tion  which  is  inferred  from  certain  former 
propositions,  termed  the  premises  of  the 
argument. 

COX'CORD,  in  music,  the  union  of  two 
or  more  sounds  in  such  a  manner  .as  to 
render  them  agreeable  to  the  ear.     Con- 


102 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEHATl  HE 


[con 


cord  and  harmony  are,  in  fact,  the  same 
thing,  though  custom  has  applied  them 
dififerontly;  for  as  <;oncord  expresses  the 
agreeable  effects  of  two  sounds  in  con- 
sonance, so  harmony  expresses  the  agree- 
ment of  a  greater  number  of  sounds  in 
consonance. — In  grammar,  that  part  of 
syntax  which  treats  of  the  agreement  of 
words  in  a  sentence. — In  law,  an  agree- 
ment between  the  parties  in  a  fine,  made 
by  leave  of  the  court. 

CONCORD'ANCE,  a  dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  in  which  every  word  is  given  with 
references  to  the  book,  chapter,  and  verse, 
in  which  it  occurs,  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
abling the  student  to  collate  with  facility 
one  passage  with  another  in  the  view  of 
determining  its  meaning.  The  importance 
of  this  class  of  works  was  early  appre- 
ciated, and  a  vast  deal  of  labor  has  been 
expended  in  compiling  them.  Concord- 
ances have  been  made  of  the  Greek 
Septuagint,  the  Greek  Testament,  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  and  the  English  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  The  first  concordance 
was  compiled  by  Cardinal  Ilugues  de  St. 
Cher,  who  died  in  1262.  The  best  Eng- 
lish concordance  is  that  of  Cruden,  which 
appeared  in  1737,  and  still  maintains  its 
ground  as  an  authority. 

CONCOR'DAT,  an  agreement  or  con- 
vention upon  ecclesiastical  matters  made 
between  the  Pope  and  some  temporal 
sovereign,  as  that  between  Pius  V^II. 
and  Bonaparte  in  1802,  by  which  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  religion  was  re-established 
in  France  ;  on  which  occasion  the  Pope 
recognized  the  new  division  of  France 
into  60  sees,  instead  of  the  much  greater 
number  which  had  existed  before  the 
revolution,  the  payment  of  the  clergy 
from  the  national  revenues,  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  bishops  by  the  civil  au- 
thority. Originally  the  term  was  applied 
to  agreements  regulating  mutual  rights 
between  bishops,  abbots,  priors,  Ac. 

CON  CRETE,  in  architecture  and  en- 
gineering, a  mass  composed  of  stone 
cliippings  or  ballast  cemented  together 
through  the  medium  of  lime  and  sand, 
usually  employed  in  making  foundations 
where  the  soil  is  of  itself  too  light  or 
boggy,  or  otherwise  insufiicient  for  the 
reception  of  the  walls. 

CON'CRETE  TERM,  in  logic,  is  so 
called  when  the  notion  derived  from  the 
view  taken  of  any  object  is  expressed  with 
a  reference  to,  or  in  conjunction  with,  the 
object  that  furnished  the  notion;  as 
"foolish,"  or  "fool."  When  the  notion 
is  expressed  without  any  such  reference, 
it  is  called  an  abstract  term  ;  as,  "folly." 


CONDI'TION,  in  law,  a  clause  in  a 
bond  or  other  contract  containing  terms 
or  a  stipulation  that  it  is  to  be  performed, 
and  in  case  of  failure,  the  penalty  of  the 
bond  is  to  be  incurreil. — We  speak  of  a 
good  condition  in  reference  to  wealth 
and  poverty,  or  to  health  and  sickness, 
&c.  Or,  we  say, — a  nation  with  an  ex- 
hausted treasury  is  not  in  a  condition  to 
make  war ;  religion  aff"ords  consolation 
to  man  in  every  condition  of  life. —  Con- 
ditional propositions,  in  logie,  such  as 
consist  of  two  parts  connected  together 
by  a  conditional  particle. — Conditional 
stjllogism,  a  syllogism  where  the  major 
is  a  conditional  proposition. 

CONDOTTIE'RI,  in  Italian  history. 
a  class  of  mercenary  adventurers  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  who  commanded 
military  bands,  amounting  to  armies,  on 
their  own  account,  and  sold  their  services 
for  temporary  engagements  to  sovereign 
princes  and  states.  One  of  the  earliest 
and  most  famous  among  those  leaders 
was  the  Englishman  Sir  John  Ilawkwood, 
who  commanded  in  various  Italian  wars 
about  the  time  of  Edward  III.  The 
bands  under  command  of  the  condottieri 
were  well  armed  and  equipped.  Their 
leaders  had,  in  many  instances,  consider- 
able military  skill ;  but  as  they  took  no 
interest  in  national  contests,  except  to 
receive  pecuniary  advantages,  the  wars 
between  them  became  a  sort  of  bloodless 
contest,  in  which  the  only  object  of  each 
party  was  to  take  as  many  prisoners  as 
possible  for  the  sake  of  the  ransom.  This 
singular  system  of  warfare  was  only  put 
an  end  to  by  the  more  serious  military 
operations  of  the  French,  who  invaded 
Italy  undei-  Charles  VIII. 

CON'DUIT,  a  subterraneous  or  con- 
cealed aqueduct.  The  ancient  Romans 
excelled  in  them,  and  formed  the  lower 
parts,  whoron  the  water  ran,  of  cement 
of  such  an  excellent  quality,  that  it  has 
become  as  hard  as  the  stone  itself  which 
it  was  employed  to  join. — Conduits,  in 
modern  times,  are  generally  pipes  of 
wood,  iron,  or  pottery,  for  conveying  the 
water  from  the  main  spring,  or  reser- 
voirs, to  the  different  places  where  it  is  re- 
quired. 

CONPARREA'TION,  in  antiquity,  a 
ceremony  observed  by  the  Romans  in 
their  nuptial  solemnities.  It  consisted 
of  the  offering  of  some  pure  wheaten 
bread,  and  rehearsing,  at  the  same  time, 
a  certain  formula  in  presence  of  tho 
high-priest  and  at  least  ten  witnesses. 

CONFECTION,  a  sweetmeat,  or  any- 
thing prepared  with  sugar;    it  also  sig- 


CON  J 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS, 


108 


nifies  a  liquid  or  soft  electuarj-,  of  which 
there  are  various  sorts. 

CONFEC'TOK,  an  officer  in  the  Ro- 
man f;;uncs,  whose  l)usincss  was  to  kill 
any  beast  thiit  was  dangerous. 

CONFED'EKACY,  in  law,  a  combina- 
tion of  two  or  more  persons  to  do  some 
daina<:;e  or  injury  to  another,  or  to  com- 
mit some  unlawful  act. 

CONFEDERA'TION,  a  league,  or 
compact,  for  mutual  support,  particu- 
larly of  princes,  nations,  or  states. 

C'ONFES'SION,  in  a  legal  sense,  the 
acknowledgment  of  something  prejudicial 
to  the  person  making  the  declaration. 
A  confession,  according  to  law,  must  never 
be  divided,  but  always  taken  entire  ;  nor 
must  a  criminal  be  condcuined  upon  his 
own  confession,  without  other  concurring 
proofs. — In  theology,  a  public  declara- 
tion of  one's  faith,  or  the  faith  of  a  pub- 
lic body.  Also  a  part  of  the  Liturgy,  in 
which  an  .acknowledgment  of  guilt  is 
made  by  the  whole  congregation. — Au- 
ricular confession,  a  private  confession 
or  acknowledgment  of  one's  sins  made 
by  each  individual  in  the  Romish  church 
to  the  priest  or  father  confessor.  It  is  so 
called  because  it  is  made  by  whispering 
in  his  ear. — Among  the  Jews,  it  was  a 
custom,  on  the  annual  feast  of  expiation, 
for  the  high-priest  to  make  confession  of 
sins  to  God  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
people. 

CONFES'SOR,  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  who  hears  confessions,  and  is 
empowered  to  grant  absolution  to  those 
who  confess. — The  seat,  or  cell,  wherein 
the  priest  or  confessor  sits  to  hear  con- 
fessions, is  called  the  confessional. 

COXFrRMA'TION,  the  act  or  cere- 
mony in  the  Christian  church  of  laying 
on  of  hands,  by  which  baptized  persons 
are  confirmed  in  their  baptismal  vows. 
This  ceremony  is  performed  by  the 
bishop;  and  the  antiquity  of  it  is,  by 
all  ancient  writers,  carried  as  high  as  the 
apostles,  upon  whose  example  and  prac- 
tice it  is  founded. —  Confirmation,  in  law, 
an  assurance  of  title,  by  the  conveyance 
of  an  estate  or  right  in  esse,  from  one 
person  to  another,  by  which  a  possession 
is  made  perfect,  &c  —  Confirmation,  in 
rhetoric,  the  third  part  of  an  oration, 
wherein  the  orator  undertakes  to  prove 
the  truth  of  the  proposition  advanced  in 
his  narration. 

CONFISCA'TTOX,  in  law.  the  condem- 
nation and  adjudication  of  goods  oretTects 
to  the  public  treasury,  as  the  bodies  and 
effects  of  criminals,  traitors,  ,tc. 

COK'FLICT  OF  LAW.'^,  the  opposition 


between  the  municipal  laws  of  difforeut 
countries,  in  the  case  of  an  individual 
who  may  have  acquired  rights  or  become 
subject  to  duties  within  the  limit  of  more 
than  one  state. 

CONFORMTST,  in  ecclesiastical  con- 
cerns, one  that  conforms  to  the  establish- 
ed church  ;  the  seceders  or  dissenters  from 
which  are  called  Non-conformists. 

CON'tiE,  in  architecture,  a  mould  in 
form  of  a  quarter  round,  or  a  cavetto, 
which  serves  to  separate  two  members 
from  one  another;  such  as  that  which 
joins  the  shaft  of  the  column  to  the  cinc- 
ture ;  called  also  apophyge. 

CONGE  D'ELIRE,  (French,)  in  ecclo- 
siastical  affairs,  the  king's  permission  to 
a  dean  and  chapter  in  the  time  of  a  va- 
cancy, to  choose  a  bishop. 

CONGE'RIES,  a  collection  of  several 
particles  or  bodies  united  into  one  mass 
or  aggregate. 

CON'tilARY,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
present  of  wine  or  oil,  given  to  the  people 
by  their  emperors,  and  so  called  from  the 
congius,  wherewith  it  was  measui-ed  out 
to  them.  Sometimes,  however,  the  con- 
giary  was  made  in  money  or  corn. 

CON'GIUS,  a  liquid  measure  of  the 
ancient  Romans,  containing  the  eighth 
part  of  the  amphora,  or  rather  more  than 
a  gallon. 

CONGREGA'TIONALISTS,  in  church 
history,  a  sect  of  Protestants  who  reject 
all  church  government,  except  that  of  a 
single  congregation,  which,  they  main- 
tain, has  the  right  to  choose  its  own  pastor 
and  govern  itself. 

CONGRESS,  an  assembly  of  envoys, 
commissioners,  deputies,  Ac.  from  differ- 
ent courts,  who  meet  to  concert  measures 
for  their  common  good,  or  to  adjust  their 
mutual  concerns.  Having  exchanged 
their  credentials,  the  envoys  of  the  differ- 
ent powers  carry  on  their  negotiations 
directly  with  eaeh  other,  or  by  the  inter- 
vention of  a  mediator,  either  in  a  com- 
mon hall,  or  in  their  own  residences  by 
turns,  or,  if  there  is  a  mediator,  in  his 
residence.  These  negotiations  are  con- 
tinued either  by  writing  or  by  verbal 
communication,  until  the  commissioners 
can  agree  upon  a  treaty,  or  until  one  of 
the  jmwers  dissolves  the  congress  by  re- 
calling its  minister. —  Congress  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  The  assem- 
bly of  senators  and  representatives  of  the 
several  states  of  North  America,  forming 
the  legislature  of  the  Fnited  States,  is 
designated,  in  the  constitution  of  the 
general  governmemt,  by  this  title.  Tt 
consists  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of  rcpre- 


104 


CrCLOrEDTA    OF    LITERATURE 


[con 


sentatives,  each  constituting  a  distinct 
and  independent  branch.  The  house  of 
representatives  is  chosen  every  second 
year,  by  the  people  of  the  several  states; 
and  the  voters  and  electors  are  required 
to  have  the  same  qualitications  as  are 
requisite  for  choosing  the  members  of 
the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  state 
legislature  of  the  state  in  which  they 
vote.  The  number  of  representatives  is 
appointed  according  to  the  population  of 
each  state,  and  is  altered  every  ten  years, 
when  the  census  is  taken  by  authority. 
The  manner  of  apportioning  the  congres- 
sional rfiresentation  was  fi.xed  by  an  act 
passed  May  23,  1850.  After  March  3, 
1853,  the  House  of  Representatives,  un- 
less otherwise  ordained  by  congress,  is  to 
consist  of  233  members.  The  apportion- 
ment is  made  by  adding  to  the  number 
of  free  persons  three  fifths  of  the  number 
of  slaves  :  the  representative  population, 
thus  found,  divided  by  233,  gives  the  ratio 
of  apportionment ;  the  representative 
population  of  each  state,  divided  by  this 
ratio,  shows  the  number  of  representa- 
tives to  which  the  state  is  entitled.  To 
the  aggregate  thus  obtained  is  added  a 
number  sufficient  to  make  up  the  whole 
number  of  233  members  ;  this  adilitional 
number  is  apportioned  among  the  states 
having  the  largest  fractions.  It  is,  how- 
ever, provided  by  the  constitution  that 
each  state  shall  be  entitled  to  at  least  one 
representative.  The  senate  is  composed  of 
two  members  from  each  state  :  the  sena- 
tors are  chosen  for  six  years  by  the  legis- 
lature of  the  state.  The  house  of  repre- 
sentatives chooses  its  own  speaker  :  the 
vice-president  of  the  United  States  is, 
ex-offieio,  president  of  the  senate.  Bills 
for  revenue  purposes  must  originate  in 
the  house  of  re|ircscntativcs ;  but  are 
liable  to  the  ])r()i)(isal  ut'  amendments  by 
the  .senate.  Tiie  senate  has  the  sole  pow- 
er of  trying  impeachments  ;  but  can  only 
convict  by  a  majority  of  two  thirds  of  the 
members  present,  and  its  sentence  ex- 
tends only  to  removal  from  office  and  in- 
capacitation for  holding  it.  The  regular 
meeting  of  congress  is  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  December  annually.  Every  bill 
which  passes  the  two  houses  is  sent  to  the 
presichmt  for  approval  or  di,-!approval  ;  in 
the  latter  case,  ho  returns  it,  with  his 
reasons,  to  the  house  in  which  it  origin- 
ated :  if,  on  reconsideration,  it  is  passed 
again  by  a,  majority  of  two-tliirds  in  each 
house,  it  becomes  law.  The  powers  of 
congress  are  strictly  limited,  and  sepa- 
rated from  those  of  tiio  various  state 
legislatures,  by  the  constitution. 


CONISTE'RTUM,  in  ancient  .archi- 
tecture, a  room  in  the  gymn.asium  ano 
paliijstra,  wherein  the  wrestlers,  having 
been  anointed  with  oil,  were  sprinkled 
over  witli  dust,  that  they  might  lay  firm- 
er hoM  of  their  antagonist.s. 

CON'JOIxNT  DEGREES,  in  music,  a 
term  used  of  two  or  more  notes  which 
immediately  follow  each  other  in  the 
order  of  the  scale. 

CONJOINT  TETRACHORDS, 
in  music,  two  tetrachords  or  fourths,  in 
which  the  same  note  is  the  highest  of  one 
and  the  lowest  of  the  other. 

CONJUGA'TION,  in  grammar,  is  to 
verbs  what  declension  is  to  substantives 
— the  sum  total  of  the  inflexions  which 
they  admit,  corresponding  to  the  various 
circumstances  of  time  or  mood  under 
which    an    action    is    conceived   to   take 

CONJUNCTION,  in  grammar,  that 
part  of  speech  which  expresses  the  rela- 
tion of  propositions  or  judgments  to  each 
other. 

CONJUNCTIVE  MOOD,  that  modi- 
fication of  the  verb  which  expresses  the 
dependence  of  the  event  intended  on  cer- 
tain conditions. 

CONNOISSEUR',  a  critical  judge  or 
master  of  any  art,  particularly  of  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  the  belles  lettres. 
The  connoisseur  is  the  true  friend  of  Art ; 
he  judges  of  works  from  their  intrinsic 
excellence,  regardless  of  the  influence  or 
bias  of  popular  names  upon  the  indis- 
criminating  crowd.  He  is  prompt  to  re- 
cognize, seek  out,  and  foster  genius  in  its 
early  straggles  and  obscurity,  and  help 
to  occupy  that  position  too  frequently 
usurped  by  the  pretender.  The  qualities 
necessary  to  constitute  a  eonnoi.sseur  are 
— a  natural  feeling'  for  art,  a  keen  per- 
ception, and  a  sound  judgment;  by  .«tudy 
and  observation  he  has  become  familiar 
witii  tiie  technics  of  art,  the  manner  and 
method  of  various  scliools  and  masters. 
lie  has  no  prejudices  or  predilections; 
hence  he  is  impartial,  lie  can  appreci- 
ate defects  as  well  as  merits,  and  distin- 
guish an  original  from  a  copy. 

CON'QUEST,  the  right  over  property 
or  territory  acquired  in  war.  It  presup- 
poses a  just  war,  and  is  generally  admit- 
ted as  a  part  of  the  law  of  nations.  Con- 
quest may  respect  either  persons  or 
things :  it  may  apply  to  a  whole  nation, 
or  to  a  .single  town  or  province  :  and  it 
may  be  temporary  or  permanent.  Where 
persons  are  not  found  in  arms,  but  are 
included  as  inhabitants  of  a  town  or  prov 
inco   which   has    surrendered,    'hey    iro 


con] 


AND    Tin-:    FINE    ARTS. 


105 


treated  ptcnerally  as  subjects.  The  origi- 
niil  alloginncu  to  their  own  governinent  is 
suspcmieil,  and  they  come  under  the  im- 
plied obligation  to  the  conqueror,  to  sub- 
mit to  his  orders,  and  to  demean  them- 
selves, for  the  time,  as  taithful  subjects. 
Under  such  circumstances,  the  conqueror 
generally  leaves  them  in  possession  of 
their  property,  and  punishes  them  only 
for  rebellious  or  traitorous  conduct.  It 
is  not  usual,  in  modern  times,  to  change 
the  fundamental  laws  of  a  conquered 
country ;  but  the  sovereign  power  of  the 
conqueror  so  to  do  is  conceded  by  the  law 
of  nations. 

CONSAXCtUIX'ITY,  the  relation 
■which  subsists  between  persons  who  are 
sprung  from  the  same  stock  or  common 
ancestor,  in  distinction  from  affinity  or 
relation  by  marriage.  It  terminates  in 
the  si.\th  or  seventh  degree,  except  in  the 
succession  to  the  crown,  in  which  case  it 
is  continued  to  infinity.  Marriage  is  pro- 
hibited by  the  church  to  the  fourth  de- 
gree of  consanguinity  inclusive. 

CON'SCIENCE,  in  ethics,  a  secret  tes- 
timony of  the  soul,  whereby  it  gives  its 
approbation  to  things  that  are  naturally 
good,  and  condemns  those  that  are  evil. 
Some  writers  term  conscience  the  "  moral 
sense,"  and  consider  it  as  an  original  fac- 
ulty of  our  nature  ;  others  allege  that  our 
notions  of  right  and  wrong  are  not  to  be 
deduced  from  a  single  principle  or  facul- 
ty, but  from  various  powers  of  the  under- 
standing and  will. 

CON'SCIOrSNE.SS,  the  knowledge  of 
sensations  and  mental  operations,  or  of 
what  passes  in  one's  own  mind. 

CON'SCRIPT,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an 
appellation  given  to  the  senators  of  Rome, 
who  were  called  conscript -fathers,  on  ac- 
count of  their  names  being  entered  in  the 
register  of  the  senate. — In  the  French 
armies,  an  enrolled  soldier,  or  recruit. 

CONSCRIP'TION,  the  enlisting  the 
inhabitants  of  a  country  capable  of  bear- 
ing arms,  by  a  compulsory  levy,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  government.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  military  constitution 
of  ancient  Rome.  Under  the  consulship, 
all  persons  capable  of  bearing  arms  were 
obliged,  under  penalty  of  losing  their  for- 
tune anil  liberty,  to  assemble  in  the  Cam- 
pus Martins,  or  near  the  capitol,  where 
the  consuls,  seated  in  their  curule  chairs, 
made  the  levy  by  the  assistance  of  the 
legionary  tribunes.  The  consuls  orderecl 
such  as  they  pleased  to  be  cited  out  of 
each  tribe,  and  every  one  was  obliged  to 
answer  to  his  name,  after  which  as  many 
w» ro  ch>son  as  were  wanted. — Franco,  in 


the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  declared 
it  the  duty  and  honor  of  every  citi/en  to 
serve  in  the  army  of  his  country.  Every 
French  citizen  was  born  a  soldier,  and 
obliged  to  serve  in  the  army  from  sixteen 
to  forty  years  of  age  :  from  forty  to  sixty 
he  belonged  to  the  national  guard.  Eve- 
ry year  the  young  men  of  the  niilitar_v 
age  were  assembleil,  and  distributed  in 
the  different  military  divisions  ;  and  it 
was  decided  by  lot  who,  among  the  able- 
bodied  men  of  suitable  age,  should  take 
arms.  Thus  it  was  that  those  prodigious 
masses  were  so  quickly  raised,  and  sent 
to  the  field  of  slaughter. 

CONSECRATION,  the  act  of  devoting 
and  dedicating  anj'thing  to  the  service 
and  worship  of  God.  Among  the  ancient 
Christians,  the  consecration  of  churches 
was  performed  with  a  great  deal  of  pious 
solemnity.  In  England,  churches  have 
been  always  consecrated  with  particular 
ceremonies,  the  form  of  which  was  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  bishop. —  Consecra- 
tion was  also  a  religious  rite  among  the 
Romans,  by  vphich  they  set  any  person  or 
thing  apart  for  sacred  purposes,  as  their 
high-priests  ;  or  made  it  sacred,  or  a  fit 
object  of  divine  worship  ;  as  the  emperors, 
their  wives,  or  children,  who  were  in  this 
manner  enrolled  among  the  number  of 
their  gods.  This  was  sometimes  called 
apotheosis,  but  on  medals  it  is  distin- 
guished by  the  word  consecratio,  with  an 
altar  or  some  other  sacred  svmbol. 

CONSEN'TIAN  GODS,"  a  term  by 
which  the  Latins  distinguished  their 
twelve  chief  deities — Juno,  Vesta,  Miner- 
va, Ceres,  Diana,  Venus,  Mars,  Mercury, 
Jupiter,  Neptune,  Vulcan,  and  Apollo. 
The  origin  of  these  deities  was  Italian,  and 
distinct  from  those  of  the  Greeks  ;  but  as 
the  literature  of  Rome  took  its  tone  and 
color  from  Greece,  so  its  mythology  was 
mixed  up  with  that  of  the  latter  country, 
those  deities  whose  functions  most  re- 
sembled each  other  being  confounded,  till 
the  above  names  became  regarded  as 
nothing  more  than  the  Latin  appellations 
of  the  Greek  divinities. 

CON'SEQUENCE,  that  which  follows 
as  an  inference  of  truth  and  reason,  from 
admitted  premises  or  arguments.  Thus, 
"  every  rational  being  is  accountable  to 
his  Maker  ;"  man  is  a  rational  being  ; 
the  consequence  then  must  be,  that  man 
is  accountable  to  his  Maker. 

CONSERVATOR,  an  officer  appointed 
for  the  security  and  preservation  of  the 
privileges  of  some  cities,  corporations, 
and  communities.  The  ancient  office  of 
conservator  of  the  peace  is  now  performed 


106 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATL'RE 


[con 


by  all  judges  and  magistrates,  but  par- 
ticularly by  what  we  now  terra  justices 
of  the  peace. 

CONSERVATORY,  a  term  sometimes 
used  for  a  green-house.  It  is,  properly, 
a  large  green-house  for  exotics,  in  which 
the  plants  are  planted  in  beds  and  bor- 
ders, and  not  in  tubs  or  pots,  as  in  the 
common  green-house. — In  various  parts 
of  Italy  and  France  there  are  musical 
schools,  called  conservatories,  which  are 
expressly  intended  for  the  scientific  culti- 
vation of  musical  talents,  and  from  which 
many  first-rate  composers,  as  well  as  vo- 
calists, have  attained  their  proficiency. 

CONSIDERA'TION,  in  law,  the  mate- 
rial cause  or  ground  of  a  contract,  with- 
out which  the  party  contracting  would 
not  be  bound.  A  consideration  is  either 
express  or  implied;  express,  when  the 
thing  to  be  given  or  done  is  specified ; 
iviplied,  when  no  specific  consideration  is 
agreed  upon,  but  justice  requires  it,  and 
the  law  implies  it :  as  when  a  man  labors 
for  another,  without  stipulating  for  wages, 
the  law  infers  that  he  shall  receive  a  rea- 
sonable consideration. 

CONSIGN'MENT  of  goods,  in  com- 
merce, is  the  delivering  or  making  them 
over  to  another :  thus,  goods  are  said  to 
be  consigned  to  a  factor,  when  they  are 
sent  to  him  for  sale,  &c.  He  who  con- 
signs the  goods  is  called  the  consignor : 
and  the  person  to  whom  they  are  sent  is 
the  consignee. 

CONSIST'ENCE,  orCONSIST'ENCY, 
that  state  of  a  body  in  vfhich  its  compo- 
nent parts  remain  fixed.  Also^  congruity 
and  uniformity  in  opinions  and  actions. 

CONSISTO'RIUM,  in  antiquity,  a 
council-house  or  place  of  audience. 

CONSIS'TORY,  an  assembly  of  eccle- 
siastical persons;  also  certain  spiritual 
courts  are  so  called  which  are  holdcn  by 
the  bishops  in  each  diocese.  At  Rome 
the  consistory  denotes  the  judicial  court 
constituted  by  the  college  of  cardinals. 
The  representative  body  of  the  reformed 
church  in  France  is  styled  Consistory  ;  a 
title  and  assembly  originated  by  Calvin. 

CONSIS'TORY  COURT,  the  place  or 
court  in  which  the  session  or  assembly  of 
ecclesiastical  persons  is  held  by  the  bishop 
or  his  chancellor. 

CONSOLIDA'TIOX,  in  t!ie  civil  law, 
signifies  the  uniting  the  possession  or 
profit  of  land  with  the  i)ro])crty,  and 
vice  versa.  In  the  ecclesinstical  law,  it 
is  the  uniting  two  benefices  into  one  by 
assent  of  the  ordinary,  patron,  and  in- 
cumbent. 

CON'SOLE,  in  iULdiitccturc,  a  bracket 


or  shouldor-piece  :  or  an  ornament  cut 
upon  the  key  of  an  arch,  which  has  a 
projecture,  and  on  occasion  serves  to  sup- 
port little  cornices,  figures,  busts,  and 
vases. 

CON'SOLS,  in  commerce,  funds  forme! 
by  the  consolidation  (of  which  word  it  is 
an  abbreviation)  of  different  annuities, 
which  had  been  severally  formed  into  a 
capital 

CON'SONANCE,  in  music,  the  agree- 
ment of  two  sounds  simultaneously  pro- 
duced, the  one  grave  and  the  other  acute 

CON'SONANT,  a  letter  so  named  be 
cause  it  is  considered  as  being  sounded 
onlj^  in  connection  with  a  vowel.  But 
some  consonants  have  no  sound,  even 
when  united  with  a  vowel,  and  others 
have  a  very  imperfect  sound ;  hence 
some  are  called  mutes,  and  others  sevii- 
voirels. 

CONSONAN'TE,  in  music,  an  Italian 
epithet  for  all  agreeable  intervals. 

CONSPIR'ACY,  a  combination  of  men 
for  an  evil  purpose;  or  an  agreement  be- 
tween them  to  commit  some  crime  in  con- 
cert ;  as,  a  conspiracy  against  the  govern- 
ment.— In  law,  it  signifies  an  agreement 
between  two  or  more,  falsely  to  indict,  or 
procure  to  be  indicted,  an  innocent  per- 
son of  felony. 

CON  SPIR'ITO,  in  music,  an  Italian 
phrase,  denoting  that  the  part  is  to  be 
played  with  spirit. 

CON  STABLE,  a  civil  officer,  anciently 
of  great  dignity,  as  the  Lord  High  Con- 
stable of  England,  and  also  the  constables 
or  keepers  of  castles,  &c.  It  is  now  the 
title  of  an  ofiBcer  under  the  magistrates 
for  the  preservation  of  the  peace,  whose 
duty  principally  ccmsists  in  seizing  and 
securing  persons  guilty  of  tumultuary  of- 
fences. In  the  United  States,  constables 
are  town  or  city  officers  of  the  peace,  with 
powers  similar  to  those  possessed  by  tho 
constables  in  Hreat  Britain.  They  are 
invested  also  with  powers  to  execute  civil 
as  well  as  criminal  process,  and  to  levy 
executions.  In  New  Englaml,  they  are 
elected  by  the  inhabitants  of  towns  in  le- 
gal meeting. 

CONSTANT  WHITE,  Pehmanent 
White,  a  pigment  prepared  from  the 
sulphate  of  barytes,  useful  in  water- 
color  painting,  possessing  great  body.  It 
is  very  poisonous. 

CON  STAT,  a  certificate  given  out  of 
the  exchequer  to  a  person  who  intends  to 
plead  or  move  for  a  discharge  of  any- 
thing in  that  court.  The  effect  of  it  is  tc 
show  whut  appears  upon  the  rer'^cd,  re- 
sjiertiii;^  llic  matter  in  question. 


con] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


107 


CONSTELLA'TION,  an  assemblage  or 
syslcm  of  several  stars,  expresseil  or  rep- 
resented under  the  name  and  figure  of 
some  animal  or  other  object,  as  a  bear,  a 
ship,  and  the  like  ;  whence  they  have  de- 
rived those  appellations  which  are  conve- 
nient in  describing  the  stars.  The  divi- 
sion of  the  heavens  into  constellations  is 
very  ancient,  probably  coeval  with  astron- 
omy itself. 

CONSTIT'UENT,  in  politics,  one  who 
by  his  vote  constitutes  or  elects  a  member 
of  parliament. — Constituents,  in  physics, 
the  elementary  or  essential  parts  of  any 
substance. 

CONSTITUTION,  in  politics,  any 
form  or  principle  of  government,  regu- 
larly constituted.  Constitutions  are  either 
democratic,  aristocratic,  or  of  a  mi.xed 
character.  They  are,  1.  Democratic, 
when  the  fundamental  law  guarantees  to 
every  citizen  equal  rights,  protection,  and 
participation,  direct  or  indirect,  in  the 
government,  such  as  the  constitutions  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  and  of 
some  cantons  of  Switzerland.  2.  Aristo- 
cratic, when  the  constitution  establishes 
privileged  classes,  as  the  nobility  and 
clergy,  and  entrusts  the  government  en- 
tirely to  them,  or  allows  them  a  very 
disproportionate  share  of  it  :  such  a  con- 
stitution was  that  of  Venice.  3.  Of  a 
mixed  character ;  to  which  latter  division 
belong  some  monarchical  constitutions, 
which  recognize  the  existence  of  a  sove- 
reign whose  power  is  modified  by  other 
branches  of  government,  of  a  more  or 
less  populous  cast.  In  the  United  States, 
the  constitution  is  paramount  to  the 
statutes  or  laws  enacted  by  the  legisla- 
ture, limiting  and  controlling  its  power; 
and  even  the  legislature  itself  is  created, 
and  its  powers  designated,  by  the  consti- 
tution.— Apostolic  co/istitutions.  an  an- 
cient code  of  regulations,  respecting  the 
doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  church,  pre- 
tended by  some  to  have  been  promul- 
gated by  the  apostles,  and  collected  by 
Clemens  Romanus.  They  appear  to  have 
been  at  one  time  admitted  into  the  canon 
of  scripture.  Their  authenticity  has  been 
a  subject  of  much  dispute.  They  have 
been  printed  together  with  the  so-called 
canons  of  the  apostles. 

CONSTRUCTION,  in  a  general  sense, 
the  manner  of  putting  together  the  parts 
of  a  building,  or  of  a  machine,  &c. — In 
grammar,  syntax,  or  the  proper  arrange- 
ment of  word-i  in  a  sentence.  Also,  the 
manner  of  understanding  the  arrange- 
ment of  words,  or  of  understanding  facts  : 
thus  we  say     "  let  us  give  the  author's 


words  in  a  rational  and  consistent  con- 
struction." 

CONSUA'LIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
festival  instituted  by  Romulus,  and  dedi- 
cated by  him  to  Neptune,  whom  he  termed 
Consus,  or  the  god  of  counsel,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  successful  scheme  on  the 
Sabine  virgins. 

CONSURSTAN'TIAL,  in  theology,  an 
epithet  signifying  of  the  same  substance  : 
thus,  in  the  articles  of  the  Church  of 
England,  Christ  is  declared  consubstan- 
tial,  or  of  one  substance  with  the  Father. 

COXSUBSTANTIA'TION,  a  tenet  ot' 
the  Lutheran  church,  the  members  of 
which  maintain  that  alter  consecration  of 
the  sacramental  elements,  the  body  and 
blood  of  our  Saviour  are  substantially 
present,  together  with  the  substance  of 
the  bread  and  wine,  which  is  called  con- 
substantiation,  or  impanation. 

CON'SUL,  in  the  Roman  common- 
wealth, the  title  of  the  two  chief  magis- 
trates, whose  power  was,  in  a  certain  de- 
gree, absolute,  but  who  were  chosen  only 
for  one  year.  The  authority  of  the  two 
consuls  was  equal ;  yet  the  Valerian  law 
gave  the  right  of  priority  to  the  elder, 
and  the  Julian  law  to  hira  who  had  the 
greater  number  of  children  ;  and  this  was 
generally  called  consul  major  or  prior. 
In  the  first  ages  of  Rome  they  were  elect- 
ed from  patrician  families ;  but  in  the 
year  of  Rome  388,  the  people  obtained 
the  privilege  of  electing  one  of  the  con- 
suls from  their  own  body,  and  sometimes 
both  were  plebeians. — In  modern  usage, 
the  name  consul  is  given  to  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  reside  in  a  foreign  country,  to 
protect  the  interests  of  trade,  and  to  aid 
his  government  in  any  commercial  trans- 
actions with  such  country.  Such  officers 
appear  to  have  been  first  employed  by 
the  Italian  republics,  to  protect  their 
merchants  engaged  in  trade  in  the  cities 
of  the  Levant.  The  consuls  of  European 
states  in  that  region,  and  in  Africa,  are 
at  the  present  time  officers  of  more  im- 
portance than  those  established  in  the 
cities  of  Christendom  :  as  they  exercise, 
according  to  treaties,  civil  jurisdiction 
over  the  citizens  of  their  respective  states. 
In  general,  the  consul  is  not  regarded  as 
a  minister  or  diplomatic  functionary,  and 
is  subject  to  the  civil  authorities  of  the 
place  where  he  resides. —  Consuls,  in 
French  history,  were  the  persons  (Bona- 
parte, Sieyes,  and  Ducos)  to  whom,  after 
the  dissolution  of  the  Directory  in  No- 
vember 1799,  was  entrusted  tlie  provi- 
sional government  of  the  country,  and  at 
whose    suggestion    it   was    agreed    that 


108 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  l.ITF.RATCRE 


J  V  ON 


France  should  be  permanent!}'  subjected 
to  consular  autliority. 

CON'SULARS,  tlie  title  given  to  Ro- 
ma«  citizens  who  had  been  dignified  with 
the  office  of  consul,  and  consequently 
were  honored  with  a  certain  precedence 
in  the  senate. 

CONSULTA'TION,  a  council  for  de- 
liberation ;  as,  a  consultation  of  physi- 
cians was  called. 

CONTA'aiON,  the  propagation  of  spe- 
cific diseases  from  person  to  person.  Con- 
tagious poisons  communicate  the  prop- 
erty of  producing  similar  poisons :  the 
sniall-po.v  is  a  characteristically  conta- 
gious disease.  By  some  writers  the  terra 
has  been  limited  to  diseases  requiring 
actual  contact  for  their  communication  ; 
but  contagious  matter  appears  often 
transmissible  by  the  air,  hence  the  terms 
immediate  and  mediate  contagion.  Where 
diseases  are  propagated  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  air,  they  are  generally  called 
infectious. 

"CONTEMPT',  in  law,  disobedience  to 
the  rules,  orders,  or  process  of  a  court 
of  competent  authority.  Contempt  in 
court  is  punishable  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment :  for  contempt  out  of  court  attach- 
ment may  be  granted. 

CONTENTS',  anything  or  things  held, 
included,  or  comprehended  within  a  limit 
or  line;  as,  the  contents  of  a  cask  or 
bale,  the  contents  of  a  book,  &c. 

CON'TEXT,  the  parts  of  a  discourse 
which  precede  or  follow  the  sentence 
quoted ;  for  instance,  the  sense  of  a  pas- 
sage of  Scripture  is  often  illustrated  by 
the  context. 

CON'TINENT,  in  geography,  a  great 
extent  of  land,  not  disjoined  or  interrupt- 
ed by  a  sea;  or  a  connected  tract  of  land 
of  great  extent,  as  the  Eastern  or  West- 
ern continent. — The  contincnt(d  powers, 
those  whose  territories  are  situated  on 
the  continent- of  Europe. 

CONTIXKNT'AL  SYSTEM,  a  term 
given  to  a  pbm  devised  by  Najiuleon  to 
exclude  England  from  all  intercourse 
with  the  continent  r)f  Europe ;  thereby 
to  prevent  tiie  importation  of  Rritish 
iniinufactures  and  commerce,  and  thus  to 
compel  the  English  government  to  make 
peace  upon  the  terms  prescribed  by  the 
i'rench  ruler.  The  history  of  Napoleon's 
continental  system  begins  with  the  decree 
of  licrlin  of  Nov.  21,  ly06,  by  which  the 
British  islands  were  declared  to  be  in  a 
state  of  blockade  ;  all  commerce,  inter- 
course, and  correspondence  were  prohib- 
ited ;  every  Englishman  found  in  France, 
or  in  any  country  occupied   by   French 


troops,  was  declared  a  pr  /?.<.'  ■  i"  var; 
all  projierty  belonging  t/  U  ,,,.'.jhmen 
fair  prize,  and  all  trade  in  £fi,7';.h  goods 
entirely  prohibited.  Grei  t  Britain  im- 
mediately directed  reprisris  against  tho 
Berlin  decree ;  prohibiting  all  neutral 
vessels  from  sailing  from  one  port  to  an- 
other belonging  to  Franco,  or  one  of  her 
allies,  &c.  This  was  met  by  counter-re- 
prisals ;  and  for  a  long  dime  a,  fierce  and 
most  annoying  system  Tfiis  carried  on  for 
the  annihilation  of  British  commerce ; 
the  effects  of  which  are  still  felt,  from 
the  rival  products  and  manufactures  on 
the  continent  to  which  the  system  gave 
rise. 

CONTIN'GENT,  in  politics,  the  pro- 
portion (generally  of  troops)  furnished  by 
one  of  several  contracting  powers  in  pur- 
suance of  an  agreement. 

CONTIN'UED  BASS,  in  music,  the 
same  as  thorough  bass.  It  receives  the 
name  from  its  continuation  through  tho 
whole  of  a  composition. 

CONTORNIA'TI,  in  numismatics, 
medals  supposed  to  have  been  struck 
about  the  period  of  Constantino  the  Great 
and  his  immediate  successors  :  they  arc 
of  bronze,  with  a  flat  impression,  and 
marked  with  peculiar  furrows.  (It.  con- 
torni,  whence  their  name.)  They  bear 
the  figures  of  famous  emperors  or  cele- 
brated men.  Their  object  is  uncertain  ; 
but  they  have  been  supposed  to  be  tickets 
of  admission  to  the  public  games  of  the 
circus  in  Rome  and  Constantinople. 

CON'TOUR,  in  tlie  Fine  Arts,  the  ex- 
ternal lines  which  bound  and  terminate  a 
figure.  The  beauty  of  contour  consists  in 
those  lines  being  flowing,  lightly  drawn, 
and  sinuous.  They  must  be  carefully 
and  scientifically  drawn,  which  cannot  bo 
eftectcd  without  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  anatomy. 

CON'TRABAND,  in  commercial  lan- 
guage, goods  exported  from  or  imported 
into  a  country  against  its  laws.  Contra- 
band of  war,  such  articles  as  a  belliger- 
ent has,  by  the  law  of  nations,  the  right 
of  i)reventing  a  neutral  from  furnishing 
to  his  enemy.  Articles  contraband  of 
war  are,  in  general,  arms  and  munitions 
of  war,  and  tliose  out  of  which  munitions 
of  war  are  made ;  all  these  are  liable  to 
be  seized:  but  very  arbitrary  interpre- 
tations have  been  affixed  to  the  term  by 
powerful  states,  when  able  to  enforce 
them  by  anus.  Thus,  provisions  are  held 
contraband  of  war  when  it  is  the  object 
to  reduce  tho  enemy  to  famine.  But 
with  respect  to  these  and  other  articles 
not  in  their  nature  contraband,  it  seems 


oonJ 


AND    TUK    FIXE    Ai:TS. 


109 


to  be  the  practice  that  the  belligerent 
should  i)iiichaso  them  from  the  neutral 
for  11  reasonable  equivalent,  instead  of 
confiscating. 

COXTKABAS'SO,  the  largest  of  the 
violin  species  of  string  and  bowed  instru- 
ments, whereof  it  forms  the  lowest  bass, 
usually  called  the  double  bass. 

CON'TRACT,  in  civil  law,  the  term  usu- 
ally applied  to  such  agreements,  whether 
express  or  implied,  as  create,  or  are  intend- 
ed to  create,  a  legal  right,  and  correspond- 
ing liability ;  such  right  not  attaching  to 
the  possession  of  the  subject  matter  of 
the  contract,  e.xcept  in  equity,  and  that 
indirectly,  but  subsisting  both  in  equity 
and  law  against  the  contracting  party. 

CONTKADIC'TOllY  PROPO- 
SITION, in  logic,  are  those  which  having 
the  same  terms  differ  in  quantity  and  in 
quality.  Contrary  propositions  are  two 
universals  with  the  same  terms,  the  one 
negative  and  the  other  affirmative. 

CONTRALT'O,  in  music,  the  part  im- 
mediately below  the  treble  ;  called  also 
the  counter  tenor. 

CON'TRAST,  in  the  fine  arts,  an  op- 
position of  lines  or  colors  to  each  other, 
so  contrived  that  the  one  gives  greater 
effect  to  the  other.  By  means  of  contrast 
energy  and  expression  are  given  to  a 
subject,  even  when  employed  on  inani- 
mate forms.  All  art  is  indeed  a  system  of 
contrast  :  lights  should  contrast  with 
shadows,  figures  with  figures,  members 
with  members,  and  groups  with  groups. 
It  is  this  which  gives  life,  soul,  and  mo- 
tion to  a  composition. 

CON'TRATENO'RE,  in  music,  the 
same  as  contralto. 

CONTRIBUTION,  in  a  general  sense, 
the  act  of  giving  to  a  common  stock.  In 
a  military  sense,  impositions  upon  a 
country  in  the  power  of  an  enemy,  which 
are  levied  under  various  pretences,  and 
for  various  purposes,  usually  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  army. 

CONTROLLER,  in  law,  an  overseer 
or  officer  appointed  to  control  or  verify 
the  accounts  of  other  officers. 

CON'TUMACY,  in  law,  a  refusal  to 
appear  in  court  when  legally  summoned, 
or  disobedience  to  its  rules  and  orders. 

CONVALES'CENCE,  the  insensible 
recovery  of  health  and  strength  after  dis- 
ease. 

CON'VENT,  a  religious  house,  inhab- 
ited by  a  society  of  monks  or  nuns. 

CONVEN'TiCLE,  a  private  assembly 
or  meeting,  for  the  exercise  of  religion  ; 
the  word  \v,ia  at  first  an  ajipellation  of 
reproach   to  the  religious  assemblies  of 


■WickliiTc,  in  the  reign.s  of  Edward  III. 
and  Riclianl  II.,  and  is  now  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  meeting  of  dissenters  from  the 
established  church. — As  the  word  conven- 
ticle, in  strict  propriety,  denotes  an  un- 
lawful assembly,  it  cannot  be  justly  ap- 
plied to  the  assembling  of  persons  in 
places  of  worship,  which  are  licensed  ac- 
cording to  the  requisitions  of  law. 

CONVENTION,  in  law,  an  extraor- 
dinary assembly  of  the  estates  of  the 
realm. — In  military  affairs,  an  agree- 
ment entered  into  between  two  bodies  of 
troops  opposed  to  each  other ;  or  an 
agreement  previous  to  a  definitive  treaty. 
— National  convention,  the  name  of  the 
assembly  by  which  the  government  of 
France  was  conducted  during  a  period  of 
the  revolution. 

CON  VER'SION,  in  a  theological  sense, 
that  change  in  man  by  which  the  enmity 
of  the  heart  to  the  laws  of  God,  and  the 
obstinacy  of  the  will  are  subdued,  and 
are  succeeded  by  supreme  love  to  God 
and  his  moral  government;  and  a  ref- 
ormation of  life. —  Conversion  of  a  prop- 
osition, in  logic,  is  a  changing  of  the 
subject  into  the  place  of  the  predicate, 
and  still  retaining  the  quality  of  the  prop- 
osition. 

CON'VERT.  a  person  who  changes  his 
religion.  Individuals,  of  what  faith  so- 
ever, who  abandon  their  own  creed  and 
embrace  Christianity  are  called  converts, 
in  contradistinction  to  apostates,  applied 
generally  to  Christians  who  adopt  an- 
other religion. 

CONVEY'ANCE,  in  law,  a  deed  or 
instrument  by  which  lands,  itc,  are  con- 
veyed or  made  over  to  another. 

CONVEY'ANCER,  one  who  professes 
to  draw  deeds,  mortgages,  and  convey- 
ances of  estates.  This  profession  requires 
great  knowledge  of  the  law,  and  a  solid 
and  clear  understanding;  for  on  convey- 
ancing the  security  of  property  greatly 
depends. 

CON'VICT,  in  law,  a  person  found 
guilty  of  a  crime  alleged  against  him, 
either  by  the  verdict  of  a  jury,  or  other 
legal  decision. 

CONVICTION,  the  act  of  proving 
guilty  of  an  offence  charged  against  a 
person  by  a  legal  tribunal.  Also,  the 
state  of  being  sensible  of  guilt ;  as,  by  con- 
viction a  sinner  is  brought  to  repentance. 

CONVIV'IUM,  in  antiquity,  a  banquet 
or  entertainment  given  to  a  friendly 
party. 

CONVOCATION,  an  assembly  of  the 
clergy  of  England,  which  at  present  is 
merely  nominal.      Its  province  is  stated 


110 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[cop 


to  be  the  enactment  of  canon-law,  subject 
to  the  license  of  the  king;  and  the  ex- 
amination and  censuring  of  all  heretical 
and  schism atical  books  and  persons;  but 
from  its  judicial  proceedings  lies  an  ap- 
peal to  the  king  in  chancery,  or  his  dele- 
gates. It  is  held  during  the  session  of 
parliament,  and  consists  of  an  upper  and 
a  lower  house  :  in  the  upper  sit  the  bish- 
ops, and  in  the  lower  the  inferior  clergy, 
who  are  represented  by  their  proctors, 
and  all  the  deans  and  archdeacons ;  in 
all,  143  divines. 

CONVOY,  ships  of  war  which  accom- 
pany merchantmen  in  time  of  war,  to 
protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  the 
enemy. — By  land,  any  body  of  troops 
which  accompany  provision,  ammunition, 
or  other  property  for  protection. 

COPE,  an  ecclesiastical  vestment,  like 
a  cloak  (which  it  originally  was,  and  used 
to  protect  the  wearer  from  the  inclemency 
of  the  weather,)  worn  in  processions,  at 
vespers,  during  the  celebration  of  mass, 
by  some  of  the  assistant  clergy,  at  bene- 
diction, consecration,  and  other  ecclesias- 
tical functions.  Its  form  is  an  exact  serai- 
circle,  without  sleeves,  but  furnished  with 
a  hood,  and  is  fastened  across  the  breast 
with  a  morse  or  clasp.  Copes  were  orna- 
mented with  embroidery  and  jewels,  (ap- 
parells,)  wrought  with  elaborate  splendor, 
at  a  very  early  period.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  they  became  the  most  costly  and 
magnificent  of  all  the  ecclesiastical  vest- 
ments. 

CO'PECK,  a  small  Russian  coin,  equal 
to  about  one  farthing  English. 

COPER'NICAN  SYSTEM,  that  sys- 
tem of  the  universe  which  was  anciently 
\.,\ught  by  Pythagoras,  and  afterwards 
revived  by  Copernicus,  a  Polish  astron- 
omer. According  to  this  system,  the  sun 
is  supposed  to  be  placed  in  the  centre, 
and  all  the  other  bodies  to  revolve  round 
it  in  a  particular  order;  which  theory  is 
now  universally  adopted,  under  the  name 
of  the  Solar  System. 

CO'PING,  in  architecture,  the  upper 
covering  or  top  course  of  a  wall,  usually 
of  stone,  and  wider  than  the  wall  itself, 
in  order  to  let  the  rain  water  "fall  clear 
from  the  wall. 

COP'PER-PLATE,  a  plate  of  copper 
on  which  figures  are  engraven;  also  the 
impress'on  taken  from  that  jilate. —  Cop- 
per-plate  printins[,  is  performed  by  means 
of  what  is  called  a  rolling-press.  The  en- 
graved plate  is  covered  with  ink,  made  of 
oil  and  Frankfort  black,  then  cleanly 
wiped  on  the  smootii  parts,  and  laid  on 
wet  soft  paper ;  and  on  being  passed  be- 


tween two  cylinders  with  great  force,  the 
impression  of  the  engraved  part  is  per 
feetl^'  tr.insferred  to  the  paper. 

COP'PICE,  or  COPSE,  a  wood  of  snail 
growth,  cut  at  certain  times,  and  used 
principally  for  fuel. 

COP'TIC,  the  language  of  the  Copts, 
or  anything  pertaining  to  those  people, 
who  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  called  Coptlii  or  Copts, 
as  distinct  from  the  Arabians  and  other 
inhabitants  of  modern  Egypt. 

COP'ULA,  the  word  that  connects  any 
two  terms  in  an  aSirmative  or  negative 
proposition;  as  "  God  mac/e  man  ;"  "Re- 
ligion is  indispensable  to  happiness." 

COP'ULATIVE  PROPOSITIONS,  in 
logic,  those  where  the  subject  and  predi- 
cate are  so  linked  together,  by  copulative 
conjunctions,  that  they  may  be  all  sever- 
ally affirmed  or  denied  one  of  another. 
"  Science  and  literature  enlighten  the 
miu'l,  and  greatly  increase  our  intellec- 
tual enjoj'ments." 

COP'Y,  iu  law,  signifies  the  transcript 
of  any  original  writing,  as  the  copy  of  a 
patent,  charter,  deed,  &c.  A  common 
deed  cannot  be  in-oved  by  a  copy  or  coun- 
terpart, where  the  original  may  be  pro- 
cured. But  if  the  deed  be  enrolled,  cer- 
tifying an  attested  copy  is  proof  of  the 
enrolment,  such  copy  may  be  given  in 
evidence. —  Copy,  among  printers,  denotes 
the  manuscript  or  original  of  a  book,  giv- 
en to  be  printed.  Also,  when  we  speak 
of  a  book,  or  a  set  of  books,  wo  say  a 
copij ;  as,  a  copy  of  the  Scriptures,  a  copy 
of  Sir  AV'^alter  Scott's  works,  «£c. —  Copy, 
in  the  fine  arts,  is  a  multiplication  or  re- 
production of  a  work,  whether  painting, 
statue,  or  engraving,  by  another  hand 
than  the  original.  If  a  master  copies  his 
own  picture,  we  call  it  merelj'  a  repeti- 
tion, which  the  French  designate  by  the 
term  doublette.  Copies  are  of  three  kinds  ; 
the  most  general  are  those  in  which  the 
copyist  imitates  the  original  with  anxious 
exactitude;  in  this  case  the  ditficulty  of 
copying  is  but  slight.  The  secon<l  kind  is 
where  the  copjust  avoids  exact  imitation, 
but  renders  the  original  freely  in  its  prin- 
cipal traits.  These  copies,  exact  imita- 
tions in  style  Jind  coloring,  are  soon  seen 
to  be  apocryphal  pictures.  The  third 
and  most  important  kind  of  copy  is,  that 
in  which  the  picture  is  imitated  with  the 
freedom  of  a  skilful  hand,  but  at  the  same 
time  with  a  truthful  feeling  of  the  origi- 
nal, and  with  the  inspiration  of  genius, 
finding  satisfaction  not  in  copying,  but  in 
an  imitation  little  short  of  creation. 

COP'YIIOLD,  a  tenure  of  landed  prop 


COli] 


AND    THE    FINE    AKTS. 


Ill 


erty,  by  which  the  tenant  holds  his  land 
by  copy  of  court  roll  of  the  manor  at  the 
will  of  the  lord,  or  rather,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  manor  bj'  which  such 
estate  is  discernible. 

COP'YKIUIIT,  the  exclusive  right  of 
printing  and  publishing  copies  of  any  lit- 
erary performance,  cither  by  an  author 
in  his  own  right,  or  vested  in  the  hands 
of  those  to  whom  he  may  have  assigned 
that  right. 

COQUET'TE,  a  light,  trifling  girl,  who 
endeavors  to  attract  admiration  by  mak- 
ing a  display  of  her  amatory  arts,  from  a 
desire  to  gratify  vanity,  rather  than  to 
secure  a  lover. 

CO'RAL,  a  marine  zoophyte,  which, 
when  removed  from  the  water,  becomes 
as  hard  as  a  stone.  It  is  of  a  fine  red 
color,  and  will  take  a  fine  polish.  It  is 
much  used  for  small  ornaments,  but  is 
not  so  susceptible  of  a  high  rank  in  gem- 
sculpture,  as  many  precious  stones.  The 
islands  in  the  south  seas  are  principally 
coral  rocks  covered  with  earth,  which 
have  been  formed  by  them  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ocean.  The  coral  fishery  is 
particularly  followed  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  coast  of  France.  The 
coral  is  attached  to  the  sub-marine  rocks, 
as  a  tree  is  by  its  roots,  but  the  branches, 
instead  of  growing  upwards,  shoot  down- 
wards towards  the  bottom  of  the  sea  ;  a 
conformation  favorable  to  breaking  them 
off,  and  bringing  them  up.  For  this  kind 
of  fishing,  eight  men,  who  are  excellent 
divers,  equip  a  felucca  or  small  boat, 
called  commonly  a  coralline  ;  carrying 
with  them  a  large  wooden  cross,  with 
strong,  equal,  and  long  arms,  each  bear- 
ing a  stout  bag-net.  They  attach  a  strong 
rope  to  the  middle  of  the  cross,  and  let  it 
down  horizontally  into  the  sea,  having 
loaded  its  centre  with  a  weight  sufficient 
to  sink  it.  The  diver  follows  the  cross, 
pushes  one  arm  of  it  after  another  into 
the  hollows  of  the  rooks,  so  as  to  entangle 
the  coral  in  the  nets  ;  when  his  comrades 
in  the  boats  pull  up  the  cross  and  its  ac- 
companiments. 

COR'BEIL,  in  fortification,  a  little 
basket,  to  be  filled  with  earth,  and  set 
upon  a  parapet,  to  shelter  men  from  the 
fire  of  besiegers. 

COR'BEL,  in  building,  a  short  piece  of 
timber  in  a  wall,  jutting  six  or  eight 
inches,  in  the  manner  of  a  shoulder 
piece ;  sometimes  placed  for  strength 
under  the  semi-girder  of  a  ]»latform. 

CORDELIER',  in  church  history,  a 
gray  friar  or  monk  of  the  order  of  St. 
Francis.     The   cordeliers   wear   a   white 


girdle  or  rope,  tied  with  three  knots,  and 
called  the  cord  of  St.  Francis;  but  the 
design  of  it,  they  say,  is  to  commemorate 
the  bands  wherewith  Christ  was  bound. 

CORDELIERS'.  This  word,  as  we  have 
seen  above,  originally  signified  an  order 
of  Franciscan  monks ;  but  it  was  after- 
wards given  to  a  society  of  Jacobins  \r\ 
France  from  1792  to  1794,  who  were  so 
called  from  their  place  of  meeting.  They 
were  distinguished  by  the  violence  of 
their  speeches  and  conduct,  and  contribu- 
ted not  a  little  to  the  execrable  crimes 
which  disgraced  the  French  name  and 
nation  during  the  early  periods  of  revo- 
lutionary anarchy. 

COR'DON,  in  fortification,  a  row  of 
stones  jutting  before  the  rampart,  iind 
the  basis  of  the  parapet.  The  word  cor- 
don is  still  more  used  to  denote  a  line  or 
series  of  military  posts  ;  as,  a  cordon  of 
troops.  Cordon  also  signifies  a  ribbon,  as 
the  cordon  bleu,  the  badge  of  the  order 
of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

COR'DOVAN,  leather  made  of  goat 
skin,  and  named  from  Cordova  in  Spain. 

CORE'IA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  in 
honor  of  Proserpine. 

CORIN'THIAN  ORDER,  in  architect- 
ure, one  of  the  five  orders  of  architecture. 
The  capital  is  a  vase  elegantly  covered 
with  an  abacus,  and  surrounded  by  two 
tiers  of  leaves,  one  above  the  other; 
from  among  which  stalks  spring  out, 
terminating  at  their  summits  in  small 
volutes  at  the  external  angles  and  cen- 
tres of  the  abacus.  The  capitals  of  the 
Tuscan,  Doric,  and  Ionic  orders  appear 
added  to  the  tops  of  the  shafts ;  but  the 
Corinthian  capital  seems  to  grow  out  of 
the  column,  varying  in  height  from  a 
diameter  and  one  sixth  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  shaft  to  one  diameter  only  ;  such 
last  being  the  height  of  the  capitals  of 
the  temple  at  Tivoli.  The  entablature 
of  thi.s  order  is  variously  decorated.  The 
architrave  is  usually  profiled,  with  three 
fascia;  of  unequal  height,  though  in 
some  specimens  there  are  only  two. 
The  frieze  is  often  sculptured  with 
foliage,  and  the  cornice  decorated  both 
with  modillions  and  dentils ;  the  former 
having  a  sort  of  baluster  front,  with  a 
leaf  under  them  ;  and  the  latter,  which 
are  cut  into  the  body  of  the  baud,  being 
occasionally  omitted,  as  are  sometimes 
even  the  modillions.  The  principal  re- 
maining ancient  examples  of  the  order  at 
Rome  are  in  the  Teiuplo  of  Mars  Ultor,, 
Portico  of  Severus,  the  Forum  of  Nerva, 
Temple  of  Vesta,  Basilica  of  Antoninus, 
the  Pantheon.  &c.  Ac. 


112 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[cor 


CORI'UM,  a  leath- 
ern body  armor,  cut 
into  scale  form,  occa- 
sionally worn  by  the 
Roman  soMicrs.  A 
specimen  is  here 
en  from  Traj- 
an's column. 

CORN.  Ears 
of  corn  are  the 
attribute  of 
Ceres,  and  also 
of  Dike  (god- 
dess of  justice) 
and  Juno  Mar- 
tialis,  who  is  represented  on  a  coin  of  Tri- 
bonianus  Gallus  with  some  ears  of  corn 
in  the  right  hand.  They  were  also  the 
symbol  of  the  year  The  harvest  month, 
September,  was  represented  by  a  maiden 
holding  ears  of  corn,  and  Ceres  wore  a 
wreath  of  them,  or  carried  them  in  her 
hand,  as  did  also  the  Roman  divinity 
Bonus  Eventus.  The  ears  of  corn  were 
also  used  as  a  symbol  of  tillage,  fruitful- 
ness,  culture  and  prosperity,  and  we  find 
on  the  reverse  of  a  silver  coin  of  Meta- 
pontis,  an  ear  of  barley,  with  a  field- 
mouse  Ijeside  it;  the  barley  alludes  to 
the  sacrifice  of  golden  ears  at  Delphi,  and 
the  mouse  to  Apollo  Sminthios. 

COR'XET,  a  commissioned  officer  in  a 
troop  of  horse,  corresponding  in  rank 
with  the  ensign  of  a  battalion  of  infantry. 
His  duty  is  to  carry  the  standard,  near 
the  centre  of  the  front  rank  of  the  squad- 
ron.— Cornet,  in  music,  a  shrill  wind  in- 
strument formed  of  wood,  which  appears 
to  have  been  in  use  in  the  earliest  times, 
and  remained  so  till  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  18th  century,  when  it  was 
displaced  by  the  oboe. 

COR'NET-A  PISTONS,  a  brass  wind 
mu.sical  instrument,  of  the  French  horn 
species,  but  capable  of  much  greater  in- 
flection from  the  valves  and  stoppers 
(pistons)  with  which  it  is  furnished,  and 
whence  it  derives  its  name. 

CUR'NICE,  in  architecture,  the  upper 
great  division  of  an  entablature,  consist- 
ing of  several  members.  The  cornice 
used  on  a  pedestal  is  called  the  cap  of 
the  pedestal. 

CORNUCO'PIA,  or  the  Horn  of 
Plenty,  a  source  whence,  according  to 
the  ancient  poets,  every  production  of 
the  earth  was  lavisheil :  a  gift  from 
Jupiter  to  his  nurse,  the  goat  Amalthea. 
In  elucidation  of  this  fable,  it  has  been 
tfuid  that  in  Libya,  the  ancient  name  of 
a  part  of  Africa,  there  was  a  little  terri- 
tory, in  shape  not  ill  resembling  a  bul- 


lock's horn,  which  Amnon,  the  king,  gave 
to  his  daughter  Aniaithea,  the  nurse  of 
Jupiter.  Upon  medals,  the  cornucopia 
is  given  to  all  deities,  genii,  and  heroes, 
to  mark  the  felicity  and  abundance  of 
all  the  wealth  procured  by  the  goodness 
of  the  former,  or  the  care  and  valor  of 
the  latter. 

COROLLARY,  a  conclusion  or  conse- 
quences drawn  from  premises,  or  from 
what  is  advanced  or  demonstrated. 

CORONA,  in  architecture,  a  large  flat 
member  of  a  cornice,  crowning  the  entab- 
lature and  the  whole  order. — A  crown  or 
circlet  suspended  from  the  roof  or  vault- 
ing of  churches,  to  hold  tapers,  lighted  on 
solemn  occasions,  the  number  of  which  is 
regulated  according  to  the  solemnity  of 
the  festival.  Sometimes  they  are  formed 
of  triple  circles,  arranged  pyramidically. 

CORONATION,  the  public  and  solemn 
ceremony  of  crowning,  or  investing  a 
prince  with  the  insignia  of  royalty,  in 
acknowledgment  of  his  right  to  govern 
the  kingdom ;  at  which  time  the  prince 
swears  reciprocally  to  the  people,  to  ob- 
serve the  laws,  customs  and  privileges  of 
the  kingdom,  and  to  act  and  do  all  things 
conformable  thereto.  The  form  of  the 
coronation  oath  of  a  British  monarch  is  as 
follows  :  "I  solemnly  promise  and  swear 
to  govern  the  people  of  this  United  King- 
dom of  (rreat  Britain  and  Ireland,  and 
the  dominions  thereto  belonging,  accord- 
ing to  the  statues  in  parliament  agreed 
on,  and  the  laws  and  customs  of  the 
same ;  to  the  utmost  of  my  power  to 
maintain  the  laws  of  Ood,  tlie  true  pro- 
fession of  the  gospel,  and  the  Protestant 
reformed  religion  established  by  the  law; 
to  preserve  unto  the  bisliops  and  the 
clergy  of  this  realm,  and  the  churches 
committed  to  their  charge,  all  such 
rights  and  privileges  as  by  law  do  or 
shall  appertain  unto  tiicm  or  any  of 
them."  After  this,  the  king  or  queen, 
laying  his  or  her  hand  upon  the  holy 
Gospels,  shall  say,  "The  tiling.-  which  I 
have  before  promised,  I  will  perform  and 
keep;  so  help  me  God." 

COR'ONER,  the  presiding  officer  in  a 
jury  convened  to  inquire  into  the  cause 
of  sudden  deaths. 

COR'PORAL,  the  lowest  military  offi- 
cer in  a  company  of  foot,  who  has  charge 
over  one  of  the  divisions,  j)lacos  and  re- 
places sentinels,  Ac. —  Cnrpoz-dl,  in  law, 
an  epithet  for  anything  that  belongs  to 
the  body,  as  corporal  punishment.  Also, 
corporal  oath,  so  called  because  the  party 
taking  it  is  obliged  to  lay  his  hand  on  thfl 
Bible. 


COR  J 


AM)    TFII':    FINK    ARTS. 


113 


COR'^ORA'TION,  a  body  politic  or 
corporate,  so  called  because  the  persons 
or  members  are  joined  into  one  body,  and 
authorized  by  law  to  transact  business  as 
an  individiia.  Corporations  are  either 
spiritual  or  temporal :  spiritual,  as  bish- 
ops, deans,  archdeacons,  Ac,  temporal, 
as  the  mayor,  and  aldermen  of  cities. 
And  some  are  of  a  mixed  nature,  being 
composed  of  spiritual  and  temporal  per- 
sons ;  such  as  heads  of  colleges  and  hos- 
pitals, &c.  It  has  been  truly  said,  that 
the  whole  political  system  is  made  up  of 
a  concatenation  of  various  corporations, 
political,  civil,  religious,  social,  and  eco- 
nomical. A  nation  itself  is  the  great  cor- 
poration, comprehending  all  the  others, 
the  powers  of  which  are  exerted  in  legis- 
lative, executive,  <and  judicial  acts. 

CORPS,  (French,  pron.  kore)  a  body  of 
troops ;  any  division  of  an  army ;  as,  a 
corps  de  reserve,  the  troops  in  reserve  ; 
corps  de  bataille,  the  whole  line  of  bat- 
tle  (fee. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI  DAY,  a  festival 
appointed  by  the  church  of  Rome  in 
honor  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper. 

CORPUSCULAR  PIIILOS'OPHY,  a 
system  of  physics,  in  which  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  material  world  are  ex- 
plained by  the  arrangement  and  physical 
jiroperties  of  the  corpuscules  or  minute 
atoms  of  matter.  A  doctrine  of  this  sort 
was  anciently  taught  in  Greece  by  Lcu- 
cippus  and  Democritus,  and  is  described 
in  the  beautiful  poem  of  Lucretius. 

COR'PUSCULE,  a  minute  particle  or 
physical  atom.  Corpuscules  are  not  the 
elementary  principles  of  matter,  but  such 
small  particles,  simple  or  compound,  as 
are  not  dissolved  or  dissip.ated  by  ordinary 
heat. 

COR'PUS  JURIS,  the  collection  of  the 
authentic  works  containing  the  Roman 
law  as  compiled  under  Justinian.  The 
Corpus  Juris  comprehends  the  Pandects, 
the  Institutes,  the  Code,  and  the  Novels 
or  Authentics,  i.  e.  the  latter  constitutions 
of  Justinian  ;  to  which,  in  some  editions, 
are  added  a  few  issued  bv  his  successors. 

CORRECTION,  in  'the  fine  arts. 
With  the  Italians  the  word,  correzione,  is 
used  to  denote  an  exact  acquaintance 
with  the  different  proportions  of  the  parts 
of  a  bo  ly  or  design  generally:  but  with 
lis  the  term  is  applied  to  those  emeu'la- 
tions  of  inaccuracies  or  alterations  of  first 
thoughts,  wliich  they  call  penlimenti,  to 
be  seen  under  the  surfice  of  the  finished 
picture,  and  which  are  accounted  indica- 
tions of  its  originality. 

8 


CORREL'ATIVE,  an  epithet  denoting 
the  having  a  reciprocal  relation,  so  that 
the  existence  of  one  in  a  certain  state  de- 
pends on  ttie  existence  of  another ;  as, 
father  and  son;  ligiit  and  darkness;  mo- 
tion and  rest;  all  of  which  are  correlative 
terms. 

CORRESPON'DENCE,  in  the  fine 
arts,  the  fitting  or  proportioning  the 
parts  of  a  design  to  each  other,  so  that 
they  may  be  correlative,  and  that  the 
same  feeling  may  pervade  the  whole 
composition. 

COR'RIDOR,  in  architecture,  a  gallery 
or  long  aisle  round  a  building,  leading  to 
several  chambers  at  a  distance  from  eash 
other. — In  fortification,  the  covered  way 
lying  round  the  whole  compass  of  the  for- 
tifications of  a  place. 

COR'SAIR,  a  pirate  or  cruiser ;  a 
name  commonly  given  to  the  piratical 
cruising-vessels  of  Barbary,  which,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  to 
a  recent  period,  infested  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

CORTE'GE,  a  French  word,  signifying 
the  train  or  retinue  that  accom[)anies  a 
person  of  distinction. 

CORT'ES,  the  assembly  of  the  estates 
of  Spain  and  Portugal ;  answering,  in 
some  measure,  to  the  parliament  of  Great 
Britain.  These  estates  were  framed,  as 
elsewhere,  of  nobility,  dignified  <<lergy, 
and  representatives  of  the  towns.  In  Ar- 
ragon,  the)'  were  presided  over  by  a  high 
officer,  termed  Justiza,  with  powers  in 
some  respects  sufBcient  to  control  the 
monarch.  The  origin  of  popular  repre- 
sentation in  the  cortes  of  the  sevjral  king- 
doms out  of  which  that  of  Spain  was  final- 
ly formed,  is  assigned  to  a  da^e  as  early 
as  the  12th  century ;  but  tb«  deputies 
sent  by  the  towns  were  irregularly  sum- 
moned, frequently  did  not  attend,  and  the 
numbers  which  appeared  for  each  town 
frequently  bore  no  proportion  to  the  rel- 
ative size  of  the  different  places.  In  the 
14th  century  the  power  of  the  cortes 
seems  to  have  been  at  its  height,  after 
which  it  gradually  decayed,  and  under 
the  government  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
was  reduced  almost  to  a  nullity. 

COR'TILE,  in  architecture,  an  open 
quadrangular  of  curved  area  in  a  dwel- 
ling-house, surrounded  by  the  buildings 
of  the  house  itself 

CORVEE,  in  feudal  law,  the  obliga- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  a  district  to  do 
certain  services,  as  the  repair  of  roads, 
(fee,  for  the  sovereign  or  the  feudal  lord 
Some  species  of  ciirvi-c  were  performed 
gratis  :  othorc  for  a  fixol  pay,  but  genor- 


114 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LirERATURE 


fcOT 


ally  below  the  value   of  the   labor   per- 
formed. 

CORVET'TE,  a  French  word  for  any 
vessel  of  war  carrying  less  than  twenty 
guns. 

CORYBAN'TES,  in  "Grecian  mytholo- 
gy, were  the  priests  of  Cybele  ;  so  called 
either  from  Corybas,  the  son  of  that  god- 
dess, or  from  the  frantic  gestures  with 
which  their  devotions  were  accompanied  ; 
the  term  corybantes  signifying  literally 
"  shaliing  the  head  violently."  They 
used  to  beat  brazen  cymbals  in  their  sa- 
cred rites  :  and  their  whole  religious  pro- 
ceedings were  characterized  by  such  ex- 
travagant fanaticism  as  to  have  enriched 
the  Greek  language  with  several  terms 
expressive  of  madness  or  ^frenzy. 

CORYCE'UM,  in  ancient  architecture, 
an  apartment  in  a  gj'mnasiiim  whose  ex- 
act destination  is  not  known. 

CORYM'BUS,  in  ancient  sculpture,  the 
cluster  of  ivy  leaves,  berries,  garlands, 
Ac,  with  which  vases  were  encircled. 

CO'RYPIKE'US,  the  leader  of  the  cho- 
rus in  ancient  dramas  ;  bj'  whom  the  dia- 
logue between  the  chorus  and  the  other 
actors  of  the  drama  was  carried  on,  and 
who  led  in  the  chorie  song. 

COSxMOG'ON  Y,  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  origin  of  the  universe.  If  we  e.x- 
cept  the  cosmogony  of  the  Indians,  the 
earliest  extant  is  that  of  Hesiod,  which  is 
delivered  in  hexameter  verse.  The  first 
prose  cosmogonies  were  those  of  the  early 
Ionic  philosophers,  of  whom  Thales, 
Anaximenes,  Anaximander,  and  Anaxa- 
goras  are  the  most  celebrated.  In  mod- 
ern times,  a  theory  of  the  world  has  been 
produced  by  Burnet.  We  do  not  include 
in  this  list  of  cosmogonies  the  researches 
of  modern  geologists,  or  the  systems  to 
which  they  have  led.  They  may  be  said 
to  hold  the  same  place  in  relation  to  the 
old  cosmogoners,  which  the  astronomer 
or  the  chemist  occupies  in  reference  to 
the  astrologers  and  alchemists  of  ancient 
times. 

COSMOL'OGY,  a  treatise  relating  to 
the  structure  and  parts  of  creation,  the 
elements  of  bodies,  the  laws  of  motion, 
and  the  order  and  course  of  nature. 

COSMOPOLITE,  a  citizen  of  the 
world  ;  one  who  makes  himself  at  home 
everywhere. 

COSMORA'MA,  a  view  or  series  of 
views  of  the  world ;  a  comprehensive 
painting.  Properly,  a  name  given  to  a 
species  of  picturesque  exhibitions.  It 
consists  of  eight  or  ton  colored  drawings, 
laid  horizontally  round  a  .semicircular 
table,   and   reflected   by  mirrors   placed 


diagonally  opposite  to  them.  The  spec- 
tator views  them  through  convex  lenses, 
placed  immediately  in  front  of  each  mir- 
ror. 

COS'SACKS,  the  tribes  who  inhabit  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Russia,  Po- 
land, the  Ukraine,  &e.,  paying  no  taxes, 
but  performing,  instead,  the  duty  of  sol- 
diers. They  form  a  kind  of  military  de- 
mocracy ;  and  have  proved  highlj'  serv- 
iceable, as  irregular  cavalry,  in  the  Rus- 
sian campaigns.  Their  principal  weapon 
is  a  lance  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  length ; 
they  have  also  a  sabre,  a  gun,  and  a  pair 
of  pistols,  as  well  as  a  bow  and  arrows. 
The  lances,  in  riding,  are  carried  upright 
by  means  of  a  strap  fastened  to  the  foot, 
the  arm,  or  pommel  of  the  saddle.  Those 
who  use  bows  carry  a  quiver  over  the 
shoulder.  Though  little  adapted  for  reg- 
ular movements,  they  are  very  servicea- 
ble in  attacking  baggage,  magazines,  and 
in  the  pursuit  of  troops  scattered  in  flight. 
They  fight  principally  in  small  bodies, 
with  which  they  attack  the  enemy  on  all 
sides,  but  mostly  on  the  flanks  and  in  the 
rear,  rushing  upon  them  at  full  speed, 
with  a  dreadful  hurrah,  and  with  levelled 
lances. 

COS'TUME,  in  painting  and  the  fine 
arts  generally,  the  observance  of  that 
rule  or  precept  by  which  an  artist  is  en- 
joined to  make  any  person  or  thing  sus- 
tain its  proper  character ;  the  scene, 
dress,  arms,  manners,  Ac,  all  correspond- 
ing. The  study  of  costume  requires,  on 
the  part  of  the  artist,  the  observance  of 
propriety  in  regard  to  the  person  or  ob- 
ject represented  ;  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  countries,  their  history,  manners 
and  customs,  arts,  and  natural  produc- 
tions ;  the  vestments  peculiar  to  each 
class ;  their  physiognomy,  complexion, 
their  ornaments,  arms,  furniture,  &c. 
AH  should  be  conformable  to  the  scene 
of  action  and  historical  period.  Many  of 
the  old  masters,  and  not  a  few  of  the 
modem,  have  committed  some  very  glar- 
ing improprieties  in  their  costume  ;  we 
may  instance  Paul  Veronese,  while,  on 
the  contrary,  Nicolas  Poussin  is  remark- 
able for  his  accuracy  in  this  respect.  The 
observance  of  correct  costume  is  a  great 
merit  in  an  artist,  at  the  same  time,  it 
must  be  subservient  to  pictorial  eff"eet. 

COTERIE',  an  old  French  word,  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  quot, 
hoir  many,  signifying  literally  a  society 
or  company.  •  In  the  13th  or  14th  cen- 
tury, when  merchants  were  about  to  em- 
bark in  any  commercial  enterprise,  they 
formed  a  cotorie  or  company,  each  3on- 


couj 


ANI>    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


11; 


tributing  his  quota  of  goods  or  money, 
and  deriving  his  quota  of  profit.  But 
the  term  »oon  acquired  a  more  extended 
significution,  in  whicli,  however,  the  ori- 
ginal meaning  is  still  perceptible,  it  be- 
ing applied  to  any  exclusive  society  in 
which  interesting  subjects  (chiefly  liter- 
ary and  political)  are  discussecl,  each 
member  being  supposed  to  contribute  his 
quota  or  share  for  the  general  editication 
or  amusement. 

COTHUR'NUS,  in  antiquity,  a  kind 
of  high  shoes,  laced  high,  such  as  Diana 
and  her  nj'mphs  are  represented  as  wear- 
ing. The  tragic  actors  also  wore  them, 
in  order  to  give  additional  height  to 
those  who  personated  heroes ;  the  cothur- 
nus used  for  this  purpose  differing  from 
the  one  used  in  hunting  by  its  having  a 
sole  of  cork  at  least  four  fingers  thick. 

COUCH,  in  painting,  a  term  used  for 
each  lay  or  impression  of  color,  either  in 
oil  or  water,  covering  the  canvas,  wall, 
or  other  matter  to  be  painted.  Gilders 
use  the  term  couch,  for  gold  or  silver  lace 
laid  on  metals  in  gilding  or  silvering. 

COUN'CIL,  in  national  affairs,  an  as- 
sembly of  persons  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
certing measures  of  state.  In  England, 
that  is  called  the  Privy  Council,  where- 
in the  sovereign  and  privy  councillors 
meet  in  the  palace  to  deliberate  on  affairs 
of  state  When  the  council  is  composed 
only  of  cabinet  ministers,  it  is  called  a 
Cabinet  Council. —  Council  of  war,  an 
assembly  of  the  principal  officers  of  a 
fleet  or  army,  called  by  the  admiral  or 
general  to  concert  measures  for  requisite 
operations. 

COUN'SEL,  in  law,  any  counsellor  or 
advocate,  or  any  number  of  counsellors 
or  barristers  ;  as,  the  plaintiff's  or  defend- 
ant's counsel. 

COUNT,  a  title  of  nobility,  equivalent 
to  an  English  earl. — In  law,  a  particular 
charge  in  an  indictment,  or  narration  in 
pleading,  setting  forth  the  cause  of  com- 
plaint. There  may  be  different  counts 
in  the  same  declaration. 

COUN'TENANCE,  the  whole  form  of 
the  face,  or  system  of  features.  This 
word  has  many  figurative  applications  : 
thus,  by  the  light  of  GocVs  countenance, 
we  mean  grace  and  favor  :  so  the  rebuke 
of  his  countenance  indicates  his  anger. — - 
To  keep  the  countenance  is  to  preserve  a 
calm,  natural,  and  composed  look. — To 
keep  in  countenance,  to  give  assurance  to 
one,  or  protect  him  from  shame. — To  put 
out  of  countenance,  to  intimidate  and  dis- 
concert. 

COUN'TEK,  a  term  which  enters  into 


the  composition  of  many  words  j{  our  lan- 
guage, and  generally  implies  opposition. 

COUNTEK-APPROACH'ES,  in  forti- 
fication, linos  and  trenches  made  by  the 
besieged,  in  order  to  attack  the  works  of 
the  besiegers,  or  to  hinder  their  ap- 
proaches. 

COUN'TER-DEED,  a  secret  writing 
either  before  a  notary  or  under  a  private 
seal,  which  destroys,  invalidates,  or  alters 
a  public  one. 

COUN'TERDRAWING,  in  painting, 
copying  a  design,  or  painting  by  means 
of  lines  drawn  on  oiled  paper,  or  other 
trans])arent  substance. 

COUN'TERFEIT,  that  which  is  made 
in  imitation  of  something,  but  without 
lawful  authority,  and  with  a  view  to  de- 
fraud by  passing  the  false  for  the  true. 
Thus  we  say,  counterfeit  coin,  a  counter- 
feit bond,  deed,  &c. 

COUN'TERGUARD,  in  fortification,  a 
small  rampart  or  work  raised  before  the 
point  of  a  bastion,  consisting  of  two  long 
faces  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  bastion, 
making  a  salient  angle  to  preserve  the 
bastion. 

COUN'TERMARK,  a  mark  put  upon 
goods  that  have  been  marked  before.  It 
is  also  used  for  the  several  marks  put 
upon  goods  belonging  to  several  persons, 
to  show  that  they  must  not  be  opened 
but  in  the  presence  of  all  the  owners  or 
their  agents. — The  mark  of  the  gold- 
smith's company,  to  show  the  metal  t'o 
be  standard,  added  to  that  of  the  artificer. 

COUN'TERMINE,  in  military  affairs, 
a  well  and  gallery  sunk  in  the  earth  and 
running  umlerground,  to  meet  and  defeat 
the  effect  of  the  enemy's  mine  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  a  mine  made  by  the  besieg- 
ed, in  order  to  blow  up  the  mine  of  the 
besiegers. 

COUN'TERPART,  the  correspondent 
part  or  duplicate.  Also,  the  part  which 
fits  another,  as  the  kej'  of  a  cipher. — In 
music,  the  part  to  be  applied  to  another; 
as,  the  bass  is  the  counterpart  to  the  treble. 

COUN'TERPOINT,  in  music,  the  art 
of  combining  and  modulating  consonant 
sounds ;  or  of  disposing  several  parts  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  an  agreeable 
whole  of  a  concert.. 

COUN'TERPROOF,  is  an  engraving 
taken  off  from  another  fresh  printed, 
which,  by  being  passed  through  the  roll- 
ing press,  gives  an  inverted  figure  of  the 
former. 

COUNTER-REVOLU'TION,  a  revolu- 
tion opposed  to  a  former  one,  and  restor- 
ing a  former  state  of  things. 

COUNTERSCARP,     iu     fortification, 


116 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITEKATIRE 


[coc 


that  side  of  the  ditch  which  is  next  the 
camp,  and  faces  the  bodj'  of  the  place ; 
but  it  often  signifies  the  whole  covered 
way,  with  its  parapet  and  glacis. 

COUNTER-SECURITY,  security  giv- 
en to  one  who  has  entered  into  a  bond,  or 
become  surety  for  another. 

COUX'TERSIGN,  a  military  watch- 
word ;  or  a  private  signal  given  to  sol- 
diers on  guard,  with  orders  to  let  no  man 
pass  unless  he  first  names  that  sign. — 
Also,  to  sign,  as  secretary  or  other  sub- 
ordinate officer,  any  writing  signed  by  a 
principal  or  superior,  to  attest  the  au- 
thenticity of  his  signature. 

COUN'TER-TEN'OR,  in  music,  one  of 
the  middle  parts  between  the  treble  and 
the  tenor. 

COUNT'IXG-HOUSE,  the  house  or 
room  appropriated  by  merchants,  traders, 
and  manufacturers,  for  the  business  of 
keeping  their  books,  &c. 

COUN'TRY,  any  tract  of  inhabited 
land,  or  any  region  as  distinguished  from 
other  regions;  any  state  or  territory; 
and  also  any  district  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
city  or  town.  Thus  we  say.  This  gentle- 
man has  a  seat  in  the  country ;  America 
is  my  native  country;  the  countries  of 
Europe,  Asia,  &c. 

COUN'TY,  ori^-inally,  the  district  or 
territory  of  a  count  or  earl :  one  of  the 
ancient  divisions  of  England,  wiiieh  by 
the  Saxons  were  called  shires.  England  is 
divided  into  forty  counties  or  shires,  Wales 
into  twelve,  Scotland  into  thirty-three. 
Each  county  has  its  sheriff  and  its  court, 
with  other  ofScers  employed  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  and  the  execu- 
tion of  the  laws;  and  each  lord-lieuten- 
ant of  a  county  has  the  command  of  its 
militia — The  several  states  of  America 
are  divided  by  law  into  counties,  in  each 
of  which  is  a  county  court  of  inferior 
jurisdiction ;  and  in  each  the  supreme 
court  of  the  state  holds  stated  sessions. — 
County-corporate,  a  title  given  to  sev- 
eral cities  or  ancient  boroughs  (as  South- 
ampton and  Bristol,)  on  which  certain 
kings  of  England  have  thought  proper  to 
bestow  peculiar  jirivilegcs  ;  annexing  ter- 
ritory, land,  or  jurisdiction,  and  making 
them  comities  within  thoinsclvos,  with 
their  own  sheriffs  and  other  ofliecrs. — 
County  pahitine,  a  county  distinguished 
by  particular  privileges,  and  named  from 
palatio,  the  palace,  becau.<e  the  owner 
had  originally  royal  powers  in  the  acl- 
ministralion  of  justice;  these  are  now, 
however,  greatly  aliridged.  The  counties 
palatine  in  Englai  il  arc  I,aniM.-;ti'r,  Ches- 
ter and  Diirliiiii. 


COUP,  a  French  term  for  a  stroke  or 
sudden  blow. —  Coup  de  grace,  the  finish- 
ing blow. —  Coup  de  main,  a  sudden  un- 
premeilitated  attack. — Coup  d'csil.  the 
first  glance  of  the  eye.  with  which  it  sur- 
veys any  object  at  large. —  Coup  de 
soleil,  any  disorder  suddenly  produced 
by  the  violent  scorching  of  the  sun. 

COUPEE',  a  motion  in  dancing,  when 
one  leg  is  a  little  bent  and  suspended 
from  the  ground,  and  with  the  other  a 
motion  is  made  forward. 

COUP'LE,  two  of  the  same  species  or 
kind ;  as  a  couple  of  men,  a  couple  of  ap- 
ples, &c.  A  pair  is  a  couple,  and  a  brace 
is  a  couple  ;  but  a  couple  may  or  may  not 
be  a  pair  or  a  brace. 

COUP'LET,  the  division  of  a  hymn, 
ode,  or  song,  wherein  an  equal  number 
or  an  equal  measure  of  verses  is  found  ia 
each  part,  called  a  strophe. 

COUR'AGE,  firmne.<s  of  mind,  inspired 
by  a  sense  of  what  is  just  and  honorable  ; 
that  which,  amidst  all  the  dangers  and 
trials  to  which  human  life  is  incident, 
enables  a  man  steadily  to  pursue  the  dic- 
tates of  conscience  and  prudence.  It  in- 
cludes valor,  boldness,  and  resolution ; 
and  is  a  constituent  part  of  fortituile. 

COURAN'TO,  a  piece  of  music  in 
triple  time  ;   also,  a  kind  of  dance. 

COU'RIERS,  a  name  given  in  ordinary 
language  to  the  bearers  of  public  de- 
spatches or  private  intelligence  by  ex- 
press. The  institution  of  persons  to  con- 
vey intelligence  vvifii  celerity  and  regu- 
laritj'  is  coeval  witn  the  earliest  history 
of  civilized  nations.  By  the  Persians 
they  were  styled  ajj^<i,joi,  by  the  Greeks 
nucpo&pojioi,  and  by  the  Romans  cursores ; 
and  the  duties  of  the  ancient  couriers 
seem  to  have  been  wholly  analogous  to 
those  of  the  moderns,  and  were  ])erfornied 
chieQy  on  horseback,  though  the  original 
derivation  of  the  name  would  lead  to  an 
opposite  supposition.  In  the  middle  ages 
couriers  were  known  by  the  appellation 
iroWArW,  or  trotters ;  and  hence  perhaps 
originated  the  English  term  running 
footmen,  of  whom  history  makes  mention 
in  the  17th  and  ISth  centuries. 

COURSE,  in  its  general  sense,  a  mo- 
tion forward,  either  in  a  direct  or  curv- 
ing line;  and  may  be  aii))Iicd  to  animals, 
and  to  solid  or  fluid  bodies. —  .Apjilied  to 
the  arts  and  sciences,  course  denotes  a 
methodical  series;  as,  the  author  hag 
completed  his  course  of  lectures;  or  the 
medical  stu'lent  has  coiniileted  his  course 
in  anatomy. —  Of  course,  in  natural  and 
regular  order;  as  tills  cfTcct  will  follow 
('/'  cour.'ic. — The    ronr.'<c  nf  c.vcbange,  in 


cov] 


AND    HIE     FINK     AUTS. 


117 


commerce,  the  current  price  or  rate  at 
which  tlie  coin  of  one  country  is  exchan;;- 
ed  for  that  of  another;  wliich,  as  it  de- 
pends ujion  tlic  balance  of  trade  and  the 
political  relations  which  subsist  between  ! 
the  two  countries,  is  always  fluctuating. 

COL'KS'lXd,  the  act  oV  sport  of  pur- 
suing any  beast  of  chase,  as  the  hare,  &c. 
with  greyhounds. 

COURT,  a  palace;  a  place  where  jus- 
tice is  administered ;  also  the  persons  or 
judges  assembled  for  hearing  and  decid- 
ing  causes,  civil,  criminal,  &c.  Thus  we 
have  a  court  of  law  ;  a  court  of  equity  ;  a 
cour<  martial ;  an  ecclesiastical  courf,  &c. 

COURT-BARON,  a  court  incident  to 
manorial  rights. 

COUR'TESY,  it  was  at  the  courts  of 
princes  and  great  feudatories  that  the 
minstrels  and  troubadours  of  the  middle 
ages  especially  delighted  to  exercise 
their  art ;  and  it  was  there,  also,  that  the 
peculiarities  of  chivalrous  life  and  man- 
ners were  chiefly  exhibited.  Hence  court- 
esy was  a  general  term,  expressive  of  all 
the  elegance  and  refinement  which  the 
society  of  those  times  had  attained  ;  in 
fact,  it  was  synonymous  with  all  the 
gentler  parts  of  chivalry  itself:  and  it  is 
in  this  sense  tliat  it  is  used  both  by  the 
early  trouveres  and  romancers,  and  also 
bj'  poets  of  a  later  age,  when  affecting 
the  use  of  chivalrous  language.  The 
transition  from  this  wider  meaning  to 
that  in  which  it  is  now  employed  is  ob- 
vious enough. —  Tenure  by  courtesy,  in 
law,  is  where  a  man  marries  a  woman 
seized  of  an  estate  of  inheritance,  and 
has  by  her  issue  born  alive,  which  was 
capable  of  inheriting  her  estate  :  in  this 
case,  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  he  holds 
the  lands  for  his  life,  as  tenant  by  courtesy. 

COURT-LEET',  a  court  of  record  held 
once  a  year,  in  a  particular  hundred, 
lordship,  or  manor,  before  the  steward  of 
the  leet. 

COURT-MAR'TIAL.  a  court  consist- 
ing of  military  or  naval  officers,  for  the 
trial  of  offences  within  its  jurisdiction. 

COURT'-ROLL,  a  roll  containing  an 
account  of  the  number,  &,c.  of  lands 
which  depend  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
manor,  Ac. 

COUSIN,  the  son  or  daughter  of  an 
uncle  or  aunt;  the  children  of  brothers 
and  sisters  being  usually  denominated 
cousins  or  cousin-Germans.  In  the  sec- 
ond generation  they  are  called  second 
cousins. 

COUS'.SINET,  in  architecture,  the 
crowning  stone  of  a  pier,  or  that  which 
lies  on  the  capital  of  the  impost  and  un- 


der the  sweep.  Its  bed  is  level  below 
and  inclined  above,  receiving  the  first 
rise  or  spring  of  the  arch  or  vault.  This 
word  is  also  used  for  the  ornament  in  the 
Ionic  ca)>ilal,  between  the  abacus  and 
echinus  or  quarter  round,  whicli  serves 
to  form  the  volute,  and  is  thus  called 
because  its  appearance  is  that  of  a 
cushion  or  pillow  seemingly  collapsed  by 
the  weight  over  it,  and  bound  with  a 
strap  or  girdle  called  the  baltheus. 

COVE,  an  inlet  on  a  rocky  coast.  It 
is  a  term  nearly  synonymous  with  har- 
bor;  the  word  cove  being  generally, 
though  not  always,  used  when  the  inden- 
tation on  the  coast  is  too  shallow  or  nar- 
row to  admit  first  class  vessels. 

COVENANT,  in  history,  the  famous 
bond  of  association  adopted  by  the  Scot- 
tish Presbyterians  in  1638.  It  was  framed 
on  the  model  of  a  similar  declaration, 
which  had  been  twice  solemnly  subscribed 
in  the  early  period  of  the  Reformation  ; 
but  in  more  violent  language,  and  with 
more  specific  obligation  to  support  the 
kirk,  together  with  a  prohibition  and 
abjuration  of  the  Anglican  liturgy  and 
articles.  The  founders  of  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  were  Alexander 
Henderson,  leader  of  the  clergy,  and 
Archibald  Johnston,  of  Wariston.  an  ad- 
vocate. A  new  religious  covenant  be- 
tween the  two  kingdoms  was  framed  in 
1643,  and  taken  by  the  English  House 
of  Commons  and  assembly  of  divines  at 
Westminster.  Charles  II.  subscribed  the 
Scottish  covenant  on  his  coronation  in 
1651  ;  but  on  his  restoration  it  was  de- 
clared null  by  act  of  parliament,  and 
burned  by  the  common  hangman.  It. 
formed,  however,  the  watchword  and 
bonil  of  union  of  the  discontented  party, 
or  Covenanters,  as  they  were  called,  in 
the  rebellions  of  his  reign. —  Covenant, 
in  a  theological  sense,  a  promise  made 
by  God  to  man  upon  certain  conditions  ; 
the  two  grand  distinctions  of  which  are 
emphatically  designated  the  Old  and 
New  Covenant,  or  Testament ;  in  each 
of  which  certain  temporal  or  spiritual 
benefits  are  promised  to  man  upon  the 
performance  of  duties  therein  pointed 
out. — Covenant,  in  law,  is  an  engage- 
ment under  seal  to  do  or  to  omit  a  direct 
act.  Covenants  are  of  many  different 
species,  as  in  fact  and  in  law,  implied 
and  express.  &c. ;  and  according  to  their 
subject  matter,  or  express  stipulation, 
they  are  binding  respectively  on  the 
heirs,  executors,  and  assigns,  or  execu- 
tors and  assigns  only,  of  the  covenantor.-  - 
Covenant  is  also  a  form  of  action,  which 


118 


OyCLOPF.niA    OF    LITERATURE 


[CBK 


lies  where  a  partj'  chiinis;  damiiges  for 
breach  of  a  covenant  or  contract  under 
seal. 

COWL,  the  hoods  which  protect  both 
head  and  neck  from  the  cold.  St.  Basil 
and  St.  Anthony  cotnman  lei  their  monks 
to  wear  them,  and  latterly  they  have 
come  into  use  by  travellers,  sailors,  and 
huntsmen. 

COWRIES,  small  shells  brought  from 
the  Maldives,  which  pass  current  as  coin 
in  smaller  payments  in  Ilindostan,  and 
throughout  e.Ktensive  districts  in  Africa. 

CRANIOL'OGY,  the  science  which  in- 
vestigates the  structure  and  uses  of  the 
skulls  in  various  animals,  particularly 
in  relation  to  their  specific  character  and 
intellectual  powers.  One  who  is  versed 
in  this  science  is  termed  a  craniologlst. 

CRANIOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  skulls  of  animals.  The 
art  of  measuring  them  for  the  purpose  of 
discovering  their  specific  differences,  is 
called  craniometry . 

CRANIOS'COPY,  the  science  of  dis- 
covering, by  the  eminences  produced  by 
the  brain  on  the  cranium,  the  particular 
parts  in  which  reside  the  organs  that 
influence  certain  passions  or  faculties. 

CRA'NIUM,  the  skull ;  the  assemblage 
of  bones  which  enclose  the  brain. 

CRA'TER,  the  aperture  or  mouth  of  a 
volcano,  from  which  the  fire  issues. — In 
antiquity,  a  very  large  wine  cup,  or  gob- 
let, out  of  which  the  ancients  poured  their 
lib.ations  at  feasts. 

CRAY'ON,  a  general  name  for  all 
colored  mineral  substances,  used  in  de- 
signing or  painting  in  pastil;  whether 
they  have  been  beaten  and  reduced  to  a 
paste,  or  are  used  in  their  primitive  con- 
sistence, after  sawing  and  cutting  them 
into  long  narrow  slips. 

CREATION,  the  act  of  causing  to 
exist,  or  of  shaping  and  organizing  mat- 
ter so  as  to  form  new  beings ;  as  the 
creation  of  man  and  other  animals,  of 
plants,  minerals,  Ac. — Also,  the  act  of 
investing  with  a  new  character ;  as,  the 
creation  of  peers  by  the  sovereign. 

CRKDEX'DA,  in  theology,  things  to 
be  Ixdieved;  articles  of  faith;  distin- 
guishoil  from  at^enda,  or  practical  duties. 

(MIEDEN'TIALS,  that  which  gives  a 
title  or  claim  to  confidence  ;  as  the  let- 
ter.? of  commendation  and  power  given 
to  an  anib.assador,  or  public  minister,  by 
the  prince  that  semis  him  to  a  foreign 
court. 

CRED'IT,  in  political  economy,  is  a 
term  used  to  express  the  lending  of 
wealth,    or   of  the    means   of   acquiring 


wealth,  by  one  in<lividuul  or  set  of  indi- 
viduals to  iinothcr.  The  party  who  lends 
is  said  to  give  cretlit,  and  the  party  who 
borrows  to  obtain  credit.  Hence  credit 
may  be  defined  to  be  the  acquisition  by 
one  party  of  the  wealth  of  another  in 
loan,  according  to  conditions  voluntarily 
agreed  on  between  them.  Very  exagge- 
rated notions  are  commonly  entertained 
of  the  influences  of  credit :  but,  in  fact,  all 
operations  in  which  credit  is  given  or  ac- 
quired resolve  themselves  into  a  new  dis- 
tribution of  wealth  already  in  existence. 
The  "magical"  eff"ect  that  is  every  now 
and  then  ascribed  to  credit  is  imaginary. 
A  party  who  purchases  goods  payable  at 
some  future  date  obviously  acquires  the 
command  of  so  much  of  the  capital  of  the 
seller  of  the  goods  as  their  value  amounts 
to,  in  the  same  way  that  a  party  who 
discounts  a  bill  acquires  the  command  of 
a  corresponding  portion  of  the  capital  of 
the  di.-icounter.  Wealth  is  not  created  by 
the  issue  of  bills  ;  and  all  that  their  nego- 
tiation does  is  to  transfer  already  e.vist- 
ing  property  from  one  individual  or  party 
to  another.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases  loans  are  made  by  individuals  who 
wish  to  retire  from  business,  or  who  have 
more  capital  than  they  can  advantage- 
ously employ,  to  individuals  entering  into 
business,  or  who  wish  to  extend  their  con- 
cerns and  to  acquire  a  grei.ter  command 
of  capital.  The  probability  i«,  that  capi- 
tal will  be  more  likely  to  be  efRciently 
employed  by  the  latter  than  by  the  former 
class  of  persons ;  and  the  advantage  of 
credit,  in  a  national  point  of  view,  con- 
sists in  that  circumstance.  Loans  made 
to  prodigals  or  spendthrifts,  or  to  indi- 
viduals who  expend  them  on  unprofitable 
undertakings,  are,  in  so  far,  publicly  in- 
jurious; but,  speaking  generally,  these 
bear  but  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
other  class  of  loans,  or  those  made  to  in- 
dividuals by  whom  they  are  ailvantage- 
ously  expended.  Public  credit  is  the 
phrase  used  to  express  the  trust  or  confi- 
dence placed  in  the  state  by  those  who 
lend  money  to  government.  The  interest 
or  premium  paid  by  the  borrowers  to  the 
lenders  depends  on  a  great  variety  of 
circumstances, — partly  on  the  rate  of 
profit  that  may  be  made  by  the  employ- 
ment of  capital  at  the  time,  partly  on  the 
duration  of  the  luan  and  the  security  for 
its  repayment,  iind  pnrtly  on  the  facili- 
ties given  by  the  law  for  enforcing  pay- 
ment. The  only  way,  indeed,  in  which  a 
government  can  advantageously  interfere 
to  encourage  credit  is  by  simplifying  the 
administration  of  the  law,  and  by  giving 


CRi] 


AND    THIC    FINE    ARTS. 


119 


every  facility  for  carrying  the  conditions 
of  contracts  into  eiTcct. 

CREED,  any  brief  summai-y  of  Chris- 
tian belief;  but  more  especially  either  of 
the  three  confessions  commonly  called  the 
Apostles',  Nicene,  and  Athanasian.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  word  credo,  / 
believe;  in  like  manner  as  paternoster, 
iivemaria,  itc,  are  prayers  named  from 
the  first  word  of  these  formulas  in  the 
Latin  tongue. 

CKEMO'NA,  a  general  designation  of 
the  violins  made  at  Cremona  in  Italy, 
during  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  chief- 
ly by  the  famil}'  Amati.  Cremona  is  also 
a  name  erroneously  given  to  a  stop  in 
the  organ  ;  being  nothing  more  than  a 
corruption  of  krurahorn,  an  ancient  wind 
instrument,  which  it  was  originally  de- 
signed to  imitate. 

CRENOPU'YLAX,  in  antiquity,  a  ma- 
gistrate at  Athens,  who  had  the  inspec- 
tion of  fountains. 

CREO'LE,  a  name  given  to  the  de- 
scendants of  whites  born  in  Mexico,  South 
America,  and  the  West  Indies ;  in  whom 
the  European  blood  has  been  unmixed 
with  that  of  other  races.  The  various 
jargons  spoken  in  the  West  India  islands 
by  slaves,  <tc.  are  called  Creole  dialects. 

CREPUN'DIA,  in  antiquity,  a  terra 
used  to  express  such  things  as  were  worn 
as  ornaments  by  children,  as  rings,  jew- 
els, &c ,  which  might  serve  as  tokens 
whereby  the}'  afterwards  might  be  recog- 
nized, or  as  an  inducement  for  others  to 
take  charge  of  them. 

CRESCEN'DO,  in  music,  an  Italian 
term  for  the  gradual  swelling  of  the  notes 
over  which  it  is  placed. 

CRES'CENT,  the  increasing  or  new 
moon,  which,  when  receding  from  the 
sun,  shows  a  curving  rim  of  light,  termi- 
nating in  points  or  horns. — The  Turkish 
standard,  on  which  a  crescent  is  depicted  ; 
and,  figuratively,  the  Turkish  power  or 
empire  of  the  crescent. 

CREST,  the  plume  of  feathers  or  other 
material  on  the  top  of  the  ancient  helmet. 
The  crest  is  considered  a  greater  crite- 
rion of  nobility  than  the  armor  generally, 
and  therefore  forms  an  important  subject 
in  the  science  of  heraldry. 

CRErX,  a  French  term  used  in  sculp- 
ture, whore  the  lines  and  figures  are  cut 
below  the  surface  of  the  substances  en- 
graved, and  thus  stands  opposed  to  re- 
lievo, which  hitter  terra  intimates  the 
prominence  of  the  lines  and  figures  which 
appear  above  the  surface. 

CRIME,  the  tran.?gression  of  a  law, 
either  natural  or  divine,  civil  or  eccle- 


siastic. In  the  general  sense  of  the  word, 
crimes  arc  understood  to  be  oflfencea 
against  society  or  morals,  as  far  as  they 
are  amenable  to  the  laws.  To  this  we 
may  add,  in  order  more  clearly  to  distin- 
guish between  words  often  esteemed  sy- 
nonymous, that  actions  contrary  to  the 
precepts  of  religion  are  called  sins;  ac- 
tions contrary  to  the  principles  of  raorali 
are  called  vices ;  and  actions,  contrary  to 
the  laws  of  the  state,  are  called  crimes. 

CRIMINAL,  in  the  Sense  usually  ap- 
plied, signifies,  a  person  indicted  or 
charged  with  a  public  offence,  and  one 
who  is  found  guilty. 

CRIM'SON.  The  color  known  by  this 
name  is  red,  reduced  to  a  deep  tone  by 
the  presence  of  blue. 

CRI'SIS,  in  medicine,  according  to 
Galen,  is  a  sudden  change,  either  for  the 
better  or  the  worse,  indicative  of  recove- 
ry or  death.  In  its  more  general  sense, 
it  denotes  that  stage  of  a  disorder  from 
which  some  judgment  may  be  formed  of 
its  termination.  At  the  approach  of  a 
crisis,  the  disease  appears  to  take  a  more 
violent  character.  If  the  change  is  for 
the  better,  the  violent  symptoms  cease 
with  a  copious  perspiration,  or  some  other 
discharge  from  the  system.  After  a  salu- 
tary crisis,  the  patient  feels  himself  re- 
lieved., and  the  dangerous  symptoms 
cease. — By  a  crisis  is  also  meant  the 
point  of  time  when  an  affair  is  arrived 
at  its  height,  and  must  soon  terminate  or 
suffer  a  material  change. 

CRITERION,  any  established  rule, 
principle,  or  fact,  which  may  be  taken  as 
a  standard  to  judge  by,  and  by  which  a 
correct  judgment  may  be  formed. 

CRITH'OMANCY,  a  kind  of  divina- 
tion by  means  of  the  dough  of  cakes,  and 
the  meal  strewed  over  the  victims,  in  an- 
cient sacrifices. 

CRIT'IC,  a  person  who,  according  to 
the  established  rules  of  his  art,  is  capable 
of  judging  with  propriety  of  any  literary 
composition,  or  work  of  art,  particularly 
of  such  as  are  denominated  the  Fine  Arts. 
To  which  may  be  added,  as  within  the 
province  of  a  critic,  that  he  should  bo 
able  to  explain  what  is  obscure,  to  supply 
what  is  defective,  to  amend  what  is  erro- 
neous, and  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies 
he  may  meet  with  between  different  au- 
thors who  have  treated  on  the  SAibject 
under  review. 

CRIT'IC [SM.  has  been  defined  "the 
art  of  judging  with  propriety  concerning 
any  object,  or  combination  of  objects." 
In  a  somewhat  more  limited,  but  still  ex- 
tensive menning.  its  province  is  con^ned 


[2C 


CVCLOPKUIA    OF    LITF.ilATUKE 


[CBO 


to  literature,  piiilology,  and  the  fine  arts  ; 
and  to  siiliject.s  of  antiquarian,  scientific, 
or  liistorical  investigation.  In  this  sense, 
every  branch  of  literary  study,  as  well  as 
each  of  the  fine  arts,  has  its  proper  criti- 
cism as  an  appendage  to  it.  The  elements 
of  criticism  depend  on  the  two  principles 
of  beauty  and  truth,  one  of  which  is  the 
final  end  or  object  of  study  in  every  one 
of  its  pursuits  :  beauty,  in  letters  and  the 
arts ;  truth,  in  history  and  the  sciences. 
The  office  of  c|iticism,  therefore,  is,  first 
to  lay  down  those  forms  or  essential 
ideas  which  answer  to  our  conception  of 
the  beautiful  or  the  true  in  each  branch 
of  study  ;  and,  next,  to  point  out  by  ref- 
erence to  those  ideas  the  excellences  or 
defects  of  individual  works,  as  they  ap- 
proach or  diverge  from  the  requisite 
standard  in  each  particular.  Thus,  his- 
torical criticism  teaches  us  to  distinguish 
the  true  fro'm  the  false,  or  the  probable 
from  the  improbable,  in  historical  works  ; 
scientific  criticism  has  the  same  object  in 
each  respective  line  of  science  ;  while  lit- 
erary criticism,  in  a  general  sense,  has 
for  its  principal  employment  the  investi- 
gation of  the  merits  and  demerits  of  style 
or  diction,  according  to  the  received  stand- 
ard of  excellence  in  every  language  ;  and, 
in  poetry  and  the  arts,  criticism  develops 
the  principles  of  that  more  refined  and 
exquisite  sense  of  beauty  which  forms  the 
ideal  model  of  perfection  in  each.  *  Taste 
is  the  critical  faculty  ;  that  perception  of 
the  beautiful  in  literature  and  the  arts, 
for  the  acquisition  of  which,  perhaps, 
some  minds  have  superior  natural  powers 
than  others,  but  which  can  in  no  instance 
be  fully  developed  except  by  education 
and  habit.  Among  the  classical  ancients, 
the  criticism  of  beauty  was  carried  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  Less  encum- 
bered with  a  multitude  of  facts  and  things 
to  be  known  than  ourselves,  their  minds 
were  more  at  leisure,  and  more  sedulous- 
ly exercised  in  reflecting  on  their  own  no- 
tions and  perceptions;  hence  the  aston- 
ishing progress  which  they  made  in  the 
fine  arts ;  and  hence,  in  literature,  they 
valued  more  the  beauty  of  the  vehicle  in 
wiiich  sentiments  were  conveyed,  and  the 
moral  or  poetical  beauty  of  those  senti- 
ments themselves,  than  the  objective 
branches  of  sturly 'which  it  is  the  princi- 
pal purpose  of  literature,  in  our  days,  to 
convey  easily  and  precisely  to  (he  mind. 
And  as  the  criticism  which  antiquily  has 
left  us  consists  almost  wholly  of  such  a.s 
relates  to  the  literature  an<I  the  arts  (in 
history  they  had,  as  far  as  we  know,  few 
sritical    spirits,    in    the    .sciences    almost 


none,)  the  name  is  still  C(  nfined,  in  its 
most  popular  signification,  to  those  prov- 
inces of  research.  The  criticism  of  truth 
is  of  later  growth  ;  but  as  it  is  regulated 
for  the  most  part  by  similar  rules  and 
principles,  and  as  minds  which  possess 
the  faculty  of  judgment  in  a  high  degree 
in  the  one  are  generally  capable,  if  exer- 
cised, of  forming  right  apprehensions  in 
the  other,  they  may  be  considered  as 
nearly  allied  in  the  more  essential  re- 
spects. For  although  it  is  true  that  in 
scientific  investigation  great  knowledge 
of  the  individual  subject  is  required  to 
constitute  a  critic,  and  in  the  fine  arts  the 
most  gifted  mind  will  require  much  edu- 
cation and  practice  to  judge  of  beauty ; 
yet  it  is  equally  true  in  both  of  these 
branches  of  study,  however  widely  differ- 
ing from  each  other,  that  knowledge  alono 
(except  perhaps  in  purely  abstract  sci- 
ence, in  respect  of  which  the  name  of  crit- 
icism seems  hardly  applicable)  will  not 
make  the  critic,  and  that  the  habit  of  dis- 
criminating and  judging  correctly  is  a 
distinct  faculty  or  compound  of  faculties 
in  the  mind. — Criticism,  in  a  more  limited 
sense,  is  a  branch  of  belles  lettres.  Es- 
says written  for  the  purpose  of  commend- 
ing or  discommending  works  in  literature 
or  the  arts,  and  pointing  out  their  vari- 
ous merits  and  defects,  are  works  in  the 
critical  department.  Thus  the  term  "pe- 
riodical criticism"  is  used  to  express  the 
body  of  writing  contained  in  the  various 
works  under  the  name  of  magazines,  re- 
views, (fee,  which  are  periodically  puV>- 
lished  in  most  literary  countries. 

CRITIQUE',  a  skilful  examination  of 
the  raeritsof  a  performance,  with  remarks 
on  its  beauties  and  faults. 

CllOCKETTS,  enrichments  modelled 
generally  from 
vegetable  pro- 
ductions, such  as 
vine  or  other 
leaves,  but  some- 
times animals 
and  images  are 
introduced,  em- 
ployed in  gothic 
architecture  to 
decorate  the  angles  of  various  parts  of 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  such  as  spires,  pin- 
nacles, muUions  of  windows,  Ac.  The 
forms  are  infinite,  almost  every  kind  of 
loaf  or  flower  being  employed  fortius  jiur- 
poso,  generally  with  some  pointed  refei^ 
ence  to  local  circumstances;  thus,  at 
Westminster  we  find  a  succession  of  roses 
and  fiomegranates  ;  at  Magdalen  College 
Chapel,  lilies.      They  only  appear  in  py- 


Clio] 


AND    Till-:     KINK     ARTS. 


121 


ramidical  and  curved  linos,  never  in  hori- 
Eontnl. 

CROrSE.S,  in  English  anti(inity,  pil- 
griias  bound  for  the  Holy  Land,  or  such 
as  had  been  there  ;  so  called  from  a  badge 
they  wore  in  imitation  of  a  cross.  Tlie 
knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  created 
for  the  defence  and  protection  of  pilgrim.s, 
were  particularly  called  croises ;  and  so 
were  all  those  of  the  English  nobility  and 
gentry,  who,  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  11. 
Richard  I.  Jlenry  HI.  and  Edward  I. 
were  cruce  slgnati,  that  is,  devoted  for 
the  recovery  of  Palestine. 

CROM'LBCH,  in  British  antiquity, 
large,  broad,  flat  stones  raised  upon  other 
stones  set  up  to  support  them.  They  are 
common  in  Anglesea,  and  are  supposed  to 
be  remains  of  druidical  altars.  Cromlechs 
ore  generally  supposed  by  anti(iuaries  to 
have  been  constructed  to  serve  as  altars. 
According  to  some,  there  is  a  difference 
between  the  cromlechs  of  the  Britons  and 
those  of  nations  of  Uermanic  descent ;  the 
former  being  inclined  stones,  perhaps  for 
the  purpose  of  allowing  the  blood  shed  in 
sacrifice  to  run  off;  the  latter  thick,  round 
stones,  standing  on  small  hillocks  and 
covering  caves. 

CRO'SIER,  the  staff  of  an  archbishop, 
surmounted  by  a  cross,  and  thereby  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pastoral  staff  or 
crook  of  a  bishop  This  staff,  according 
to  Polydorc  Virgil,  was  given  to  bishops 
wherewith  to  chastise  the  vices  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  was  called  baculiis  pastoralis,  in 
respect  of  their  pastoral  charge  and  su- 
perintendence over  their  flock,  as 
well  as  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  shepherd's  crook.     Many  an-  1 

thors  contend  that  the  crosier  is 
derived  from  the  lltuus  or  augural 
staff  of  the  Romans. 

CROSS,  in  antiquily,  an  instru- 
ment of  ancient  vengeance,  con- 
sisting of  two  pieces  of  timber, 
crossing  each  other,  either  in  the 
form  of  a  T  or  an  X.  That  on 
which  our  Saviour  suffered,  is 
represented  on  coins  and  other 
monuments  to  have  been  of  the 
former  kind.  This  punishment  was 
only  inflicted  on  malefactors  and 
slaves,  and  was  thence  called  ser- 
vile supplicium.  The  most  usual 
method  was  to  nail  the  criminal's 
hands  and  feet  to  this  gibbet,  in 
an  erect  posture ;  though  there 
are  instances  of  criminals  so  nail- 
ed with  their  head  downward. — 
Crons,  the  ensign  of  the  Christian 
religion  ;   and  hence,  figuratively, 


I  the  religion  itself.  Also,  a  monument 
I  with  a  cross  upon  it  to  excite  devotion, 
such  as  were  anciently  set  up  in  market 
places. — In  theology,  the  doctrine  of 
Christ's  sufferings  and  of  the  atonement. 
—  Cross,  in  Christian  Art,  the  sole  and 
universal  symbol  of  our  redemption,  and 
of  the  person  of  our  Saviour  ;  he  is  sym- 
bolized under  this  form,  as  he  is  also 
under  that  of  the  Fish,  the  Lion,  or  the 
Lamb.  The  cross  is  either  historic  or 
sj'mbolic,  real  or  ideal  ;  in  the  one  it  is 
a  gibbet,  in  the  other  an  attribute  of 
glory.  There  are  four  species  of  cross. 
1.  The  cross  without  a  summit,  in  the 
form  of  a  T  ;  this  is  the  Egyptian  cross, 
the  Cross  of  the  Old  Testament.  Many 
ancient  churches,  especially  the  Basili- 
cas of  Constantine,  £t.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
at  Rome,  are,  in  their  ground  plan,  near- 
ly of  this  form.  2.  The  cross  with  sum- 
mit;  it  has  four  branches;  this  is  the 
true  cross,  the  cross  of  Jesus  and  of  the 
Evangelists.  This  form  of  cross  is  divided 
into  two  principal  types,  which  also  par- 
take of  many  varieties ;  they  are  known 
as  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  cross ;  the 
first  is  adopted  by  the  Greek  and  Oriental 
Christians,  the  second  by  the  Christians 
of  the  West.  The  Greek  cross  is  com- 
posed of  four  equal  parts,  the  breadtli 
being  equal  to  the  length.  In  the  Latin 
cross,  the  foot  is  longer  than  the  summit 
or  the  arms.  The  Greek  cross  is  an  ideal 
cross  ;  the  Latin  cross  resembles  the  real 
cross  upon  which  Jesus  suffered.  3.  The 
cross  with  two  cross-pieces  and  summit. 


122 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEIlAl  LKK 


[CRO 


4.  The  cross  with  summit  and  three  cross- 
pieces.  AVhen  the  cross  retains  its  sim- 
ple form,  and  is  not  loaded  with  attri- 
butes or  ornaments,  we  must  distinguish 
the  Cross  of  the  Passion  from  the  Cross 
of  the  Resurrection.  The  Cross  of  the 
Passion  is  a  real  cross,  the  gibbet  upon 
which  Christ  suffered.  This  is  the  cross 
in  common  use  in  our  churches ;  it  is 
employed  by  painters  and  sculptors  ;  and 
which,  in  Catholic  countries,  meets  us  at 
every  turn  ;  by  the  roadside,  in  the 
street,  chapels,  and  cathedrals.  It  is  also 
called  the  Triumphal  Cross.  The  Cross 
of  the  Resurrection  is  the  symbol  of  the 
true  cross  ;  it  is  that  put  into  the  hands 
of  Christ  in  representations  of  bis  resur- 
rection. It  is  a  lance,  the  staff  of  which 
terminates  in  a  cross  instead  of  a  pike  ; 
it  carries  a  flag  or  banner,  upon  which  is 
depicted  a  cross,  which  is  suspended  from 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  arms.  It 
is  the  cross  held  by  the  Paschal  Lamb  ; 
it  is  that  carried  at  the  head  of  religious 
processions.  It  is  not  a  tree,  like  the 
Cross  of  the  Passion,  but  a  staff;  the 
first  is  the  Cross  of  Suffering,  the  other  is 
the  Cross  of  Victory  ;  they  are  of  the 
same  general  form,  but  the  latter  is 
spiritualized ;  it  is  the  gibbet  trans- 
figured. 

CRO.SS-BOW,  an  ancient  weapon,  a 
great  improvement  on  the  wooden  long- 
bow, and  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Crusa- 
ders. It  was  made  of  steel,  with  a  pe- 
culiar handle,  and  the  string  was  stretch- 
ed b}'  means  of  a  small  wheel  called  a 
gaffle.  The  bolts  or  arrows  were  gener- 
ally shod  with  iron,  and  were  either 
round,  angular,  or  pointed.  Burning 
materials  were  also  discharged  from  the 
bow,  in  order  to  set  fire  to  buildings  and 
machines  of  war.  Those  bows  made 
wholly  of  iron  were  called  ballisters. 
The  share  which  Art  had  in  the  cross- 
bows of  the  middle  ages  may  be  seen  by 
a  glance  into  the  armories.  The  most 
artistic  specimen  is  the  bow  which  Charles 
V.  used  for  his  amusement.  It  was  in- 
laid with  ivory  carved  by  Albert  Durer. 

CROSS-RAR-SIIOT,  a  bullet  with  an 
iron  bar  passing  through  it,  and  standing 
out  a  few  inches  on  each  side ;  used  in 
naval  actions  for  cutting  the  enemy's 
rigging. 

CROSS'ES,  Stone,  in  architectural 
antiquities,  are  of  various  descriptions, 
according  to  the  occasion  or  purpose  of 
their  erection.  They  are  saiil  to  have 
originated  in  the  ]jractice  of  marking  the 
Druid  stones  with  a  cross,  at  the  period 
of  the  conversion  of  the  Celtic  tribes  to 


w  trames ;  called  ^      ^ 

jars,  elbows,  an-  r-^^ — "^      7 — -j-^ 

prothyrides.    In  \   \    \     /    /   / 
ecturaJ  construe-     ^— ^ — — — ^^ 


Christianity.  Preaching  crosses  are  gen- 
erally quadrangular  or  hexagonal,  open 
on  one  or  both  sides,  and  raised  on  steps. 
They  wore  used  for  the  delivery  of  ser- 
mons in  the  open  air  ;  such  Wiis  the 
famous  Paul's  Cross  in  London.  Market 
crosses  are  well  known.  Weeping  crosses 
were  so  called  because  penances  were 
finished  before  them.  Crosses  oj' memo- 
rial were  raised  on  various  occasions  • 
sometimes  where  the  bier  of  an  eminent 
person  stopped  on  its  way  to  burial,  in 
attestation  of  some  miracle  performed  on 
the  spot :  such  are  the  well-known  crossew 
of  Queen  Philippa.  Crosses  served  also 
as  landmarks ;  they  are  especially  set 
up  for  this  purpose  on  the  lands  of  the 
Templars  and  Hospitallers. 

CROSSET'TES,  in  architecture,  tho 
returns  on  the  corners  of  door  cases  or 
window  frames ;  called 
also  ears,  elbows, 
cones 

architectural  const 
tion,  they  are  the  small  projecting  pieces 
in  arch  stones  which  hang  upon  the  adja- 
cent stones — a,  a,  a,  a. 

CROSS-EXAMIXATIOX,  in  law,  a 
close  and  rigid  examination  of  a  witness 
by  the  counsel  of  the  adverse  party,  con- 
sisting of  cross  questions,  in  order  to  elicit 
the  truth. 

CROTALUM,  an  ancient  kind  of  Cas- 
tanet, used  by  the  Corybantes  or  priests 
of  Cybele.  This  instrument  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  modern  crotalo,  & 
musical  instrument  used  chiefly  by  the 
Turks,  and  corresponding  exactly  with 
the  ancient  cymbalum. 

CROTCH'ET,  in  music,  half  a  minim. 
— In  printing,  this  mark,  [  ],  to  separate 
what  is  not  the  necessary  part  of  a  sen- 
tence. 

CROWX,  an  ornamental  badge  of  re- 
gal power,  worn  on  the  head  by  sover- 
eign j)rinces. — The  top  of  the  head  ;  also 
the  top  of  any  elevated  object  — In  archi- 
tecture, the  uppermost  member  of  a  cor- 
nice.— Among  jewellers,  tho  upper  work 
of  the  rose  diamond. — An  English  silver 
coin,  of  the  value  of  five  shillings. — 
Among  the  various  crowns  and  wreaths 
in  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
were  the  following:  Corona  aiirca  (the 
goiden  crown;)  the  reward  of  remarkable 
bravery.  Corona  cast  r  ens  is ;  given  to 
him  who  first  entered  the  camp  of  an  en- 
emy. Corona  civica;  one  of  the  highest 
military  rewards :  it  was  given  to  him 
who  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen.  Corona 
convivialis ;  the  wreath  worn  at  feasts. 
Corona  muralis ;  given  by  the  general 


CRC] 


AM)    TIIF.    FINK     AIMS. 


123 


tothesolJier  wlio  first  scaluil  tlie  cnoiuys 
wall.  Corona  navalis ;  given  to  liiui 
who  first  boardt'il  iiml  took  an  enemy's 
vessel ;  it  was  next  in  rank  to  the  civic 
crown.  Corona  nitptictlis;  a  crown  or 
wreath  worn  by  briUcs.  Corona  obsid- 
ionalis;  a  reward  given  to  him  who  de- 
livered a  besieged  town,  or  a  blockaded 
army.  It  was  one  of  the  highest  military 
honors,  and  very  seldom  obtained.  Co- 
rona triumphal  is ;  a  wreath  of  laurel 
which  was  given  by  the  army  to  the  ini- 
perator,  who  wore  it  on  his  hoad  at  the 
celebration  of  his  triumph. — In  Christian 
Art,  the  crown,  from  the  earliest  times,  i.s 
either  an  attribute  or  an  emblem.  It  has 
been  employed  as  an  emblem  of  victory, 
and  hence  became  the  especial  symbol  of 
the  glory  of  martyrdom.  Its  form  varied 
at  different  periods ;  in  early  pictures  it 
ia  simply  a  wreath  of  palm  or  myrtle, 

4 


afterwards  it  became  a  coronet  of  gold 
and  jewels.  Generally,  the  female  mar- 
tyrs only  wear  the  sj'mbolical  crown  of 
glory  on  their  heads.  Martyrs  of  the 
opposite  sex  bear  it  in  their  hands,  or  it 
is  carried  by  an  angel.      >Sometimes,   as 


in  St.  Catherine  and  St.  Ursula,  the  crown 
is  both  the  symbol  of  martyrdom,  and 
their  attribute  as  royal  princesses.  The 
Virgin,  as  '  Queen  of  Heaven,'  wears  a 
crown.  No.  1,  in  our  cut,  represents  the 
Laurel  Crown  of  ancient  Rome.  No.  2, 
the  Mural  Crown  worn  by  Cybelc.  No. 
3,  the  radiated  Crown  of  its  ordinary 
form.  No.  4,  the  square  Saxon  Crown. 
No.  5,  the  Crown  of  Edgar.  No.  6,  the 
Crown   of  William   the  Conqueror.     No. 

7,  the  imperial  Crown  of  Germany.     No. 

8,  that  worn  by  Charlemagne. 
CROWN-WOKK,    in   fortification,    an 

out-work  running  into  the  field,  consist- 
ing of  two  demi-bastions  at  the  extremes, 
and  an  entire  bastion  in  the  middle,  with 
curtains.  It  is  designed  to  gain  some 
advantageous  post,  and  cover  the  other 
works. 

CRU'CIFIX,  the  representation  of  the 
Saviour  on  the  cross,  but  especially  that 
plastic  one  seen  on  the  altars  of  Catholic 
churches,  in  the  centre  of  which  it  stands, 
overtopping  the  tapers,  and  only  remov- 
ed at  the  elevation  of  the  Host.  Its  in- 
tention was  to  lead  the  mind  back  to  the 
cross,  which  was  set  up  on  the  altar,  or 
in  some  convenient  spot.  It  was  first 
known  in  the  time  of  Constantinc,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  real  crucifix  in  the 
Eastern  church.  The  latter  was  not  com- 
mon till  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 
The  Greek  church  never  publicly  accept- 
ed it,  although  it  appears  in  the  quarrel 
about  images,  but  used  the  simple  cross. 
It  was  not  general  in  the  Latin  church 
until  the  Carlovingian  era.  From  the 
disciplina  arcani  and  the  early  prohibi- 
tion of  images  by  the  Synod  of  Elvira, 
(305,)  an  early  use  of  the  crucifix  may 
be  supposed,  as  it  referred  immediately 
to  the  first  Christian  dogma.  At  first  the 
simple  cross  was  sufficient — crux  immissa 
or  cap ilata  +;  crux  decussuta  X  >'  <ind 
crux  commissa  T — the  Lamb  standing 
under  a  blood-red  cross.  The  addition 
of  the  Saviour's  bust  at  the  head  or  foot 
of  the  cross  while  the  Lamb  lay  in  the 
centre,  was  the  next  step  towards  the  cru- 
cifix ;  and  afterwards  Christ  himself  was 
represented  clothed,  his  hands  raised  in 
prayer,  but  not  yet  nailed.  At  last 
he  appeared  fastened  to  the  cross  by 
four  nails,  (seldom  by  three,)  and  on  the 
older  crucifixes  alive,  with  open  eyes ; 
on  the  later  ones,  (from  the  tenth  to 
the  eleventh  century,)  sometimes  dead. 
Christ  was  often  clad  in  a  robe,  having 
the  regal  crown  on  his  heail ;  more  re- 
cently the  figure  wore  only  a  cloth  round 
the  loins,  and  the  crown  of  thorns.     This 


124 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    UTERAITRE 


[cui 


representation  was  continued,  and  the 
crucifix  regarded  as  an  indispensable  at- 
tribute of  churches  and  altars.  The  num- 
ber of  them  increased,  as  they  were  par- 
ticular objects  of  veneration  ;  and  large 
ones  of  wood  or  stone  were  placed  at  the 
entrances  of  the  church.  The  altar  cru- 
cifi.v  was  generally  of  gold  or  silver, 
adorned  with  pearls  or  precious  stones. 
Later  artists  have  enveloped  the  Saviour 
in  draper}',  leaving  the  body  in  its  cus- 
tomary position  ;  they  have  also  added  the 
angel  by  the  side,  by  which  addition 
these  crucifi.fes  intended  in  the  spirit  of 
Christian  iEstheticsfor  Protestant  church- 
es, become  more  symbolic  representations 
of  Christian  ideas.  The  unpleasant  sight 
of  the  nailed  feet  is  avoided  by  their  rest- 
ing free  and  unbound  on  the  globe,  so 
that  only  the  arms  are  fastened  by  nails 
to  the  cross.  We  are  now  too  much  ac- 
customed to  the  naked  figure  to  allow  of 
the  innovation  of  representing  Christ 
after  the  old  custom  ;  we  may  also  ques- 
tion whether  the  great  simplicity  of  the 
original  crucifix  had  not  more  effect. 

CRUDE,  in  painting,  a  term  applied 
to  a  picture  when  the  colors  are  rudely 
laid  on,  and  do  not  blend  or  harmonize. 

CRUI'SER,  a  small  armed  vessel  that 
sails  to  and  fro  in  quest  of  the  enemy,  to 
protect  the  commerce  of  its  own  nation, 
or  for  plunder. 

CRUPELLA'Rir,  in  antiquity,  nobil- 
ity, among  the  Gauls,  who  were  armed 
with  a  complete  harness  of  steel. 

CRUSADES,  the  name  by  which  the 
wars  or  military  expeditions  were  distin- 
guished, that  were  carried  on  by  the 
Christian  nations  of  the  West,  from  the 
end  of  the  iltli  to  the  end  of  the  I'ith  cen- 
tury, for  the  conquest  of  Palestine.  They 
were  called  crusades,  because  all  the  war- 
riors fought  under  the  banner  of  the  cross, 
and  wore  that  emblem  on  their  clothes. 
Tiie  Christians  had  long  grieved  that  the 
Holy  Land,  where  Jesus  had  lived,  taught, 
and  died  for  mankind,  where  pious  pil- 
grims resorted  to  pour  out  their  sorrows 
and  ask  for  aid  from  above  at  the  tomb 
of  their  Saviour,  should  be  in  the  power 
of  unbelievers.  The  dawn  of  civilization 
and  mental  cultivation  had  just  com- 
menced. They  were  at  that  period  in  a 
state  to  receive  a  strong  religious  excite- 
ment ;  the  spirit  of  adventure  burned 
within  them ;  and  their  imaginations 
were  also  easily  roused  by  the  reports  of 
the  riches  of  the  East.  The  Pope  consid- 
ered the  invasion  of  Asia  as  the  means  of 
promoting  Christianity  amongst  tho  infi- 
dels and  of  winning  whole  nations  to  the 


bosom  of  the  church  ;  monarchs  expected 
victory  and  increase  of  dominion  ;  and 
their  subjects  were  easily  persuaded  to 
engage  in  the  glorious  cause  !  Yet  army 
after  army  was  destroyed;  and  though 
some  brilliant  victories  served  to  exhibit 
the  soldiers  of  Christendom  as  heroes  of  a 
valorous  age,  and  the  holy  city  of  Jeru- 
salem was  more  than  once  under  their 
dominion,  the  Christian  empire  on  the 
continent  of  Asia  was  eventually  over- 
thrown, and  the  dominion  of  tho  Mame- 
lukes and  Sultans  established.  But  by 
means  of  these  joint  enterprises,  the  Eu- 
ropean nations  became  more  connected 
with  each  other ;  feudal  tj'ranny  was 
weakened  ;  a  commercial  intercourse  took 
place  throughout  Europe,  which  greatly 
augmented  the  wealth  of  the  cities  ;  the 
human  mind  expanded  ;  and  a  number  of 
arts  and  sciences,  till  then  unknown  hv 
the  western  nations,  were  introduced. 

CRYPT,  a  subterranean  chapel  or  ora- 
tory ;  or  a  vault  under  a  church  for  the 
interment  of  bodies. 

CRYPTOG'RAPIIY,  the  art  of  writing 
in  cipher,  or  secret  characters. 

CRYPTOL'OGY,  secret  or  enigmatical 
language. 

CUBIT,  an  ancient  measure,  equal  to 
the  length  of  a  man's  arm,  from  the  el- 
bow to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger. 
Among  different  nations  the  length  of  tho 
cubit  differed.  The  English  was  18  inch- 
es, the  Roman  rather  less,  and  the  cubit 
of  the  Scriptures  is  supposed  to  have  been 
22  inches. 

CUE,  the  last  words  of  a  speech,  which 
a  player,  who  is  to  answer,  catches  and 
regards  as  an  intimation  to  begin.  Also, 
a  hint  given  to  him  of  what  and  when  he 
is  to  speak. 

CUIRASS',  a  piece  of  defensive  armor, 
made  of  iron  plate,  well  hardened,  and 
covering  tho  body  from  the  neck  to  the 
girdle.  The  cuirass  of  plate-armor  suc- 
ceeded the  hauberk,  h:icqucton,  &c  ,  of 
mail,  about  the  reign  of  Edward  III.; 
and  from  that  period  the  surcoat,  jupon, 
etc.,  which  wore  usually  worn  over  tho 
coat  of  mail,  began  to  be  laid  aside.  From 
that  period  the  cuirass  or  breast-plate 
continued  to  be  worn,  and  was  the  last 
piece  of  defensive  armor  laid  aside  in 
actual  warfare.  There  were  cuirassiers 
in  the  English  civil  wars,  and  in  the 
French  service  nearly  to  the  end  of  the 
17th  century;  after  this  period,  the  cuirass 
was  generally  laid  aside,  until  it  waa 
again  employed  by  some  of  Napoleon's 
regiments,  and  it  is  now,  in  most  services 
worn  by  some  regiments  of  heavy  cavalry 


cuu] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


125 


CUIS'SES,  CUISSOTS,  CUIS'SARTS, 
Ac,  in  plate-armor,  the  pieces  which  pro- 
tected the  front  of  the  thigh. 

CUL'DEE.S,  in  church  history,  an  or- 
der of  priests,  formerly  inhabiting  Scot- 
laud  and  Ireland.  Being  remarkable  for 
the  religious  e.\erciscs  of  preaching  and 
praj'ing,  they  were  called,  by  way  of  em- 
inence, cultures  Dei.  After  having  e.xer- 
ci:*cd  a  great  influence  throughout  the 
country,  tlicy  are  said  to  have  been  over- 
thrown by  the  increase  of  the  papal  pow-  \ 
er,  and  the  institution  of  monasteries, 
more  congenial  to  the  views  of  the  sec  of 
Komc. 

CUL  DE  LAMP,  in  architecture,  a 
terra  used  for  several  decorations,  in 
vaults  and  ceilings. 

CI'IjINA,  in  antiquity,  that  part  of 
the  funeral  pile  in  which  the  banquet  was 
consumed. —  Culincc,  a  burial-ground  for 
the  poor. 

CUL'LIAGE,  a  barbarous  and  immoral 
practice,  whereby  the  lords  of  manors  an- 
ciently assumed  a  right  to  the  first  night 
of  their  vassals'  brides. 

CUL'PIUT,  in  law,  a  word  applied  in 
court  to  one  who  is  indicted  for  a  criminal 
offence. 

CL'LTIVA'TION,  in  a  general  sense, 
the  art  and  practice  of  tilling  and  pre- 
paring land  for  crops  ;  but  it  means  also 
the  study,  care,  and  practice  necessary  to 
the  cultivation  of  our  talents  and  the  im- 
provement of  our  minds. 

.CUL'VEKIN,  a  long  slender  piece  of 
ordnance,  serving  to  carry  a  ball  to  a 
great  distance. 

CUME'RUM,  in  antiquity,  a  large  cov- 
ered basket,  used  at  weddings  for  carry- 
ing the  household  stufl',  <tc.,  belonging  to 
the  bride. 

CUNE'IFORM,  an  appellation  given 
to  whatever  resembles  a  wedge;  as,  in 
botany,  a  cuneiform  leaf. 

CUis'E'IFORM  LETTERS,  the  name 
given  to  the  inscriptions  found  on  old 
Babylonian  and  Persian  monuments, 
from  the  characters  being  formed  like  a 
wedge.  This  species  of  writing,  as  it  is 
the  simplest,  so  it  is  the  most  ancient  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge.  It  is 
formed  of  two  radical  signs — the  wedge 
and  the  angle — susceptible,  however,  of 
about  thirty  different  combinations;  and 
consists  of  three  varieties,  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  a  greater  or  less  com- 
plication of  the  characters.  It  is  of  Asi- 
atic origin  ;  is  written  from  right  to  left, 
ike  the  Sanscrit;  differs  from  the  ancient 
Egj'ptian  hieroglyiihies,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
alphabetic,  not  ideographic;  and,  finally, 


with  a  few  considerable  modifications, 
forms  the  basis  of  most  of  the  Eastern 
languages. 

(JU'l'lD,  the  Roman  name  of  the  Gre- 
cian god  of  love  Eros.  There  were  three 
divinities,  or  rather  three  forms  of  the 
same  deity,  with  this  appellation;  but 
the  one  usually  meant  when  spoken  of 
without  any  qualification  was  the  son  of 
ISIercury  and  Venus.  Like  the  rest  of 
the  gods  Cupid  assumed  different  shapes  ; 
but  he  is  generally  represented  as  a 
beautiful  child  with  wings,  blind,  and 
carrj'ing  a  bow  and  quiver  of  arrows, 
with  which  he  transpierced  the  hearts  of 
lovers,  inflaming  them  with  desire.  Among 
the  ancients  he  was  worshipped  with  the 
same  solemnity  as  his  mother  Venus  ;  his 
influence  pervaded  all  creation,  animate 
and  inanimate  ;  and  vows  and  sacrifices 
wore  daily  offered  up  at  his  shrine.  Stat- 
ues of  Cupid  formed  among  the  ancients 
great  objects  ofvertu.  Pra.xiteles  is  said 
to  have  derived  great  honor  from  his 
statues  of  this  divinity ;  and  in  his  ora- 
tions against  Verres,  Cicero  has  given 
celebrity  to  one  statue  of  Cupid  by  this 
artist,  which  formed  an  object  of  peculiar 
veneration  to  the  Thespians. 

CU'POLA,  in  architecture,  a  roof  or 
vault  rising  in  a  circular  form,  otherwise 
called  the  </io/us  or  (/owe.  The  ancients 
constructed  their  cupolas  of  stone;  the 
moderns,  of  timber,  covered  with  lead  or 
copper.  The  finest  cupola,  ancient  or 
modern,  is  that  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome. 
Among  some  of  the  handsomest  modern 
cupolas,  is  that  on  the  Bank  of  England, 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  the  Hotel  des  Inva- 
lides  at  Paris,  and  St.  Paul's,  London. 

CU'RATE,  an  officiating,  but  unbene- 
ficed clergyman,  who  performs  the  duty 
of  a  church,  and  receives  a  salary  from 
the  incumbent  of  the  living. 

CURA'TOR,  in  a  general  sense,  signi- 
fies a  person  who  is  appointed  to  take 
care  of  anything.  Among  the  ancient 
Romans,  there  were  officers  in  every 
branch  of  the  public  service  to  whom  this 
application  was  given  :  thus  we  read  of 
Curutores  J'rumenti,  riarnm,  operum 
pubiicoruni.  Tiberis,  Ac.  &c.,  i.  e.  per- 
sons who  distributed  corn,  superintended 
the  making  of  roads  and  the  public  build- 
ings, or  were  conservators  of  the  river. — 
Curator,  in  the  civil  law.  is  the  guardian 
of  a  minor  who  has  attained  the  age  of 
fourteen.  Before  that  age,  minors  are 
under  a  tutor.  The  guardianship  of  per- 
sons under  various  disabilities,  and  of  the 
estate  of  deceiised  or  absent  persons  and 
insolvents  is  also  committed  to  a  curator 


126 


CYC'LOrEDlA    OF    ULEnATlRE 


[cot 


This  title  is  derived  from  the  ancient 
Romans,  by  whom,  as  was  remarked 
above,  it  was  given  to  various  officers 
who  acted  as  superintendents  of  different 
departments  of  the  public  service.  In 
learned  institutions,  the  officer  who  has 
charge  of  libraries,  collections  of  natural 
history,  &c.  is  frequently  styled  curator. 
"CUilB  ROOF,  in 
architecture,  a  roof 
in  which  the  raft- 
ers, instead  of  con- 
tinuing straight 
down  from  the  ridge 
to  the  walls,  are  at 
a  given  height  received  on  plates,  which 
in  their  turn  are  supported  by  rafters 
less  inclined  to  the  horizon,  whose  bear- 
ing is,  through  the  medium  of  the  wall- 
plate,  directly  on  the  walls.  It  presents 
a  bent  appearance,  as  in  the  diagram, 
whence  it  derives  its  name. 

CURFEW,  a  law  introduced  from  Nor- 
mandy into  England  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, that  all  people  should  put  out 
their  fire  and  lights  at  the  ringing  of  a 
bell,  at  eight  o'clock.  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  French  couvre-feu. 

CU'RIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  cer- 
tain division,  or  portion  of  a  tribe.  Rom- 
ulus divided  the  people  into  thirty 
curicB,  or  wards;  and  there  were  ten  in 
every  tribe,  that  each  might  keep  the 
ceremonies  of  their  feasts  and  sacrifices 
in  the  temple,  or  holy  place,  appointed 
for  every  curia.  The  priest  of  the  curia 
was  called  curio. —  Curia,  in  law,  signi- 
fies generally  a  court,  but  it  was  taken 
particularly  for  the  assemblies  of  bishops, 
peers,  <S:c.  of  the  realm,  called  solemnis 
curia,  cttria.  publica,  &ci. 

CUR'RENCY,  in  commerce,  bank- 
notes or  other  paper-money  issued  by 
authority,  and  which  are  continually 
passing  current  for  coin. 

Cl'R'RENTS,  in  navigation,  certain 
settings  of  the  stream,  by  which  ships  are 
compelled  to  alter  their  course,  and  sub- 
mit to  the  motion  impressed  upon  them 
bj-  the  current.  The  causes  of  currents 
are  very  numerous.  The  waters  may  bo 
put  in  motion  by  an  internal  impulse  ;  by 
a  difference  of  heat  and  saltness  ;  by  the 
inequality  of  evaporation  in  different  lati- 
tudes ;  and  by  the  change  in  the  pressure 
at  different  points  of  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  The  existence  of  cold  strata, 
which  have  been  met  with  at  great  depths 
in  low  latitudes,  prove  the  existence  of  a 
low  current,  which  runs  from  the  polo  to 
the  equator.  It  proves  likewise,  that  sa- 
line  substances   are   distributed    in    the 


ocean,  in  a  manner  not  to  destroy  the 
effect  produced  by  different  tempera- 
tures.— It  is  well  known  also  that  there 
are  different  currents  of  air. 

CUll'SITOR,  a  clerk  belonging  to  the 
court  of  chancery,  whose  business  it  is  to 
make  out  original  writs. 

CUR'TAIN,  in  a  general  sense,  a  cloth 
hanging  round  a  bed,  or  at  a  window, 
which  may  be  contracted,  spread,  or 
drawn  aside  at  pleasure.  Also,  a  cloth- 
hanging  used  in  theatres,  to  conceal  the 
stage  from  the  spectators. — In  fortifica- 
tion, the  curtain  is  that  part  of  the  ram- 
part which  is  between  the  flanks  of  two 
bastions,  bordered  with  a  parapet,  behind 
which  the  soldiers  stand  to  fire  on  the 
covered  way  and  into  the  moat. 

CU'RULE  CHAIR,  in  Roman  antiqui- 
ty, a  chair,  or  stool,  adorned  with  ivory, 
wherein  the  chief  magistrates  of  Rome 
had  a  right  to  sit.  The  curule  magis- 
trates were  the  pediles,  the  praetors,  cen- 
sors, and  consuls.  This  chair  was  placed 
in  a  kind  of  chariot,  whence  it  had  its 
name. 

CUSTO'DIA,  the  shrine  or  receptacle 
for  the  host  in  Spanish  churches.  They 
are  frequently  constructed  of  gold  and  of 
silver,  upon  which  all  the  riches  of  the 
goldsmith's  art  were  lavished. 

CUS'TOM,  in  law,  long  established 
practice  or  usage,  which  constitutes  the 
unwritten  law,  and  long  consent  to  which 
gives  it  authority. 

CUS'TOMS,  in  political  economy,  the 
duties,  toll,  tribute,  or  tariff,  payable  to 
the  government  upon  merchandise  ex- 
ported and  imported,  and  which  form  a 
branch  of  the  perpetual  ta.xes. 

GUSTOS  ROTULO'RUM,  the  keeper 
of  the  rolls  and  records  of  the  sessions  of 
the  peace,  and  also  of  the  commission  of 
the  peace  itself.  He  is  usually  a  noble- 
man, and  always  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
of  the  quorum  in  the  county  where  he  is 
appointe<l. 

CUTA'NEOUS,  an  epithet  for  what- 
ever belongs  to  or  affects  the  skin  ;  as,  a 
cutaneous  eruption,  &c. 

CUT'LERY,  a  term  used  to  designate 
all  kinds  of  sharp  and  cutting  instru- 
ments made  of  iron  or  steel,  as  knives, 
forks,  sci.ssors,  razors,  &c.  The  iirincipal 
seat  of  the  manufacture  of  British  cut- 
lery is  Slieffiold  ;  and  the  articles  made 
there  are  hoM  in  the  highest  estimation 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

CUT'TER,  a  boat  attached  to  a  vessel 
of  war,  which  is  rowed  with  si.x  oars,  and 
is  employed  in  (tarrying  light  stores,  pas- 
sengers, &c. — Also,  a  vessel  with  one  mast 


CYO] 


AND    THE    FIXE    AKTS. 


127 


and  a  straight  running  bowsprit,  which 
may  be  run  in  upon  deck. 

CYANOGEN,  carhuvetted  azote,  or 
the  blue  cotnpolind  of  carbon  and  azotic 
gas. 

CYATIITFOIIM,  in  the  form  of  a  cup 
or  drinlcing  ghiss,  a  little  widened  at  the 
top. 

CY'ATIIUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
liquid  measure,  containing  four  ligulas, 
or  half  a  pint. — Also,  a  cup,  which  the 
Komans  used 
to  fill  and  drink 
from  as  many 
times  as  there 
were  letters  in 
the  name  of 
their  patron  or 
mistress.  It 
is  often  met 
with  on  paint- 
ed vases  in 
the  hands  of 
Bacchus;  but 
the  vessel  pe- 
culiarly sacred 
to  that  divinity  is  the  two-handled  cup, 
Cautharus. 

CYBE'LE,  in  mythology,  was  origin- 
ally the  Phrygian  goddess  of  the  earth. 
When  her  worship  was  introduced  among 
the  Greeks,  they  confounded  her  with 
Rhea,  as  did  the  Latins  with  tlieir  Ops. 
Her  rites,  like  those  of  the  Asiatic  deities, 
in  general  were  celebrated  with  great 
excitement;  her  priests,  who  were  called 
Galli,  Corybantes,  Curetcs,  &e  ,  running 
about  with  howlings  and  clashing  of  cym- 
bals. 

CY'CLAS,  a  large  robe  of  thin  texture, 
with  a  border  embroidered  with  gold, 
worn  by  the  Roman  women.  It  was 
worn  in  the  same  manner  as  the  pal- 
lium. 

CY'CLE,  in  chronologj',  a  certain 
period  or  series  of  numbers,  which  regu- 
larlj'  proceed  from  the  first  to  the  last, 
and  then  return  again  to  the  first,  and  so 
circulate  perpetually. —  Cycle  of  the  sun, 
or  solar  cijrle,  a  period  of  28  years,  in 
which  the  Sunday  or  Dominical  letter 
recurs  in  the  same  order. —  Cijcle  of  the 
moon,  or  lunar  cijcle,  a  period  of  nine- 
teen years,  when  the  new  and  full  moon 
recur  on  the  same  days  of  the  month. — 
Cycle  qf  indktion,  a  period  of  fifteen 
years,  in  use  among  the  Romans,  com- 
anencingfrom  the  thinl  year  liefore  Ciirist 
This  cvdo  has  no  connection  with  the  ce- 
lestial motions;  but  was  instituted,  ac- 
cording to  Baronius,  by  Clonstantlne. 
CY'C'LIC  CHORUS,  the  choru.«  which 


performed  the  songs  and  dances  of  the 
Dithyrambic  odes  at  Athens.  They  de- 
rived their  name  from  the  circumstance 
of  their  dnncing  round  the  altar  of  Bac- 
chus in  a  circle  (kdxAu?)  and  were  thus  dis- 
tinguished from  the  square  (Ttrpdj-oji'o?) 
choruses  of  tragedy. 

CY'CLIC  POETS.  This  terra  waj  ap- 
plied to  a  succession  of  Epic  poets  who 
followed  Homer,  and  wrote  merely  on  the 
Trojan  war  and  the  adventures  of  the 
heroes  immediately  coimected  with  it, 
keeping,  as  it  were,  to  one  circle  of  sub- 
jects. None  of  their  works  have  come 
down  to  us. 

CYCLOP.E'DIA,  a  work  containing 
definitions  or  accounts  of  the  principal 
subjects  in  one  or  all  departments  of 
learning,  art,  or  science.  Its  arrange- 
ment may  be  either  according  to  divisions 
into  the  various  sciences,  &c.,  or  the  sub- 
jects may  be  arranged  and  treated  in 
alphabetical  order.  Tlie  Encyclopcdie 
F\angoise,  or  Dictlonnaire  Encyclopc- 
diquc  and  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica, 
have  been  the  most  celebrated  works  of 
this  species;  but  the  earliest  appears  to 
be  the  Liexicon  1\cknicum  of  Harris, 
published  in  1706.  The  great  French 
work,  the  Encyclopcdie  Mcthodique,  con- 
sists, not  of  one,  but  of  a  scries  of  ency- 
clopedias or  dictionaries. 

CYCLO'PEAN,  an  epithet  applied  to 
certain  huge  structures,  the  remains  of 
which  are  found  in  many  parts  of  Greece, 
Italy,  and  Asia  Minor,  the  architecture 
of  which  was  totally  different  in  style 
from  that  which  prevailed  during  the 
historical  ages.  The  epithet  originated 
in  the  Grecian  tradition  that  assigned 
these  edifices  to  the  gigantic  strength  of 
the  Cj'claps.  It  is  most  probable  that 
they  were  really  raised  by  the  Pelasgians, 
the  predecessors  or  ancestors  of  the  later 
Greeks;  and  a  gradual  progress  may  be 
traced  in  them  from  the  e.xtremoof  rude- 
ness to  a  degree  of  symmetry  that  indi- 
cates an  approach  to  the  elegance  of 
Grecian  architecture. 

CYCLO'PES,  in  mythology,  a  race  of 
gigantic  beings  fabled  by  the  Greeks  to 
dwell  in  Sicily,  where  they  assisted  Vul- 
can in  forging  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupi- 
ter. They  had  only  one  eye,  round,  and 
situated  in  the  centre  of  the  forehead. 
The  most  celebrated  among  them  was 
Poly])hemus.  whose  exploits  have  formed 
a  prolific  theme  for  the  poets  of  antiqui- 
ty. His  attachment  to  the  nymph  Gala- 
tea, is  happily  described  in  an  idyl  of 
Theocritus ;  and  the  ninth  book  of  tho 
Odyssey  contains  a  graphic  account  of  his 


128 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    LITrJKAl  L'lcE 


[CYZ 


savage  propensities,  and  of  the  loss  of  his 
eye  by  the  stratagem  of  Ulysses. 

CYMA'TIUM,  CY'MA,  or  SI'MA,  in 
architecture,  a  member  or  moulding  of 
the  cornice,  the  profile  of  which  is  waving, 
that  is,  concave  at  the  top  and  convex  at 
the  bottom.  When  the  concave  part  of 
the  moulding  projects  beyond  the  convex 
part,  the  cymatium  is  denominated  a 
sima-recta ;  but  when  the  convex  part 
forms  the  greatest  projection,  it  is  a  sima- 
retersa. 

CYM'BAL,  a  musical  instrument  used 
by  the  ancients,  hollow,  and  made  of 
brass,  supposed  to  be  somewhat  like  a 
kettle-drum.  The  modern  cymbals  used 
in  military  bands  consist  of  two  concave 
metal  plates,  which  are  occasionally 
struck  together  and  flourished  above  the 
head  of  the  player. 

CYN'IC,  a  man  of  a  surly  or  snarl- 
ing temper  ;  a  misanthrope. — The  cynics 
■were  a  sect  of  ancient  philosophers  who 
valued  themselves  upon  their  contempt 
of  riches  and  state,  arts,  sciences,  and 
amusements.  This  sect  was  founded  by 
Antisthenes,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  who 
sought  to  imitate  his  master  in  careless- 
jess  of  outward  splendor  and  contempt  of 
riches  ;  but  his  indifference  to  these  things 
soon  degenerated  unhappily  into  a  love 
of  ostentation,  shown  by  a  display  of  pov- 
erty. Thus  ho  and  many  of  his  followers 
rejected  not  only  the  conveniences  but  fhe 
common  decencies  of  life,  and  lived  in 
rags  and  filthiness  ;  while  they  sneered 
bitterly  at  the  rest  of  the  world,  instead 
of  endeavoring  to  teach  it  to  cultivate  the 
pure  reason  of  which  they  professed  them- 
selves to  be  the  only  followers.  Of  this 
sect  was  the  famous  Diogenes,  whose 
meeting  with  Alexander  the  Great  is  too 
well  known  to  require  being  noticed  in 
this  place. 

CYNOSAR'GES,  a  sort  of  academy  in 
the  suburbs  of  Athens,  situated  near  the 
Lj'ceum  ;  so  called  from  the  mythological 
story  of  a  white  dog,  which,  when  DioinUs 
was  sacrificing  to  Hercules,  the  guardian 
of  the  place,  carried  otF  part  of  the  vic- 
tim. Besides  possessing  several  temples 
erected  in  honor  of  Jlercules,  Alcmene, 
and  other  mythological  personages,  it 
was  chiefly  famed  for  its  gymnasium,  in 
■which  foreigners  or  citizens  of  half  blood 
used  to  perform  their  exercises  ;  and  as 
being  the  i)lace  where  Antisthenes  insti- 
tuted the  sect  of  the  Cynics,  and  taught 
his  ojiinions. 

CYN'O.Sl'RE,  literally  the  tail  of  a 
dog,  applied  by  some  jihilosophcrs  to  the 
conilcllation   Ur^a  ISlinor,  by  which  the  | 


ancient  Phoenicians  used  to  be  guided  on 
their  voyages  :  whence  it  has  been  bor- 
rowed by  the  language  of  poetry,  in  which 
it  signifies  "  a  point  of  attraction  :" 

Where  perhaps  some  beauty  lies, 
'the  cynosure  of  neigiilioriiig  eyes. 

CYN'THIUS  and  CYN'TIIIA,  in  my- 
thology, surnames  given  by  the  ancient 
poets  to  Apollo  and  Diana  :  from  Cyn- 
thus.  a  mountain  of  the  island  of  Delo8, 
on  which  they  are  fabled  to  have  been 
born. 

CY'PHONISM,  a  species  of  punisli- 
ment  frequently  resorted  to  by  the  an- 
cients, which  consisted  in  besmearing  the 
criminal  with  honey,  and  then  exposing 
him  to  insects.  This  punishment  was  car- 
ried into  effect  in  various  ways,  bat  chief- 
ly by  fastening  the  sufferer  to  a  stake,  or 
extending  him  on  the  ground  with  his 
arms  pinioned. 

CY'RE'NIANS,  the  philosophers  of  a 
school  founded  at  Cyrene,  a  Grecian  col- 
ony on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  by 
Aristippus,  a  disciple  of  Socrates.  They 
held,  with  the  Epicureans,  that  pleasure 
was  the  only  good  and  pain  the  only  e\il, 
and  were  not  at  such  pains  as  the  latter 
to  prove  that  the  first  could  only  attend 
on  virtuous  conduct;  they  also  ditfered 
from  them  in  not  considering  absence  from 
pain  of  itself  to  be  a  pleasure  of  the  high- 
est order.  But  though  t  heso  philosophers 
held  that  pleasure  should  form  the  ulti- 
mate object  of  pursuit,  and  that  it  was 
only  in  subserviency  to  this  that  fame, 
fr  endship,  and  even  virtue  are  to  be  de- 
sired, still  there  were  many  points  in  their 
philosophy  calculated  to  command  gen- 
eral sympathy.  It  is  impossible  not  to 
admit  thai,  with  all  the  defects  of  the  sy.s- 
tem,  its  object  is  to  render  us  happy  in 
relation  to  ourselves,  agreeable  and  faith- 
ful to  our  friends, "and  discreet,  servicea- 
ble, and  well-bred  in  relatiim  to  those 
with  whom  wc  arc  obliged  to  live  and  con- 
verse. Perhaps  the  best  view  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  this  sect  is  to  be  obtained  from 
the  Satires  and  P]|)istles  of  Horace,  in 
which  the  versatility  of  disposition,  po- 
liteness of  mnnners,  and  knowledge  of  the 
world  that  distinguished  the  Cyrenians 
are  set  forth  with  great  clearness,  and 
with  all  the  ardor  of  an  enthasiastic  dis- 
ciple. 

CY'THER^Tl'A,  in  mythology,  a  name 
given  to  Venus,  from  the  islancl  Cythera, 
where  she  was  worshipped  with  peculiar 
veneration. 

CY'ZICE'NA,  in  anMnuity,  a  magniS- 
cent  sort  of  banqt  o'A'ig-houso,  among  th* 


D^J 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


129 


Greeks;  so  called  from  Cyzicus,  a  city 
famous  for  its  sumptuous  buildings. 

CZAR,  the  title  assuuieil  by  the  empe- 
rors of  Russia.  The  first  that  bore  this 
title  was  Basil,  the  son  of  Basilides,  un- 
der whom  the  Russian  power  began  to 
appear,  about  1470.  The  word  is  of  old 
Sclavonic  origin,  and  is  nearly  equivalent 
to  king. 

CZARI'NA,  the  title  of  the  empress 
of  Russia. 


D. 


D,  the  fourth  letter  in  the  alphabet,  is 
a  dental  articulation,  having  a  kind  of 
middle  sound  between  the  t  and  //( ;  its 
sound  being  formed  by  a  stronger  im- 
pulse of  the  tongue  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  mouth,  than  is  necessary  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  t.  D,  as  a  numeral, 
denotes  500 ;  as  an  abbreviation  it  stands 
for  Doctor,  Domini,  &o. ;  as  M.D.,  Doctor 
of  Medicine  ;  D.D.  Doctor  of  Divinity  ; 
A.D.,  Anno  Domini.  As  a  s.ign,  it  is  one 
of  the  Dominical  or  Sunday  letters  ;  and 
in  music,  it  is  the  nominal  of  the  sec- 
ond note  in  the  natural  diatonic  scale 
ofC. 

DA'ALDER,  a  Dutch  silver  coin,  of 
the  value  of  a  guilder  and  a  half,  or  about 
35  cents. 

DA  CAPO,  in  music,  an  Italian  phrase 
signifying  that  the  first  part  of  the  tune 
is  to  be  repeated  from  the  beginning.  It 
is  also  used  as  a  call  or  acclamation  to 
the  musical  performer  at  concerts,  &a., 
to  repeat  the  air  or  piece  which  has  just 
been  finished. 

DACTYL,  a  foot  in  Latin  and  Greek 
poetry,  consisting  of  a  long  syllable  fol- 
lowed by  two  short  ones;  as,  dominus, 
carmine.  When  combined  with  the  foot 
called  a  spondee,  consisting  of  two  long 
syllables,  it  forms  a  line  of  hexameter,  or 
six  feet  poetry,  in  which  the  dactyls  and 
spondees  are  tastefully  intermingled. 

DAC'TYLI,  priests  of  Cybele  in  Phry- 
gia ;  so  called,  according  to  Sophocles, 
because  they  wert  five  in  number,  thus 
corresponding  with  the  number  of  the 
fingers,  from  which  the  name  is  derived. 
Their  functions  appear  to  have  been  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  Corybantes  and  Cu- 
retes,  other  priests  of  the  same  goddess 
in  Phrygia  and  Crete. 

DACTYLIC,  an  epithet  for  verses 
which  end  with  a  dactyl  instead  of  a 
sjiondee. 

DACTYL'IOGLYPII,  in  ancient  gem 
9 


sculpture,  the  inscription  of  the  name  of 
the  artist  on  a  gem. 

DACTYLIOGRAPHY,  the  science  of 
gem  engraving. 

DACTYLIC M'ANCY,  a  kind  of  divi- 
nation among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
which  was  performed  by  suspending  a 
ring  by  a  thread  over  a  table,  the  edge 
of  which  was  marked  with  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet.  As  the  ring,  after  its  vi- 
bration ceased,  happened  to  hang  over 
certain  letters,  these  joined  together  gave 
the  answer. 

DACTYLIOTHE'CA,  a  collection  of 
engraved  gems. 

DACTYLOLOGY,  or  DACTYLON'- 
OMY,  the  art  of  communicating  ideas  or 
thoughts  by  the  fingers ;  or  the  art  of 
numbering  on  the  fingers. 

DAC'TYLOS,  the  shortest  measure 
among  the  Greeks,  being  the  fourth  part 
of  a  palm. 

DA'DO,  the  die  or  that  part  in  the 
middle  of  the  pedestal  of  a  column  be- 
tween its  base  and  cornice.  It  is  also 
the  name  of  the  lower  part  of  a  wall. 

DADU'CHI,  priests  of  Ceres,  who  at 
the  feasts  and  sacrifices  of  that  goddess, 
ran  about  the  temple  with  lighted  torches, 
delivering  them  from  hand  to  hand,  till 
they  had  passed  through  the  whole  com- 
pany. 

D^ED'ALA,  two  festivals  in  Boeotia. 
One  was  held  by  the  Platasans  in  a  large 
grove,  where  they  exposed  to  the  air 
pieces  of  boiled  flesh ;  and  observing  on 
what  trees  the  crows  alighted,  that  came 
to  feed  upon  them,  they  cut  them  down 
and  formed  them  into  statues  called 
Dcedala.  The  other  festival,  which  was 
much  more  solemn,  was  observed  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Boeotia  once  in  sixty  years, 
when  they  carried  about  the  statue  of  a 
female,  called  Daidala,  and  every  city 
and  every  man  of  fortune  offered  a  bull 
to  Jupiter,  and  an  ox  or  heifer  to  Juno, 
the  poorer  people  providing  sheep.  These, 
with  wine  and  incense,  were  laid  upon 
the  altar,  and,  together  with  twelve  sta- 
tues which  were  piled  thereon,  were  set 
on  fire  wholly  consumed. 

D.^D'ALUS,  in  fabulous  history,  the 
great-grandson  of  Erechtheus  king  of 
Athens,  is  celebrated  as  the  most  ancient 
statuary,  architect,  and  mechanist  of 
Greece  To  him  is  ascribed  the  inven- 
tion of  the  saw,  the  axe,  the  plummet, 
and  many  other  tools  and  instruments ; 
and  to  such  a  degree  did  he  excel  in 
sculpture,  that  his  statues  are  fabled  to 
have  been  endowed  with  life.  For  the 
alleged   murder  of  his   nephew  he  was 


130 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LlTEIiATURE 


[dac 


obliged  to  quit  Athens,  whence  he  re- 
paired to  Crete,  then  under  the  sway  of 
Minos,  by  whom  he  was  favorably  re- 
cei\-eil.  Here  he  constructed  the  fuuious 
labyrinth,  on  the  model  of  the  still  more 
famous  one  of  Egypt ;  but  having  assist- 
ed the  wife  of  Minos  in  an  intrigue  with 
Taurus,  he  was,  by  a  strange  fatality, 
confined  to  this  very  labyrinth  along  with 
his  son  Icarus.  By  means,  however,  of 
wings,  which  he  formed  of  linen  or  feath- 
ers and  wax,  Dajdalus  and  his  son  con- 
trived to  make  their  escape.  The  former 
pursued  his  aerial  journey,  and  arrived 
safely  in  Sicily ;  but  the  latter  having 
soared  too  near  the  sun,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  wax  that  fastened  the  wing 
was  melted,  dropped  into  and  was  drown- 
ed in  the  sea  (thence  called  the  Icarian.) 
In  Sicily  Dajdalus  continued  to  prosecute 
his  ingenious  labors,  and  lived  long 
enough  to  enrich  that  island  with  various 
works  of  art.  From  the  plastic  powers 
of  iJaBdalus,  the  ancient  poets  used  to  re- 
gard his  name  as  synonymous  with  in- 
genious, as  in  the  phrase  IJcedaleum 
opus;  and  in  a  somewhat  similar  sense 
Lucretius  applies  it  to  the  earth,  in  or- 
der to  describe  its  vernal  vegetation.  A 
few  years  ago  the  name  of  Dredalus, 
which  had  been  appropriated  by  various 
artists  in  the  history  of  Grecian  art,  was 
assumed  by  the  constructors  of  some  in- 
genious automata,  in  memory  of  the  grand 
impressions  which  the  works  of  DiBdalus 
had  produced. 

DAG'GER,  a  weapon  of  various  sizes, 


two-edged  and  pointed,  similar  in  ap- 
pearance to  a  sword,  but  smaller.  The 
cut  exhibits  two  daggers  from  the  armo- 
ry at  Goodrich  Court.  The  first  is  of 
the  time  of  Edward  III. ;  the  second, 
which  has  the  more  modern  improvement 
of  a  guard  for  the  hand,  is  of  Italian 
workmanship,  of  the  latter  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

DA'GON,  one  of  the  principal  divini- 
til ;  of  the  ancient  Phoenicians  and  Syri- 
ans, and  more  especially  of  the  Philis- 
tines. The  origin,  attributes,  and  even 
the  sex  of  this  divinity,  are  all  wrapt  in 
the  most  profound  obscurity;  but  the  sa- 
cred writers  concur  in  a.ssigning  to  him 
such  a  degree  of  authority  as  must  place 
him  on  a  level  with  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Greeks  and  Pioraans. 

DAGUER'REOTYPE,  the  name  ap- 
plied to  a  remarkable  invention  of  JNI. 
Daguerre,  of  Paris,  by  which  he  fixes 
upon  a  metallic  plate  the  lights  and  shad- 
ows of  a  landscape  or  figure,  solely  by  the 
action  of  the  solar  light.  A  plate  of  cop- 
per, thinly  coated  with  silver,  is  exposed 
in  a  close  box  to  the  action  of  the  vapor 
of  iodine  ;  and  when  it  assumes  a  yellow 
color,  it  is  placed  in  the  dark  chamber  of 
a,  camera  obscura,  where  it  receives  an 
image  of  the  object  to  be  represented.  It 
is  then  withdrawn,  and  exposed  to  the 
vapor  of  mercury  to  bring  out  the  im- 
pression distinctly ;  after  which,  it  is 
plunged  into  a  solution  of  hypo-sulphite 
of  soda,  and  lastly,  washed  in  distilled 
water.  The  process  is  then  complete,  and 
the  sketch  produced  is  in  appearance 
something  similar  to  aquatint, but  greatly 
superior  in  delicacy ;  and  such  is  the  pre- 
cision of  the  detail,  that  the  most  power- 
ful microscope  serves  but  to  display  the 
perfection  of  the  copy. 

DA'IS,  in  architecture,  the  platform 
or  raised  floor  at  the  upper  end  of  a 
dining  hall,  where  the  high  table  stood ; 
also  the  scat  with  a  canopy  (,ver  it  for 
those  who  sat  at  the  high  table. 

DALMAT'ICA,  a  long  white  gown 
with  sleeves;  worn  by  deacons  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  over  the  alb  and 
stole.  It  was  iniitated'from  a  dress  ori- 
ginally worn  in  Dalmatia,  and  imported 
into  Rome  by  the  emperor  Commodus, 
where  the  use  of  it  gradually  superseded 
the  old  Roman  fashion  of  keeping  the 
arms  uncovered.  A  similar  robe  was 
worn  by  kings  ill  the  middle  ages  at  cor- 
onations and  other  solemnities. 

DAM'AGE-FE.\S'ANT,  in  law,  is 
when  one  person's  beasts  get  into  anoth- 
er's ground,  without  license  of  the  owner 


dan] 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


131 


or  occupier  of  the  grour  d,  and  do  damage  | 
by  feeding,   or  othevw.se,  to  the  grass, 
corn,  wood,  <tc.,  in  wh!ch  case  the  party 
injured  may  distrain  or  impound  them. 

DAM'AGES,  in  law,  the  estimated 
equivalent  for  an  injury  sustained;  or  that 
which  is  given  or  adjudged  by  a  jury  to  the 
plaintiff  in  an  action,  to  rei)air  his  loss. 

DA  MASK,  a  fabric  of  silk,  linen,  wool, 
also  partly  or  wholly  of  cotton,  woven 
with  large  patterns  of  trees,  fruits,  ani- 
mals, landscapes,  &c.,  and  one  of  the 
most  costly  productions  of  the  loom.  It 
consists  throughout  of  a  body  of  five  or 
eight  shanks,  the  pattern  being  of  a  dif- 
ferent nature  to  the  ground.  Damask 
weaving  first  attained  perfection  at  Da- 
mascus, whence  this  large-patterned  fab- 
ric derives  its  name.  We  find  the  art 
flourishing  in  the  mediaeval  times  of  Art 
at  Bruges,  and  other  places  in  Flanders; 
attempts  were  also  made  in  Germany 
and  France. 

DAMA.SKEEN'ING,  this  term,  de- 
rived from  the  Syrian  Damascus,  so  re- 
nowned in  Art,  designates  the  different 
kinds  of  steel  ornamentation.  The  first 
is  the  manj'-colored  watered  Damascus 
blades ;  the  second  kind  consists  in  etch- 
ing slight  ornaments  on  polished  steel- 
wares  ;  the  third  is  the  inlaying  of  steel 
or  iron  with  gold  and  silver,  as  was  done 
with  sabres,  armor,  pistol-locks,  and  gun- 
barrels.  The  designs  were  deepl3-  en- 
graved, or  chased  in  the  metal,  and  the 
lines  filled  with  gold  or  silver  wire,  driven 
in  by  the  hammer,  and  fastened  firmly. 
This  art  was  brought  to  great  perfection 
by  the  French  artist  Corsinet,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV. 

DAME,  formerly  a  title  of  honor  to  a 
woman.  It  is  now  seldom  otherwise  ap- 
plied than  to  a  mistress  of  a  family  in  the 
numbler  walks  of  life. 

DAM'NIFY,  in  law,  to  cause  hurt  or 
damage  to  ;  as,  to  damnify  a  man  in  his 
goods  or  estate. 

DAMP'ERS,  in  music,  certain  parts  in 
Uie  internal  construction  of  the  pianoforte, 
which  are  covered  with  soft  leather  in  or- 
der to  deaden  the  vibration,  and  are  act- 
ed on  hv  a  pedal. 

DAMSEL,  (from  the  Fr.  datnoiselle,) 
a  name  anciently  given  to  young  ladies  of 
noble  or  genteel  extraction.  The  word  is, 
however,  now  seldom  used,  except  jocular- 
ly, or  in  poetry. — Dainoisel,  or  damoi- 
seau,  the  masculine  of  the  same  word,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  applied  to  young  men 
of  rank  ;  thus  we  read  of  damsel  Pepin, 
damsel  Louis  le  gros,  damsel  Richard, 
Drince  of  Wales.     From  the  sons  of  kings 


this  appellation  first  passed  to  those  of 
great  lords  or  barons,  and  afterwards  to 
those  of  gentlemen,  who  were  not  yet 
knights  ;  but,  such  is  the  change  which 
language  undergoes,  that  at  the  present 
day  it  is  only  used  (and  then  rarely)  when 
speaking  of  young  unmarried  women.  It 
occurs  frequently  in  the  Scriptures,  and  in 
poetry. 

DANCE  OF  DEATH.  This  edifj-ing 
subject  is  very  frequently  mot  with  in  an- 
cient buildings,  stained  glass,  and  in  the 
decorations  of  manuscripts,  &c.  The  best 
known  is  that  by  Hans  Holbein.  It  is 
frequently  found  in  the  margins  of  early 
printed  books.  One,  from  the  press  of 
Simon  Vostre,  in  1.502,  has  a  most  inter- 
esting series,  beautifully  designed  and 
e.xecuted.  The  earliest  representation  of 
this  impressive  subject  dates  from  the 
fourth  century  ;  but  it  was  rapidly  mul- 
tiplied, and  introduced  into  many  English 
and  continental  churches. 

DAX'CING,  may  be  defined  to  be  a 
graceful  movement  of  the  figure,  accom- 
panied by  gestures  and  attitudes  indica- 
tive of  certain  mental  emotions,  and  by 
measured  steps  in  harmony  with  a  piece 
of  music  arranged  for  the  purpose.  The 
great  antiquity  of  dancing  is  attested  by 
history,  both  sacred  and  profane.  It  con- 
sisted at  first,  probably,  of  nothing  more 
than  gesticulation  and  moving  in  a  pro- 
cession ;  in  which  sense  it  formed  part  of 
the  celebration  of  the  religious  rites  of  the 
ancient  Hebrews  and  Egyptians.  But  the 
Greeks,  who  are  confessedly  indebted  to 
the  Egyptians  for  the  elements  of  their 
religion  and  literature,  though  these  were 
afterwards  refined  by  them  to  such  a  de- 
gree as  nearly  to  obliterate  all  traces  of 
their  origin,  soon  polished  and  improved 
these  sacred  rites,  and  introduced  them 
into  all  the  festal  ceremonies  of  which 
their  elegant  mythology  was  composed. 
In  this  they  were,  as  usual,  imitated  by 
the  Romans.  If  we  believe  Scaliger,  the 
early  bishops  of  the  church  were  styled 
prcBsuks,  because  (as  the  word  literally 
implies)  they  led  off  the  dance  at  their 
solemn  festivals  ;  and  this  practice  con- 
tinued in  the  church  till  the  r2th  century. 
Almost  every  country  can  boast  of  its 
national  dances  peculiar  to  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  which  it  is  rare  to  see  so  well  per- 
formed when  adopted  by  others.  Of  these 
the  best  known  to  us  are  the  tarantella  oi 
the  Neapolitans,  the  bolero  and  fandangc 
of  the  Spaniards,  the  mazourek  and  kra- 
kowiaque  of  Poland,  the  cosaque  of  Rus- 
sia, the  redowac  of  Bohemia,  the  quad' 
rille  and  cotillon  of  France,  the    waltx 


132 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIlKKATCRr. 


[I'AV 


and  gaUopadc  of  Germany,  and  the  red 
of  Scotland.  As  an  exercise,  or  amuse- 
ment, dancing  is  nothing  more  than  a 
methodized  act  instinctive  in  the  human 
frame.  To  teach  dancing,  is  to  teach  the 
activity  of  the  body  to  display  itself  in  a 
manner  regulated  by  the  principles  of 
grace,  or  in  imitation  of  steps  and  ges- 
tures which  others  have  used  with  appro- 
bation. By  its  mechanical  effects  on  the 
body,  it  inspires  the  mind  with  cheerful- 
ness ;  while  the  music  which  accompanies 
it  has  effect  upon  the  body  as  well  as 
upon  the  mind. 

DAN'DY,  (from  clandiprat,  a  little 
urchin,  or  probably  from  the  French  dan- 
din,  a  ninny  ;)  in  modern  usage,  a  male 
of  the  human  species,  who  dresses  himself 
like  a  doll,  and  who  carries  his  character 
on  his  back. 

DA'NEGELT,  or  DA'NEGELD,  in 
England,  an  annual  tax  formerly  laid  on 
the  English  nation,  for  maintaining  forces 
to  oppose  the  Danes,  or  to  furnish  tribute 
to  procure  peace.  It  was  at  first  one  shil- 
ling, and  afterwards  two,  for  every  hide  of 
land,  except  such  as  belonged  to  the  church. 

DANGE'RIA,  in  old  English  law,  a 
payment  of  money  anciently  made  by  the 
forest  tenants  to  their  lords,  that  they 
might  have  leave  to  plough  and  sow  in 
the  time  of  pannage  or  mast-feeding. 

DAPHNE,  in  Grecian  mythology,  a 
nymph  of  Diana,  the  daughter  of  the  river 
god  Peneus.  She  was  beloved  by  Apollo  ; 
but  she  resisted  all  his  attempts  to  excite 
in  her  a  mutual  attachment,  and  at  last 
betook  herself  to  flight.  On  being  hotly 
pursued  by  the  god,  she  invoked  the  earth 
to  swallow  her  up,  when  her  prayer  was 
granted,  and  she  was  immediately  chang- 
ed into  a  laurel-tree. 

DAPHNEPHO'RIA,  in  antiquity,  a 
novennial  festival  celebrated  by  the  Breo- 
tians  in  honor  of  Apollo,  to  whom  boughs 
of  laurel  were  offered. 

DAP'PLKD,  variegated  with  spots  of 
ditl'ercnt  colors;  as,  n  dapple-bay  or  dap- 
ptc-s^rai/  horse. 

DAll.VP'Tl,  in  logic,  an  arbitrary  term 
expressing  the  first  mooil  of  the  third  fig- 
ure of  syllogisms,  where  the  first  two  prop- 
ositions are  universal  aBJrniatives,  and 
the  last  a  particular  affirmative. 

DA'RIC,  in  antiquity,  a  Persian  gold 
coin,  said  to  have  been  struck  by  Darius, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  equal  to  25s. 
sterling. 

DASH,  in  music,  a  .small  mark,  thus', 
denoting  that  the  note  over  which  it  is 
placed  is  to  be  performed  in  a  short  and 
distinct  manner. 


DATA,  am(ng  mathematicians,  a  term 
used  for  such  things  and  quantities  ai 
are  given  or  known,  in  order  to  find  otiicT 
things  therefrom,  that  are  unknown 
Euclid  uses  the  word  for  such  spaces,  liner 
and  angles,  as  are  of  a  given  magnitude , 
or  to  which  wo  can  assign  others  equal. 

DATE,  the  notation  of  the  time  ar-i ' 
place  of  the  delivery  or  subscription  of 
an  instrument.  The  word  is  derived  fror'< 
the  common  formula  at  the  foot  of  in 
struments,  "datum,"  or  "data,"  givir 
at  such  a  place  and  time.  Dates  of  tini  • 
are  distinguished  into  definite  and  in 
definite.  The  former  mark  specially  tb  • 
year,  and  sometimes4he  month,  day,  Ac. 
the  latter  only  contain  a  general  refei 
ence  to  some  period  of  time.  Thus  man^i 
instruments  of  the  earlier  part  of  tha 
middle  ages  are  dated  only  '' Regnant' 
Domino  nostra  Jesu  Christo:"  and  verj 
often  the  date  contained  only  mention  ol 
the  reigning  prince,  without  reference  ti 
the  years  of  his  reign.  Definite  dates 
are  various  in  ancient  charters  and  deed? 
The  Christian  Greeks  dated  generally, 
down  to  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  by  th» 
year  of  the  world;  beginning  their  j'cat 
at  the  1st  of  September.  The  date  user^ 
in  the  oldest  Latin  charters  is  commonlj 
that  of  the  indietion,  which  is  also  fre  ■ 
quently  added  in  the  Greek.  The  Chris 
tian  era  (under  the  several  names  of  yeai 
of  grace,  of  the  incarnation,  of  the  rcigr 
of  Christ,  of  the  nativity,  &c.,  &c.,)  bcga» 
to  be  in  common  usage  in  royal  charters 
in  France  about  the  reign  of  Hugh  Capet , 
in  Spain  and  Portugal  not  until  the  l:-ith 
and  14th  centuries.  In  England,  the 
Saxon  kings  frequently  dated  by  the  in- 
carnation ;  but  deeds  and  charters  undei 
the  Plantagenet  kings  generally  boa' 
the  year  of  the  reigning  prince. 

DA'TISI,  in  logic,  an  Arbitrary  tern; 
for  a  mode  of  syllogisms  in  the  third  fig- 
ure, wherein  the  major  proposition  is  a 
universal  affirmative,  and  the  minor  ana 
conclusion  are  particular  affirmatives. 

DA'TiVE,  in  grammar,  the  third  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  nouns. 

DAU'PIIIN,  the  title  of  the  eldest  sod 
of  the  king  of  France.  It  is  said  that,  in 
1349,  Ilumbe.-t  II.,  the  last  of  the  princes 
of  Dauphiny,  having  no  issue,  gave  his 
dominions  to  the  crown  of  France,  upon 
condition  that  the  king's  eldest  son  should 
bo  styled  the  Dauphin. 

D.-VViD'S  DAY,  (St.)  the  1st  of  March, 
kept  by  the  AVelsh,  in  honor  of  St.  David, 
bishop  of  Miney,  In'SVales;  who  at  the 
liiNiil  of  their  forces  obtained  a  signal 
victory  over  the  Saxons.     It  is  the  in 


dea] 


AND    TIIIC     FINK     A  UTS. 


133 


variable  custom  of  tho  Wolsli  to  wear 
leoks  in  thuir  li;its  on  this  ilay. 

DAWN,  tho  umnmcncoinoiit  of  tho  day, 
when  the  twilii^ht  apjioars. 

DAY,  aci'oi-iling  to  the  most  natural 
and  obvious  sunso  of  tho  word,  signifies 
that  part  of  the  twenty-four  hours  when 
it  is  light;  or  the  space  of  time  between 
the  rising  and  the  setting  of  the  sun ;  the 
lime  which  elapses  from  its  setting  to  its 
rising  again  being  considered  the  night. 
The  word  day  is  often  taken  in  a  larger 
sense,  so  as  to  include  the  night  also;  or 
to  denote  the  time  of  a  whole  apparent 
revolution  of  the  sun  round  the  earth. 
The  day  is  also  distinguishsd  into  civil 
and  astronomical.  The  civil  day  is  a 
space  of  twenty-four  hours,  reckoned 
from  sunset  to  sunset,  or  from  sunrise  to 
sunrise,  which  is  different  in  different 
parts  of  the  globe.  The  .astronomical 
day  is  the  space  of  twenty-four  hours, 
reckoned  from  twelve  o'clock  at  noon  to 
the  noon  of  the  next  day. — The  nautical 
day  ends  at  the  instant  the  astronomical 
day  begins;  so  that  nautical  time  in  days 
of  the  month,  is  always  twenty-four  hours 
in  advance  of  astronomical  time,  and  the 
civil  day  is  midway  between  both. — The 
Babylonians  began  the  day  at  sun-rising  ; 
the  Jews  at  sun-setting;  the  Egyptians 
at  midnight,  as  do  several  nations  in 
modern  times,  the  British,  French,  Span- 
ish, American,  &o. — Days  of  grace,  in 
commerce,  a  customary  number  of  days 
allowed  for  the  payment  of  a  bill  after  it 
becomes  duo.  Ttirec  days  of  grace  are 
<allowed  in  Great  Britain  and  America. 
In  other  countries  the  time  allowed  is 
much  longer,  but  the  merchants  there 
very  rarely  avail  themselves  of  the  time. 

DE  A'CON,  a  minister  of  religion,  hold- 
ing, in  Protestant  churches,  the  lowest 
degree  in  holy  orders.  The  first  appoint- 
ment of  deacons  is  mentioned  in  Acts  vi,, 
where  the  Apostles  direct  the  congrega- 
tion to  look  out  seven  men  of  honest 
report,  upon  whom  they  may  lay  their 
bands.  Their  office  at  this  time  seems  to 
have  been  chiefly  tlie  care  of  the  poor 
and  the  distribution  of  the  bread  and 
wino  in  the  love  feasts.  We  learn,  how- 
ever, from  the  example  of  Philip,  Acts 
viii.,  that  they  also  had  authority  to 
preach.  In  the  English  church  it  is  the  low- 
est of  the  three  orders  of  clergy  (deacons, 
priests  and  bishops  )  The  word  is  some- 
times used  in  the  New  Testament  for  any 
one  that  ministers  in  the  service  of  God  ; 
In  which  sense,  bishops  and  presbyters 
are  styled  deacons;  but,  in  its  restrained 
sense,  it  is  taken  for  tho  third  order  of 


tho  clergy.  In  (ho  church  of  England, 
the  form  of  ordaining  a  deacon  declares 
that  it  is  his  office  to  assist  in  the  distri- 
bution of  the  holy  communion  ;  in  which, 
agreeably  to  the  practice  of  tiio  ancient 
church,  he  is  confined  to  tho  administra- 
tion of  the  wine  to  the  communicants. 
A  deacon  is  not  capable  of  any  ecclesias- 
tical promotion;  yet  he  may  be  chaplain 
to  a  family,  curate  to  a  beneficed  clergy- 
man, or  lecturer  to  a  parish  church. — In 
the  Romish  church,  the  deacon's  office  is 
to  incense  the  officiating  priest,  to  incense 
the  choir,  to  put  the  mitre  on  the  bishop's 
head  at  the  pontifical  mass,  and  to  assist 
at  the  communion. — In  Presbyterian  and 
Independent  places  of  worship,  tho  dea- 
cons distribute  the  bread  and  wine  to  the 
communicants. — In  Scotland,  an  overseer 
of  the  poor,  or  the  master  of  an  incor 
porated  company,  is  styled  a  deacon. 

DEA'CONESS,  a  female  deacon  in  the 
primitive  church.  This  office  appears  as 
ancient  as  the  apostolical  age  ;  for  St, 
Paul  calls  Phoebe  a  servant  of  the  church 
of  Cenchrea.  One  part  of  their  office  was 
to  assist  the  minister  at  the  baptizing  of 
women,  to  undress  them  for  immersion, 
and  to  dress  them  again,  that  the  whoie 
ceremony  might  be  performed  with  all 
the  decency  becoming  so  sacred  an  ac- 
tion. 

DEAD  LAN'GUAGE,  a  language 
which  is  no  longer  spoken  or  in  common 
use  by  a  people,  and  known  only  in  writ- 
ings ;  as  tho  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin. 

DEAN,  a  dignitary  of  the  church  of 
England,  next  to  a  bishop,  and  head  of 
the  chapter,  in  a  cathedral  or  council.- - 
Dean  and  chapter,  are  the  bishop's 
council  to  assist  him  with  their  advice  in 
tho  affairs  of  religion,  and  in  the  tempo- 
ral concerns  of  his  see. 

DEATH,  a  total  and  permanent  cessa- 
tion of  all  the  vital  functions,  when  the 
organs  have  not  only  ceased  to  act,  but 
have  lost  the  susceptibility  of  renewed 
action.  "  Men,"  says  Lord  Bacon,  "fear 
death,  as  children  fear  the  dark ;  and  as 
that  natural  fear  in  children  is  increased 
by  frightful  tales,  so  is  the  other.  Groans, 
convulsions,  weeping  friends,  and  the  like, 
show  death  terrible;  yot  there  is  no  pas- 
sion so  weak  but  conquers  the  fear  of  it, 
and  therefore  death  is  not  such  a  terrible 
enemy  ;  revenge  triumphs  over  death 
love  slights  it ;  dread  of  shame  prefers  it ; 
grief  flies  to  it;  and  fear  anticipates  it." 
The  alarms  most  prevalent  among  man- 
kin<l  soein  to  arise;  from  two  considera- 
tions, viz.,  the  supposed  corjioreal  suffer- 
ing attending  it :  and  the  state  that  is  to 


134 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    MTERATUHE 


Bucceed  it.  With  respect  to  the  supposed 
corporeal  sufl'ering,  it  may  be  observed, 
that  death  is  a  mere  passive  extinction  of 
the  vital  fire,  unattended  with  a^y  exer- 
tion of  the  animal  functions,  and  there- 
fore wholly  free  from  pain.  The  agonies 
and  sufferings  incident  to  sickness  or 
wounds,  are  the  agonies  and  sufferings  of 
life,  not  of  death  ;  they  are  the  struggles 
of  the  bod}'  to  live,  not  to  die  ;  efforts  of 
the  machine  to  overcome  the  obstacles  by 
which  its  functions  are  impeded.  But 
when  the  moment  of  dissolution  arrives, 
all  sense  of  suffering  is  subdued  by  an  in- 
stantaneous stoppage  of  life,  or  by  a  lan- 
guid insensible  fainting. — In  law,  there 
is  a  natural  death  and  a  civil  death  ;  nat- 
ural, where  actual  death  takes  place ; 
civil,  vi-hcre  a  person  is  not  actually  dead, 
but  adjudged  so  bylaw;  as  by  banish- 
ment, abjuration  of  the  realm,  &c. 

DEATir-WATCn,alittle  insect,  which 
inhabits  old  wooden  furniture,  and  is  fa- 
mous for  striking  with  its  head  against 
paper  or  some  other  material,  and  there- 
by making  a  ticking  noise,  like  the  beat 
of  a  watch,  which  b_v  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious people  is  supposed  to  be  a  presage 
of  death. 

DEBATE',  oral  contention  by  argu- 
ment and  reasoning  ;  or  a  controversy  be- 
tween parties  of  different  opinions,  pro- 
fessedly for  elucidating  the  truth. — De- 
bates in  congress;  the  published  report  of 
arguments  for  and  against  a  measure,  in 
either  house  of  congress. 

DEBEX'TUKE,  a  term  used  at  the  cus- 
tom-house for  a  certificate  signed  by  an 
officer  of  the  customs,  which  entitles  a 
merchant  exporting  goods  to  the  receipt 
of  a  bounty,  or  a  drawback  of  duties. — It 
also  denores  a  sort  of  bill  drawn  upon  the 
government. 

DEB'IT,  a  term  used  in  book-keeping 
to  express  th^  left  hand  page  of  ledger,  to 
which  all  articles  are  carried  that  are 
charged  to  an  account. 

DEBOUCH',  in  military  language,  to 
issue  or  march  out  of  a  narrow  place,  or 
from  defiles. 

DEBOU'CHEMENT,  a  French  term 
for  the  marching  of  an  army  from  a  nar- 
row place  into  one  that  is  more  open. 

DEBT,  in  law,  that  which  is  due  from 
one  person  to  another,  whether  it  be  mon- 
ey, goods,  or  services. — In  law,  used  ellip- 
tically  for  an  action  to  recover  a  debt. — 
In  scripture,  sin  ;  that  which  renders  lia- 
ble to  punishment;  as,  "forgive  us  our 
debts" — IWdtionnl  debt,  the  engagement 
entered  into  by  a  government  to  repay  at 
a  future  period  money  advanced  by  indi- 


viduals for  public  service,  or  to  pay  the 
lenders  an  equivalent  annuity. 

DEBRIS,  (pron.  debrce.)  ruins  or  rub- 
bish; applied  particularly  to  the  frag- 
ments of  rocks. — The  word  debris  is  also 
used  by  the  French  to  express  the  remains 
or  wreck  of  an  army  that  has  been  routed. 

DEBUT',  in  its  most  general  accepta- 
tion, is  applied  to  the  commencement  of 
any  undertaking,  or  to  the  first  step  made 
in  a  public  career  ;  but  it  is  confined  more 
particularly  to  the  language  of  the  thea- 
tre, in  which  it  signifies  the  first  appear- 
ance of  an  actor,  or  his  first  appearance 
on  any  particular  stage. 

DEC'ACHORD.  or  DECACHOR'DON, 
a  musical  instrument  of  ten  strings. 

DECADE,  a  word  used  by  some  old 
writers  in  a  general  sense  for  the  number 
ten,  or  an  enumeration  by  tens. 

DECALOGUE,  tlie  ten  commandments 
or  precepts  delivered  bj'God  to  Moses,  at 
Mount  Sinai,  originally  engraved  on  two 
tables  of  stone.  The  Jews,  by  way  of  ex- 
cellence, call  these  commandments  The 
Ten  AV'ords,  whence  they  afterwards  re- 
ceived the  name  of  decalogue. 

DECAJI'EROX,  a  work  containing  the 
actions  or  conversations  of  ten  da\'s. — 
Decameron,  the  name  given  by  Boccac- 
cio to  his  celebrated  (Collection  of  tales  ; 
they  are  supposed  to  be  narrated  ia 
turn,  during  ten  daj-s,  by  a  party  of 
guests  assembled  at  a  villa  in  the  country 
to  escape  from  the  plague  which  raged  at 
Florence  in  1348. 

DECAPITA'TIOX,  a  mole  of  punish- 
ment of  great  antiquity,  having  been 
practised  by  the  Jews,  (J reeks,  and  Ro- 
mans, and  some  other  ancient  nations. 
Among  the  continental  nations  of  modern 
times,  it  has  long  been  the  ordinary 
punishment  inflicted  on  all  capitally  «on- 
victed  criminals.  During  the  early  pe- 
riod of  English  history,  it  was  the  usual 
mode  of  punishing  felons  ;  but  it  after- 
wards became  a  punishment  apjiropria- 
ted  only  to  criminals  of  the  highest  rank, 
and  even  to  this  day  it  is  consiilered  as 
the  most  honorable  death  which  a  capital 
offender  can  undergo.  The  last  instance 
of  the  infliction  of  this  punishment  in 
England  occurred  in  174,5,  soon  after  the 
rebellion  in  Scotland  had  been  quelled. 

DECASTICK,  a  poem  consisting  of 
ten  lines. 

1)  E  C '  A  S  T  Y  L  E,  in  architecture,  a 
building  with  an  ordnance  often  columns 
in  front. 

DECASYI/LABIC,  having  ten  syl- 
lables. In  the  German  and  English  lan- 
guages the  ordinary  heroic  verse  is  dec- 


flECJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


135 


asyllabic ;  but  a  short  syllable  is  some- 
times adiluil  at  tlie  end  by  way  of  a  va- 
riety, anil  this,  in  consequence  of  the 
structure  of  those  laiifjuages,  t;ikes  place 
more  frequently  in  the  former  than  the 
latter.  In  the  Italian  heroic  verse  the 
eleventh  syllable  is  almost  uniformly 
adileiJ,  and  hence  it  is  more  properly  to 
be  termed  an  hendecasyllahic.  In  French 
versification  the  decasyllabic  line  is  ap- 
propriated to  light  compositions,  espe- 
cially tales. 

DECE.M'BER,  the  last  month  of  the 
modern  year,  consisting  of  thirty-one 
days ;  when  the  sun  enters  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  and  makes  the  winter  solstice. 
It  was  so  called  from  being  the  tenth 
month  in  the  Roman  year,  which  began 
with  March. 

DE  CEM  PRI'MI,  or  DE'CEM 
PRIN'CIPE.S,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
ten  chief  men  or  senators  of  every  city 
or  borough. 

DECEMVIRI,  properly  any  body  of 
ten  men  appointed  for  particular  pur- 
poses. But  that  which  is  especially 
known  by  this  name  was  the  commission 
elected  from  the  Roman  patricians  in  the 
302d  year  after  the  foundation  of  the 
city,  and  invested  with  all  the  supreme 
powers  of  the  state,  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  up  a  body  of  laws  founded,  ac- 
cording to  Roman  tradition,  on  the  most 
approved  institutions  of  Greece.  They 
presenteil  to  the  people  a  number  of  laws 
engraved  on  ten  tables,  containing  a  sum- 
mary of  the  privileges  to  be  enjoyed  by 
the  people,  and  the  crimes  to  be  punished, 
Ac.  At  the  same  time  they  informed  the 
people  that  their  plan  was  incomplete ; 
and  accordingly  a  new  commission,  to 
which  the  plebeians  were  admitted,  was 
appointed  for  the  next  year,  with  the 
game  powers ;  the  result  of  which  was 
the  addition  of  two  more  tables  to  the 
former  ten,  thus  making  up  the  famous 
twelve  tables,  which  were  the  foundation 
of  all  Roman  law  in  subsequent  times. 
The  second  decemvirate  did  not  demean 
itself  with  the  same  moderation  as  the 
first,  but  sought  to  prolong  its  power,  and 
at  the  same  time  proceeded  to  some  vio- 
lent acts  of  despotism,  which  so  exas- 
perated the  people  as  to  make  its  di.«solu- 
tion  necessary.  Besides  these  extraor- 
dinary commissions,  there  was  a  body  of 
•decemviri  chosen  for  judicial  purposes,  to 
preside  over  and  summon  the  contumviri, 
and  to  judge  certain  causes  by  them- 
selves. There  were  likewise  decemviri 
appointed  from  time  to  time  to  divide 
lands  among  the  military. 


DECEX'NARY,  in  law,  a  tithing  con- 
sisting of  ten  freeholders  and  their  fami- 
lies. Ten  of  these  decennaries  constituted 
a  hundred,  the  origin  of  which  is  ascribed 
to  Alfred. 

DECEP'TIVE  CA'DENCE,  in  music, 
a  cadence  in  which  the  final  close  is 
avoided  bv  varying  the  final  chord. 

DECIM.A'TION,  a  punishmo«t  inflict- 
ed by  the  Romans  on  such  soldiers  as  quit- 
ted their  post,  or  behaved  themselves  ill  in 
the  field.  The  names  of  all  the  guilty 
were  put  into  an  urn  or  helmet,  from 
which  a  tenth  part  only  were  drawn, 
whose  lot  it  was  to  suffer  death. 

DECK,  the  planked  floor  of  a  ship 
from  stem  to  stern.  Small  vessels  have 
only  one  deck  :  larger  ships  have  -two  or 
three  decks.  Thus,  speaking  of  the  size 
of  a  large  ship,  we  say,  she  is  a  two-deck- 
er, or  a  three-decker. 

DECLAMA'TION,  signified,  among 
the  ancients,  the  art  of  speaking  indiffer- 
ently upon  both  sides  of  a  question  :  a 
species  of  intellectual  exercise  resorted 
to  by  the  rhetoricians  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  as  the  best  means  of  acquiring 
facility  in  public  speaking.  In  moilern 
times  the  meaning  of  declamation  is  dif- 
ferent in  different  countries.  In  Ger- 
many, and  in  most  parts  of  the  Continent, 
it  is  often  used  in  a  sense  nearly  synony- 
mous with  recitative.  In  France  and 
England,  especially  the  latter,  it  is  some- 
times applied  to  any  grand  oratorical 
display,  either  in  the  pulpit,  at  the  bar 
in  the  senate,  or  on  the  stage,  in  which 
the  voice,  gesticulation,  and  the  whole 
delivery  of  the  speaker  are  in  perfect 
keeping  with  the  subject  matter  of  his 
address.  But  it  is  employed  most  usually 
in  a  disparaging  sense,  to  indicate  the 
use  of  forced  emphasis,  inflated  language, 
and  violent  gestures,  to  withdraw  the  at- 
tention of  the  auditors  from  the  weakness 
or  fallacy  of  the  reasoning. 

DECLARA'TIOX,  in  law,  that  part  of 
the  process  or  pleadings  in  which  a  state- 
ment of  the  plaintiff's  complaint  against 
the  defendant  is  set  forth. —  Declaration 
of  icnr,  a  public  proclamation  made  by  a 
herald  at  arms  to  the  subjects  of  a  state, 
declaring  them  to  be  at  war  with  some 
foreign  power,  and  forbidding  all  and 
every  one  to  aid  or  assist  the  common 
encmv  at  their  i)eril. 

DECLEX'SIOX,  in  grammar,  the  i'.. 
flection  of  cases  to  which  nouns  are  sub- 
ject. Also,  the  act  of  going  through  these 
inflections. 

DECLI'NATORY  PLEA,  in  law,  a 
plea  before  trial  or  conviction,  intended 


136 


CYCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[dek 


to  show  that  the  party  was  not  lisble  to 
the  penalty  of  the  law,  or  was  specially  ex- 
empted from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court. 

DECOLLATION,  a  term  in  frequent 
use,  synonymous  with  beheading,  and 
used  in  reference  to  the  decapitation  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  St.  Cecilia,  &c. 

DECORA'TION,  the  ornamental  parts 
in  an  eciifice,  comprising  the  columns, 
pilasters,  friezes,  bas-reiiefs,  cornices, 
festoons,  niches,  statues,  &c.,  and  which 
form  the  decorations  of  the  fa9ade  of  a 
palace  or  temple  ;  and  the  gilding,  ara- 
besques, paintings,  panellings,  carvings, 
the  draperies,  &c.,  which  compose  the 
decoration  of  an  interior.  The  discover- 
ies at  Pompeii  have  furnished  some  very 
beautiful  interior  decorations,  quite  clas- 
sical in  taste. 

DECO'RUM,  in  architecture,  the  suit- 
ableness of  a  building,  and  of  its  parts 
and  ornaments,  to  their  respective  places 
and  uses. 

DECOY',  in  a  general  sense,  any  lure 
that  deceives  and  misleads.  Also,  a  sea 
term,  for  a  stratagem  employed  by  ships 
of  war,  to  draw  any  vessel  of  inferior 
force  into  an  incautious  pursuit,  until  she 
comes  within  gun-shot.  Decoying  is  also 
performed  to  elude  the  chase  of  a  ship  of 
superior  force  in  a  dark  night ;  and  this 
is  done  by  committing  to  the  sea  a  light- 
ed cask  of  pitch,  which  will  burn  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  misguide  the  ene- 
my. As  soon  as  the  cask  is  lowered,  the 
ship  changes  her  course,  and  thus,  if  at 
any  tolerable  distance  from  the  foe,  es- 
capes with  facility. 

DECllEE',  the  order  of  an  authorita- 
tive power.  In  England,  the  sentence 
of  the  judges  in  the  civil  courts,  and  in 
chancery,  is  called  a  decree.  In  theology, 
the  pre-determined  purpose  of  God,  whose 
plan  of  operations  is,  like  himself,  un- 
changeable. 

DECREET',  in  the  Scotch  law,  a  final 
decree  of  judgment  of  the  lords  of  session, 
from  which  an  appeal  only  lies  to  parlia- 
ment. 

DECRESCEN'DO,  in  music,  the  term 
for  gra<lually  decreasing  or  weakening 
the  sound;  as  opposed  to  crescendo. 

DECRE'TAL,  a  letter  from  the  pope, 
determining  some  point  or  question  in 
ecclesiastical  poHty.  The  decretals  form 
the  second  part  of  the  canon  law. 

DECU'RIO,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
company  of  ten  men  under  one  officer  or 
lea<ler.  who  was  called  a  decurion,  their 
cavalry  being  divided  into  centuries,  and 
the  centuries  subdivided  into  ten  dccaruc 
each. 


DECURIO'NES  jMUIxICfPA'LES,  a 
court  of  judges  or  counsellors  represent- 
ing the  Roman  senate  in  the  free  towns 
and  provinces. 

DEDICATION,  the  act  of  consecrat- 
ing, or  solemnly  devoting,  any  person  or 
thing  to  the  service  of  God,  and  the  pur- 
poses of  religion. — Feast  of  dedication, 
an  anniversary  festival  among  the  Jews, 
in  memory  of  Judas  MaccabiKu.s,  who 
repaired  and  dedicated  anew  the  temple 
and  altar,  which  had  been  plundered  and 
profaned  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  It  was 
observed  on  the  '25th  of  Chisleu,  and  con- 
tinued eight  days. — Dedication,  in  litera- 
ture, a  complimeatary  address  to  a  par- 
ticular person,  prefi.Ked  by  an  author  to 
his  work.  Dedications  arose  out  of  the 
dependent  situation  in  which  authors 
have  too  frequently  been  placed  in  refer- 
ence to  their  powerful  or  wealthy  patrons  ; 
and,  at  no  very  distant  time,  were  often 
rewarded  by  pecuniary  presents.  The 
custom  of  dedicating  works  was  in  use  at 
a  very  early  period.  The  brightest  orna- 
ments of  Roman  literature,  Horace,  Vir- 
gil, Cicero,  and  Lucretius,  were  among 
the  number  of  those  who  practised  it.  At 
the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters  in 
Europe,  few  vrorks  were  published  with- 
out dedications ;  many  of  which  are  re- 
markable for  their  elegance  and  purity 
of  style,  and  from  the  interesting  matter 
which  they  contain  are  of  far  more  valur 
than  the  treatises  to  which  they  are  pre- 
fixed. But  t'le  practice  became  gradu- 
ally perverted  :  and  many  of  the  authorj 
of  the  succeeding  generations  employed 
them  chiefly  with  the  view  of  securing  tha 
patronage  of  the  great.  Dedications  were 
most  abused  in  France  under  Louis  XIV., 
and  in  England  from  1670  to  the  acces- 
sion of  George  III.  Dryden  was  a  great 
dedicator,  and  Johnson  wrote  dedications 
for  money.  Corneillc  got  1000  louis  d'or 
for  the  dedication  of  Cirma.  Some  of  the 
most  beautiful  dedications  with  which  we 
are  acquainted  are  those  prefixed  to  the 
different  volumes  of  the  Spectator,  by 
Addison;  .and  in  more  recent  times  the 
poetical  dedications  with  which  each  canto 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Marmion  is  pre- 
faced. 

DEDUC'TOR,    a   client    amongst   the 
Romans,  who  called  upon  his  patron  at 
his  lodgings  in  the  morning,  waited  upon 
him   from  thence  to  the  forum,  and  at-% 
tended  him  upon  all  public  occasions. 

DEED,  in  law,  a  written  contract, 
sealed  and  delivered.  It  must  be  written 
before  the  sealing  and  delivery,  other- 
wise it  is  no  deed;  and  aftor  it  is  once 


DEG 


AND    THE    FINE    AUTS. 


137 


formally  exociiteil  by  the  parties,  nothing 
can  bo  adilod  or  interliiiod  ;  and,  there- 
fore, if  a  deed  be  sealed  and  delivered, 
with  a  blank  left  for  the  sum,  which  the 
obligee  fills  up  after  sealing  and  delivery, 
this  will  make  the  deed  void.  Every  deed 
must  be  founded  upon  good  and  sufficient 
consideration  ;  not  upon  a  usurious  con- 
tract, nor  upon  fraud  or  collusion,  either 
to  deceive  bona  Jidc  purchasers,  or  just 
and  lawful  creditors;  any  of  which  con- 
siderations will  vacate  the  deed.  It  takes 
effect  only  from  the  day  of  delivery  ;  and, 
therefore,  if  a  deed  have  no  date,  or  a 
date  impossible,  the  delivery  will  in  all 
cases  ascertain  the  date  of  it.  The  deliv- 
ery of  a  deed  may  be  alleged  at  any  time 
after  the  deed;  but  unless  it  be  sealed 
and  regularly  delivered,  it  is  no  deed. 
And  lastly,  it  must  be  properly  witnessed 
or  attested  ;  which,  however,  is  necessary 
rather  for  preserving  the  evidence,  than 
as  intrinsically  essential  to  the  validity 
of  the  instrument. 

DE  FACTO,  in  law,  something  actually 
in  fact,  or  existing,  in  contradistinction 
to  de  jure,  where  a  thing  is  only  so  in 
justice  but  not  in  fact;  as  a  king  de  facto, 
is  a  person  that  is  in  actual  possession 
of  a  crown,  but  has  no  legal  right  to  the 
same  ;  and  a  king  dc  jure  is  the  person 
who  has  a  just  right  to  the  crown,  though 
he  is  not  in  possession  of  it. 

DEFAMAXrOX,  the  malicious  utter- 
ing of  falsehood  with  a  view  to  injure 
another's  reputation.  Defamatory  words 
written  and  published,  constitute  a  libel. 

DEFAULT",  in  law,  a  non-appearance 
in  court  without  a.ssigning  sutficient  cause. 
—  Defaulter,  one  who  fails  to  account  for 
public  money  entrusted  to  his  care. 

DEFEAS'ANCE,  in  law,  a  condition 
relating  to  a  deed,  which  being  performed, 
the  deed  is  defeated  and  rendered  void. 
A  defeasance,  or  a  bond,  or  a  recogni- 
zance, or  a  judgment  recovered,  is  a  con- 
dition which,  when  performed,  defeats  it. 

DEFECTIVE  FIFTH,  in  music,  an 
interval  containing  a  semitone  less  than 
the  perfect  fifth.  It  is  also  called  semidia- 
pente,  and  Hat,  lesser,  or  diminished  fifth. 

DEFEXCE',  in  law,  the  reply  which 
the  defendant  makes  after  the  declaration 
is  jiroiluccd. — In  military  affairs,  any 
work  that  covers  or  defends  the  opposite 
posts,  as  flanks,  parapets,  ifcc. 

DEFEND'ANT,  in  law,  the  party  that 
is  summoned  into  court,  and  defends,  de- 
nies, or  opposes  the  demand  or  charge, 
and  maintains  his  own  right.  It  is  appli- 
ed whether  the  person  defends,  or  admits 
he  claim  and  suffers  a  default. 


DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH,  a  title 
bestowed  on  Henry  VIII.  of  England  by 
Pope  Leo  X ,  on  the  occasion  of  that 
monarch's  publishing  his  writing  against 
Luther.  When  at  the  Reformation  Hen- 
ry suppressed  all  the  monasteries  and 
convents  in  England,  the  pope  deprived 
him  of  this  title;  but  in  the  thirty-fifth 
year  of  his  reign  it  was  confirmed  by  par- 
liament, and  it  has  been  since  constantly 
assumed  by  the  sovereigns  of  England. 

DEFILE',  a  narrow  way,  or  pass, 
through  which  a  company  of  soldiers  can 
march  onlv  in  tiie. 

DEFINI'TION,  the  determining  the 
nature  of  things  by  words;  or  a  brief  de- 
scription of  a  thing  by  its  properties.  It 
is  generally  effected  by  adding  to  a  gene- 
ric word  the  essential  and  peculiar  quali- 
ties or  circumstances  of  the  thing  to  be 
defined  ;  but  a  strictlj'  accurate  definition 
cannot  always  be  given ;  and  the  most 
simple  things  are  generally  the  least  ca- 
pable of  definition,  from  the  difficulty  of 
finding  terms  more  simple  and  intelligible 
than  the  one  to  be  defined. 

DEFIX'ITIVE,  a  term  applied  to 
whatever  terminates  a  process,  question, 
&o.  in  opposition  to  provisional  and  inter- 
locutorj-. —  In  grammar,  a  word  used  to 
define  or  limit  the  extent  of  the  significa- 
tion of  an  appellative  or  common  noun. 

DEFORCB'MENT,  in  law,  the  hohling 
of  lands  or  tenements  to  which  another 
person  has  a  right.  In  Scotland,  it  de- 
notes a  resisting  of  an  officer  in  the  exe- 
cution of  law. 

DEGRADATION,  in  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs, the  depriving  a  person  of  his  digni- 
ty and  degree  ;  as  the  degradation  of  a 
clergyman  by  depriving  him  of  holy  or- 
ders.— In  military  affairs,  the  depriving 
an  officer  of  his  commission. — In  painting, 
a  lessening  and  obscuring  of  the  appear- 
ance of  distant  objects  in  a  landscape,  that 
they  may  appear  as  they  would  do  to  an 
eye  placed  at  a  distance. 

DEGREE',  in  universities,  a  mark  of 
distinction  conferred  on  the  students  or 
members  thereof  as  a  testimony  of  their 
proficiency  in  arts  or  sciences,  and  en 
titling  them  to  certain  privileges.  This 
is  usually  evinced  l)y  a  diploma.  The 
first  degree  is  that  of  Bachelor  of  Arts; 
the  second,  that  of  Master  of  Arts.  Hon- 
orary degrees  are  those  of  Doctor  of  Di- 
vinity,  Doctor  of  Laws,  etc.  Physicians 
also  receive  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Med- 
icine.  The  origin  of  degrees  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Paris  and  Bologna,  the  two 
most  ancient  in  Europe,  ajipears  to  have 
been  only  the  necessary  distinction  be- 


138 


CYCLOrKDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[del 


tween  those  who  taught  and  those  who 
learnt.  The  former  were  styled  (such 
was  at  least  the  case  at  Paris)  doctors  or 
teachers,  and  masters,  as  a  token  of  re- 
spect, indiscriminately.  At  what  time  the 
distinction  between  these  two  degrees 
arose  we  cannot  ascertain  ;  but  about  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century  we  find,  at 
Paris,  doctors  and  masters  simply  as  grad- 
uates, and  not  necessarily  connected  with 
the  business  of  teaching  ;  those  who  were 
so  being  called  regent  masters,  or  simply 
regents.  The  degree  of  Bachelor,  the 
lowest  in  the  several  faculties,  is  certain- 
ly of  French  origin  ;  from  whence  it  has 
been  argued  that  the  whole  sj'stem  of 
academical  titles  is  so  likewise.  Degrees 
still  continue  to  bear  the  same  names, 
and,  with  some  variation,  the  same  rela- 
tive academical  rank,  in  most  European 
countries  ;  but  the  mode  of  granting  them, 
and  their  value  at  different  universities  as 
tokens  of  proficiency,  vary  greatly.  At 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  degrees  are  given 
in  arts,  divinity,  law,  medicine,  and  mu- 
sic ;  but  among  all  these  the  lowest  de- 
gree in  arts,  viz.  that  of  bachelor,  is  the 
only  one  conferred  on  a  substantial  exam- 
ination, and  the  only  one  which  is  attain- 
ed by  proceeding  through  a  regular  aca- 
demical course  of  study.  The  higher  de- 
grees in  arts,  and  those  in  the  other  facul- 
ties, are  attained  simply  by  residence  and 
the  performance  of  a  few  unimportant 
exercises.  Honorary  degrees,  in  the  Eng- 
lish universities,  are  generally  conferred 
in  civil  law. 

DEGREES  of  comparison,  in  grammar, 
the  inflections  of  adjectives  which  ex- 
press different  degrees  of  the  same  qual- 
ity ;  as,  good,  better,  best. —  Degrees,  in 
music,  the  small  intervals  of  which  the 
concords  or  harmonical  intervals  are  com- 
posed. 

DE'ICIDE,  a  term  only  used  for  the 
condemnation  and  execution  of  the  Sa- 
viour of  the  world,  by  Pontius  Pilate  and 
the  Jews. 

DEIFICATION,  the  act  of  deifying, 
or  enrolling  among  the  heathen  deities. 

DEI  GRA'TIA,  {by  the  grace  of  God,) 
a  Latin  formula,  usually  inserted  in  the 
ceremonial  description  of  the  title  of  a 
sovereign.  It  was  used  originally  by  the 
clergy. 

DEI  JUDI'CIUM,  the  old  Saxon  trial 
by  ordaal,  so  called  because  it  was  sup- 
posed to  be  an  appeal  to  (lod. 

DEIPNOS  OPHIST,  one  of  an  ancient 
Beet  of  philosophers  who  were  famous  for 
their  learned  conversation  at  meals. 

DE'ISTS,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 


word,  are  those  persons  who  acknowl- 
edge the  existence  of  one  God,  but  dis- 
believe in  revealed  religion.  Taking 
the  denomination  in  the  most  exien- 
sive  signification,  a  learned  theologian 
has  thus  divided  deists  into  four  classes. 
1.  Such  as  believe  the  existence  of  an 
eternal,  infinite,  independent,  intelligent 
Being,  and  who  teach  that  this  supreme 
Being  made  the  world,  though  he  does 
not  at  all  concern  himself  in  the  manage- 
ment of  it.  2.  Those  who  believe  not 
only  the  being,  but  also  the  proviilence  of 
God  with  respect  to  the  natural  world,  but 
who  not  allowing  any  diflerence  between 
moral  good  and  evil,  deny  that  God  takes 
any  notice  of  the  morally  good  or  evil 
actions  of  men;  these  things  depending, 
as  they  imagine,  on  the  arbitrary  consti- 
tutions of  hum.an  laws.  3.  Those  who 
having  right  apprehensions  concerning 
the  natural  attributes  of  God,  and  his  all- 
governing  providence,  and  some  notion  of 
his  moral  perfections  also;  yet  being 
prejudiced  against  the  notion  of  the  im- 
mortality of  the  human  soul,  believe  that 
men  perish  entirely  at  death,  and  that 
one  generation  shall  perpetually  succeed 
another,  without  any  future  restoration 
or  renovation  of  things.  4.  Such  as  be- 
lieve the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
together  with  his  providence  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  world,  as  also  the  obliga- 
tions of  natural  religion  ;  but  so  far  only, 
as  these  things  are  discoverable  by  the 
light  of  nature  alone,  without  believing 
any  divine  revelation. 

DE'ITY,  the  nature  and  essence  of  the 
Supreme  Being  ;  a  term  frequently  used 
in  a  synonymous  sense  with  God. — Also, 
a  fabulous  god  or  goddess ;  as,  Jupiter, 
Juno,  Apollo,  tfec. 

DEJEU'NER,  a  term  wholly  natural- 
ized in  almost  all  the  languages  of  mod- 
ern Europe,  not  excepting  the  English, 
signifj'ing  the  morning  meal.  The  mate- 
rials of  which  it  is  composed  vary  of 
course  with  the  climate  and  usages  of  dif- 
ferent countries ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark that  in  France  itself  this  term  is 
rapidly  losing,  if  indeed  it  has  not  already 
lost,  its  origin.il  acceptation,  being  used, 
particularly  by  the  fashionable  world,  as 
synonymous  with  the  English  luncheon. 

DEL  CRED'ERE.  a  term  in  commerce 
expressive  «f  a  guarantee  given  by  fac- 
tors, who  for  an  additional  premium  war- 
rant the  solvency  of  the  parties  to  whom 
they  sell  goods  upon  credit. 

DEL'EGATE,  a  commissioner  of  ap- 
peal appointed  by  the  king  to  hear  ap- 
peal causes  from  the  ecclesiastical  court.— 


dem] 


AND    Till':    FINIC    AllTS. 


139 


In  the  United  States,  a  person  elected  to 
represent  a  territory  in  Congreiss,  who 
has  the  right  of  dchate,  but  not  of  voting. 

DELEliATION,  in  the  civillaw,  the 
act  by  which  a  debtor  transfers  to  another 
pcr.^on  the  duty  to  pay,  or  a  creditor 
makes  over  to  a  third  party  the  right  to 
receive  payment. 

DELFT  W.\RE,  a  coarse  species  of 
poicohiin,  originally  manufactured  at 
Delft  in  Holland,  whence  its  name. 

DEL'IGACY,  in  the  fine  arts,  minute 
accuracy  as  opposed  to  strength  or  force  : 
slonderness  of  proportion,  great  finish, 
and  softness  are  its  characteristics. 

DELIR'IUM,  a  state  in  which  the  ideas 
of  a  person  are  wild  and  irregular,  or  do 
not  correspond  with  the  truth,  or  with 
external  objects.  Or  it  may  be  defined 
symptomatic  derangement,  or  that  which 
is  dependent  on  some  other  disease,  in 
distinction  from  idiopathic  derangement 
or  7na)iia. 

DELIVERY,  a  part  of  oratory,  refer- 
ring to  the  management  of  the  voice  ;  as, 
he  has  a  good  or  graceful  deliver^/. 

DEL'PHI,  OR'ACLE  OF,  so  called 
from  Delphi,  the  capital  of  Phocis,  the 
most  famous  of  all  the  oracles  of  antiqui- 
ty, sacred  to  Apollo.  The  origin  of  the 
oracle  at  Delphi  is  wrapt  in  obscurity. 
By  some  authors  it  is  a.<cribed  to  chance; 
but  many  incline  to  believe  that  it  owed 
its  origin  to  certain  exhalations,  which, 
issuing  from  a  cavern  on  which  it  was 
situated,  threw  all  who  approached  it  into 
convulsions,  and  during  their  continuance 
communicated  the  power  of  predicting  the 
future.  Be  this  as  it  may,  these  exhala- 
tions were  soon  invested  with  a  sacred 
character ;  and  as  their  reputation  ex- 
tended, the  town  of  Delphi  insensibl3' 
arose  around  the  cavity  from  which  they 
issued.  The  responses  were  delivered  by 
a  priestess,  called  Pythia,  who  sat  upon 
a  tripod  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the  cav- 
ern ;  and  after  having  inhaled  the  vapor, 
by  which  she  was  thrown  into  violent  con- 
vulsions, gave  utterance  to  the  wisheJ-for 
predictions,  either  in  verse  or  prose,  which 
were  then  interpreted  by  the  priests.  Ori- 
ginally the  consultation  of  the  oracle  was 
a  matter  of  great  simplicity  ;  but  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  when  the  accuracy  of  the 
pre  lictions  became  known,  a  series  of 
temples,  each  more  magnificent  than  its 
preiecessor,  was  erected  on  the  spot. 
Immense  multitudes  of  priests  and  do- 
mestics were  comiected  with  the  oracle ; 
and  to  such  a  height  of  celebrity  did  it 
attain,  that  it  wholly  eclipsed  all  the  oth- 
er oracles  of  Greece.     The  position  of  the 


oracle  was  the  most  favorable  that  could 
well  be  imagined.  Delphi  formed  at  once 
the  seat  of  the  Amphictyonic  council  and 
the  centre  of  (Jreece,  and,  as  was  univer- 
sally believed,  of  the  earth.  Hence,  in 
every  case  of  emergency,  if  a  new  form 
of  government  was  to  be  instituted,  war 
to  be  proclaimed,  peace  concluded,  or 
laws  enacted,  it  came  to  be  consulted,  not 
only  by  the  Greeks,  but  even  by  the  neigh- 
boring nations  ;  and  thus  the  temj)le  was 
enriched  by  an  incredible  number  of  the 
most  valuable  presents  and  the  most 
splendid  monuments,  and  the  town  of 
Delphi  rose  to  be  one  of  the  most  wealthy 
and  important  of  the  cities  of  (Jreece. — 

DEL'PillN,  an  edition  of  the  Latin  clas- 
sics, prepared  and  commented  upon  by 
thirty-nine  of  the  most  famous  scholars  of 
the  day,  at  the  suggestion  of  Louis  XIV., 
for  the  benefit  of  the  young  prince  (in 
usum  Delphini)  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Montausier  his  governor,  and  his 
preceptors  Bossuet  and  Huet. 

DEL'UGE,  an  inundation  or  overflow- 
ing of  the  earth,  either  vrhoUy  or  in  part, 
by  water. — We  have  several  deluges  re- 
corded in  history,  as  that  of  Ogyges, 
which  overflowed  almost  all  Attica,  and 
that  of  Deucalion,  which  drowned  all 
Thcssaly,  in  Greece  ;  but  the  most  mem- 
orable was  that  called  the  universal  del- 
uge, or  Noah's  flood,  from  which  only 
Noah  and  those  vpith  him  in  the  ark,  es- 
caped. This  flood  makes  one  of  the  most 
considerable  epoohas  in  chronology.  Its 
history  is  given  by  Moses  in  the  book  of 
Genesis,  ch.  vi.  and  vii.,  and  its  time  is  fix- 
ed to  the  year  from  the  creation  16.56. 
From  this  flood,  the  state  of  the  world  is 
divided  into  "  diluvian"  and  "  ante-dilu- 
vian." 

DEM'AGOGUE,  any  factfous  orator 
who  acquires  great  influence  with  the  pop- 
ulace ;  whom  he  flatters,  cajoles,  or  leads 
into  danger,  as  best  suits  his  purpose. 

DEMAIN',  or  DEME'SNE,  in  law.  a 
manor-house  and  the  lands  thereunto  be- 
longing, which  the  lord  of  the  manor  and 
his  ancestois  have  time  out  of  mind  kept 
in  their  own  occupation.  It  denotes  also 
all  the  parts  of  any  manor  not  in  the 
hands  of  freeholders  ;  and  is  frequently 
used  for  a  distinction  between  those  lands 
that  the  lord  has  in  his  own  hands,  or  in 
the  hands  of  his  lessee  demised  at  a  rav.'k- 
rent :  or  such  other  land  appertaining  to 
the  manor,  which  belongs  to  free  or  copy- 
holders. 

DEMAND'ANT,  in  law,  the  pursuer 
in  real  actions,  in  distinction  from  the 
plaintiff. 


140 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[dem 


DEMARCA'TION,  Line  of,  every  line 
drawn  for  determining  a  border,  which 
is  not  to  be  passed  by  foreign  powers,  or 
by  such  as  are  at  war  with  each  other. 
The  word  was  first  introduced  in  1493, 
when  Pope  Alexand?r  VI.,  in  order  to 
put  an  end  to  the  dispute,  which  prevailed 
between  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, relative  to  their  Indian  discoveries 
and  conquests  by  virtue  of  his  pontifical 
authority  drew  through  the  ocean  an 
iniaginary  line,  by  which  the  dominions 
of  both  parties  were  defined;  and  thus 
originated  the  expression  line  of  demar- 
cation. It  is  only  in  this  phrase  that  the 
word  is  employed  to  this  day  in  all  the 
languages  of  Europe. 

DEM'I,  a  half  fellow  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford. — Also,  a  terra  in  compo- 
sition, signifying  half;  as,  demigod,  a 
hero  who  was  enrolled  among  the  gods. 

CBMT-CADENCE,  in  music,  an  im- 
perfect cadence,  or  one  that  falls  on  any 
other  than  the  key-note. 

DEiM'IDITO^^E',  in  music,  a  minor 
third. 

DEM'IGODS,  a  general  appellation 
of  the  inferior  divinities  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  more  particularly  of  such  of  the 
mixed  offspring  of  divinities  and  mortals 
as  were  afterwards  deified.  Of  these  the 
number  was  almost  incredible ;  and  though 
their  worship  was  not  cultivated  with  so 
much  veneration  or  solemnity  as  that  of 
the  superior  gods,  it  prevailed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  every  quarter  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  formed  a  large  part 
of  the  heathen  mythology. 

DEM'IQUAVER,  in "  music,  a  note 
equal  in  duration  to  half  a  quaver. 

DEAl'ITINT,  in  painting,  a  tint  rep- 
resenting the  mean  or  medium  between 
light  and  shade  ;  by  some  called  a  ludf 
tint. 

DEMI'SE,  in  law,  is  applied  to  an 
estate  either  in  fee,  for  term  of  life  or 
years,  though  most  usually  the  latter. — 
The  death  of  a  king,  or  a  queen  regnant, 
is  termed  the  demise  of  the  crown,  by 
which  is  implied  a  transfer  of  the  royal 
authority  or  kingdom  to  a  successor. — 
Demise  and  re-demlse,  a  conveyance 
where  there  are  mutual  leases  made  from 
one  to  another  of  the  same  land,  or  some- 
thing out  of  it. 

DfiiMIUR'dUS,  Demiurge,  in  the  ori- 
ginal sense  of  the  word,  as  used  by  clas- 
siciil  authors,  an  artificer  employed  in 
oriliiiury  handicraft.  In  the  language 
of  I'latonist  writers,  it  denotes  an  exalted 
and  mysterious  agent,  by  whoso  means 
God  is  suppoL-ed  to  have  created  the  uni- 


verse. Hence  the  Demiurgus,  or  Logon, 
as  the  same  imaginary  agent  is  termed 
in  the  Timccus  of  Phito,  is  identified  by 
the  Platonizing  Christians  with  the  sec- 
ond person  in  the  Trinity. 

DEMOCRACY,  a  form  of  government, 
in  which  the  supreme  power  is  lodged  in 
the  hands  of  the  people  collectively,  or 
in  which  the  people  exercise  the  powers 
of  legislation. 

LExMOGOR'GON,  in  mythology,  d 
mysterious  divinity  of  antiquity,  of  whose 
origin,  attributes,  and  history  no  satis- 
factory account  can  be  given,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  obscurity  in  which  they 
are  enveloped.  By  some  writers  he  is 
regarded  as  the  author  of  creation ;  oth- 
ers consider  him  to  have  Jeen  a  famous 
magician,  to  whose  spell  all  the  inhab- 
itants of  Hades  were  subjected ;  but  all 
concur  in  viewing  him  as  an  object  rathei 
of  terror  than  of  worship. 

DE  MON,  or  D.E'MON,  a  name  used 
by  the  ancients  for  certain  .supernatural 
beings,  whose  existence  they  supposed 
They  were  spirits  or  genii  who  appeared 
to  men,  either  to  do  them  service  or  to 
hurt  them.  The  Platonists  distinguish 
between  gods,  demons,  and  heroes ;  the 
demons  being  those  since  called  angels 
Socrates  and  Tasso  spoke,  in  very  distant 
ages,  of  being  each  attended  by  a  demon 
or  familiar.  In  Tasso,  this  pretension 
has  been  referred  to  an  hypochondriacal 
state  of  mind;  in  Socrates,  the  matter 
has  given  rise  to  much  speculation.  From 
the  manner,  however,  in  which  the  phi- 
losopher is  said  to  have  described  his  de- 
77ion,  there  seems  good  reason  to  believe 
that  he  spoke  figuratively  of  his  natural 
conscience  or  intellect :  "  it  directed  him 
how  to  act  in  every  important  occasion 
of  life,  and  restrained  him  from  impru 
dence  of  conduct."  The  Greeks,  from 
whom  we  derive  the  term  in  Scriptural 
language,  applied  it  originally  to  the 
deified  spirits  of  departed  heroes,  whom 
they  supposed  to  have  some  influence  in 
promoting  the  good  of  mankind,  and  con- 
sidered therefore  as  objects  of  adoration. 
The  manner,  however,  in  which  demons 
are  represented  in  Scripture  as  evil  spir- 
its inflicting  iniury  on  men  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  Father  of  Evil,  is  conform- 
able to  the  oriental  notion  upon  such 
points ;  except,  indeed,  that  in  the  Scrip- 
tures the  general  supremacy  of  God,  who 
suffers  evil  to  exist,  is  maintained,  in  op- 
position to  the  eastern  dogma  of  the  eter- 
nal and  equ:i,l  conflict  of  the  gooi.'  and 
evil  principles.  The  early  ?ath»T?  in- 
dulged in   much  specul»*,ic/f  4,7?t\  l/*««so 


dem] 


AND    THE     FINK     ARTS 


141 


Bubjects ;  but  in  moilern  times  the  literal 
icterprotatioii  of  the  agency  "f  demons 
as  refevreil  to  in  Scripture  h;is  been  tVe- 
qucnlly  called  in  (juostion.  The  demons, 
like  the  fairies  and  goblins  of  other  my- 
thologies, are  represented  with  various 
characters  of  beneficence,  malice,  and 
wanton  niiscliief.  They  were  sometimes 
distinguished  by  the  names  Cacodemon 
and  Agathodemon,  according  as  their  in- 
fluence was  evil  or  beneficent. 

DEMONIACS,  persons  possessed  by 
or  under  the  influence  of  demons  or  devils, 
of  whom  mention  is  made  in  some  pas- 
sages in  the  Xew  Testament.  Some  di- 
vines have  supposed  that  such  influence 
was  permitted  to  the  powers  of  evil  at 
one  particular  time  for  the  greater  mani- 
festation of  our  Lord's  authority  in  re- 
buking them  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the 
idea  of  demoniacal  possession  was  very 
ancient  among  the  orientSil  nations  ;  and 
those  to  whom  it  seems  incredible  that 
it  should  have  been  grounded  on  fact, 
must  be  content  with  interpreting  such 
passages  of  Scripture  as  a  concession  to 
the  opinions  and  feelings  of  the  Jewish 
people. 

DEMONOL'OGY,  the  belief  in  an  in- 
termediate race  of  beings,  between  deity 
and  humanity,  has  been  a  prevalent  fea- 
ture in  almost  everj'  popular  creed  ;  and 
sU  tradition  or  speculation  respecting  it 
may  be  said  to  fall  under  the  general 
term  of  demonology.  Among  the  early 
oriental  nations,  especially  the  Persians 
and  Egyptians,  the  science  of  astronomy 
appears  to  have  been  essentially  connect- 
ed with  this  branch  of  superstition ;  the 
heavenly  bodies  were  honored  as  daemons 
or  celestial  intelligences  This  ancient 
belief  appears  to  have  had  much  influ- 
ence on  the  Jewish  rabbinical  writers ; 
and  out  of  it  connected  with  what  is  re- 
vealed to  us  in  the  Old  Testament  of  the 
existence  and  attributes  of  angels,  they 
framed  their  peculiar  mythology.  The 
Greek  word  Sati^iov^  daemon,  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  iiir\iiMv,  knoicins;  or  intelli- 
gent. In  the  earliest  monuments  of  the 
language,  its  signification  is  vague  and 
uncertain.  In  Homer  it  generally  signi- 
fies a  deity  :  iiujioviuv  is  anything  god- 
like, won<lcrful,  which  may  have  been 
comtnunicated  or  inspired  by  a  deity ; 
but,  in  the  Odys.-icy,  some  traces  are  to 
be  found  of  the  meaning  ''fortunate"  or 
"  unfortunate"  attached  to  the  word.  In 
Hesiod,  however,  we  have  an  express 
mythological  account  of  the  daemons, — 
as  spirits,  in  a  state  between  mortality 
and  divinity,  peaceful  and  favorable  to 


man  :  he  describes  them  as  of  different 
orders.  The  mortals  who  lived  in  the 
golden  age  have  become  daemons  of  the 
first  rank  ;  those  of  the  silver  age  have 
inferior  honors,  and  are  mortal,  although 
their  life  is  prolonged  to  a  length  of 
many  hundreds  of  human  generations. 
The  heroes  form  a  still  inferior  class  of 
intermediate  spirits.  In  popular  lan- 
guage, when  hero-worshij)  became  widely 
spread  in  Greece,  the  words  hero  and 
da?mon  were  used  without  much  di.<tinc- 
tion ;  but  the  more  recondite  dittcrence 
appears  to  have  been  this, — the  hero  was 
the  departed  worthy  himself,  such  as  he 
had  once  lived  on  earth ;  the  daemon  was 
his  immaterial  part,  converted  into  a  sort 
of  abstract  principle, — a  spiritual  agent 
of  good  or  evil,  favorable  or  unfriendly 
to  mankind.  It  is  in  this  sense  also  that 
the  inferior  deities  themselves  are  desig- 
nated as  dtemons.  Thales  is  said  to  have 
defined  more  accuratelj^  the  difference 
between  gods,  heroes  as  the  souls  of  de- 
ceased mortals,  and  daemons  properly  so 
called ;  and  in  Plato's  theology  the  dro- 
mons occupy  an  important  place — as  inter- 
mediate spirits,  closely  watching  over,  di- 
recting, and  recording  the  actions  of  mor- 
tals. By  later  writers  they  were  divided 
into  many  classes:  some  ministers  of 
punishment  and  revenge,  some  freeing 
from  evils  already  befallen,  some  ward- 
ing .  ff  their  approach.  It  was  in  Egypt 
and  Syria,  under  the  Ptolemies  and  Sc- 
leucid»,  that  the  Grecian  philosophy  and 
mythology  came  in  contact  with  those  of 
the  Rabbis  ;  and  from  that  union  a  new 
mi.xed  system  of  dajmonology  took  its 
origin.  Hence,  in  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  word  &aijwviuv  is  taken, 
without  addition  or  qualification,  as  an 
evil  spirit,  and  rendered  by  our  transla- 
tors ''devil."  Analogous  to  the  damong 
of  the  (Jreeks  were  the  genii  of  the  Ro- 
mans ;  but  there  were  other  peculiar  and 
characteristic  features  about  the  belief  in 
the  latter  which  show  it  to  be  of  a  differ- 
ent origin,  probably  derived  from  the 
Etruscans,  who,  as  some  antiquarians 
believe,  drew  their  mythology  from  the 
ancientsource  of  Samothrace.  The  genii 
of  the  Romans  were  an  innumerable  host 
of  spirits  :  every  man,  house,  or  city,  had 
an  attendant  genius.  The  genius  of 
every  mortal  is  mortal  as  himself;  ac- 
oompanies  him  into  life,  and  conducts 
him  in  all  its  vicissitudes.  In  this  sense, 
the  genius  was  a  favorable  companion  : 
to  enjoy  the  good  things  of  life  is  repre- 
sented as  "indulging"  or  gratifying  the 
genius;  abstaining  from  them,   as  "  de- 


142 


CVCI.OPEDIA     OF    l.ITEKATUkE 


[UEO 


frauding  biin.  Wine  and  flowers  are  ap- 
propriate offerings  to  him.  But  he  is 
also  the  companion  of  the  mischances  as 
well  as  the  pleasures  of  life;  unless,  as 
the  difficulty  appears  sometimes  to  have 
been  solved,  the  individual  had  his  pair 
of  genii  good  and  bad.  And  this  latter 
should  appear  to  have  been  the  popular 
belief  among  the  Etruscans,  as  far  as  we 
can  collect  it,  in  a  subject,  where  all  is 
vague  and  indistinct;  and  it  is  impossi- 
ble accurately'  to  separate  the  abstract 
creations  of  philosophers  and  poets  from 
the  substantive  objects  of  general  belief. 
The  Etruscans  represented  the  evil  geni- 
us as  a  dark  and  frightful  figure,  attend- 
ing a  mortal  on  one  side,  who  is  protected 
or  followed  on  the  other  by  a  child  or 
jouth — the  usual  emblem  of  the  good 
genius.  The  genius  is  often  represented 
on  vases  and  in  ancient  paintings  as  a 
winged  figure:  and  a  genius  holding  a 
torch  downwards  is  the  emblem  of  death. 
Thedtemons  of  the  middle  ages  were  sim- 
ply fallen  angels  or  devils,  according  to 
the  sense  of  the  word  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  hence  demonology,  in  the 
language  of  modern  writers,  generally 
signifies  the  history  of  the  supposed  na- 
ture and  properties  of  such  evil  spirits, 
and  of  the  modern  superstition  respect- 
ing compacts  between  them  and  man- 
kind. 

DEMONSTRA'TION,  a  proof  of  a 
proposition  founded  on  axioms  and  inter- 
mediate proof;  called  a  priori  when  the 
effect  is  proved  from  the  cause,  and  a  pos- 
teriori when  the  cause  is  proved  from  the 
effect.  It  has  been  remarked  that  the 
knowledge  acquired  by  demonstration, 
though  certain,  is  not  so  clear  and  evi- 
dent as  intuitive  knowledge.  In  every 
step  that  reason  makes  in  demonstrative 
knowledge,  there  is  an  intuitive  knowl- 
edge of  that  agreement  or  disagreement 
it  seeks  with  the  ne.\t  intermediate  idea, 
which  it  uses  iis  a  proof;  for  if  it  were 
not  so,  that  j'et  would  need  a  proof,  since 
without  the  perception  of  such  agreement 
or  di.sagreemcnt,  there  is  no  knowledge 
produced. 

DEMUR',  in  law,  to  stop  at  any  point 
in  the  pleadings,  and  rest  or  abide  on 
that  point  in  law  for  a  decision  of  the 
cause. 

I>EiMUR'RAGE,  in  commerce,  an  al- 
lowimce  made  tc)  the  master  of  a  ship  by 
ll:e  mereliants,  for  staying  in  a  port  long- 
er th.ui  the  time  first  appointed. 

DEML'Pi'RER,  in  law,  a  pause  or  stop 
put  to  any  action  Hpon  some  point  of 
difficulty  which  must  be  determined  by 


the  court  before  any  further  proceedings 
can  be  had  in  the  suit.  A  demurrer  con- 
fesses the  fact  or  facts  to  be  true,  but  de- 
nies the  sufficiency  of  the  facts  in  point 
of  law  to  support  the  claim  or  defence 
Demurrers  are  either  general,  where  no 
particular  cause  is  shown,  or  special, 
where  the  causes  of  demurrer  are  set 
forth. 

DEMY',  the  name  of  paper  of  a  par- 
ticular size,  of  which  great  quantities  are 
used  for  printing  books  on. 

DENA'RIUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
chief  silver  coin  among  the  Romans, 
worth  8  pence.  As  a  weight,  it  was  the 
seventh  part  of  a  Roman  ounce. — De- 
narius Dei,  God's  Pennj',  or  earnest 
money  given  and  received  by  the  parties 
to  contracts.  It  was  so  called  because  in 
ancisnt  times  it  was  given  to  the  church 
or  to  the  poor. 

DENDROPlfO'RIA,  in  antiquity,  the 
carrying  of  boughs  or  branches  of  trees  ; 
a  religious  ceremony  so  called,  because 
certain  priests  called  from  thence  deii- 
drophori,  or  tree-bearers,  marched  in 
procession,  carr_ying  the  branches  of  trees 
in  their  hands  in  honor  of  Baccnu.s,  Cy- 
bele,  Sylvanus,  or  any  other  god. 

DEN'IZEX,  in  England,  an  alien  who 
is  made  a  subject  by  ro3'al  letters  patent, 
holding  a  midille  state  between  an  alien 
and  a  natural  born  subject.  He  may 
purchase  and  possess  lands,  and  enjoy 
any  office  or  dignit-y  ;  yet  it  is  short  of 
naturalization  ;  for  a  stranger,  when 
naturalized,  may  inherit  lan<ls  by  de- 
scent, which  a  denizen  cannot  do.  If  a 
denizen  purchase  lands,  his  issue  that 
are  born  afterward  may  inherit  them, 
but  those  he  had  before  shall  not;  and 
as  a  denizen  may  purchase,  so  he  may 
take  lands  by  devise. 

DEXOUE'MENT,  a  French  word,  by 
modern  custom  nearly  anglicized,  signi- 
fying the  development  or  winding  up  of 
any  event. 

DEN'TIIj,  in  architecture,  an  orna- 
ment in  cornices,  bearing  some  resem- 
blance to  teeth  ;  used  particularly  in  the 
Corinthian  and  Ionic  orders. 

DE'ODAND,  .at  common  law.  every 
personal  chattel  wliich  has  been  the  im- 
mediate occasion  of  the  death  of  a  huni.an 
being,  forfeited  to  the  king  on  the  find- 
ing of  a  coroner's  inquest ;  to  be  appli^ 
as  alms  by  his  almoner. 

DEOXtOL'OCY,  the  science  of  duty; 
a  term  assigned  by  the  followers  of  .Jere- 
my Bcntliam  to  their  own  doctrine  of 
ethics,  which  is  founded  on  the  tendency 
of  actions  to  promote  happiness. 


DESJ 


AND    THE    FINK    AUTS, 


143 


DEPART'MENT,  either  a  aivision  of 
territory,  as  the  departments  of  France ; 
or  a  distinct  class  of  official  duties  allotted 
to  a  particular  person. 

DElM^iUY'.  the  spreading  of  troops;  a 
military  term. 

DEPO'NEXT,  in  law,  one  who  gives 
written  testimony,  under  oath,  to  inter- 
rogatories exhibited  in  the  court  of  Chan- 
cery. 

i)EPORTA'TION.  a  sort  of  banish- 
ment among  the  Romans,  to  some  island 
or  other  place  which  wa«  allotted  to  a 
criminal  for  the  place  of  his  abode,  with 
a  prohibition  not  to  leave  it,  on  pain  of 
death. 

DEPOS'IT,  among  civilians,  something 
that  is  committed  to  the  custody  of  a  per- 
son, to  be  kept  without  any  reward,  and 
to  be  returned  again  on  demand. 

DEPOSITION,  in  law,  the  testimony 
given  in  court  by  a  witness,  upon  oath. — 
Deposition,  the  settlement  of  substances 
dissolved  in  fluids;  as,  banks  are  some- 
times called  depositions  of  alluvial  mat- 
ter.— Also,  the  act  of  dethroning  a  king; 
or  divesting  any  one  in  authority  of  his 
power  and  dignity. 

DEPOT',  a  French  word  for  a  store  or 
magazine  for  depositing  goods  or  mer- 
chandise. 

DEPRIVA'TION,  an  ecclesiastical 
cansure,  by  which  a  clergyman  is  de- 
prived of  his  djgnity. 

DEPUTATI,  in  antiquity,  persons 
who  attended  the  army  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  away  the  wounded  from  the 
field  of  battle  and  waiting  on  them.  The 
armorers  were  also  sometimes  called 
■ieputati. 

DEP'UTY,  in  a  general  sense,  signifies 
a  person  appointed  or  elected  to  act  for 
another  ;  or  who  is  sent  upon  some  busi- 
ness by  a  community. — In  law,  a  deputy 
is  one  who  exercises  an  ollice  in  another's 
right ;  and,  properly,  the  misdemeanor  of 
such  deputy  shall  cause  the  person  he  rep- 
resents to  lose  his  oflice. — By  a  deputa- 
tion is  generally  understood  the  ])erson 
or  persons  authorized  and  sent  to  transact 
business  for  others,  either  with  a  special 
commission  and  authoritj',  or  with  gene- 
ral powers. 

DER'ELICTS,  in  law,  such  goods  as 
are  wilfully  relinquished  by  the  owner. 
It  also  signifies  a  thing  forsaker.  or  cast 
away  by  the  sea;  thus,  lands  wnich  the 
sea  has  suddenly  left  are  called  derelict 
lands;  and  vessels  forsaken  at  sea  are 
called  derelici  ships. 

DERIVATIVE,  in  grammar,  any 
^ord   derived    (i,    e.    taking    its   origin) 


from  another,  called  its  primitive,  aa 
manhood  from  ■man,  &c. 

DEKO(iA'TI0N,  the  act  of  annulling, 
revoking,  or  destroying  the  value  and 
effect  of  anything,  or  of  restraining  its 
operation ;  as,  an  act  of  parliament  is 
passed  in  derogation  of  the  king's  pre- 
rogative. 

DEROG'ATORY  CLAUSE,  in  a  per- 
son's will,  is  a  sentence  or  secret  charac- 
ter inserted  by  the  testator,  of  which  he 
reserves  the  knowledge  to  himself,  with 
a  condition  that  no  will  he  may  make 
hereafter  shall  be  valid  unless  this  clause 
is  inserted  word  for  word.  This  is  done 
as  a  precaution  to  guard  against  later 
wills  being  extorted  by  violence  or  other- 
wise improperly  obtained. 

DEK'VISE,  or  DER' VIS,  a  name 
given  to  various  Mahometan  priests  or 
monks.  Many  of  the  dervises  travel  over 
the  whole  of  the  Eastern  world,  enter- 
taining the  people  wherever  they  come 
with  agreeable  relations  of  the  curiosities 
and  wonders  they  have  met  with.  There 
are  dervises  in  Egypt,  who  live  with  their 
families,  and  exercise  their  trades,  of 
which  kind  arc  the  dancing  dervises  at  Da- 
mascus. They  are  distinguished  among 
themselves  by  the  different  forms  and 
colors  of  their  habits ;  those  of  Persia 
were  blue  ;  the  solitaries  and  wanderers 
wear  only  rags  of  different  colors^  others 
carry  on  their  heads  a  plume,  made  of 
the  feathers  of  a  cock  ;  and  those  of  Egypt 
wear  an  octagonal  badge  of  a  greenish 
white  alabaster  at  their  girdles,  and  a 
high  stiff  cap  without  anything  round  it. 
They  generally  profess  extreme  poverty, 
and  lead  an  ascetic  life. 

DES'CANT,  in  music,  composition  in 
several  parts.  It  is  either  plain,  which 
consists  in  the  orderly  placmg  of  many 
concords  answering  to  simple  counter- 
point; figuraie  or  Jiorid,  wherein  dis- 
cords are  employed  ;  or  double,  where  the 
parts  are  so  contrived  that  the  treble  or 
any  high  part  may  be  made  the  bass,  and 
the  contrary. 

DESCENT',  in  a  general  sen.se,  is  the 
tendency  of  a  body  from  a  higher  to  a 
lower  place;  thus  all  bodies,  unless  other- 
wise determined  by  a  force  superior  to 
their  gravity,  descend  towards  the  centre 
of  the  earth. — In  law,  it  means  transmis- 
sion by  inheritance;  which  is  either  lin- 
eal or  collateral.  Descent  is  lineal,  when 
it  proceeds  directly  from  the  gramlfather 
to  the  father,  from  the  father  to  the  son, 
and  from  the  son  to  the  grandson  ;  col- 
lateral, when  it  does  not  proceed  ia  a 
direct  line,  but  from  a  man  tc  his  brother, 


144 


CYCLOTEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[des 


n»phew,  or  otlier  collateral  representa 
tive. — Descent,  in  genealogy,  the  order  of 
succession  of  descendants  in  a  line  or 
family;  or  their  distance  from  a  common 
progenitor. 

DESCKIP'TIOX,  in  rhetoric,  is  usea 
to  designate  such  a  strong  and  lively  rep- 
resentation of  any  object  as  places  it 
hefore  the  reader  in  a  clear  and  satisfac- 
tory light.  The  execution  of  this  task, 
as  is  universally  admitted,  is  attended 
with  great  difficulty,  and  requires  no  or- 
dinary powers.  Indeed,  such  is  the  im- 
portance which  some  critics  of  eminence 
attach  to  the  possession  of  this  quality, 
that  they  have  erected  it  into  a  standard 
whereby  to  estimate  the  productions  of 
genius  in  every  department  of  literature; 
and  though  such  a  test  may  seem  some- 
what arbitrary,  yet  when  we  consider  the 
powers  indispensably  requisite  to  form  a 
good  description,  we  shall  not  be  sur- 
prised to  find  that  amid  the  galaxy  of 
brilliant  productions  in  other  depart- 
ments with  which  our  literature  is  adorn- 
ed, there  are  so  few  aathors  who  have 
attained  eminence  in  this.  A  good  de- 
scription, is  simple  and  concise  ;  it  sets 
before  us  such  features  of  an  object  as  on 
tie  first  view  strike  and  warm  the  fancy  ; 
it  gives  us  ideas  which  a  statuary  or  a 
painter  could  lay  hold  of  and  work  after 
them — one  of  the  strongest  and  most  de- 
cisive trials  of  the  real  merits  of  descrip- 
tion. Hence  among  the  qualities  essen- 
tially necessary,  and  without  which,  in- 
deed, even  mediocrity  is  unattainable  in 
this  walk  of  literature,  are  an  eye  con- 
versant with  nature  in  all  her  aspects,  a 
strong  imagination  wherewith  to  catch 
her  grand  and  prominent  features,  and 
great  simplicity  atid  clearness  of  style  to 
transmit  the  impression  unimpaired  to 
the  imagination  of  others.  There  is  no 
species  of  composition,  prose  or  poetical, 
into  which  description  does  not  enter  in 
Bome  shape  ;  but  the  term  has  been  bor- 
rowed from  literature  generally,  and  ap- 
plied more  parficularly  to  those  poetical 
productions  which  are  devoted  exclu- 
rively  to  the  description  of  nature,  such 
i;s  Milton's  Allegro  and  Thomson's  Sea- 
vons.  Hence,  although  Shakspeare  may 
with  great  justice  be  styled  a  descriptive 
poet,  from  the  exquisite  descriptions  of 
nature  with  which  his  unrivalled  plaj's 
are  interspersed ;  .yet  as  his  chief  excel- 
lence lies  in  portraying  the  character 
and  passions  of  man,  he  does  not  fall, 
properly  speaking,  within  this  category. 
By  no  writer,  cither  of  antiquity  or  mod- 
ern limes,  was  the  faculty  of  description 


possessed  in  a  more  eminent  degree  than 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  All  his  delineations 
of  natural  seenerj'  are  executed  with  an 
unrivalled  fervor  of  imagination:  while 
at  the  same  time  thej'  are  marked  by 
such  traits  of  character  and  truth  that 
every  object  is  brought  distinctly  before 
the  mind,  and  might  without  difSculty  be 
transferred  to  canvass  by  the  artist's 
pencil. 

DESECRA'TION,  a  word  denoting  the 
very  opposite  of  consecration,  being  the 
act  of  divesting  anything  of  a  sacred 
purpose  or  use  to  which  it  has  been  de- 
voted. 

DES'ERT,  a  large  uninhabited  tract 
of  land,  or  extent  of  country,  entirely 
barren.  In  this  sense,  some  are  sandy 
deserts,  as  those  of  Arabia,  Libya,  and 
Zaara :  others  are  stony,  as  the  desert  of 
Pharan,  in  Arabia  Petrea.  "  The  Desert," 
absolutely  so  called,  is  that  part  of  Ara- 
bia south  of  the  Holy  Land,  where  the 
children  of  Israel  wandered  forty  years. 
But  the  term  desert  may  be,  and  often 
is,  applied  to  an  uninhabited  country, 
covered  with  wood  or  overrun  with  vege- 
tation incapable  of  affording  sustenance 
to  man. 

DESER'TEll,  an  officer,  soldier,  or 
sailor,  who  absents  himself  from  his  post 
without  permission,  and  with  the  inten- 
tion not  to  return.  The  crime  of  deser- 
tion has  in  all  ages  and  countries  been 
regarded  with  peculiar  detestation.  In 
Greece  and  Rome,  the  deserter,  during 
war,  suffered  death  ;  during  peace,  was 
deprived  only  of  civil  rights:  a  sound 
and  enlightened  distinction.  The  mili- 
tary code  of  Great  Britain  inflicts  "  death 
or  such  other  punis'hments  as  may  be  ad- 
judged by  a  general  court-martial"  on 
deserters;  thus  leaving  a  proi>er  discre- 
tionary power  for  the  exercise  of  lenity 
in  cases  where  the  motive?  to  the  crin'.a 
mavbear  the  most  favorable  construction. 

DESIBERA'TUM,  is  used  to  signify 
somt  thing  wanted  to  improve  or  perfect 
any  art  or  science,  or  to  promote  tiie  ad- 
vancement of  any  object  or  study  wlvit- 
soever.  The  longitude  is  a  desideratum 
in  navigation.  A  tribunal  to  settle  na- 
tional disputes  without  war  is  a  great 
desideratum. 

DESIGN',  in  a  general  sense,  Kie  plan, 
order,  representation,  or  construction  of 
a  building,  <tc.,  by  an  outline  or  general 
view  of  it.  The  word  design,  in  painting, 
is  used  for  the  first  draught  of  a  la<-go 
work,  with  an  intention  to  be  executed 
and  finished  in  a  more  elaborate  manner. 
Every  work  of  design  is  to  be  considered 


DES] 


AND    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


145 


either  in  relation  to  the  art  that  produced 
11,  TO  the  nature  of  its  adaptation  to  the 
end  sought,  or  to  the  nature  of  the  end  it 
is  destined  to  serve  ;  thus  its  beauty  is 
dependent  on  the  wisdom  or  excellence 
displayed  in  the  design,  on  the  fitness  or 
propriety  of  the  adaptation,  and  upon  the 
utility  of  the  eml.  The  considerations  of 
design,  tltness,  and  ittility,  have  become 
the  three  grent  sources  of  beauty  of  form. 
This  beauty  frequently  arises  from  the 
combined  power  of  these  expressions. 
Every  work  of  art  supposes  unity  of  de- 
sign, or  some  particular  end  pro[)osed  by 
the  artist  in  its  structure  or  composition. 
In  forms  considered  simplj'  as  e.xj)ressive 
of  design,  the  only  possible  sign  of  unity 
of  design  is  uniformity  or  regularity,  by 
which  the  productions  of  chance  are  dis- 
tinguished from  those  uf  design  ;  and 
without  the  appearance  of  this,  variety 
becomes  confusion.  In  every  beautiful 
work  of  art,  we  are  not  satisfied  with  mere 
design, — we  must  have  elegant  design,  of 
which  the  grand  feature  is  variety  ;  it  is 
tTiis  which  in  general  distinguishes  beau- 
tiful from  plain  forms,  and  without  it 
uniformity  is  dull  and  insipid. 

DESIGNA'TOR.  in  Roman  antiqui- 
ties, a  species  of  master  of  the  ceremo- 
nies, whose  duty  it  was  to  assign  to  each 
person  his  proper  place  in  the  theatres 
and  at  the  other  public  spectacles.  Offi- 
cers with  this  appellation  were  employed 
among  the  Komans  on  every  occasion  of 
public  display,  and  in  all  domestic  solem- 
nities, whether  of  a  joyful  or  mournful 
character.  But  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  designator  consisted  in  arranging  and 
marshalling  the  funerals  of  distinguished 
persons  ;  and  in  this  capacity  he  was  at- 
tended by  a  troop  of  inferior  officers,  all 
arrayed  in  black,  whoso  part  it  was, 
among  other  duties,  to  keep  off  the  crowd, 
like  the  lictors  of  the  magistrates. 

DESIRE',  a  wish  to  possess  some  grati- 
fication or  source  of  happiness  which  is 
supposed  to  be  obtainable.  It  may  be 
either  spiritual,  intellectual,  or  sensual ; 
but  when  directed  merely  to  sensual  en- 
joyment, it  difiers  little  from  animal  ap- 
petite. 

DES'POTISM,  a  form  of  government 
where  the  monarch  rules  by  his  sole  and 
uncontrolled  authority.  In  popular  lan- 
guage, all  governments  are  called  des- 
poiieal  that  are  administered  by  one  in- 
dividual whoso  decisions  are  not  con- 
trolled by  any  representative  a.s.sembly 
or  recognized  subordinate  authorities. 
Thus,  we  are  in  the  habit  of  saying  that 
the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia  and 
10 


the  king  of  Prussia  are  despotical  or  ab- 
solute sovereigns;  meaning  by  this,  that 
all  legislative  and  executive  measures 
seem  to  proceed  from  their  free  will.  But 
the  abstract  idea  of  desiiotism  goes  fiirther 
than  this  ;  and  means  a  government  by  a 
single  individual  with  unlimited  power 
over  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  his  subjects. 
The  proi)het  Daniel,  in  his  description  of 
the  IJabyloniau  monarch  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, has  given  what  is  periiaps  the  best 
account  of  ttfis  species  of  government. 
"  All  people,  nations,  and  languages, 
trembled  and  feared  before  him  :  whom 
he  would  he  slew,  and  whom  he  would  he 
kept  alive  :  whom  he  would  he  set  up, 
and  whom  he  would  he  put  down."  But 
though  this  gives  a  vivid  idea  of  what  vj 
understood  by  a  pure  despotism,  it  can 
be  regarded  only  as  a  pojiular,  or  rather 
poetical  account,  of  a  government  where 
the  sovereign  is  possessed  of  great  power. 
The  truth  is,  that  a  purely  despotical 
government  never  had,  and  never  can 
have,  cany  existence  in  fact.  liow  abso- 
lute or  despotical  soever,  all  sovereigns 
must  conduct  their  government  so  as  to 
procure  the  concurrence  and  support  of  a 
large,  or,  at  all  events,  a  powerful  por- 
tion of  their  subjects.  A  despot  is,  after 
all,  merely  an  individual,  and  becomes 
quite  powerless  when  those  masses  of  in- 
dividuals, in  whom  the  ability  to  coerce 
others  really  resides,  disapprove  of  his 
proceedings.  The  praftorian  bands  in  an- 
tiquity, the  janissaries  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  grenadiers  of  Petersburg,  must, 
at  least,  be  led  by  opinion.  But  though 
the  sanction  of  the  instruments  employed 
in  his  government  be  indispensable  to  the 
existence  of  a  despot,  it  is  but  seldom  that 
he  dares  trust  to  it  only.  The  most  ab- 
solute and  tyrannical  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors, when  they  wished  to  get  rid  of 
any  obnoxious  individual,  dared  not  to 
order  him  to  be  executed,  but  wore  obliged 
to  suborn  false  evidence,  and  to  proceed 
against  him  according  to  legal  forms : 
and  so  it  is  in  all  countries.  Were  the 
most  absolute  sovereign  of  whom  we  have 
any  certain  accounts  openly  to  seize  im 
the  property  of  any  individual  in  his  d'j- 
minions,  or  to  put  him  to  death,  without 
being  able  to  assign  some  apparently  sat- 
isfactory grounds  for  doing  so,  the  founda- 
tions of  his  power  would  be  shaken  to  the 
very  centre  ;  and  the  repetition  of  such 
conduct  would  most  likely  occasion  his 
deposition.  The  strength  of  absolute  gov- 
ernments, when  they  embark  in  oppres- 
sive courses,  depends  on  their  being  able 
to  conceal  or  pervert  the  real  facts  of  the 


146 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    l.ITF.r.ATL"  UK 


[^ 


case,  so  that  the  victims  of  their  tyranny- 
may  be  made  to  appear  to  be  the  victims 
of  their  justice.  We  may  be  assured  that 
no  ruler  of  any  country  emerged  from  the 
merest  barbarism  ever  could,  for  any  con- 
siderable period,  openly  commit  on  his 
own  responsibility  any  gross  injustice  to- 
wards any  considerable  portion  of  his 
subjects.  Those  who  have  done  so  have 
rarely,  if  ever,  failed  to  e.xpiate  their  fol- 
ly and  tyranny  by  some  signal  punish- 
ment. Neither  the  government  of  Prus- 
sia nor  Austria,  nor  even  that  of  Russia, 
can  be  justly  called  despotical.  Their 
rulers  are  controlled  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent by  the  force  of  public  opinion  ;  and 
are  influenced  by  a  much  more  lively 
feeling  of  responsibility  than  the  sover- 
eigns of  limited  monarchies,  or  of  coun- 
tries in  which  the  legislative  functions  are 
divided.  It  is  this  fear  of  their  subjects 
that  makes  them  so  an.xious,  by  laying 
restrictions  on  tlie  freedom  of  the  press, 
to  conceal  their  conduct,  or  to  obtain  a 
favorable  judgment  upon  it.  There  can 
be  no  despotism,  nor  any  considerable  ap- 
proach towards  despotical  government, 
where  the  press  is  free  and  the  people  in- 
structed ;  and  it  is  to  their  influence  in 
securing  the  freedom  of  the  press,  and 
consequently  in  enlightening  public  opin- 
ion, and  making  the  bulk  of  the  people 
acquainted  with  their  real  interests,  that 
the  advantage  of  representative  assem- 
blies and  of  a  popular  form  of  govern- 
ment is  mainly  to  be  found. 

DESSERT',  a  word,  of  doubtful  ety- 
mology, signifying  the  last  service  at  din- 
ner, consisting  of  fruits  and  confections, 
(fee.  The  modern  dessert  is  probably  equiv- 
alent to  the  menscp.  secundce  of  the  Ro- 
mans. If  we  believe  Congreve,  the  term 
came  into  use  among  the  French  about 
the  commencement  of  the  17th  century, 
and  was  soon  adopted  into  and  natural- 
ized in  most  of  the  European  languages. 
In  all  the  countries  of  Europe  the  splen- 
dor of  the  dessert  has  ever  .since  the  pe- 
riod of  its  introduction  kept  pace  with  the 
progress  of  refinement  and  civilization, 
and  by  many  gastronomes  the  qualities 
and  arrangement  of  a  dessert  are  looked 
upon  as  the  most  valid  test  of  all  that  is 
Attic  in  taste  and  refined  in  elegance. 

DES'TINY,  an  inevitable  necessity  de- 
pending upon  a  superior  cause.  This  doc- 
trine has,  under  a  variety  of  names,  been 
embodied  in  almost  all  the  religious  sys- 
tems of  antiquity  ;  and  even  in  modern 
times,  with  a  few  modifications,  it  has 
been  largely  adopted  by  many  sects  of 
the  Christian  church.     Destiny  was  called 


bj'  the  Romans  Fatwn,  and  by  the  Greeks 
A.vayvn.  Necessity,  or  Mj(/ju,  a  Part,  as  if 
it  were  a  chain  or  necessary  serie.s  of 
things  indissoUibly  linked  together.  Ac- 
conling  to  inanj'  of  the  heathen  philoso- 
phers, destiny  was  a  secret  and  invisible 
power  or  virtue,  which  with  incomprehen- 
sible wisdom  regulated  all  the  occur- 
rences of  this  world  which  to  human  eyes 
appear  irregular  and  fortuitous.  The 
Stoics,  on  the  other  hand,  understood  by 
destiny  a  certain  concatenation  of  things, 
which  from  all  eternity  follow  each  other 
of  absolute  necessity,  there  being  no  pow- 
er able  to  interrupt  their  connection.  To 
this  invisible  power  even  the  gods  were 
compelled  to  succumb.  Jupiter  and  Ve- 
nus are  represented  by  the  poets  as  vain- 
ly attempting  to  withdraw  Cfesar  from 
his  impending  fate  ;  but,  as  Seneca  ob- 
serves, it  is  thus  that  the  Ruler  of  all 
things,  in  writing  the  book  of  destinj',  has 
prescribed  the  limitation  of  his  own  power. 

DETACH'ED,  when  figures  stand  out 
from  the  background  and  from  each  other 
in  a  natural  manner,  so  as  to  show  that 
there  is  space  and  atmosphere  between, 
we  say  they  appear  detached. 

DETACH'MENT,  a  body  of  troops  se- 
lected or  drawn  out  from  several  regi- 
ments or  companies,  on  some  special  ser- 
vice or  e.Kpedition.  Also,  a  number  of 
ships,  taken  from  a  fleet  and  sent  on  a 
separate  service. 

DET'INUE,  in  law,  a  writ  or  action 
that  lies  against  a  person  who  has  goods 
or  other  things  delivered  to  him  to  keep, 
and  who  afterwards  detains  or  refuses  to 
deliver  them  up. 

DEUCE,  DUSE,  or  DEUSE,  a  demon. 
A  deviling,  or  little  devil.  The  ancient 
Germans  gave  the  name  of  dusii  to  cer- 
tain demons,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
singular  dusius  is  a  corrujjtion  of  Drusus, 
the  son  of  Tiberius. 

DEUTERON'O.MY,  one  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  the  fil'th 
book  of  the  Penateuch.  It  is  so  called, 
because  this  last  part  of  the  work  of 
Moses  comprehends  a  recapitulation  of 
the  law  ho  had  before  delivered  to  the 
Israelites  himself. 

DEV^ICE',  in  painting,  an  emblem 
or  representation  of  anything,  with  a 
motto  subjoined  or  otherwise  introduced. 
Badges,  impresses,  and  devices,  wera 
greatly  in  vogue  in  England,  from  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  to  that  of  Elizabeth, 
when  they  began  to  be  disused. 

DEVIL,  the  chief  of  the  apostate  an- 
gels ;  Satan,  the  tempter  of  tho  human 
race. 


dia] 


AXn    HIK    FINE    ARTS. 


147 


DEVISE',  in  law,  is  the  disposition  of 
real  estate  by  will;  being  distinguished 
from  a  bequest  of  personal  estate,  that 
being  termed  a  Icganj.  The  person  to 
»vhom  a  devise  is  made  is  called  a  de- 
visee. 

DEY,  a  Turkish  title  of  dignity,  given 
to  the  governors  of  Algiers  (before  the 
French  conquest,)  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 
The  dey  is  chosen  for  life  from  among 
the  chief  authorities  of  the  place,  with 
the  approbation  of  the  Turkisli  soldiery. 
At  Tunis  the  equivalent  title  of  hey  is 
more  usually  substituted  for  dey.  Tliis 
term  is  admitted  by  all  philologists  to  be 
of  very  great  antiquity  ;  though  it  is  im- 
possil)le  to  assign  any  precise  date  to  its 
introduction. 

DIACRIT'IC  MARKS,  mark.s  used  to 
distinguish  letters  between  the  forms  of 
which  much  similarity  exists.  Thus  n 
and  u  are  distinguished  in  German  run- 
ning hand  by  the  mark  .^  over  the  latter 
letter. 

DI'ADEM,  the  frontlet  worn  by  the 
kings  and  princes  of  antiquity,  and  also 
by  their  wives.  It  was  made  of  silk, 
wool,  or  yarn,  narrow,  but  wider  in  the 
centre  of  the  forehead,  and  generally 
•white.  Those  of  the  Egyptian  gods  and 
kings  are  adorned  with  the  emblem  of 
the  sacred  serpent.   The  Bacchic  diadem, 


or  credemnon,  which  the  Indian  Bacchus 
wore,  consisted  of  a  folded  band  encircling 
the  forehead  and  temples,  and  fastened 
behind  with  hanging  ends.  With  the 
Parsees  (Persians)  the  diadem  was  wound 
round  the  tiara,  and  was  bluish  white. 
The  Greeks  presented  a  diadem  to  every 
victor  in  the  public  games  ;  and  it  was 
also  an  attribute  of  jiriests  and  priestesses. 
The  real  diadem,  like  the  sceptre,  is  a 
symbol  of  power,  esjtecially  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  Juno,  who  is  thereby  desig- 
nated as  the  consort  of  the  sovereign  of 
the  gods  and  men,  and  partaking  of  his 
power. 

DI^ER'ESIS,  in  grammar,  the  resolu- 


tion of  a  diphthong,  or  a  contracted  sylla- 
ble into  two  syllables  ;  as,  in  Latin,  aurai' 
for  auriB,  Ac;  and,  in  English,  the  reso- 
lution of  the  last  syllable  of  participles  by 
a  sound  of  the  final  e ;  belovt-d,  cursed,  &c. 

DIAGNO'SIS,  the  art  of  distinguishing 
one  disease  from  another.  The  charac- 
teristic symptoms  of  diseases  by  which 
they  are  recognized,  are  termed  their 
diagnostic  symptoms. 

Dl'A(!llAM,  the  figure  or  scheme 
drawn  for  the  illustration  of  a  mathii- 
matical  proposition,  or  the  demonstration 
of  any  of  its  properties.  It  is  also  used 
in  other  branches  of  science,  and  in  the 
fine  arts,  for  the  general  purposes  of  il- 
lustration. 

DI'AGRAPH,  a  name  given  by  the 
French  artists  to  a  recently-invented  in- 
strument used  in  perspective. 

UI'ALECT,  in  the  philosophical  sense 
of  the  word,  any  variety  of  a  common 
language.  Hence,  German,  English, 
Swedish,  <fec  ,  are  all  strictly  said  to  be 
dialects,  as  coming  all  of  them  from  the 
same  original  stock.  Commonly,  how- 
over,  we  limit  the  application  of  the 
term  dialect  to  the  varieties  of  a  nation- 
al language  ;  and  speak  of  the  dialects 
of  English,  French,  &c.  In  Greek,  the 
four  dialects,  Doric,  Ionic,  ^olic,  Attic, 
were  the  four  written  varieties  of  the 
language,  each  possessing  a  literature  of 
its  own.  In  this  respect  no  modern  tongue 
presents  a  parallel  to  the  Greek  ;  inas- 
much as,  in  all,  one  dialect  has  been  ar- 
bitrarily adopted  as  the  standard  of  polite 
writing  and  conversation  ;  and  the  writ- 
ten works  which  are  extant  in  the  other 
dialects  are  regarded  merely  as  excep- 
tions to  the  general  rule. 

DIALECTICS,  a  name  which  was  ori- 
ginally used  by  Plato  as  synonymous 
with  metaphysics,  or  the  highest  philoso- 
phy. Strictly  speaking,  it  can  (inly  be 
regarded  as  a  preparatory  discipline  for 
such  investigations,  or  at  most  as  a  scien- 
tific method  of  prosecuting  them.  The 
most  splendid  examples  of  dialectical 
subtlety  that  exist  are  to  be  fcnind  in  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato,  especially  in  those 
entitled  Parmenides,  the  Statesman  and 
Sophist.  Aristotle  expresses  himself  with 
some  contempt  of  dialectics.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  its  own  logic  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  dialectical  exercises  of  the 
Platonic  schools ;  and  that  it  may,  in  one 
point  of  view,  bo  regarded  as  a  body  of 
canons  and  directions  for  their  legitimate 
use.  In  modern  times  various  systems 
of  dialectics  have  been  propounded  in  dif- 
ferent countries  ;  but  by  no  philosophers 


H8 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[di.' 


either  ancient  or  modern,  has  this  science 
been  more  succcssfLilly  cultivated  than 
by  the  Germans,  who,  amonj^  a  host  of 
other  names  more  or  less  distinguished, 
can  boast  of  a  Fichte,  Kant,  Leibnitz, 
Hegel,  Schelling,  and  Schlegel,  as  the 
propounders  each  of  a  peculiar  dialecti- 
cal system. 

DI'ALOGUE,  in  literature,  a  compo- 
sition or  part  of  a  composition  in  the 
form  of  a  conversation  between  two  or 
more  persons.  The  dialogue  was  the 
form  most  generally  adopted  by  the  an- 
cients for  the  conveyance  of  instruction, 
and  was  considered  equally  applicable  to 
the  most  grave  and  philosophical,  and  to 
the  most  ludicrous  and  comical  subjects. 
Thus  it  was  adopted  by  Plato.  Cicero,  and 
Lucian,  with  equal  success.  Plato  chose 
this  form  for  the  conveyance  of  his  phi- 
losophical sentiments  ;  because  real  con- 
versation had  been  the  mode  by  which 
his  master,  Socrates,  (who  left  no  writ- 
ing,) gave  instruction  to  the  Athenians. 
In  the  Dialogues  of  Plato,  Socrates  is 
himself  introduced  as  the  chief  interlocu- 
tor. Among  modern  writers  the  philo- 
sophical dialogue  has  been  frequently 
employed  for  the  same  i)urpose,  more  es- 
pecially by  the  French,  to  whose  language 
and  mode  of  thought  it  should  seem  to  be 
peculiarly  suited.  Among  other  eminent 
persons  of  that  country  who  have  enriched 
its  literature  with  this  species  of  compo- 
sition are,  Fenelon  ;  Paschal,  in  his  Pro- 
vincial Letters;  Bouhours,  in  his  Entre- 
tiens  cP Ariste  et  d' Eugene  ;  Fontenelle, 
in  his  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  and  Plu- 
rality of  Worlds ;  Galiani,  Sur  le  Com- 
merce des  Grains,  Ac.  In  England,  this 
method  of  composition  has  been  less  fre- 
quently practised;  and,  perhaps,  with 
the  exception  of  Berkeley  and  Hard,  has 
rarely  succeeded  in  the  hands  of  those 
who  attempted  it.  Both  the  Germans 
and  Italians  have  attempted  to  impart  a 
knowledge  of  their  different  pliilosophical 
systems  in  this  manner.  Among  the 
latter  may  be  mentioned  Machiavelli 
and  Algarotti ;  and  among  the  former, 
Lessing,  Mendelssohn,  Schelling,  and 
Herder  ;  though  the  labors  of  none  of 
these  distinguished  persons  in  this  de- 
partment of  literature  are  so  important 
as  to  require  any  particular  notice  in 
this  place.  The  dramatic  dialogue  dilfers 
from  the  philosophical,  inasmuch  as  it.s 
subject  is  one  of  action.  The  whole  of 
modern  dramas  is  dialogue,  with  the 
exception  of  occasional  monologue  or 
soliloquy. 

DIAL'YSIS,  a  mark  or  character,  con- 


sisting of  two  points  placed  ovei  one  of 
two  vowels,  as  mosaic,  to  separate  the 
diphthong,  and  show  that  they  must  bo 
sounded  distinctly. — In  rhetoric,  diatysis 
is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  several 
words  are  placed  together,  without  the 
aid  of  a  conjunction,  as  veni,  vidi,  vici. 

DI'AMOND,  the  most  valuable  and 
the  hardest  of  gems.  AVhen  pure,  it  is 
perfectly  clear  and  pellucid,  and  is  emi- 
nently distinguished  from  all  other  sub- 
stances, by  its  vivid  splendor,  and  the 
brightness  of  its  reflections.  Though 
found  of  different  shapes,  and  sometimes 
accidentally  tinged  with  several  colors, 
yet  it  ever  carries  the  same  distinguish- 
ing characters.  Diamonds  are  generally 
very  small ;  but  a  few  large  ones  have 
been  found,  for  which  incredible  prices 
have  been  given.  The  largest  over 
known  belonged  to  the  king  of  Portugal ; 
it  weighed  1680  carats,  and  was  valued, 
although  uncut,  at  224,000,000Z.  sterling; 
the  one  in  the  sceptre  of  the  emperor  of 
Russia  weighs  779  carats,  and  is  valued 
at  upwards  of  4,000,000/.,  but  was  bought 
by  the  empress  Catharine  for  about 
135,000/.  The  Pitt  diamond,  which,  at 
that  time  was  one  of  the  largest,  weighed 
136  carats,  and  cost  Louis  XIV.  130,000/. 
The  Mogul  diamond,  called  Koh-i-noor, 
or  Mountain  of  Light,  exhibited  at  the 
Great  London  Exposition  of  Industry  in 
1851,  weighs  nearly  280  carats,  and  was 
estimated  by  Tavernier  at  468,959/.,  or 
awording  to  the  rule  proposed  by  Jef- 
fries, it  would  be  worth  622,000/.  This 
diamond  formed  a  part  of  the  spoil  taken 
in  the  Sikh  war,  on  the  defeat  of  Run- 
jeet  Singh,  and  was  presented  by  the 
Fast  India  Company  to  Queen  Victoria. 
The  ])laces  whence  diamonds  are  brought 
are  the  island  of  Borneo,  and  the  king 
doms  of  Visapour,  Golconda,  Bengal,  in 
the  East  Indies;  and  tlie  Brazil.",  in  the 
West  Indies.  These  gems  consist  of  pure 
carbon,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  3  5  ;  and 
the  hardest  tools  making  no  im])ression 
on  them,  they  arc  cut  and  ground  by  the 
))ower  of  their  own  substance.  In  the 
experiments  of  modern  chemists,  the 
diamond  has  been  reduced  to  ashes  by 
the  power  both  of  the  furnace  and  the 
i)urning  glass. — Diamonds  are  valuable 
for  many  jjurposes.  Their  jjowder  is  the 
best  for  the  lapidary  and  gem  engraver, 
and  more  economical  than  any  other  ma- 
terial for  cutting,  engraving,  and  pidish- 
ing  hard  stones.  Glaziers  use  them  for 
cutting  their  glass;  their  diamond  being 
set  in  a  steel  socket,  and  attached  to  a 
small  wooden  handle.    It  is  very  remark- 


dia] 


AND    TIIF,    FINE     ARTS. 


149 


able,  that  only  the  point  of  a  nutural 
crystal  can  be  used ;  cut  or  split  tlia- 
monds  .scratch,  but  the  <;l;i,ss  will  not 
break  along  the  scratch,  as  it  doi's  when 
a  natural  crystal  is  used.  The  diamond 
has  also  of  late  years  become  an  article 
of  great  value  to  engravers,  particu- 
larly in  the  drawing  or  ruling  of  linos, 
which  are  afterwards  to  be  deepened  by 
tbe  use  of  aqua  fortis  ;  for  which  purpose 
steel  points,  called  etching  needles,  were 
formerly  used. 

DIA'NA,  in  mythology,  the  Latin 
name  of  the  goddess  known  to  the  Greeks 
by  the  name  of  Artemis,  the  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Latoiia,  and  sister  of  Apol- 
lo. She  was  the  virgin  goddess  of  the 
chase,  and  also  presided  over  health. 
The  sudden  deaths  of  women  were  at- 
tributed to  her  darts,  as  those  of  men 
were  to  the  arrows  of  Apollo.  In  later 
times  she  was  confounded  with  various 
other  goddesses,  as  Hecate,  Lucina,  Pro- 
serpina, and  Luna.  In  the  two  last  of 
these  characters  she  was  said  to  appear 
in  the  nether  world  and  in  heaven  re- 
spectively, while  on  earth  she  assumed 
the  character  of  Artemis  ;  whence  she  was 
called  the  three-formed  goddess.  She 
was  generally  represented  as  a  healthy 
active  maiden  in  a  huntress's  dress,  with 
a  handsome  but   ungentle  expression  of 


eounlennnce.  The  hnuiiiri^  rondL'red  to 
Diana  was  so  extensive  that  the  silver- 
smith who  remarked  that  she  was  wor- 
shijjped  in  all  Asia  and  the  world,  can 
scarcely  be  accused  of  exaggeration.  A 
calalofiue   of  the   various    places    where 


temples  were  erected  in  her  honor  would 
comprise  every  city  of  note  in  the  ancient 
world.  Among  others  m.ay  be  mentioned 
Eph'.>sus,  Abyclos,  lleraclea,  Aulis,  Ero- 
tria,  Samos,  Buhastus  in  Egypt,  Delo.s 
(whence  she  was  termed  Delia,)  and 
Mount  Aventino  at  Home.  But  of  all 
her  temples,  that  at  Ephesus  was  the 
most  celebrated.  It  was  erected  at  the 
joint  expense  of  all  the  states  of  Asia; 
and  according  to  the  accounts  of  ancient 
authors,  it  must  have  surpassed  in  splen- 
dor all  the  structures  of  antiquitj',  and 
fully  deserved  to  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  world.  A  small  statue 
of  the  goddess,  or,  as  she  was  termed  by 
her  votaries,  the  ■'  Great  Diana  of  the 
Ephesians,"  which  was  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  been  sent  from  heaven,  was 
here  enshrined  and  adorned  with  all  that 
wealth  and  genius  could  contribute.  The 
fate  of  this  temple  is  well  known.  On  the 
day  that  Alexander  the  Great  was  born, 
it  was  set  on  fire  by  Eratostratus,  from  a 
morbid  desire  to  transmit  his  name  even 
with  infamy  to  posterity.  This  edifice 
was  afterwards  rebuilt  on  a  plan  of  simi- 
lar magnificence  ;  and  it  remained  in  .full 
possession  of  its  wealth  and  reputation  till 
the  year  260,  a.d.,  when  it  was  complete- 
ly destroyed  during  an  invasion  of  the 
Goths. 

DIANQS'A,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
speech  by  which  a  correct  interpretation 
is  given  to  a  subject  suitable  to  the  occa- 
sion. 

DIAPA'SON,  in  music,  a  musical  in- 
terval, by  which  most  authors,  who  have 
written  upon  the  theory  of  music,  use  to 
express  the  octave  of  the  Greeks.  The 
diapason  is  the  first  and  most  perfect  of 
the  concords ;  if  considered  simply,  it  is 
but  one  harmonical  interval ;  though,  if 
consiilered  diatonically,  by  tones  and 
semitones,  it  contains  seven  degrees,  viz., 
the  three  greater  tones,  two  lesser  tones, 
and  two  greater  semi-tones. — Diapason 
the  fundamental  or  standard  scale  b5 
which  musical  instruments  are  made. 

DIAPEXTE,  in  music,  a  fifth;  an  in- 
terval making  the  second  of  the  concords 
and  with  the  diatessaron,  an  octave. 

DI'APER,  Di.\pER  Work,  a  kind  of 
ornamental  decoraticm  applied  to  plain 
surfaces,  in  which  the  pattern  of  flowers 
or  arabesques  are  either  carved  or  paint- 
ed. When  they  are  carved,  the  pattern 
is  sunk  entirely  below  the  general  sur- 
face ;  when  ])ainted  they  are  generally 
of  a  darker  shade  of  the  same  color  as  the 
plain  surface.  The  patterns  are  usually 
square,   and  placed   close    togetier,    but 


150 


CYCl.OI'EDIV    OF    LITERATURE 


DIO 


Kici-, 


IWIK 


XM 


othei'  floriated  forms  are  sometimes  met 
with. 

DIAPII'ANOUS,  an  appellation  given 
to  all  transparent  bodies,  or  such  as  trans- 
mit the  rays  of  light. 

DIAPIlb'RA,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
speech,  in  which  a  word,  when  repeated, 
is  taken  in  a  different  sense  from  what  it 
was  at  first  understood. 

DIAPORE'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
oratory,  e.xpressive  of  the  speaker's  doubt 
or  hesitation  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
he  should  proceed  in  his  discourse,  the 
subjects  he  has  to  treat  of  being  all  equal- 
ly important. 

DI'ARY,  signifies  properly  a  note-book 
or  register  of  daily  occurrences,  in  which 
the  writer  has  a  principal  share,  or  which 
have  come  under  his  own  observation,  or 
have  happened  in  his  own  time.  The 
term  diary  is  eqTiivalent  to  the  French 
journal,  the  Italian  diario  and  giornale, 
and  the  German  T'agebuc/i. 

DI'ASCHISM,  in  music,  the  difference 
between  the  comma  and  enharmonic  die- 
sis, commonly  called  the  lesser  comma. 

DIA'SIA.  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  fes- 
tival kept  at  Athens  in  honor  of  Jupiter 
the  Propitious. 

DIASTAL'TIC,  an  epithet  given  by 
the  Greeks  to  certain  intervals  in  music, 
as  the  major  third,  major  si.vth,  and  ma- 
jor seventh. 

DIAS'TEMA,  in  rhetoric,  a  modula- 
tion of  the  tones  of  the  voice,  by  marking 
with  precision  the  intervals  between  its 
elevation  and  depression. — In  music,  a 
space  or  interval. 

IHAS'TOLE.  in  grammar,  a  figure  of 
prosody,  by  which  a  syllable  naturally 
short  is  made  long. 

DI'ASTYLE,  an  edifice  in  which  three 
diameters  of  :i  column  are  allowed  for  the 
intercohiMiniiitions. 

DIA.-JYR'MO.S,  in  rhetoric,  a  kind  of 
hyporbolo,  being  an  exaggeration  of  some- 
thing low  and  ridiculous ;  ironical  praise. 


DIATES'SARON,  in  music,  a  concord 
or  harmonic  interval  composed  of  a  great- 
er tone,  a  lesser  tone,  and  one  greater 
semitone.  Its  proportion  is  as  4  to  3, 
and  it  is  called  a  perfect  fourth. — In  the- 
ology, the  four  Gospels. 

1)IA'T0XI,  in  ancient  architecture, 
the  angle  stones  of  a  wall,  which  were 
wrought  on  two  faces,  and  which,  from 
stretching  beyond  the  stones  above  and 
below  them,  made  a  good  bond  or  tyo  to 
the  work. 

DIATON'IC,  an  epithet  given  to  mu- 
sic, as  it  proceeds  by  tones  and  semi- 
tones, both  ascending  and  descending. 
Thus  we  say,  a  diatonic  series;  a  diatonic 
interval ;  diatonic  melody  or  harmony. 

DI'ATRIBE,  a  continued  disputation 
or  controversial  discourse. 

DIAZENET'IC,  in  the  ancient  Greek 
music,  a  term  applied  to  the  tone  dis- 
jointing two  fourths,  one  on  each  side  of 
it,  and  which  joined  to  either  made  a 
fifth. 

DIAZO'MA,  in  ancient  architecture, 
the  landings  or  resting  places  which  en- 
circled the  amphitheatre  at  different 
heights,  like  so  many  bands  or  cinctures  ; 
whence  the  name. 

DI'CAST,  in  ancient  Greece,  an  oflBcer 
answering  nearly  to  our  juryman. 

DICASTE'Ri'UM,  in  ancient  arehitci- 
ture,  the  name  of  a  tribunal  or  hall  of 
justice  in  Athens. 

DICE,  cubical  pieces  of  bone  or  ivory, 
dotted  on  their  face  from  one  to  si.x  ;  and 
used  for  gambling  purposes.  They  are 
said  to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  to  have 
been  invented  by  Palamedes  at  the  siege 
of  Troy,  for  the  amusement  of  the  officers 
and  soldiers. 

DICTA'TOR,  in  ancient  Rome,  a  ma- 
gistrate created  in  times  of  exigence  and 
distress,  and  invested  with  unlimited 
power.  He  had  authority  to  raise  or  dis- 
band troops,  and  to  make  war  or  peace, 
and  that  without  the  consent  either  of 
the  senate  or  people.  The  ordinary  du- 
ration of  his  office  was  only  for  si.-s 
months,  during  which  time  all  other  ma- 
gistracies cease,  the  tribuneship  excepted. 
Whenever  he  appeared  in  public,  he  was 
attended  by  twenty-four  lictors,  or  double 
the  number  allowed  a  consul.  Extensive, 
however,  as  his  power  was,  he  was  never- 
theless under  some  restrictions  :  he  could 
not,  for  instance,  spend  the  public  money 
arbitrarily,  leave  Italy,  or  enter  the  city 
on  horseback.  The  choice  of  dictator  was 
not,  as  in  the  case  of  other  magistrates, 
decided  by  the  j)opular  voice,  but  one  of 
the  consuls  appointed  him  by  command 


die]" 


AND    THE     FINE    ARTS. 


151 


of  the  senate.  A  dictator  was  also  some- 
times named  for  holding  the  comitia  for 
the  election  of  consuls,  and  for  the  cele- 
bration of  public  games.  For  the  space 
of  four  hundred  years  this  otEco  was  re- 
garded with  veneration,  till  .Sylla  and 
Caesar,  by  becoming  perpetual  dictators, 
converted  il  into  an  engine  of  tyranny, 
and  rendered  the  very  name  odious. 

DICTIONARY,  in  its  first  and  most 
obvious  sense,  signifies  a  vocabulary,  or 
alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  words 
in  a  language,  with  their  definitions. 
But  now.  that  the  various  branches  of 
science  have  become  so  much  e.xt ended, 
the  terra  is  also  applied  to  an  alphabeti- 
cal collection  of  the  terms  of  any  art  or 
science,  with  such  explanations  or  re- 
marks as  the  writer  may  deem  necessary 
for  their  elucidation. 

DICTUM,  a  word  used  in  common 
parlance  to  signify  the  arbitrament  or 
award  of  a  judge. 

DICTYOTIIE'TON,  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture, masonry  worked  in  courses  like 
the  meshes  of  a  net.  Also  open  lattice 
work  for  admitting  light  and  air. 

DIDACTIC,  in  the  schools,  signifies 
every  species  of  writing,  whether  in  verse 
or  prose,  whose  object  is  to  teach  or  e.x- 
plain  the  rules  or  principles  of  any  art  or 
science.  Thus  to  this  class  of  literature 
belong  the  writings  of  Aristotle  on  gram- 
mar, poetry,  and  rhetoric ;  Longinus's 
Treatise  on  the  Sublime  ;  and  the  Instila- 
tions  of  Quintilian,  &c.  But  the  term 
has  been  borrowed  from  scholastic  phrase- 
ology, and  appropriated  more  exclusively 
to  all  poetical  writings  devoted  to  the 
communication  of  instruction  on  a  par- 
ticular subject,  or  of  a  reflective  or  ethi- 
cal character,  thence  called  didactic  po- 
etry. Among  the  most  celebrate  I  poems 
of  this  species  may  be  reckoned  in  ancient 
times  that  of  Lucretius,  De  Rerum  Na- 
tura,  in  which  the  Epicurean  system  of 
philosophy  is  explained  ;  Virgil's  Geor- 
gics,  which  has  almost  always  served  as 
a  model  to  the  didactic  poets  of  succeed- 
ing ages;  and  Horace's  ylr<  of  Poetry  ; 
ami  in  more  recent  times  Pope's  Essays 
on  Criticism  and  Man ;  Du  Fresnoy's 
Art  of  Painting ;  Vida  and  Boileau's  Ar,' 
of  Poetry ;  Akenside's  Pleasures  of  the 
Imagination;  Armstrong's  Art  of  pre- 
serving Health;  Somerville's  Chace ; 
Dyer's  Fleece;  Young's  Universal  Pas- 
sion, &c. 

DIDASCA'LIA,  a  term  in  use  among 
the  Greek  writers  of  antiquity,  and  till 
within  the  la*t  century  among  almost  all 
the  nations  of  modern  Europe,  applied  to 


the  representation  of  dramatic  pieces,  or 
to  critical  notices  of  the  stage,  and  of 
every  thing  appertaining  thereto. 

DIDO'RON,  in  ancient  architecture,  a 
brick  whose  length  was  on°  foot,  and  its 
breadth  one  half  its  length. 

DIE,  a  stamp  used  in  coining,  by  which 
a  piece  of  prepared  metal  is  impressed 
with  due  force.  Coins  are  generally  com- 
pleted by  one  blow  of  the  coining-press. 
The  engraver  selects  a  forged  plug  of  the 
best  cast  steel  of  proper  dimensions  for  hia 
intended  work,  and  having  carefully  an- 
nealed it,  and  turned  its  surfaces  smooth  in 
the  lathe,  proceeds  to  engrave  upon  it  the 
intended  device  for  the  coin.  When  this 
is  perfect  the  letters  are  put  in,  and  the 
circularity  and  size  duly  adjusted  ;  it  is 
then  hardened,  ami  is  ternjed  a  matrix. 
Another  plug  of  soft  steel  is  now  selected  ; 
and  the  matrix  being  carefully  adjusted 
upon  it,  they  are  placed  under  a  very 
powerful  fly-press,  and  two  or  three  blows 
so  directed  as  to  commence  an  impression 
of  the  matrix  upon  the  plug;  this  is  then 
annealed,  and  the  operation  repeated  till 
the  plug  receives  a  perfect  impression  of 
the  work  upon  the  matrix.  This  impres- 
sion is  of  course  in  relief  the  original 
work  upon  the  matrix  being  indented, 
and  produces  what  is  termed  the  punch. 
This,  being  duly  shaped  in  the  lathe,  is 
hardened,  and  is  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  impressions  in  soft  steel  or 
dies,  which,  being  properly  turned  and 
hardened,  are  exact  facsimiles  of  the 
original  matrix,  and  are  used  in  the  pro- 
cess of  coinage.  AVhen  a  pair  of  dies  are 
made  of  good  steel  duly  hardened  and 
tempered,  and  are  carefully  used,  they 
will  sometimes  yield  from  two  to  three 
hundred  thousand  impressions  before  they 
become  so  far  worn  or  injured  as  to  re- 
quire to  be  removed  from  the  coining 
presses. 

DI'E.?,  (days,)  in  law,  are  distinguished 
into  dies  juridici,  days  on  which  the  court 
sits  for  the  administration  of  justice; 
dies  non  juridici,  days  on  which  no 
pleas  are  held  in  any  court  of  justice ; 
and  dies  datus,  a  day  or  time  of  respite, 
given  by  the  court  to  a  defendant  in  the 
cause. —  Dies  caniculares.  in  astronomy, 
the  dog-days. — Dies  crilici,  in  medicine, 
days  in  which  some  diseases  are  supposed 
to  arrive  at  a  crisis. — Among  the  Ro- 
mans, days  were  distinguished  in  a  va- 
riety of  waj's ;  the  most  important  of 
which  were  dies  nefa.'>ti  or  dies  atri, 
days  devoted  to  religious  purposes,  on 
which  it  was  unlawful  to  do  any  publio 
business :  dies  fasti,  similar  to  the  dies 


152 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    Li;  F.I!  A';  IKE 


[nia 


juridici  of  modern  times ;  and  dies 
[feriati,  like  our  dies  non  juridici^  when 
the  courts  were  shut. 

DIE'SIS,  the  mark  :j: ;  called  also  a 
double-dagger,  and  used  as  a  mark  for 
reference. — Diesis,  in  music,  the  division 
of  a  tone  less  than  a  semi-tone ;  or  an 
interval  consisting  of  a  less  or  imperfect 
<iemi-tone. 

LI'ET,  a  name  given  to  the  principal 
national  assembly  in  many  countries  of 
modern  Europe.  By  the  usage  of  the 
German  empire,  two  diets  were  sum- 
moned every  year  by  the  emperor,  be- 
sides such  as  were  convoked  on  extra- 
ordinary occasions.  There  were  three 
chambers — 1.  That  of  the  electors.  2. 
That  of  the  sovereign  princes,  divided 
into  two  .spicitual  and  four  temporal 
benches.  The  counts  of  the  empire  voted 
collectively  in  four  benches  or  division.*, 
and  not  as  individuals ;  the  prelates  and 
the  abbots  in  two.  3.  The  chamber  of 
the  imperial  cities,  divided  into  the  Rhen- 
ish and  Swabian  benches.  The  diets,  to- 
gether with  the  emperor,  exercised  the 
prerogatives  of  sovereignty.  A  decree 
of  the  diet  was  termed  a  recess  of  the 
empire. 

DIETET'ICS,  the  science  or  philoso- 
phy of  diets ;  or  that  which  teaches  us  to 
adapt  particular  foods  to  particular  or- 
gans of  digestion,  or  to  particular  states 
of  the  same  organ,  so  that  the  greatest 
possible  portion  of  nutriment  may  be  ex- 
tracted from  a  given  quantity  of  nutri- 
tive matter. 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT,  (French;  sig- 
nifying God  and  my  right;)  the  motto 
of  the  royal  arms  of  England,  first  as- 
sumed by  king  Richard  1.,  to  intimate 
that  ho  did  not  hold  his  empire  in  vassal- 
age of  any  mortal.  It  was  afterwards 
taken  up  by  Edward  III.,  and  was  con- 
tinued, without  interruption,  to  the  time 
of  William  III.,  who  used  the  motto  je 
mainticndray,  though  the  former  was 
still  retained  upon  the  great  seal.  After 
him  queen  Anne  used  the  motto  semper 
cadem,  which  had  been  before  used  by 
queen  Elizabeth,  but  since  queen  Anne's 
time  Dieu  el  mon  droit  haS  continued  to 
he  Ihn  royal  motto. 

DIETt'eT  son  ACTE,  a  maxim  in 
law,  that,  the  act  of  God  shall  not  bo  a 
prejudice  to  any  man. 

DIFFAliREA'TlON,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquity, a.  ceremony  wiiercby  tlie  divorce 
of  the  priests  was  solemnized;  or  the  dis- 
Bolving  of  marriage  contraeto  1  by  con- 
farrcat  ion. 

DIF'FERENCE,  in  logic,  an  eyscnlial 


attribute  belonging  to  any  species  that  is 
not  found  in  the  genus ;  being  the  idea 
that  dc tines  the  species. 

DIUAM'iMA,  so  called  from  its  repre- 
senting two  gammas,  one  set  above  an- 
other, thus,  F.  The  name  given  to  the 
form  of  that  letter  in  the  ancient  Greek 
alphabet  which  cori-esponds  in  appear- 
ance generally  to  the  Latin  F.  This  let- 
ter appears  to  have  occupied  the  sixtli 
place  in  the  alphabet,  and  was  most  prev- 
alent in  the  ^Eolic  dialect;  though  some 
grammarians  contend  that  it  was  com- 
mon to  all  the  dialects  of  Greece  in  their 
more  ancient  mode  of  pronunciation.  It 
has  often  been  expressed  by  B,  and  some- 
times by  r,  A,  e,  <Ii,  and  X ;  and  it  is  now 
almost  universally  considered  to  have  had 
the  force  of  F,  V,  or  the  English  W.  As 
the  Latin  language  appro.ximated  more 
nearly  to  the  JEolic  than  to  any  of  the 
other  Grecian  dialects,  tlie  use  of  the 
digamma  is  very  prevalent  in  many 
Latin  words. 

DI'GEST,  in  law  literature,  a  collec- 
tion of  the  decisions  of  the  Roman  law- 
yers, properly  digested  or  arranged  under 
distinct  heads,  by  order  of  the  emperor 
Justinian.  It  is  also  termed  the  Pan- 
dects, from  the  Greek  words  tolv,  all,  and 
icxeaOai^  to  receive.  The  care  of  this  great 
compilation  was  entrusted  by  the  emperor 
to  Tribonian,  with  seventeen  associates. 
It  was  completed  in  three  years,  and 
published  A.D.  533.  It  contains  the  best 
decisions  and  opinions  of  former  jurists, 
collected,  it  is  said,  from  more  than  two 
thousand  volumes  ;  and  follows  the  same 
arrangement  as  the  code  of  the  same  em- 
peror, which  had  appeared  in  529. 

DIG'LYPH.  in  architecture,  a  kind  of 
imperfect  triglyph,  console,  or  the  like, 
with  two  channels  or  engravings,  either 
circular  or  angular. 

DIG'NITAIIY,  in  the  canon  law,  an 
ecclesiastic  who  holds  a  dignity,  or  a  ben- 
efice which  gives  him  some  pre-eminence 
over  mere  priests  and  canons ;  as  a  bish- 
op, dean,  arch-deacon,  prcl)endary,  &a. 

DIG'NITY,  this  word,  in  a  general 
sense,  signifies  a  nobleness  or  elevation 
of  mind  ;  and  is  opposed  to  meanness  •a.nA 
vice,  the  true  dignity  of  human  nature 
being  based  on  moral  rectitude  and  relig- 
ious veneration.  In  a  more  extended 
sense,  it  means,  elevation  of  deportment ; 
aad  also  an  elevated  office,  civil  or  eccle- 
siastienl. 

I)r(<RAPIT,  a  union  of  two  vowels,  of 
which  one  only  is  pronounced,  as  ir.  bread. 
It  is  e.-isentially  different  from  a  diph- 
thong, which  consists  of  two  vowels  also 


DIM 


AND    THE    FINE    AllTS. 


I5li 


Cut  produces  a  sd.uml  whicli  neither  of  the 
vowels  has  scpariitelv- 

DIGRESSION,  signifies  any  details 
introduced  into  a  work,  which  are  either 
altogether  foreign  from  the  immediate 
subjects  of  which  it  treats,  or  not  absolute- 
ly necessary  to  the  progress  or  develop- 
ment of  the  story.  It  will  at  once  be  per- 
ceived from  this  definition  that,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  digressions  are  to  be  carefully 
avoided,  from  their  tendency  to  withdraw 
the  attention  of  the  reader  from  the  chief 
points  of  the  story  or  the  question  under 
discussion.  There  are,  however,  some 
departments  of  literature  in  which  the 
use  of  digressions  is  not  only  admissible, 
but  even  advantageous.  On  this  subject, 
however,  no  definite  rules  can  be  laid 
down  for  the  guidance  of  the  author :  but 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  if  intro- 
duced properly  and  without  effort,  man- 
aged with  good  taste,  and  confined  within 
reasonable  limits,  digressions  have  the  ef- 
fect of  relieving  the  mind  from  the  fatigue 
of  a  too  long  sustained  attention,  and  of 
imparting  life  and  interest  to  a  subject 
that  may  be  naturally  dry  and  uninte- 
resting. The  Essays  of  Montaigne  e.x- 
hibit  more  clearly  than  any  similar  pro- 
ductions with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
the  admirable  uses  to  which  digressions 
may  be  turned  in  the  hands  of  a  master. 
Many  of  the  writings  of  Sterne,  but  more 
especially  his  Tristram  Shandy,  (which 
contains  an  eulogium  upon  digression,) 
supply  the  happiest  examples  of  their  ef- 
fects ;  and  in  our  times  77(e  Doctor,  by 
Robert  Southey,  owes  its  principal  attrac- 
tions to  the  digressions  with  which  the 
story  is  interlarded. 

DILAPIDA'TION,  in  law,  the  ruin  or 
damage  which  accrues  to  a  house  in  con- 
sequence of  neglect. 

DILEM'MA,  in  logic,  an  argument 
which  cannot  be  denied  in  any  way  with- 
out involving  the  party  denying  in  con- 
tradictions ;  or  a  position  involving  double 
choice,  each  presenting  difficulties.  A 
dilemma  is  usually  described,  as  though 
it  always  proved  the  absurdity,  inconve- 
nience, or  unreasonableness  of  some  opin- 
ion or  practice,  and  this  is  the  most  usual 
design  of  it.  But  it  is  plain,  that  it  may 
be  used  to  prove  the  truth  or  advantage 
of  anything  proposed:  as,  "In  heaven 
we  shall  either  have  desires,  or  not :  if 
we  have  no  desires,  then  we  have  full  sat- 
isfaction :  if  we  have  desires,  they  shall 
be  satisfied  as  fast  as  they  arise  :  there- 
fore, in  heaven  we  shall  be  completely 
satisfied."  This  sort  of  iirguincnt  may 
be  composed  of  ihrue  or  more  members. 


and  may  be  called  trUemma.  It  is  alSfl 
called  syllogismus  cornutus,  a  horned 
syllogism  ;  its  horns  being  so  disposed, 
that  if  you  avoid  the  one,  you  run  against 
the  other. 

DILET'TANT,  a  term  wholly  natu- 
ralized in  France,  England,  and  Germa- 
ny ;  signifying  an  amateur,  chiefly  of 
music,  but  also  of  the  kindred  sciences. 
The  dilettant  is  one  who  treats  Art  em- 
pirically, a  lover  of  art  who  is  not  satis- 
fied with  looking  and  enjoying,  but  mu?t 
needs  criticize  without  the  necessary  qual- 
ifications for  so  important  a  function. 
The  dilettant  holds  the  same  rel.ation  to 
the  artist,  that  the  bungler  does  to  the 
artisan,  he  takes  hold  of  art  by  the  weak 
end  ;  conscious  that  art  is  learned  accord- 
ing to  rules,  he  errs  in  treating  its  laws 
as  mechanical  when  they  are  spiritual. 
He  confounds  art  with  material ;  he  re- 
gards neatness  and  finish,  which  are  me- 
chanical, as  the  highest  excellences.  In- 
vention, composition,  coloring,  being  spir- 
itiial,  are  invisible  to  him.  Having  no 
confidence  in  the  application  of  his  rules, 
he  applies  them  empirically,  and  follows, 
as  nearly  as  he  can,  the  direction  of  pop- 
ular taste.  While  the  aim  and  endeavor 
of  the  artist  is  the  highest  in  art,  the  di- 
lettant has  no  aim  ;  he  sees  only  what  is 
beside  him — nothing  beyond.  Many  di- 
lettants  are  collectors  ;  they  are  fond,  if 
possessed  of  the  means,  of  raking  togeth- 
er, their  object  being  to  possess,  not  to 
choose  with  understanding,  and  be  con- 
tent with  a  few  good  things.  The  dilet- 
tants  do  great  injury  to  artists,  by  foster- 
ing the  mechanical,  rather  than  the  spir- 
itual, in  art,  and  by  bringing  them  down 
to  their  own  level.  Yet,  on  the  other 
hand,  dilettantism  has  its  advantages  ;  it 
prevents  an  entire  want  of  cultivation, 
and  as  it  is  in  some  sort  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  a  general  extension  of  art,  it 
may  even  be  the  cause  of  it.  Under  cer- 
tain circumstances  it  may  excite  and  de- 
velop a  true  artistic  talent,  and  substitute 
a  certain  idea  of  art,  in  place  of  entire 
ignorance,  and  extend  it  to  where  the  ar- 
tist would  not  be  able  to  reach  ;  thougb 
few  artists  can  be  connoisseurs,  many  are 
dilettants. 

DIMTNU'TION,  in  architecture,  n 
contraction  of  the  upper  part  of  a  col- 
umn, by  which  its  diameter  is  m.ade  lesi 
than  that  of  the  lower  part.  It  general- 
ly commences  from  one  third  of  the 
height  of  the  column. — Diminution,  in 
rhetoric,  the  exaggerating  what  you 
have  to  say  by  an  expression  that  seems 
to  diminish  it. — In  music,  the  imitation 


151 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[dip 


of  or  reply  to  a  subject  in  notes  of  half 
the  longth  or  value  of  those  of  the  sub- 
ject itself. 

DIMIN'UTIVE,  in  grammar,  a  word 
or  termination  which  lessens  the  mean- 
ing of  the  original  word ;  as,  rivulet,  a 
small  river;  manikin,  a  little  man. 

DIM'ISSORY,  dismissing  to  another 
jurisdiction. — A  letter  dimissory,  is  one 
given  by  a  bishop  to  a  candidate  for  holy 
orders,  having  a  title  in  his  diocese,  di- 
rected to  some  other  bishop,  and  giving 
leave  for  the  bearer  to  be  ordained  by 
him. 

DIM'ITY,  a  kind  of  white  cotton  cloth, 
ribbed  or  figured.  It  was  originally  im- 
ported from  India,  but  is  now  manufac- 
tured in  Lancashire,  and  various  other 
parts  of  Britain. 

DIO'CESAN,  a  bishop  who  has  charge 
of  a  particular  diocese. 

DI'OCBSE,  or  DI'OCESS,  the  district 
or  circuit  of  a  bishop's  jurisilietion.  The 
name  diocese  began  first  to  be  used  in  the 
fourth  century,  when  the  exterior  polity 
of  the  church  began  to  be  formed  upon 
the  model  of  the  Roman  empire.  Eng- 
land, in  regard  to  its  ecclesiastical  state, 
is  divided  into  two  provinces,  viz. :  Can- 
terbury and  York,  and  each  province 
into  subordinate  dioceses  ;  the  province 
of  Canterbury  contains  twenty-one  dio- 
ceses, and  that  of  York  three.  The  dio- 
ceses of  tlie  Prot.  p]pis.  CInircli  in  the 
United  States  arc  nearly  equivalent  to 
the  several  states  in  o.Ktent. 

DIONY'SIA,  in  ancient  history,  the  fes- 
tivals of  Dionysius  or  Bacchus,  but  more 
particularly  those  that  were  celebrated 
in  Attica,  which  were  three  in  number, 
distinguished  by  the  following  titles: — • 
1.  The  Country  Dionysia.  2.  Those  in 
Limna;,  a  part  of  the  city  of  Athens, 
where  they  were  held,  which  were  also 
called  Lensean,  or  Anthesteria ;  and  3. 
The  Great  Dionysia.  At  all  of  these  fes- 
tivals the  chief  amusements  consisted  in 
the  representation  of  stage  plays  ;  but 
the  last  was  most  celebrated,  as  then, 
before  the  face  of  all  Greece,  the  great 
tragic  contests  were  held,  no  expense 
being  spared  to  render  the  decorations 
and  accompaniments  as  splendid  as  art 
could  make  them. 

DIURA'iMA,  a  mode  of  painting  or 
ecenic  representation,  invented  by  two 
French  artists,  Daguerre  and  Bouton, 
and  recently  brought  forward  as  a  pub- 
lic exhibition  in  all  the  principal  cities 
of  Europe.  The  ])ceuliar  and  very  high 
degree  of  optical  illusion  produced  by 
tho  diorama  depends    upon   two    princi- 


ples ;  the  mode  of  exhibiting  the  paint- 
ing, and  the  manner  of  preparing  it. 
With  respect  to  the  first  of  these,  the 
spectator  and  the  picture  are  placed  in 
separate  rooms,  and  the  picture  viewed 
through  an  aperture,  the  sides  of  which 
are  continued  towards  the  picture,  so  as 
to  prevent  any  object  in  the  picture 
room  from  being  seen  excepting  the 
painting  itself.  Into  the  room  in  which 
the  spectator  is  placed  no  light  is  admitted 
excepting  what  comes  through  this  aper- 
ture from  the  picture ;  he  is  thus  placed 
in  comparative  darkness,  and  also  (which 
contributes  to  the  effect)  at  ii  consider- 
able distance  from  the  picture.  Tho 
picture  room  is  illuminated  from  the 
roof,  which  is  glazed  with  ground  glass; 
and  the  picture  so  placed  that  the  light 
falls  on  it  at  a  proper  angle  to  be  reflect- 
ed towards  the  aperture.  The  roof,  whi'sh 
is  invisible  to  the  spectator,  is  provided 
with  an  apparatus  of  folds  or  shutters,  by 
which  the  mtensity  of  the  illumination 
may  be  increased  or  diminished  at  pleas- 
ure, and  so  modified  as  to  represent, 
with  great  effect  and  accuracy,  the  dif- 
ferent accidents  of  light  and  shade,  or 
the  changes  of  appearance  depending 
on  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  ;  as  bright 
sunshine,  cloudy  weather,  or  the  obscuri- 
ty of  twilight.  The  second  principle  con- 
sists in  painting  certain  parts  of  the  pic- 
ture in  transparency,  and  admitting  a 
stream  of  light  upon  it  from  behind, 
which,  passing  through  the  picture,  pro- 
duces a  brilliancy  far  surpassing  what 
could  be  obtained  by  illuminating  the 
picture  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  renders 
the  relief  of  the  objects  represented 
much  stronger  and  more  deceptive. 
Hence,  the  diorama  is  peculiarly  adapt- 
ed for  representing  architectural  objects, 
as  the  interiors  of  cathedrals,  &c.  In 
order  to  render  the  exhibition  more  at- 
tractive, it  is  usual  to  present  more 
scenes  than  one.  This  may  of  course  be 
effected  by  removing  one  picture  and 
substituting  another  ;  but  with  a  view  to 
prevent  the  illusion  from  being  impaired 
by  the  accidents  incidental  to  scene- 
shifting,  a  different  method  is  sometimes 
resorted  to. 

DII'H'TIIOXG,  the  union  of  two  vow- 
els pronounf'cd  in  one  syllable.  ThesounJ 
is  not  simple,  but  so  blended  as  to  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  but  one  syllable,  as 
noise,  bound,  joint,  &c. 

Dli'LOALA.,  a  written  document,  con- 
ferring some  power,  privilege,  or  honor, 
viz.,  an  instrument  or  license  given  by 
colleges,  societies,  Ac.  to  a  clergyman  to 


Dir 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


155 


exerciso  the  ministerial  function,  or  to  a 
physician  to  practise  tiic  profession,  Ac, 
after  passing  examination,  or  admitting 
him  to  a  degree. — Every  sort  of  ancient 
charter,  donation,  bull,  Ac  ,  is  compre- 
hended by  writers  on  diploniatics  under 
the  name  diploma.  Tiie  term  is  derived 
from  the  earliest  charters  of  donation 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  those  of 
the  early  Roman  emperors  having  been 
inscribed  on  two  tablets  of  copper  joined 
together  so  as  to  fold  in  the  form  of  a 
book.  Writings  of  earlier  date  than  the 
fifth  century  are  generally  on  leaves  of 
the  papyru.s,  or  biblos  ^Egyptiaca ;  those 
of  a  later  period  on  parchment.  The  form 
and  character  of  the  diploma  granted  by 
the  sovereigns,  prelates,  nobles,  &c.  of 
modern  Europe,  varied  from  age  to  age  ; 
and  the  knowledge  of  these  variations 
forms  an  important  branch  of  the  science 
of  diplomatics. 

DIP'LOIS,  in 
Grecian  costume, 
a  kind  of  doubled 
cloak,  which,  when 
worn,  was  folded 
back  in  the  man- 
ner shawls  are 
usually  worn. 

DIPLOM'ACY, 
in  its  most  re- 
stricted sense,  is 
used  to  express 
the  art  of  con- 
ducting negotia- 
tions or  arranging 
treaties  between 
nations  by  mean.s 
of  their  foreign 
ministers,  or  writ- 
ten correspond- 
ence ;  but,  in  its 
most  extended  sig- 
nification, it  em- 
braces the  whole 
science  of  negotia- 
tion with  foreign 
'.tates  as  founded  on  public  law,  positive 
engagements,  or  an  enlightened  view  of 
the  interests  of  each.  It  has  been  truly 
observed,  that  n  times  not  very  distant, 
it  was  sufficient  to  entertain  a  royal 
master  by  the  gossip  of  a  capital,  the  in- 
trigues of  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the 
bed-chamber,  aricj  the  cabals  of  rival 
ministers.  Now,  the  political  correspond- 
ent of  a  c.abiuet  is  compelled  to  inquire 
into  the  \vo:kir.g  of  the  complex  machin- 
ery of  modern  30ciety ;  to  observe  con- 
stantly the  pnlse  of  the  whole  body 
politic;   to  kiep  in  view  the  moral  and 


physical  resources  of  tations ;  to  defend 
the  rights  of  his  country,  on  the  grounds 
of  law  and  reason  ;  to  give  information 
to  the  minister,  from  whom  ho  holds  his 
instructions,  and  to  enable  his  govern- 
ment to  profit  by  the  intelligence  he  im- 
parts, not  only  in  the  management  of  its 
foreign  concerns,  but  likewise  of  its  in- 
ternal resources.  To  be  a  peifect  di- 
plomatist, in  fact,  in  the  present  state  of 
the  world,  a  man  should  be  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  municipal  laws  of  different 
countries,  versed  in  the  sciences,  from 
which  industrj'  and  art  derive  their  splen- 
dor, and  a  state  its  strength,  and  equal 
to  any  of  the  tasks  to  which  those  with 
whom  he  is  brought  into  contact  might 
put  his  learning  and  sagacity. — It  was 
one  part  of  the  business  of  the  congress 
assembled  at  Vienna,  in  1814,  to  regulate 
the  degrees  of  rank  to  which  the  various 
diplomatic  agents  were  entitled,  viz. : 
1,  ambassadors  ;  2.  envoj's  extraordinary 
and  ministers  plenipotentiary;  3,  minis- 
ters resident;  4,  charges  d'ajfaires ;  5, 
secretaries  of  legation  and  attaches.  Min- 
isters at  a  court  are  denominated  a  dip- 
lomatic body. 

DIPLO-MAT'ICS,  the  science  of  deci- 
phering ancient  writings,  assigning  their 
date,  &c.  The  name  is  derived  from  di- 
ploma. Writings  of  earlier  date  than  the 
fifth  century  were  mostly  on  the  leaves 
of  the  papyrus,  or  biblos  ^Egyptiaca. 
Parchment  appears  to  have  been  first 
generally  used  in  that  century  ;  and  the 
oldest  documents  bearing  the  character 
of  diplomas  which  we  possess  do  not  ex- 
tend to  a  higher  antiquity.  Not  long 
after  the  general  adoption  of  parchment, 
a  variety  of  substances  and  colors  began 
to  be  used  in  writing,  as  vermilion,  pur- 
ple, gold  and  silver ;  but  this  sumptuous 
fashion  did  not  long  remain  in  use.  The 
science  of  diplomatics  teaches  the  differ- 
ent styles  and  forms  adopted  in  ancient 
public  documents  ;  the  titles,  rank,  Ac., 
of  public  officers  whose  names  are  sub- 
scribed to  them  ;  the  knowledge  of  the 
materials  used  in  writing  in  diflerent 
ages,  of  the  different  characters  used  in 
successive  periods  and  in  various  coun- 
tries ;  and  the  several  kinds  of  diplomas 
or  public  instruments.  This  science  is 
said  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  Jesuit  of 
Antwerp,  named  Papclroch,  who  devoted 
himself  arduously  to  the  research  and 
exposition  of  old  diplomas  about  the 
year  167,5  ;  but  the  honor  of  having  re- 
duced it  to  a  science,  and  established  it 
on  a  sure  and  more  satisfactory  founda- 
tion, is  due  to  Mabillon,  whose  learned 


156 


CYCLOrEDlA    OF    LITEKA'i  IRE 


[oia 


work.  De  Re  Dlplomatica,  was  given  to 
the  world  in  1681.  The  principles  laid 
down  b}'  MabiUon,  however,  were  more 
fully  developed  about  the  middle  of  last 
century,  in  one  of  the  most  elaborate 
works  of  which  the  literature  of  any  na- 
tion can  boast,  the  Nouveau  Tra  itc  de  Di- 
plomatique ;  and  which  has  left  little  to 
be  done  by  subsequent  laborers  in  this 
field  beyond  the  duty  of  translation,  com- 
pilation, or  abridgment.  From  the  above 
statement  of  the  objects  of  this  science,  it 
will  be  at  once  perceived  that  it  is  of  im- 
mense utility.  It  has  greatly  facilitated 
the  researches  of  the  historian,  the  poli- 
tician, the  divine,  the  political  economist; 
and  has  contributed  to  the  elucidation  of 
points  in  the  history  of  nations  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  forever  bu- 
riedin  obscurity. 

DIP'TERAL,  in  architecture,  a  temple 
which  had  a  double  range  of  columns  on 
each  of  its  flasks. 

DIP'TYCHA,  or  DIP'TYCH,  in  Ro- 
man antiquity,  a  public  register  of  the 
names  of  the  consuls  and  other  magis- 
trates. Among  the  early  Christians,  they 
were  tablets,  on  one  of  which  were  writ- 
ten the  names  of  the  deceased,  and  on  the 
other  those  of  the  living  patriarchs,  bish- 
ops, Ac.  or  those  who  had  done  any  ser- 
vice to  the  church.  The  letters  were 
written  inside  these  tablets,  and  on  the 
outside  were  slight  reliefs,  making  the 
specimens  still  extant  not  a  little  in- 
teresting in  the  history  of  Art.  The 
whole  class  of  diptycha,  together  with  the 
triptycha  and  pentaptycha,  belong  to  the 
later  Roman  empire,  and  are,  therefore, 
curious  as  the  last  effort  of  Antique  and 
also  as  remnants  of  Early  Christian  Art; 
they  are  distinguished  as  consular — 
those  presented  by  the  magistrates  upon 
receiving  that  office ;  and  ecclesiastical. 
They  were  made  of  vrood  as  well  as  of 
ivory,  and  some  are  e.vtant  of  chased  sil- 
ver. Diptijcka  consularia  bore  the  por- 
traits of  the  consuls,  representations  of 
the  games  in  the  circus  and  scenes  of 
triumph.  &c.  The  dlptijcha  ecclesiastica 
arc  decorated  with  scenes  from  Biblical 
history.  They  were  very  common  during 
the  middle  ages,  and  were  often  most 
exquisitely  wrought. 

DI'R/E,  in  the  Roman  divination,  sig- 
nifieB  any  unusual  accidents  or  uncom- 
mon appearances,  as  sneezing,  stumbling, 
strange  voices,  apparitions,  spilling  salt 
or  wine  upon  the  table  or  upon  one's 
clothes,  meeting  wolvcj',  hares,  foxes,  Ac. 

DI'RECT,  in  music,  a  cliiiractcr  used 
at  the  end  of  a  staff,  to  tlircct  the  per- 


former's notice  to  the  succeeding  note  at 
the  beginning  of  the  following  staff. 

DIRECT  TAX,  taxes  are  distinguished 
into  direct  and  indirect.  A  tax  is  direct 
when  it  is  paid  by  the  persons  who  per- 
manently own,  or  use,  or  consume  the  sub- 
ject of  the  tax.  An  indirect  tax  falls  ulti- 
mately on  a  different  person  from  the  one 
who  immediately  pays  it  to  the  govern- 
ment. Thus  the  importer  of  goods  pays  a 
duty  on  them  to  the  government,  but  reim- 
burses himself  by  charging  the  amount  of 
this  duty  in  the  price  of  the  goods. 

DIRECTORS,  in  commerce,  the  namo 
given  to  the  individuals  composing  the 
board  of  management  of  a  joint  stock 
company. 

DIRECTORY,  in  French  history,  the 
name  given  by  the  constitution  of  1795 
to  the  executive  body  of  the  French  re- 
public. It  consisted  of  five  individuals, 
called  directors,  who  were  selected  by  the 
council  of  elders  from  a  list  of  candidates 
presented  by  the  council  of  five  hundred. 
One  of  these  directors  retired  every  year, 
and  was  succeeded  by  another  elected  on 
the  same  principle.  To  the  directory 
was  entrusted  the  superintendence  of  the 
home  and  foreign  departments,  the  finan- 
ces and  the  army,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  ministers  of  state  and  other 
public  functionaries.  Its  policy  was  at 
first  moderate  and  conciliatory  ;  but  after 
a  short  interval  it  had  recourse  to  meas- 
ures which  produced  wide-spread  dis- 
satisfaction, and  it  was  at  length  over- 
thrown on  the  ascendency  of  Bonaparte 
after  an  existence  of  four  years. — Direc- 
tory, signifies  also  a  book  containing  the 
names  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  town,  ar- 
ranged in  alphabetical  order,  together 
with  their  places  of  abode,  &c.  It  is 
likewise  applied  to  a  book  containing  di- 
rections for  public  worship,  or  other  re- 
ligious services. 

DIRGE,  a  song  or  tune  intended  to 
exfiross  grief,  sorrow,  and  mourning. 

DIS,  a  prefix  or  inseparable  proposition, 
which  generally  has  the  force  of  a  privative 
and  negative;  as,  disarm,  di-iallow,  diso- 
blige. In  some  cases,  however,  it  denotes 
separation,  as  in  dtslribute,  disconnect. 

DISABIL'ITY,  in  law,  an  incapacity 
in  a  man  to  inherit  or  take  a  benefit 
which  otherwise  ho  might  have  done, 
which  may  happen  by  the  act  of  any  an- 
cestor;  by  the  act  of  the  party  himself; 
by  the  act  of  the  law ;  and  by  the  act  of 
God. —  Di.s-dbillfi/  tViffvm  from  inability,  in 
denoting  dcprix  alion  of  al)ility  ;  whoro.-is 
inability  denotes  dc.stitutidn  of  ability^ 
cither  liy  deprivation  or  otherwise. 


Dis] 


AND    THr.    KIXR    AllTS. 


157 


DISAFFECTION,  in  a  political  senge, 
signifies  disloyalty  ;  not  merely  alien;i.- 
tion  of  atfeetion,  but  positive  di.slike  and 
enmity. 

DISCHARGE',  a  word  of  various  sig- 
nifications. Aitplied  tojirc-iinus,  it  means 
an  explosion  ;  to  fluids,  a  Uowinir,  issu- 
ing, or  throwing  out,  as  water  from  a 
spring  or  spout.  It  also  denotes  a  dis- 
inissa I  from  office  or  service;  a  release 
froiii  debt,  obligation,  or  imprisoment; 
and  the  performance  of  any  otRee,  trust, 
or  duty. 

DISCI'PLE,  one  who  learns  anything 
from  another  :  thus,  the  followers  of  any 
teacher,  philosopher,  &c.,  are  called  dis- 
ciples. In  the  more  common  acceptation, 
among  Christians,  the  disciples  denote 
those  who  were  the  immediate  followers 
and  attendants  on  Christ,  of  whom  there 
were  seventy  or  seventy-two ;  but  the 
word  is  also  correctly  applied  to  all  Chris- 
tians, as  they  profess  to  learn  and  re- 
ceive his  doctrines  and  precepts.  The 
■words  disciple  and  apostle  are  often  syn- 
onymously used  in  the  gospel  history, 
but  sometimes  the  apostles  are  distin- 
guished from  disciples  as  persons  select- 
ed out  of  the  number  of  disciples,  to  bo 
the  principal  ministers  of  his  religion. 

DISCIPLINA'RIAN,  one  who  is  well 
versed  in  military  and  naval  tactics  and 
manoeuvres;  and  who  exacts  a  strict  ob- 
servance of  them  from  those  under  his 
command. 

DIS'CIPLINE,  signifies,  primarily,  in- 
struction or  government ;  but  it  is  ap- 
plied figuratively  to  a  peculiar  mode  of 
life,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  some 
profession  or  society.  It  is  also  used  to 
designate  the  punishments  employed  in 
convents,  and  those  which  enthusiasts 
undergo  or  inflict  upon  themselves  by 
■way  of  niortitication. 

DIS'CIPLINE,  BoOKOF,  in  the  church 
of  Scotland,  is  a  common  order,  drawn 
up  by  the  General  Assembly  in  16.50  for 
the  reformation  and  uniformity  to  be  ob- 
serveil  in  the  discipline  and  policy  of  the 
church.  In  this  book  episcopal  govern- 
ment is  set  aside,  Kirk  sessions  are  estab- 
lished, the  observance  of  saints'  and  oth- 
er holy  days  is  condemned,  and  otlicr 
regulations  for  the  internal  government 
of  the  church  are  prescribed.  It  is  called 
the  First  Book  of  Discipline. 

DISCLAIM'ER,  in  law,  is  a  plea  con- 
taining nn  express  denial  or  renunciation 
of  some  claim  which  h^s  been  made  upon 
or  by  the  party  pleading.  It  is  more 
especially  taken  for  the  denial,  by  an  al- 
leged tenant,  of  his  tenancy. 


DISCOBO'LUS,  a  thrower  of  the  di.s- 
ci;s,   the   attitude   of  which   is   rendered 


familiar  to  all  by  the  celebrated  statue 
by  the  sculptor  Myron 

DISCONTIN'UANCE,  in  law,  an  in- 
jury to  real  property,  which  consists  in 
the  keeping  out  the  rightful  owner  of  an 
estate  by  a  tenant  whose  entry  was  at 
first  lawful,  but  who  wrongfully  retains 
the  possession  afterwards. 

DIS'CORD,  in  music,  a  union  of  sounds 
whicli  is  inharmonious,  grating,  and  disa- 
greeable to  the  ear  ;  or  an  interval  whoso 
extremes  do  not  coalesce.  It  is  opposed 
to  concord  and  harmony.  The  second, 
fourth,  and  seventh,  with  their  octaves, 
and,  in  general,  all  intervals,  except  those 
few  which  precisely  terminate  the  con- 
cords, are  called  discords.  There  is,  not- 
withstanding, what  is  termed  the  harmo- 
ny of  discords,  wherein  the  discords  are 
made  use  of  as  the  solid  and  substantial 
part  of  the  harmony  ;  for  by  a  proper  in- 
terposition of  a  discord,  the  succeeding 
concords  receive  an  additional  grace. 

DISCOR'DIA,  in  mythology,  a  malev- 
olent deity,  daughter  of  Night,  and  sis- 
ter of  Erinnys,  the  Parcir,  and  Death. 
She  is  represented  as  having  been  ban- 
ished from  heaven  by  Jupiter,  on  a.eeount 
of  the  broils  she  perpetually  occasioned. 
This  was  the  goddess  who,  from  disap- 
pointment at  not  being  invited  to  the 
marriage  of  Thetis  and  Peleus,  threw  into 
the  mitlst  of  the  assembly  the  golden  ap- 
ple, with  the  inscription  detur  pulchriori, 
{let  it  be  ^iren  to  the  fairest  ;)  which,  as 
is  well  known,  occasioned  the  famed  con- 
test between  the  goddesses  Juno,  Miner- 
va, and  Venus,  and  ultimately  le<l  to  the 
Trojan  war,  and  the  destruction  of  Troy. 
The  ancient  poets  represent  this  divinitj 


158 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


with  a  pale  and  ghastly  look,  a  dagger  in 
her  hand,  and  her  hair  entwined  with  ser- 
pents. 

DIS'COUNT,  an  allowance  made  for 
the  payment  of  money  before  it  is  due, 
and  is  equivalent  to  the  interest  of  the 
principal  sum  diminished  by  the  discount 
during  the  time  that  must  elapse  before 
the  money  becomes  payable. 

DISCOURSE',  in  rhetoric,  signifies  in 
its  widest  acceptation  a  series  of  sen- 
tences and  arguments  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  art,  with  the  view  of 
producing  some  impression  on  the  mind 
or  feelings  of  those  to  whom  it  is  ad- 
dressed. In  logic,  this  term  is  applied  to 
the  third  operation  of  the  mind,  common- 
ly called  reasoning. 

DISCOVERY,  in  a  general  sense,  that 
which  is  discovered,  found  out,  or  reveal- 
ed ;  as,  the  discovery  of  America  by  Co- 
lumbus ;  or  the  properties  of  the  magnet 
were  an  important  discovery. — Discovery, 
in  law,  the  disclosing  or  revealing  any- 
thing by  a  defendant  in  his  answer  to  a 
bill  tiled  against  him  in  a  court  of  equity. 

DISCRE'TIVE,  in  logic,  an  epithet 
applied  to  a  proposition  expressing  some 
distinction,  opposition,  or  variety,  by 
means  of  but,  though,  yet,  Ac. ;  as,  men 
change  their  dresses,  but  not  their  incli- 
nations. 

DISCUM'BENCY,  the  act  of  leaning 
at  meals,  according  to  the  manner  of  the 
ancients. 

DIS'CUS,  in  antiquity,  a  quoit  made 
of  stone,  iron,  or  copper,  five  or  six  fin- 
gers broad,  and  more  than  a  foot  long, 
inclining  to  an  oval  figure,  which  they 
hurled  in  the  n.anner  of  a  bowl,  to  a  vast 
distance,  by  the  help  of  a  leathern  thong 
tied  round  the  person's  hand  who  threw 
it,  and  put  through  a  hole  in  the  middle. 

DISEASE',  any  state  of  a  living  body 
in  which  the  natural  functions  of  the  or- 
gans arc  interrupted  or  disturbed,  either 
by  defective  or  preternatural  action.  A 
disease  may  affect  the  whole  body,  or  a 
particular  limb  or  part  of  the  body  ;  and 
Buch  partial  affection  of  the  body  is  called 
A  local  or  topical  disease. 

DISFRAN'CHISE,  to  deprive  of  char- 
tered rights  and  immunities  ;  or  to  de- 
prive of  some  franchise,  as  the  right  of 
FOting  in  elections,  &c. 

DISJUNCTIVE,  in  grammar,  an  epi- 
thet for  conjunctions,  which  unite  sen- 
tences, but  separate  the  sense,  as  but,  nor, 
&c. — A  disjurictire  j)ro])osition,  in  logic, 
ia  one  in  which  the  parts  are  opposed  to 
each  other  by  means  of  disjunctives  ;  as, 
"it  is  either  day  or  night." — A  disjunc- 


tive syllogism,  is,  when  the  major  propo- 
sition is  disjunctive  ;  as,  "the  earth  moves 
in  a  circle,  or  an  ellipsis;  but  it  does  not 
move  in  a  circle,  therefore  it  moves  in  an 
ellipsis." 

DISPATCII'ES,  in  politics,  a  packet 
of  letters  sent  by  a  public  officer  on  some 
affair  of  state  or  public  business. 

DISPENSA'TION,  in  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs, the  granting  of  a  license,  or  the  li- 
cense itself,  to  do  what  is  forbidden  by 
laws  or  canons,  or  to  omit  something 
which  is  commanded.  Also,  a  sj-stem  of 
principles  and  rites  enjoined:  as  the  Mo- 
saic dispensation,  that  is.  the  Levitical 
law  and  rites ;  the  Gospel  dispensation, 
or  scheme  of  human  redemption  by  Jesus 
Christ. 

DISPOSI'TIOX,  a  word  of  e.vtensive 
application,  very  generally  signifying 
method,  distribution,  arrangement,  or  in- 
clination. Thus  we  speak  of  the  dispo.ii- 
tion  of  the  several  parts  of  an  edifice  ;  the 
disposition  of  the  infantry  and  cavalry  in 
an  army;  the  judicious  disposition  of  a 
person's  effects  ;  a  disposition  in  plants 
to  grow  upwards ;  a  disposition  in  ani- 
mal bodies  to  putrefaction ;  a  person's 
disposition  to  undertake  particular  work, 
&c. 

DISPUTA'TIOX,  in  the  schools,  aeon- 
test,  either  by  words  or  writing,  on  some 
point  of  learning  for  a  degree,  prize,  or 
for  an  exercise.  Also  a  verbal  contro- 
versy respecting  the  truth  of  some  fact, 
opinion,  or  argument ;  as,  Paul  disputed 
with  the  Jews  in  the  synagogue. 

DISQUALIFICA'TION,  that  which  in- 
capacitates in  law;  implying  a  previous 
qualification,  which  has  been  forfeited  ; 
and  not  merely  the  want  of  qualification. 

DISQUISITION,  formal  or  systematic 
examination  into  the  circumstances  of 
any  affair,  in  order  to  discourse  about  it, 
and  so  arrive  at  the  truth. 

DISSECTION,  the  dividing  an  animal 
body  into  its  substantial  parts,  for  the 
purpose  of  examining  its  structures  and 
uses.  Le  (Jendre  observes,  that  the  dis- 
section of  a  human  body,  even  dead,  was 
held  a  sacrilege  till  the  time  of  Francis 
I. ;  and  that  he  has  seen  a  consultation 
held  by  the  divines  of  Salamanca,  at  the 
request  of  Charles  V.  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion wliether  or  not  it  were  lawful  in 
point  of  conscience  to  dissect  a  human 
body  for  the  purposes  of  anatomical  sci- 

DISSEIS'IN,  or  DISSEIZIN,  in- law, 
an  illegal  seizure  of  a  person's  lands,  ten- 
ements, or  other  incorporeal  rights.  The 
person  dispossessing  is  called  the  diaeti- 


DIS] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


169 


tor,  and  the  person  dispossessed,  the  dis- 
seisee. 

If  DISSENTER,  one  who  separates  from 
the  service  and  worship  of  any  established 
church.  In  England,  therefore,  the  word 
is  particularly  applied  to  those  who  do 
not  conform  to  the  rites  and  service  of  its 
church  as  bj'  law  established.  The  prin- 
ciples on  which  dissenters  separate  from 
the  church  of  England,  are,  the  right  of 
private  judgment,  and  liberty  of  con- 
science. They  maintain  that  Christ,  and 
he  alone,  is  the  head  of  the  church,  and 
that  they  bow  to  no  authority,  in  matters 
of  religion,  but  that  which  proceeds  from 
him. 

DIS'SONANCE,  in  music,  inharmoni- 
ous or  discordant  sounds. 

DISSYL'IiABLE,  in  grammar,  a  word 
consisting  of  two  syllables  only ;  as,  king- 
dom, virtue. 

DISSOLU'TIOX,  the  separation  of  a 
body  into  its  elementary  principles;  or  a 
cessation  of  the  powers  by  which  it  was 
held  together.  We  speak  of  the  dissolu- 
tion of  animal  bodies,  when  the  parts 
separate  by  putrefaction  ;  and  of  a  reduc- 
tion of  a  substance  into  its  smallest  parts, 
by  a  dissolvent  or  menstruum.  We  also 
say,  the  dis:iolution  of  the  world,  when 
we  refer  to  its  final  destruction  ;  and  the 
dissolution  of  government,  when  it  can 
no  longer  hold  together. 

DIS'TAFF,  the  staff  of  a  spinning- 
wheel,  to  which  a  bunch  of  flax  is  tied, 
and  from  which  the  thread  is  drawn. 
This  implement  is  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  ancient 
Art.  It  was  made  out  of 
a  cane-stick,  of  about  three 
feet  in  length.  At  the  top 
it  was  slit  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  it  should  bend 
open,  and  form  a  recepta' 
cle  for  the  flax  or  wool  to 
be  spun.  A  ring  was  put 
over  the  top  as  a  kind  of 
cap  to  keep  the  ends  of  the 
cane  together.  The  distaff 
occurs  in  representations 
of  the  fates,  who  are  enga- 
ged in  spinning  the  thread 
of  life.  Distaffs  of  gold 
were  given  to  goddesses. 
It  was  dedicated  to  Pallas, 
the  patroness  of  spinning. 

DISTEMPER,  Destemper,  Detrem- 
rT:.{Fr.,)  Tempera  {Ital)  A  kind  of 
painting,  in  which  the  pigments  are  mix- 
ed in  an  aqueous  vehicle,  such  as  size, 
and  chiefly  applied  to  seene-painting  and 
interior    decoration.      In   former  times. 


when  this  description  of  painting  waa 
more  extensively  employed  than  at  pres- 
ent, the  vehicles  for  the  pigments  were 
the  sap  of  the  fig-tree,  milk,  and  white 
of  egg.  Many  of  the  works  of  the  old 
masters  were  executed  in  distemjier,  and 
afterwards  oiled,  by  which  process  they 
became  almost  identical  with  oil-paint- 
ings, or  pictures  executed  with  an  olea- 
ginous vehicle.  By  many  persons,  unac- 
quainted with  the  processes  of  painting, 
distemper  is  regarded  as  identical  with 
fresco  painting.  The  difference  is  this — 
distemper  is  painted  on  a  dry  surface, 
fresco  on  ire<  mortar  or  plaster. 

DISTICH,  a  couplet,  or  couple  of 
verses  in  poetry,  making  complete  sense. 

DISTIN'C'TiON,  in  a  general  sense 
means  the  act  of  separating  or  distin- 
guishing. It  .also  denotes  elevation  of 
rank  or  character.  Thus  we  say,  of  men 
who  hold  a  high  rank  by  birth  or  office, 
as  well  as  of  those  who  are  eminent  for 
their  talents,  services,  or  moral  worth, 
that  they  are  persons  of  distinction. — 
Metapliysicaldistinction  is  the  non-agree- 
ment of  being,  whereby  tliis  entity  is  not 
that,  or  one  thing  is  not  another. — Dis- 
tinction, or  distinguo,  is  also  used,  in  the 
schools,  as  an  expedient  to  evade  .an  ar- 
gument, or  to  clear  up  and  unfold  an  am- 
biguous proposition,  which  may  be  true 
in  one  sense,  and  false  in  another  thus 
they  say,  "  the  respondent  was  hard 
pressed,  but  he  disengaged  himself  by  a 
distinguo.^^ 

DISTRESS',  in  law,  the  distraining 
or  seizing  upon  a  person's  goods  for  the 
payment  of  rent  or  taxes,  &c. 

biSTRIBU'TION,  the  act  of  dividing 
or  separating ;  as,  the  distribution  of 
property  among  children  ;  or  the  distri- 
bution of  plants  into  genera  and  species. 
— In  logic,  the  distinguishing  a  whole 
into  its  several  constituent  parts. — In 
medicine,  the  circulation  of  the  chyle 
with  the  blood.  —  In  architecture,  the 
dividing  and  disposing  of  the  several 
parts  of  a  building,  according  to  some 
plan,  or  to  the  rules  of  the  art. — In  print- 
ing, the  taking  a  form  asunder,  so  as  to 
separate  the  types,  and  place  each  letter 
in  its  proper  cell  or  box  in  the  cases  — 
Diitributire  justice,  implies,  that  justice 
is  so  administered  by  a  judge,  as  to  give 
every  man  his  due.  —  DLHributive,  in 
grammar,  words  which  serve  to  distribute 
things  into  their  several  orders,  as  each 
either,  every.  &c. 

DISTRICT,  a  word  applicable  to  any 
portion  of  land  or  country,  or  to  any  part 
of  a  city  of  town,  which  is  defined  by  law 


IGO 


CVCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[div 


or  agreement.  A  governor,  a  prefect,  or 
a  judge  may  have  his  district ;  or  states 
and  provinces  may  be  divided  into  dis- 
tricts for  public  meetings,  the  exercise  of 
elective  rights.  &c. — District,  in  law,  that 
circuit  or  territory  within  which  a  man 
may  be  forced  to  make  his  appearance. 

DI.STRIN'GrAS,  in  law,  a  writ  com- 
manding the  sheriff,  or  other  oflicer,  to 
distrain  a  person  for  debt,  or  for  his  ap- 
pearance at  a  certain  day. 

DITilYRAM'BUS,  a  sort  of  hymn  an- 
ciently sung  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  full  of 
transport  and  poetical  rage  :  any  poem 
written  with  wildness.  The  ditht/rambic 
poetry  was  very  bold  and  irregular,  for 
the  poets  not  only  took  the  liberty  to  coin 
new  words  for  the  purpose,  but  made 
double  and  compound  words,  which  con- 
tributed very  much  to  the  wild  magnifi- 
cence of  this  kind  of  composition. 

DI'TONE,  in  music,  an  interval  com- 
prehending two  tones.  The  proportion 
of  the  sounds  that  form  the  ditone  is4  :  5, 
and  that  of  the  semi-ditone,  5  :  6. 

DIT'RIGLYPH,  in  architecture,  an  ar- 
rangement of  intorcolumniations  in  the 
Doric  order,  by  which  two  triglyphs  are 
obtained  in  the  frieze  between  the  tri- 
glyphs that  stand  over  the  columns. 

DIT'TO,  in  book-keeping,  more  usually 
contracted  into  do,  signifies  the  same  as 
that  which  precedes  it.  It  is  derived  from 
the  Italian  word  ditto,  signifying  the 
said. 

DIT'TY,  a  word  of  great  antiquity  in 
the  English  language,  signifying  most 
usually  a  simple  or  pastoral  song.  Mil- 
ton, Shakspeare.  Dryden,  and  many  of 
the  old  classic  English  writers,  have  re- 
peatedly given  importance  to  this  word. 

DIUR'NAL,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
book  containing  those  canonical  hours  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  breviary  wliich  are 
to  be  said  during  the  day.  It  is  intend- 
ed especially  for  the  clergy  of  the  Romish 
church,  and  consists  generally  of  four 
volumes,  one  for  each  season  of  the  year. 

DIVAN',  a  council-chamber,  or  court 
in  which  justice  is  administered,  in  the 
eastern  nations,  particularly  among  the 
Turks.  There  are  two  sorts  of  divans 
that  of  the  grand  seignior,  called  the 
council  of  state,  which  consists  of  seven 
of  the  principal  officers  of  the  emi)ire  ; 
and  that  of  the  grand  vizir,  composed  of 
si.'C  other  vizirs  or  counsellors  of  state, 
the  chancellor,  and  secretaries  of  state  for 
the  distribution  of  justice. — The  word 
divan,  in  Turkey,  also  denotes  a  kind  of 
stage,  which  is  found  in  all  the  halls  of 
the  palaces,  as  well  as  in  the  apartments 


of  private  persons.  It  is  coveied  with 
costly  tapestry,  and  a  number  of  em- 
broidered cushions  leaning  against  the 
wall;  and  on  it  the  master  of  the  house 
reclines  when  he  receives  visitors.  From 
this,  a  kind  of  sofa  has  obtained  the  name 
of  divan.  It  would  seem  that  the  earli- 
est acceptation  in  which  this  word  was 
employed  is  that  of  a  muster-roll  or  mil- 
itary day-book ;  and  we  find  it  used, 
especially  by  the  ancient  Arabs,  who  bor- 
rowed it  from  the  Persians,  to  signify  a 
collection  of  poems  by  one  and  the  same 
author,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order ; 
thus  we  hear  of  the  divan  (i.  e.  the  col- 
lected poems)  of  Sadi,  the  divan  of  lla- 
fiz,  &c. 

DI  VER'SION,  in  military  tactics,  an  at- 
tack on  an  enemy,  by  making  a  movement 
towards  a  point  that  is  weak  and  unde- 
fended, in  order  to  draw  his  forces  ofiF 
from  continuing  operations  in  another 
quarter. 

DIVIDEND,  the  part  or  proportion 
of  profits  which  the  members  of  a  society, 
or  public  company  receive  at  stated  pe- 
riods, according  to  the  share  they  possess 
in  the  capital  or  common  stock  of  the 
concern.  The  term  is  applied  also  to  the 
annual  interest  paid  by  government  on 
various  public  debts.  In  this  sense,  the 
order  by  which  stockholders  receive  their 
interest  is  called  a  dividend  icarrant, 
and  the  portions  of  interest  unroceived 
are  denominated  unclaimed  dividends. 
It  also  signifies  the  sum  a  creditor  re- 
ceives from  a  bankrupt's  estate. 

DIVINA'TION,  the  pretended  art  of 
foretelling  future  events,  or  such  a,s  can- 
not be  obtained  by  ordinary  or  natural 
means.  The  Israelites  were  always  very 
fond  of  divinafion,  magic,  and  interpre- 
tation of  dreams.  It  wa-s  to  cure  them 
of  this  foolish  propensity,  that  Moses 
promised  them  from  God,  that  the  spirit 
of  real  prophecy  should  not  depart  from 
amongst  them;  forbade  them  to  consult 
diviners,  astrologers,  .fee,  under  very  se- 
vere penalties;  and  ordered  those  to  ba 
stoned  who  pretended  to  have  familial 
spirits,  or  the  spirit  of  divination. — Tha 
ancient  heathen  philosophers  divided  div- 
ination into  two  kinds,  natural,  and  ar- 
tificial. Natural  divination  was  suppos- 
ed to  be  effected  by  a  kind  of  inspiration 
or  divine  nfllatus;  artificial  divination 
was  effected  by  certain  rites,  experiments, 
or  observations,  which  we  have  explained 
under  their  respective  heads.  All  the 
ancient  Asiatic  tribes  had  modes  of  divi- 
nation ;  the  Egyptians  and  (rreeks  had 
their   oracles ;    and,    with   the    Romans, 


©iv] 


AXU    THE    FINE    AllTS. 


161 


divination  anil  witchcraft  wore  broiiglit 
into  a  kind  of  systoin,  ami  constituted 
part  of  their  religion.  In  truth,  there 
has  hardly  been  a  nation  di^^covered, 
which  had  advanced  beyond  the  lowest 
barbarism,  that  did  not  practise  some 
kinds  of  divination  ;  and  even  in  the  ages 
in  which  reason  has  most  prevailed  over 
feeling,  the  belief  in  the  power  of  fore- 
seeing future  events  has  been  entertained. 
At  the  present  day,  enlightened  as  the 
world  is  by  science,  the  desire  of  prying 
into  futurity  keeps  alive  many  modes  of 
prognosticating  future  events ;  nor  is  the 
practice  entirely  confined  to  the  ignorant 
and  su]ierstitious. 

DIVINE  RIGHT,  The,  of  Kings,  in 
politics,  means  the  absolute  and  unquali- 
fied claim  of  sovereigns  on  the  obedience 
of  the  people  ;  insomuch  that,  although 
they  may  themselves  submit  to  restric- 
tions on  their  authority,  yet  subjects  en- 
deavoring to  enforce  those  restrictions  by 
resistance  to  their  unlawful  acts  are  guilty 
of  a  sin.  This  doctrine,  so  celebrated  in 
English  constitutional  history,  has  been 
asserted  on  very  different  grounds.  Hobbes 
deduced  the  absolute  authority  of  kings 
from  the  supposed  social  contract,  where- 
by men  parted  absolutely  with  their  nat- 
ural rights  in  exchange  for  protection. 
But  the  fashionable  political  writers  and 
theologians  of  the  times  both  of  Charles 
I.  and  II.  maintained  that  government 
had  an  existence  before  property,  and 
before  any  supposed  social  contract  could 
take  place ;  that  it  originated  in  the 
patriarchal  sway,  which  was  succeeded 
by  the  regal,  and  that  no  other  was  au- 
thorized by  Scripture. 

DI'VIXG.  the  art  of  descending  under 
water  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  re- 
maining there  for  a  length  of  time,  as 
occasion  may  require.  The  practice  of 
diving  is  resorted  to  for  the  recovery  of 
things  that  are  sunk,  &c. — The  most  re- 
markable diver  was  Nicolo  Pesce,  who, 
according  to  the  account  given  by  Kirch- 
er,  w:is  able  to  spend  five  days  together 
in  the  waves,  without  any  other  provi- 
sions than  the  fish  which  he  caught  and 
ate  raw.  He  would  swim  from  Sicily  to 
Calabria  carrying  letters  from  the  king. 
At  length  he  met  his  fate  in  exploring 
the  depths  of  Charybdis,  at  the  instance 
of  the  king;  who,  after  he  had  once  suc- 
ceeded in  fetching  up  a  golden  cup  that 
had  been  thrown  in,  ordered  him  to  re- 
peat the  experiment. 

DIVIX  ITV,  a  term  applied  to  the 
Deity  or  Supreme  Being.  It  also  de- 
notes theology  ;  the  science  which  unfolds 
11 


the  character  of  God,  his  laws  and  moral 
government,  the  duties  of  man,  and  tho 
way  of  salvation. 

L»I\'1S'I0X,  the  act  of  dividingor  sepa- 
rating any  entire  bodies  into  parts. — • 
Division,  in  music,  the  dividing  the  in- 
terval of  an  octave  into  a  number  of  less 
intervals.  The  fourth  and  fifth  divide 
the  octave  perfectly,  though  differently  : 
when  the  fifth  is  below,  and  serves  as  a 
bass  to  the  fourth,  the  division  is  called 
liarmoiiical ;  but  when  the  fourth  is  be- 
low, it  is  called  arithmetical. — Division, 
among  logicians,  is  the  explication  of  a 
complex  idea,  by  enumerating  the  simple 
ideas  whereof  it  is  composed. — In  rhet- 
oric, it  is  the  arrangement  of  a  discourse 
under  several  heads. — A  part  of  an  army, 
as  a  brigade,  a  squadron,  or  platoon. — 
A  part  of  a  fleet,  or  a  select  number  of 
ships  under  a  commander,  and  distin- 
guished by  a  particular  flag  or  standard. 

DIVORCE',  a  separation,  by  law,  of 
husband  and  wife ;  and  is  either  a  di- 
vorce a  vinculo  matrimonii,  that  is,  a 
complete  dissolution  of  the  marriage 
bonds,  whereby  the  parties  become  as 
entirely  disconnected  as  those  who  have 
not  been  joined  in  wedlock,  or  a  divorce 
a  niensd  tt  t/ioro  (from  bed  and  board,) 
whereby  the  parties  are  legally  sepa- 
rated, but  not  unmarried.  The  Jewish 
law  of  divorce  is  founded  on  the  directions 
given  in  the  24th  chapter  of  Deuteron- 
omy ;  but  the  permission  therein  con- 
tained is  subject  to  many  obstacles  and 
formalities  in  modern  practice.  In 
Greece,  in  classical  times,  the  practice  of 
divorce  seems  to  have  varied  in  ilifferent 
states ;  at  Sparta  it  appears  to  have  been 
unusual,  in  Athens  great  facilities  were 
afforded  by  the  law.  In  republican 
Rome  great  strictness  in  this  branch  of 
morals  prevailed  for  a  long  period,  al- 
though parties  were  less  impeded  in  pur- 
suing a  divorce  by  the  difficulties  im- 
posed by  the  law  than  by  public  opinion. 
Bnt  in  the  later  period  of  the  republic, 
and  under  the  emperors,  divorce  became 
extremely  common,  and  was  obtained 
with  equal  ease  by  either  sex.  Our  Sa- 
viour's declaration  to  the  Pharisee,  in 
the  19th  chapter  of  St.  Matthew,  became 
the  foundation  of  the  law  on  this  subject 
in  Christian  countries,  and  divorces  were 
consequently  allowed  in  one  particular 
case  only  ;  but  after  the  Roman  church 
had  erected  matrimony  into  a  sacrament, 
they  became,  as  they  now  are  in  Cathiilio 
countries,  wholly  impossible  :  tho  only 
dissolution  of  marriage  being  in  cases 
whore  it  is  void  ab  initio.      In  most  Prot- 


162 


CYCLOPu:i)I.\    OK    LITERATURE 


[doo 


estant  lOuritries,  the  facility  of  divorce 
has  been  so  much  restored  in  latter 
times  as  to  approximate  to  the  heathen 
practice. 

DO,  is  in  music,  a  syllable  used  by  the 
Italians  instead  of  ut,  than  which  it  is  by 
them  considered  more  musical  and  reso- 
nant. 

DOCE'T.^,  one  of  the  earliest  hereti- 
cal sects  ;  so  called  from  the  reality  of 
our  Lord's  incarnation,  and  considering 
him  to  have  acted  and  suffered  onlj'  in 
appearance.  Some  divines  have  con- 
ceived that  the  express  declarations  of 
the  nature  of  Christ  in  St.  John's  writ- 
ings were  specially  directed  against  these 
opinions. 

DOCIMA'SIA,  in  Greek  antiquity,  a 
probation  of  the  magistrates  and  persons 
employed  in  public  business  at  Athens. 
It  was  performed  publicly  in  the  forum, 
where  they  were  obliged  to  give  account 
of  themselves  and  their  past  life  before 
certain  judges. 

DOCK'ET,  a  small  piece  of  paper  or 
parchment,  containing  the  heads  of  a 
writing. — Also,  a  subscription  at  the  foot 
of  letters  patent,  by  the  clerk  of  the 
dockets — A  bill  tied  to  goods,  containing 
some  direction,  as  the  name  of  the 
owner  or  the  place  to  which  they  are  to 
be  sent. — An  alphabetical  list  of  cases  in 
a  court,  or  a  catalogue  of  the  names  of 
the  parties  who  have  suits  depending  in  a 
court. — In  the  United  States,  this  is  the 
principal  or  only  use  of  the  word. 

DOC'TOR,  <a  person  who  has  passed  all 
the  degrees  of  a  faculty,  and  is  empow- 
ered to  practise  and  teach  it ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  modern  usage,  one  who  has  re- 
ceived the  highest  degree  in  a  faculty. 
The  title  of  doctor  originated  at  the  same 
time  with  the  establishment  of  universi- 
ties; and  is  cither  conferred  publicly, 
with  certain  ceremonies,  or  by  diploma. 

DOCTRINAIRES',  a  party  in  the 
French  chamber  of  deputies,  on  the  sec- 
ond restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  who 
would  neither  rank  themselves  among 
the  friends  of  absolute  power,  nor 
among  the  defenders  of  the  revolution. 
They  opposed  the  ultra  royalists,  and  took 
a  middle  course,  avowing  themselves  the 
supporters  of  a  constitutional  monarchy. 

DOCTRINE,  a  principle  or  position 
in  any  science,  that  is  laid  down  as  true 
by  an  instructor  therein.  Thus,  the  doc- 
trines of  the  (losppl  are  the  principles  or 
truths  taught  by  Christ  and  his  Apostles. 
But  a/^y  tenet  or  opinion  is  a  doctrine; 
therefore  doctrines  may  be  either  true  or 
false. 


DOCUMENT,  any  official  or  authori- 
tative paper,  containing  written  instruc- 
tions, or  evidence. 

DODECASTYLE,  in  architecture,  a 
building  having  twelve  columns  on  a 
front  or  flank. 

DODO'NA,  in  antiquity,  the  seat  of 
the  most  ancient,  and  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  oracles  of  Greece,  sacred  to 
Jupiter.  By  some  writers  its  origin  is 
attributed  to  Deucalion,  who  is  said  to 
have  built  the  town  of  Dodoua  where  it 
stood;  but  according  to  the  traditions  of 
the  priestesses  of  the  temple,  it  was 
founded  by  a  dove,  which,  perching  on 
the  branch  of  an  oak,  recommended,  in  a 
human  voice,  that  a  temple  should  be 
erected  to  Jupiter  in  that  place.  The 
situation  of  the  oracle  was  in  an  exten- 
sive forest,  the  oaks  of  which  are  said  to 
have  been  endowed  with  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy ;  and  the  oracles  were  most  fre- 
quently delivered  by  three  priestesses, 
who  expounded  the  will  of  the  divinity. 
That  the  responses  of  this  oracle  were 
received  with  singular  veneration,  may 
be  inferred  from  the  number  of  votaries 
by  whom  it  was  frequented,  and  the 
costly  presents  which  adorned  the  temple 
and  its  precincts.  This  oracle  continued 
to  utter  responses  till  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus, when  it  ceased. 

DOG,  an  emblem  of  fidelity,  and  gen- 
erally introduced  at  the  feet  of  married 
women  in  sepulchral  effigies  with  that 
signification.  It  also  signifies  loyalty  to 
the  sovereign. 

DOG-DAYS,  the  period  between  the 
24th  of  July  and  the  24th  of  August;  so 
called  because  the  dog  star  (Sirius)  dur- 
ing this  period  rises  with  the  sun;  and 
the  heat,  which  is  usually  most  oppress- 
ive at  this  season,  was  formerly  ascribed 
to  the  conjunction  of  this  star  with  the 
solar  luminary. 

DOGE,  formerly  the  title  of  the  chief 
magistrate  in  the  republics  of  Venice  and 
Genoa.  The  dignity  was  elective  in  both 
places;  at  Venice  it  continued  for  life; 
at  Genoa,  only  for  two  years.  His  pow- 
er became,  by  degrees,  very  limited. 

DOG'GEREL,  an  epithet  given  to  a 
kind  of  loose,  irregular,  burlesque  poetry, 
like  that  of  Iludibras. 

DOG'MA,  a  principle,  maxim,  tenet, 
or  settled  opinion,  particularly  with  re- 
gard to  matters  of  faith  and  philosophy  ; 
as,  the  dogmas  of  the  church;  the  dog- 
mas of  Aristotle. — In  theology,  dogma 
has  been  defined  to  be  a  fundamental 
article  of  belief  derived  from  acknowl- 
edged authority,   a  d  is  usually  applied 


domJ 


AND    THE    FINE    AIITS. 


163 


to  what  are  considered  as  the  essential 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  deduced  either 
from  the  Scriptures  or  from  the  fathers  of 
the  church.  There  are,  however,  many 
other  dogmas  peculiar  to  the  ditTerent 
sects  into  whicli  Christianity  is  divided. 
Thus  the  bulls  and  decretals  of  the  pope, 
together  with  all  the  councils  both  of  ear- 
lier and  later  times,  are  regarded  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  with  as  much  venera- 
tiou  as  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures 
and  the  holy  fathers.  The  Greek  church, 
on  the  other  hand,  acknowledges  the  au- 
thority only  of  the  earlier  councils,  in 
addition  to  that  of  the  Scriptures  and  the 
fathers;  and  the  Lutheran  and  other 
Protestant  churches  have  embodied  their 
dogmas  in  their  respective  confessions  of 
faith  and  other  ecclesiastical  standards. 
Dogmatic  theology,  as  this  branch  of 
divinity  is  called,  in  contradistinction  to 
moral  and  scholastic  theology,  forms  an 
important  object  of  study  in  many  of  the 
continental  universities.  In  the  Protes- 
tant universities  of  Germany  there  are 
chairs  set  apart  for  the  history  of  dogmas, 
or,  as  it  is  termed,  dogmatik ;  in  which 
the  origin  and  nature  of  the  dogmas  of 
the  various  Christian  sects  are  examined, 
and  the  merit  of  the  arguments  by  which 
they  are  supported. 

DOG'M  ATISTS,  a  sect  of  ancient  phy- 
siciaxis,  of  which  Hippocrates  was  the 
first.  They  are  also  called  logici,  or  lo- 
gicians, from  their  using  the  rules  of 
logic  on  professional  subjects.  Thay  laid 
down  deQnitions  and  divisions,  reiucing 
diseases  to  certain  genera,  and  thof  e  gen- 
era, to  species,  and  furnishing  remedies 
for  them  all ;  supposing  principles,  draw- 
ing conclusions,  and  applying  those  prin- 
ciples and  conclusions  to  the  particular 
diseases  under  consideration. 

DOIT,  the  ancient  Scottish  ponny-piece, 
twelve  of  which  were  equal  to  a  penny- 
sterling.  Two  of  thein  were  equal  to  the 
bodle,  six  to  the  baubee,  and  eight  to  the 
ucheson. 

DO'LABIIA,  Celt,  an  implement  of 
rarious  forms,  extensively  used  both  in 
ancient  and  modern  times,  for  similar 
purposes  as  our  hatchets  and  chisels, 
rhey  abound  in  museums,  and  are  seen 
depicted  on  the  columns  of  Trajan  and 
Antoninus  at  Rome.  They  are  usually 
formed  of  bronze  and  of  flint  tor  other 
hard  stone,  and  to  these  latter  the  term 
celt  is  usually  applied. 

DOLCE,  in  music,  an  instruction  to 
the  performer  that  the  music  is  to  be 
executed  softly  and  sweetly. 

DOLE,  in  the  ancient  English  customs, 


signified  a  part  or  portion  of  a  meadow, 
where  several  persons  had  shares.  It  now 
means  a  distribution  of  alms,  or  a  liberal 
gift  made  to  the  people  or  to  some  chari- 
table institution. 

DOL'LAR,  a  silver  coin  of  Spain  and 
of  the  United  States,  of  the  value  of  As- 
Gd.  sterling,  or  100  cents.  In  Germany, 
the  name  dollar  is  given  to  several  coins 
of  dift'erent  values. 

DOLL'MAN,  a  kind  of  long  cassock, 
worn  by  the  Turks,  hanging  down  to  the 
feet,  with  narrow  sleeves  buttoned  at  the 
wrist. 

DOL'PIIIN,  an  emblem  of  love  and  so- 
cial feeling,  frequently  introduced  as  or- 
naments to  coronas  suspended  in  church- 
es. 

DOM,  in  the  middle  ages,  was  a  title 
originally  possessed  by  the  pope,  and  at 
a  somewhat  later  period  by  the  dignita- 
ries of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  In 
more  recent  times,  it  formed  a  distin- 
guishing title  of  certain  monastic  orders, 
such  as  the  Benedictines,  &c. ;  and  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  equivalent  to  the  don 
of  the  Spaniards,  the  von  of  the  Germans, 
and  the  de  of  the  French.  Mabillon  and 
Calmet  are  always  spoken  of  as  Dom 
Mabillon  and  Dom  Calmet. 

DOME,  in  architecture,  the  spherical 
or  other  figured  concave  ceiling  over  a 
circular  or  polygonal  building.  A  snr- 
based  or  diminished  dome  is  one  that  is 
segmental  on  its  section  ;  a  surmounted 
dome  is  one  that  is  higher  than  the  ra- 
dius of  its  base.  The  forms  of  domes  are 
various,  both  in  plan  and  section.  In 
the  former,  they  are  circular  and  polyg- 
onal ;  in  the  latter,  we  find  them  semi- 
circular, and  senai-elliptical,  segmental, 
pointed,  sometimes  in  curves  of  contrary 
flexure,  bell-shaped,  &c.  The_oldest  cu- 
pola on  record  is  that  of  the  Pantheon  at 
Rome,  which  was  erected  under  Augustus, 
and  is  still  perfect. 

DO'MESDAY.orDOOMS'DAY- 
BOOK,  a  book  or  record  made  by  order 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  which  now  re- 
mains in  the  exchequer,  and  consists  of 
two  volumes,  a  large  folio  and  a  quarto; 
the  former  contains  a  survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  most  of  the  counties  in  England, 
and  the  latter  comprehends  some  coun- 
ties that  were  not  then  surveyed.  The 
"Book  of  Domesday"  was  begun  by  five 
justices,  assigned  for  that  purpose  in 
each  county,  in  the  year  1081,  and  finish- 
ed in  10S6.  It  was  of  such  authority, 
that  the  Conqueror  himself  submitted,  in 
some  cases  wherein  ho  was  concerned,  to 
be  determined  by  it.    Camden  calls  it  tho 


164 


CVCLOrKOIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[dom 


Tax-book  of  kinj:;  William;  and  it  was 
farther  called  Magna  RoUu.  There  is 
likewise  a  third  doiuesday  book,  made  l)y 
command  of  the  Conqueror;  and  also  a 
fourth,  being  8,11  abridgment  of  the  other 
books. 

DOM  ICILE,  in  law,  the  place  where 
a  person  has  his  home.  Personal  prop- 
erty, on  the  decease  of  the  owner,  is 
distributable  according  to  the  law  of  the 
country  in  which  he  was  domiciled  at  the 
time  of  his  death;  not  according  to  the 
law  of  the  country  in  which  the  property 
is  situate.  Residence  for  forty  days  con- 
stitutes a  domicile  as  to  jurisdiction  in 
ycotland. 

DOMICIL'IARY,  pertaining  to  an 
abode  or  residence.  Hence  a,  domiciliary 
visit  signifies  a  visit  to  a  private  dwell- 
ing, particularly  for  the  purpose  of 
searching  it,  under  authority. 

DOM'INANT,  in  a  general  sense,  pre- 
dominant or  governing;  as  the  dominant 
party  or  faction. — In  music,  the  domi- 
nant or  sensible  chord  is  that  which  is 
practised  on  the  dominant  of  the  tone, 
and  which  introduces  a  perfect  cadence. 
Every  perfect  major  chord  becomes  a 
dominant  chord,  as  soon  as  the  seventh 
minor  is  added  to  it. 

DOM'INIC,  St.,  Dominicus  de  Guz- 
man, the  founder  of  the  Order  of  Domini- 
cans ;  he  is  represented  with  a  sparrow 
by  his  side,  and  with  a  dog  carrying  a 
burning  torch  in  his  mouth.  The  bird 
refers  to  the  devil,  who  appeared  to  the 
saint  in  that  shape  ;  the  dog,  to  a  dream 
of  his  mother's,  that  she  gave  birth  to  a 
black  and  white  spotted  dog,  who  lighted 
the  worM  with  a  burning  torch.  This 
dog  is  also  said  to  be  the  emblem  of 
watchfulness  for  the  true  faith,  the  Domi- 
nicans being  the  first  and  most  zealous 
enemies  of  heresy ;  for  to  them  Spain 
owes  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  es- 
tablished for  the  purpose  of  kindling  fu- 
neral piles  with  the  torch  of  the  black 
and  white  dog. 

DOMINTCAL  LETTER,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  e.\hibiting  the  day  of  the  week 
corresponding  to  any  given  day  of  the 
year,  the  framers  of  the  ecclesiastical 
calendar  denoted  the  seven  days  of  the 
week  by  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  Al- 
phabet," A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  and  G  ;  and 
])laced  those  letters  in  a  column  opposite 
to  the  days  of  the  year,  in  such  a  manner 
that  A  stood  opposite  the  1st  of  January 
or  first  day  of  the  year,  R  opposite  the 
2d,  and  so  on  to  (t,  which  stood  op]>osite 
the  7th  :  after  which  A  returns  to  the  8th, 
and  so  on  through  the  365  days  of  the 


year.  Now  if  one  of  the  days  of  the  week, 
Sunday,  for  example,  falls  opposite  to  E, 
Monday  will  be  opposite  F,  Tuesday  G, 
Wednesday  A,  and  so  on ;  and  every 
Sunday  through  the  year  will  bo  repre- 
sented by  the  same  letter  E,  every  Mon- 
day by  F,  and  so  on.  The  letter  which 
represents  Sunday  is  called  the  Domini- 
cal Letter,  or  Sunday  Letter.  As  the 
number  of  days  in  the  week  and  the 
number  in  the  j-car  are  prime  to  each 
other,  two  successive  years  cannot  begin 
with  the  same  day ;  hence  the  Dominical 
Letter  changes  every  year.  This  mode 
of  representing  the  days  of  the  week  has 
now  fallen  nearly  into  desuetuvle,  and  the 
initial  letter  of  the  name  of  the  day  is 
placed  in  our  almanacs  opposite  the  day 
of  the  month. 

DOMIN'ICANS,  called  also  Predi- 
cants, or  Preaching  Friars,  an  order  of 
monks,  founded  by  St.  Dominie,  a  native 
of  Spain,  in  1215.  The  design  of  their 
institution  was,  to  preach  the  gospel, 
convert  heretics,  defend  the  faith,  and 
propagate  Christianity.  They  embraced 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  to  which  they 
added  statutes  and  constitutions,  which 
had  formerly  been  observed  either  by 
the  Carthusians  or  Pra?monstratenses. 
The  principal  articles  enjoined  perpetual 
silence,  abstinence  from  flesh  at  all  times, 
wearing  of  woollen,  rigorous  poverty,  and 
several  other  austerities.  In  France  they 
were  called  Jacobins,  because  the  first 
convent  in  Paris  was  in  the  Rue  St. 
Jaques.  The  Dominican  Nuns,  who 
were  established  at  the  same  time,  follow 
similar  rules. — A  third  establishment  of 
St.  Dominic  was  the  military  order  of 
Christ,  originallj'  composed  of  knights 
and  noblemen,  whoso  duty  it  was  to  wage 
war  against  heretics.  After  the  dear.h 
of  the  founder,  this  became  the  order  of 
the  penitence  of  St.  Dominic,  for  both 
sexes,  and  constituted  the  third  order  of 
Dominicans.  These  became  extremely 
influential ;  and  numbered  among  their 
fraternity  some  of  the  most  dintinguishod 
scholars,  such  as  Albertus  Magnus  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  In  course  of  time  they 
were  superseded  in  the  schools  and  courts 
by  the  Jesuits  ;  and  the  order  at  present 
flourishes  only  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily, 
and  South  America. 

DOMiN'IONS,  in  Christian  Art,  an 
order  of  celeslial  spirits  disposing  of  the 
oflice  of  angels ;  their  ensign  is  a  scep- 
tre. 

DOM'INO,  a  long  loose  cloak  of  black 
silk,  furnished  with  a  hood  removable  at 
pleasure,    and  worn    chiefly  at  masque- 


AM)    TIIK     FINE     AKTS. 


165 


rades  by  j.ersons  of  both  sexes  by  way  of 
general  disiruiso. 

DOMINl'S,  in  tlic  civil  biw,  siT^nities 
one  who  pussesses  anything  by  right  of 
jiurchii.se,  gii't,  U)an,  legacy,  inheritance, 
payment,  contract,  or  sentence. — Domi- 
mts,  in  the  feudal  law,  one  who  grants  a 
part  of  his  estate  in  fee  to  be  enjoyed  by 
another. 

DO'MO  REPARAN'DO,  a  writ  which 
lies  for  a  person  against  his  neighbor, 
Tvhose  house  he  fears  will  fall,  to  the 
iamage  of  his  own. 

DOX,  a  Spanish  and  Portuguese  title, 
which  the  king,  the  princes  of  the  blood, 
and  the  highest  class  of  the  nobility  pre- 
fi.Y  to  their  names.  The  ladies  of  rank 
have  the  predicate  donna.  The  title  was 
originally  equivalent  to  that  of  knight. 

BONA'TIOX,  in  law,  the  act  or  con- 
tract by  which  a  person  transfers  to 
another  either  the  property  or  the  use  of 
something,  as  a  free  gift.  In  order  to 
be  valid,  it  supposes  a  capacity  both  in 
the  donor  and  donee,  and  requires  con- 
sent, acceptance,  and  delivery. 

D  0  '  N  A  T  I  S  T  S,  a  religious  faction, 
which  arose  in  Africa  in  the  beginning  of 
the  4th  century  in  oposition  toCecilianus, 
bishop  of  Carthage.  The  Numidian  bish- 
ops were  indignant  at  a  slight  received 
from  him  at  the  time  of  his  consecration, 
and  declared  him  informally  appointed, 
on  account  of  their  absence  from  the  cer- 
emony. They  also  accused  him  of  un- 
worthy conduct  during  the  Diocletian 
persecution.  There  are  two  persons  of 
the  name  of  Donatus  celebrated  as  lead- 
ers of  this  party. 

DO'NATIVE,  in  the  canon  law,  a  ben- 
efice given  by  the  patron  to  a  priest,  with- 
out presentation  to  the  ordinary,  and 
without  institution  or  induction. — Dona- 
tive, among  the  Romans,  was  properly  a 
gift  made  to  the  soldiers,  as  congiarium 
was  that  made  to  the  people. 

DON'JON.  in  fortification,  signifies  a 
strong  tower,  or  redoubt,  into  which  the 
garrison  of  an  ancient  fortress  might  re- 
treat, in  case  of  necessitj',  and  capitulate 
with  greater  advantage. 

DO'NOR,  a  term  of  the  middle  ages, 
applied  to  the  giver  and  founder  of  a 
work  of  Art  for  religious  purposes,  viz., 
the  giver  of  a  church  picture,  statue,  or 
painted  window,  Jkc,  the  founder  of  a 
church,  or  an  altar.  If  the  gifJwere  a 
picture,  the  portraits  of  the  donor  and 
his  wife  were  introduced ;  the  former, 
attended  by  his  sons,  kneels  on  one  side 
of  the  Madonna,  who  is  either  standing 
or  enthroned,  while  on  the  other  side  are 


-his  wife  and  daughters,  all  with  hands 
raised,  as  if  in  prayer.  Royal  founders 
of  churches,  whose  jjortrait-statues  .  are 
placciT  in  or  on  the  buildings  they  have 
founded,  boar  in  their  hands  the  titular 
saint  and  a  model  of  the  church,  which 
latter  is  also  found  in  the  monuments  of 
such  donors. 

DOOM,  the  old  name  for  the  Last  Judg- 
ment, which  impressive  subject  was  usu- 
ally painted  over  the  chancel  arcli  in  pa- 
rochial churches.  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.  these  edifying  representations  were 
effaced,  or  washed  over,  as  superstitious. 

DOR'IC,  an  epithet  for  anything  be- 
longing to  the  Dorians,  an  ancient  people 
of  Greece.  The  Doric  dialect  was  broad 
and  rough,  yet  there  was  something  ven- 
erable and  dignified  in  its  antique  style  ; 
for  which  reason  it  was  often  made  use  of 
in  solemn  odes,  Ac. — The  Doric  order  of 
architecture  is  the  second  of  the  five  or- 
ders, being  that  between  the  Tuscan  and 
Ionic.  It  is  distinguished  for  simplicit;' 
and  strength  :  and  is  used  in  the  gates  of 
cities  and  citadels,  on  the  outside  of 
churches,  and  other  situations  where  em- 
bellishment is  unnecessary  or  inappro- 
priate.— The  Doric  mode,  in  music,  was 
the  first  of  the  authentic  modes  of  the  an- 
cients ;  and  grave  rather  than  gay. 

DOR' M ANT,  an  epithet  expressive  of 
a  state  of  inaction  or  sleep.  Hence  we 
speak  oi  dormant  animals,  or  such  as  re- 
main several  mouths  in  the  year  appa- 
rently lifeless,  or,  at  least,  in  utter  inac- 
tivity. The  period  of  long  sleep  goner- 
ally  begins  when  the  food  of  the  animal 
grows  scarce,  and  inactivity  spreads  over 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  Instinct  at  this 
time  impels  the  animals  to  seek  a  safe 
place  for  their  period  of  rest.  The  bat 
hides  itself  in  dark  caves,  or  in  walls  of 
decayed  buildings ;  the  hedgehog  envel- 
ops himself  in  leaves,  and  generally  con- 
ceals himself  in  fern  brakes ;  and  the 
marmot  buries  himself  in  the  ground.  In 
this  period  we  observe  in  the  animals, 
iirst  a  decrease  of  animal  heat  ;  and  sec- 
ondly, that  they  breathe  much  slower  and 
more  uninterruptedly  than  at  other  times. 
The  digestion  is  also  much  diminishcil; 
the  stomach  and  intestines  arc  usually 
empty;  and  even  if  the  animals  are 
awakened,  they  do  not  manifest  symp- 
toms of  appetite,  except  in  heated  rooms. 
The  causes  of  the  dormant  state  of  ani- 
mals have  generally  been  sought  in  a  pe- 
culiar construction  of  the  organs  ;  but  the 
immediate  cause  producing  tlii.'!  torpidity, 
is  mostly,  if  not  entirely,  the  cold  Frogs, 
serpents,    and  lizards,   kept  in    artificial 


IGG 


rvri.oPRniA   of  liteuature 


[dov. 


cold,  may  remain  for  years  in  this  state  ; 
hence  they  have  been  sometimes  found 
enclosed  in  stones,  in  which  they  h:ive 
been  perhaps  for  centuries.  The  other 
lower  animals,  as  snails,  insects,  Ac,  are 
also  subject  to  a  similar  torpidity.  A 
state  of  partial  torpor  takes  place  in  the 
case  of  the  common  bear,  the  badger,  and 
the  racoon.  The  bear  begins  to  be  drowsy 
in  November,  when  he  is  particularly  fat, 
and  retires  into  his  den,  which  he  has 
lined  with  moss,  and  where  he  but  rarely 
a  Willies  in  winter. 

UOR'MER,  or  DOR'MENT,  in  archi- 
tecture, a  window  made  in  the  roof  of  a 
building. 

UOIiNOCK,  a  kind  of  figured  linen,  of 
stout  fabric,  manufactured  for  coarse  table 
cloths.  It  derives  its  name  from  a  town 
in  Scotland,  where  it  was  first  made. 

DOR'OTHEA,  St.,  this  saint  is  repre- 
sented with  a  rose-branch  in  her  hand,  a 
wreath  of  red  roses  on  her  head,  the  same 
flowers  and  some  fruit  by  her  side,  or  with 
an  angel  carrying  a  ba.<ket,  in  which  are 
three  apples  and  three  roses.  This  angel 
is  a  youth  barefooted,  and  clid  in  a  pur- 
ple garment.  St.  Dorothea  suflTered  mar- 
tyrdom in  the  Diocletian  Persecution, 
A.D.  303,  by  being  beheade  1. 

DORYPII'ORI,  in  antiquity,  an  appel- 
lation given  to  the  life-guard  men  of  the 
Pioman  emperors. 

DOTAGE,  the  childishness  and  imbe- 
cility of  old  age. 

DOU'BLE  ENTEXTE,  aterra  applied 
to  a  word  of  two  different  meanings. — ■ 
Double-entendre,  any  phrase  which  has  a 
covert  as  well  as  an  obvious  meaning. 

DOUB'LET,  among  lapidaries,  a  coun- 
terfeit stone  composed  of  two  pieces  of 
crystal,  with  a  color  between  them,  so 
that  they  have  the  same  appearance  as 
if  the  whole  substance  were  colored. 

DOUB'IilXti  a  cape,  is  to  sail  round  or 
pass  beyond  it,  so  that  the  point  of  land 
shall  separate  the  ship  from  her  former 
situation,  or  lie  between  her  and  any  dis- 
tant observer. 

DOUBLOON',  a  Spanish  coin  of  the 
value  of  two  pistoles,  or  3Z.  6s.  sterling. 

DOUBT,  uncertainty  of  mind;  or  the 
act  of  withholding  our  assent  from  any 
proposition,  on  suspicion  that  we  are  not 
thoroughly  apprised  of  the  merits  or  from 
not  being  able  peremptorily  to  decide  be- 
tween the  reasons  for  and  against  it. 

DOUCEUR',  a  present  or  bribe  for  the 
acquirement  of  any  desired  object. 

DOUCIXE  ,  in  architecture,  a  mouM- 
ing  concave  above  and  convex  below,  serv- 
ing as  a  cymatium  to  a  delicate  cornice. 


DOVE,  the  dove,  in  Christian  Art,  ia 
the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  as  such, 
it  is  represented  in  its  natural  form,  the 
body  of  a  snowy  whiteness,  the  beak  and 
claws  red,  which  is  the  coloj-  natural  to 
those  parts  in  white  doves.  The  nimbus, 
which  always  surrounds  its  head,  should 
be  of  a  gold  color,  and  divided  bj-  a  cross, 
which  is  either  red  or  black.  A  radiance 
of  light  invests  and  proceeds  from  the 
person  of  the  dove,  and  is  emblematical 
of  the  divinity.  It  is  also  sometimes  rep 
resented,  in  stained  glass,  with  seven 
rays,  terminating  in  stars,  significant  of 
the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
dove  has  been  constantly  adopted  in 
Christian  iconography  as  the  symbol  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  si.\th  century 
until  the  present  day.  In  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  the  human  form  was 
also  adopted  for  the  same  object.  In  too 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  we  meet 
with  both  together,  as  the  personification 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  human  form, 
with  the  dove  as  his  symbol.  The  dove 
is  an  emblem  of  love,  simplicity,  inno- 
cence, purity,  mildness,  compunction  ; 
holding  an  olive-branch,  it  is  an  emblem 
of  peace.  Doves  were  used  in  churches 
to  serve  three  purposes  : — 1.  Suspended 
over  altars  to  serve  as  a  pyx.  2.  As  a 
type  or  figure  of  the  Holy  Spirit  over  al- 
tars, baptisteries,  and  fonts.  3.  As  symbol- 
ical ornaments.  The  dove  is  also  an  em- 
blem of  the  human  soul,  and  as  such  ia 
seen  issuing  from  the  lips  of  dying  mar- 
tyrs and  devout  persons.  A  dove  with 
six  wings  has  been  employed  as  a  type  of 
the  church  of  Christ  :  it  has  certain  pe- 
culiarities. The  front  of  the  boily  is  of 
silver,  the  back  of  gold.  Two  of  the  wings 
are  attached  to  the  head,  two  to  the 
shoulders,  and  two  to  the  feet. 

DOWAGER,  in  law,  pro]ierly  a  wiuuvv 
who  enjoys  a  dower;  particularly  ap- 
plieil  as  a  title  to  the  widows  of  princes 
and  nobility.  The  widow  of  a  king  is  a 
queen-doira'icr. 

DOWER,  in  law,  the  portion  which  a 
widow  has  of  her  husband's  lands,  to  en- 
joy during  her  life. 

DOWN,  the  softest  and  most  delicate 
feathers  of  birds,  particularly  of  geese, 
ducks,  and  swans,  growing  on  the  neck 
and  part  of  the  breast.  The  ciiler  duck 
yields  the  best  kind. — Also  the  fine  feath- 
ery substance  by  which  seeds  are  convey- 
eil  to  a  distance  by  the  wind ;  as  in  the 
dandelion  and  thistle. 

DOWXS,  banks  or  elevations  of  sand, 
which  the  sea  gathers  and  forms  along  ita 
shore,  and   which  serve   it  as  a  barrier. 


dua] 


AXD    TIIR    FIN'K    ARTS. 


107 


The  term  is  also  applied  to  tracts  of  na- 
ked land  on  which  ^heep  usually  graz.e. — 
The  Doirns  is  a  famous  roadstead  on  the 
coast  of  Kent,  between  the  North  and 
South  Foreland,  where  both  the  outward 
and  homeward  bound  siiips  frequently 
make  some  stay,  and  squadrons  of  men  of 
war  rendezvous  in  time  of  war.  It  af- 
fords excellent  anchorage,  and  is  defended 
by  the  castles  of  Deal,  Dover,  and  Sand- 
wich, as  well  as  by  the  Goodwin  Sands. 

DOWRV,  the  money  or  fortune  which 
the  wife  brings  her  husband  in  marriage  : 
it  is  otherwise  called  maritagium,  mar- 
riage-gools,  and  differs  from  dower.— 
Doicry  is  also  used,  in  a  monastic  sense, 
for  a  sum  of  money  given  with  a  female 
upon  entering  her  in  some  religious  or- 
der. 

DOXOL'OGY,  in  Christian  worship,  a 
hymn  in  praise  of  the  Almighty.  There 
is  the  greater  and  lesser  do.vology  ;  the 
angelic  hymn,  "  Glory  be  to  God  on  high," 
«&c.,  is  the  greater  doxology ;  the  lesser, 
"  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son," 
&c. 

DRAFT,  in  commerce,  a  bill  drawn  by 
one  person  upon  another  for  a  sum  of 
money. — In  military  affairs,  the  select- 
ing or  detaching  of  soldiers  from  an  army, 
or  from  a  military  post.  Also,  the  act 
of  drawing  men  to  serve  in  the  militia. 

DRA(}'OMANS,  the  interpreters  at- 
tached to  European  embassies  or  consu- 
liites  in  the  Levant.  The  dragoman  of 
the  Sublime  Porte  is  an  important  Turk- 
ish officer,  who  forms  the  medium  of  com- 
munication between  his  own  government 
and  the  embassies  of  foreign  countries. 

DRAG'ON,  in  fabulous  history,  one 
of  the  most  famous  mythological  crea- 
tions of  antiquity  and  the  middle  ages. 
The  position  which  this  being  occupies  in 
fabulous  history  presents  one  of  the 
most  singular  phenomena  of  the  human 
mind,  as  its  existence  was  firmly  accred- 
ited among  the  ancients  of  almost  every 
nation,  Iwth  in  the  eastern  and  western 
regions  of  the  earth.  It  occurs  in  the 
sacred  allegories  of  the  Jews,  and  in  the 
legends  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  ; 
and  the  pages  of  the  classic  poets  of 
Greece  and  Rome  teem  with  representa- 
tions of  the  dragon.  Thus  the  dark  re- 
treats of  their  gods  and  their  saered 
groves  were  defended  by  dragons  ;  the 
chariot  of  Ceres  was  drawn  by  them  ;  and 
a  dragon  kept  the  garden  of  the  llcsper- 
ides.  In  Scamlinavian  mysteries,  the 
dragon  was  the  minister  of  vengeance 
under  their  vindictive  gods  ;  and  the  an- 
cient Britons,  enslaveJ  in  the  trammels 


of  Druidic  superstition,  entertained  a 
similar  notion  of  its  nature.  The  alle- 
gory of  the  Dragon  has  even  found  a 
place  among  many  nations  who  have  em- 
braceil  Christianity.  The  dragon  plays 
as  important  a  part  in  .\rt  as  he  does  in 
Fiction.  Wti  find  it  upon  the  shield  of 
the  most  famous  of  the  early  Grecian 
heroes,  as  well  as  on  the  helmets  of  kings 
and  generals.  It  does  not  appear  among 
the  Romans  until  after  their  struggle 
with  the  Dacians,  by  which  people  it  was 
regarded  as  the  sign  of  warfare  ;  and  it 
remained  with  the  former  people  a  subor- 
dinate symbol,  as  the  glorious  eagle 
was  not  to  be  displaced  from  helmets 
and  standards.  The  dragon  was  of 
more  importance  in  German  antiquity  ; 
as  with  the  early  Greeks,  it  was  the  sym- 
bol of  the  hero.  In  the  \ibelungen 
Lied,  Siegfried  killed  a  dragon  at 
Worms.  It  is  found  on  English  shields 
after  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
In  modern  heraldry  it  appears  on  the 
shield  and  helmet ;  and  as  a  supporter  it 
is  called  a  lindirorm  when  it  has  no 
.wings,  and  serpent  when  it  has  no  feet ; 
when  it  hangs  by  the  head  and  wings  it 
means  a  conquered  dragon. — Dragon,  in 
Christian  .\rt,  is  the  emblem  of  sin.  The 
dragons  which  appear  in  early  paintings 
and  sculptures  are  invariably  represen- 
tations of  a  winged  crocodile.  It  is  the 
form  under  which  .Satan,  the  personifica- 
tion of  sin,  is  usually  depicted,  and  is 
met  with  in  pictures  of  St.  Michael  and 
St.  Margaret,  when  it  typifies  the  con- 
quest over  sin  ;  it  also  appears  under  the 
feet  of  the  Saviour,  and  under  those  of 
the  Virgin,  as  conveying  the  same  idea. 
Sin  is  represented  in  the  form  of  a  ser- 
pent, sometimes  with  an  apple  in  its 
mouth.  The  dragon  also  typifies  idolatry. 
In  pictures  of  St.  George  and  St.  Sylves- 
ter, it  serves  to  exhibit  the  triumph  over 
paganism.  In  pictures  of  St.  Martha,  it; 
figures  the  inundation  of  the  Rhone, 
spreading  pestilence  and  death.  St.  John 
tlie  Evangelist  is  sometimes  represented 
holding  a  chalice  from  which  issues  a 
winged  dragon.  As  a  symbol  of  Satan, 
we  find  the  dragon  nearly  always  in  the 
form  of  the  fossil  Icthijosaurus. 

DRAG'ON  BEAM,  in  architecture,  an 
horizontal  piece  of  timber  on  which  the 
hip  or  angle  rafters  of  a  roof  pitch.  It 
is  framed  into  a  short  diagonal  piece, 
which  ties  the  platus  at  the  internal  an- 
gles of  a  roof 

DRAGOXXADES',  the  name  given  to 
the  persecutions  instituted  b  ?  Louis  XIV. 
and   his   successors    ag'^uas/    the   French 


168 


CVCI.0I'K1I\    OF    I.HEIIATURE 


[dra 


Protestants,  from  the  coercive  mcnsurcs 
which  were  put  in  force  to  eifect  their  con- 
version. 

DRAG'ON'S  BLOOD,  a  resin  which 
exudes  from  a  tree  growing  in  India,  the 
Pterocarpus  draco.  It  is  of  a  dark 
blood-red  color,  formerly  used  in  minia- 
ture paintings,  but  its  color  is  not  dura- 
ble. It  is  now  used  principallj'  for  col- 
oring varnishes. 

DRAGOON',  a  kind  of  light  horseman, 
of  French  origin,  trained  to  fight  either 
in  or  out  of  the  line,  in  a  body  or  singly, 
chiefly  on  horseback,  but,  if  necessary, 
on  foot  also.  Experience  proving  that 
they  did  not  answer  the  end  designed, 
they  were  hardly  ever  used  in  infantry 
service,  and  now  form  a  useful  kind  of 
cavalry,  mounted  on  horses  too  heavy  for 
the  hussars,  and  too  light  for  the  cuiras- 
siers. 

DRA'JIA,  (from  the  Greek  word  <5/5«/;a, 
an  action  or  thing  done  ;  derived  from 
the  verb  ^/jim,  I  act  or  do,)  has  been  de- 
fined a  species  of  poem  in  which  the  action 
or  narrative  is  not  related  but  represent- 
ed. The  invention  of  the  drama  is  one 
of  those  which  should  seem  to  proceed 
most  naturally  from  the  ordinary  cus- 
toms and  feelings  of  men.  There  is  a 
species  of  dramatic  action  which  seems 
almost  instinctive  ;  we  naturally  imitate 
the  tone  and  gestures  of  others  in  reciting 
their  sayings  or  adventures,  or  even  in 
adopting  their  sentiments.  Yet  some  na- 
tions appear  never  to  have  taken  the  far- 
ther step  of  doing,  methodically  and  with 
design,  what  all  do  involuntarily.  In  the 
accounts  which  we  possess  of  the  ancient 
Egj'ptians,  for  example,  wo  have  no  trace 
of  their  having  possessed  dramatic  repre- 
sentation. But  among  a  groat  number  of 
tribes,  wholly  independent  of  each  other, 
we  find  something  approaching  to  the 
dramatic  art  intermingled  with  their 
common  or  solemn  customs,  and  generally 
connected  with  religious  observance.  This 
was  especially  the  case  in  Greece,  whence 
the  name  and  substance  of  the  drama  have 
been  chiefly  derived  by  the  modern  Eu- 
ropean nations.  The  history  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  dramatic  art  in  Greece  is 
vfell  known;  its  elements  were  found  in 
the  religious  festivals  celebrated  from  the 
earliest  ages  in  that  country.  The  feasts 
of  Bacchus  in  particular  had  sacred 
choruses  or  odes  ;  these  were  afterwanls 
intermixed  with  episodic  narration.s  of 
events  in  mythological  story,  recited  by 
an  actor  in  the  festival  with  gesticula- 
tion ;  thence  again,  the  next  step  was  to 
introduce  two  actors  with  alternate  reci- 


tation ;  and  thus  were  producoil  tragedy 
(Tfjiij  loftid,  tke  sons  of  the  goul,  fVoin  tho 
animal  which  was  led  about  in  those  fes- 
tive processions:)  and  comedy,  (ko/ioj^ij, 
the  rillage  song,)  which  ditfered  from 
the  former  in  that  the  dialogue  of  the  in- 
terlocutors was  satirical,  and  not  mytho- 
logical. The  early  Greek  tragedy  was  a 
dramatic  representation  of  some  scene.s 
or  events  recorded  in  the  national  tra 
ditions,  the  actors  personating  those  who 
played  a  part  in  these  events,  together 
with  a  chorus  or  band  of  singers,  repre- 
senting such  persons  as  might  naturally 
be  supposed  to  have  been  bystanders  at 
the  occurrence  (captive  women,  old  men, 
or  counsellors,  &c.,)  who  sang  at  inter- 
vals, during  the  representations,  hymns 
to  the  gods,  or  songs  appropriate  to  the 
scenes  passing  in  representation ;  while 
the  Attic  comedy,  in  its  first  invention, 
must  be  regarded  as  a  parody  on  tragedy, 
in  which  the  personages  were  either  real 
characters  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
satire,  or  ludicrous  personifications.  JEs- 
chylus,  the  oldest  tragic  writer,  with  the 
exception  of  Phrynichus,  his  contempo- 
rary, carried  the  Greek  drama  at  once  to 
nearly  its  highest  state  of  perfection. 
Sophocles  and  Euripides  introduced  ad- 
ditional actors  into  the  dialogue,  which, 
at  first,  admitted  only  two  at  the  same 
time,  and  turned  the  naked  recitals  of 
events  which  form  the  substance  of  the 
plays  of  TEschylus  into  something  more 
nearly  resembling  the  modern  idea  of  a 
plot,  with  contrasted  character  and  inci- 
dents leading  to  the  accomplishment  of  a 
main  action.  iSIany  tragic  writers,  the 
whole  of  whose  works  have  been  lost, 
flourished  after  Eurijjiiles  In  Athens  and 
Alexandria;  but  they  do  not  seem  to 
have  altered  the  character  of  the  art 
which  they  received  from  their  predeces- 
sors. The  fate  of  comedy  was  diflcrent ; 
the  old  Attic  comedy  was  a  political  or 
philosophical  satire  in  action,  which  in 
form  was  a  burlesque  on  the  tragedy. 
Afterwards,  passing  through  the  inter- 
vening stage  of  the  middle  comedy,  of 
which  we  know  little,  tlie  art  acquired  in 
the  new  comedy  of  Mcnander  and  Phile- 
mon, a  character  somewhat  approaching 
to  that  in  which  it  is  at  present  culti- 
vated ;  a  narrative  in  representation  of 
scenes  and  incidents  in  ordinary  life  of  a 
light  or  ludicrous  character.  The  (h'a- 
matic  art  among  the  (Jreoks  aimed  at 
))roducing  an  impression  upon  tiio  s|)ec- 
tators  by  three  different  means  ;  which, 
according  to  modern  phraseology,  we 
may  denominate  poetical  effect,  dramati- 


dra] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


1G9 


eal  effect,  and  theatrical  effect.  The 
poolry  of  the  (J  reek  drama  was  of  the 
highest  order;  but  it  forms  a  topic  to  be 
considered  apart.  Dramatical  effect  is 
the  projjcr  subject  of  the  dramatic  art ; 
and,  in  jud;^ing  of  the  efl'orts  of  the  Greek 
mind  in  this  direction,  wc  are  assisted  not 
only  by  the  study  of  the  dramatic  poems 
which  we  possess,  but  by  the  rules  of 
criticism  delivered  to  us  by  (J reek  au- 
thors, and  especially  by  Aristotle.  From 
these  it  appears  that  the  parts  or  charac- 
teristics of  a  tragedy,  essentially  divi- 
ded, were  held  to  be  the  fable  or  story, 
the  manners,  the  style,  the  sentiment, 
the  music,  and  the  diction  ;  that  the 
fable  should  consist  of  an  entire  action, 
namely  one  principal  event  and  the 
auxiliary  events ;  and  that  the  proper 
emotions  to  be  excited  by  the  action  are 
terror  and  pity  ;  th:it  its  parts  of  quan- 
tity, according  to  the  division  of  form, 
were  the  prologue,  being  that  part  of  the 
tragedy  which  precedes  the  parode  or  first 
entry  of  the  chorus ;  the  episode,  being 
all  those  several  parts  which  are  included 
between  the  several  choral  odes ;  the 
oxode,  the  part  which  fellows  the  last 
choral  ode  ;  and  the  chorus  itself,  or  the 
intervening  odes,  which  also  admit  of 
various  subdivisions.  Formally  consid- 
ered, the  arrangement  of  the  old  comedy 
nearly  resembled  that  of  tragedy  ;  in  the 
new.  the  chorus  was  altogether  omitted. 
The  unity  of  action  w.as  a  remarkable 
characteristic  of  the  Greek  drama,  al- 
though widely  different  from  that  pecu- 
liar quality,  which  modern  critics  have 
char.acterized  by  the  name ;  it  should 
rather  be  termed  unity  of  subject,  inas- 
much as  in  ma7iy  of  our  remaining  trage- 
dies, and  especially  those  of  ^Eschylus, 
there  is  little  or  no  trace  of  what  we  term 
a  plot,  i.  e.  a  main  incident,  at  which 
we  arrive  through  subordinate  incidents 
tending  to  its  accomplishment.  The 
unity  of  time, — viz.  that  the  imaginary 
duration  of  the  action  should  not  exceed 
twenty-four  hours ;  and  that  of  place, 
namely,  that  the  scene  in  which  the 
events  occur  should  be  the  same  through- 
out, are  inventions  of  French  critics,  not 
warranted  by  the  remains  of  Greek  art, 
in  which  both  are  not  unfrequently  vio- 
lated ;  but,  although  not  rules  of  Grecian 
discovery,  they  are  easily  rendered  ap- 
plicable to  the  simple  and  severe  form 
of  the  Greek  tragedy.  In  considering  the 
theatrical  effect  of  the  Greek  drama,  we 
must  remember  that  the  tragedies  were 
originally  religious  solemnities ;  the 
theatre,  a  vast  building  open  at  the  top, 


calculated  for  the  accommodation  of 
several  thousand  spectators ;  the  scene, 
Ac.  j)roportioiiably  large.  Dr.aiuatic  rep- 
resentations were,  at  Athen.-,  the  offer- 
ing of  wealthy  men  to  the  people  ;  he 
w!io  contributed  the  expenses  of  the  en- 
tertainment was  said  iioaycn',  to  bring  in 
the  play ;  the  poet  who  ]jroduced  it, 
6i6iaKcit>,  to  teach  it,  i.  e.  teach  the  actors 
to  perform  it.  A  complete  representa- 
tion consisted  of  four  pieces  by  the  same 
author ;  a  triology,  or  three  tragedies, 
narrating  successive  events  in  the  same 
series  of  mythological  tradition  ;  and  a 
fourth  piece,  termed  a  satyrie  drama,  of 
which  the  chorus  consisted  of  satyrs,  and 
the  mythological  subject  w:is  treated  in 
a  manner  approaching  to  burlesque. 

Chinese  Drama. — Before  proceeding 
to  the  dramatic  art  of  modern  Europe,  de- 
rived as  it  is  from  that  of  Greece,  two 
oriental  nations  may  be  noticed  which 
possess  a  national  drama  of  their  own. 
In  China,  theatrical  entertaiments  form 
one  of  the  most  popular  amusements, 
and  theatrical  writing  has  been  cultivated 
from  a  very  early  period.  The  Chinese 
drama  comprises  pieces  which  we  should 
term  both  tragical  and  historical  plays, 
tragi-comedies,  and  comedies  both  of  in- 
trigue and  of  manners;  together  with 
abundance  of  low,  pantomimic,  and  farci- 
cal representations.  In  their  regular 
drama,  however,  there  appears  to  be  less 
of  what  we  should  term  connected  than 
of  successive  action  :  many  of  them  are, 
as  it  were,  dramatized  memoirs  or  biog- 
riiphies  of  individuals,  real  or  fictitious; 
the  representation  of  some  is  said  to  re- 
quire ten  days.  It  is  remarkable  that, 
of  all  national  dramas,  the  Chinese  ap- 
pears to  be  the  only  one  in  which  we 
can  trace  no  original  connection  with  re- 
ligious observance. 

Hindoo  Drama. — The  Hindoo  plays 
which  now  exist  are  written  for  the  most 
part  in  Sanscrit,  although  not  a  living 
language  at  the  period  when  they  were 
composed;  mixed,  however,  with  other 
dialects,  which,  according  to  Hindoo  crit- 
ics, are  respectively  appropriate  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  play.  They  seem  to 
have  been  appropriate  to  the  entertain- 
ment of  learned  persons,  and  acted  only 
on  solemn  occasions.  They  are  few  in 
number ;  about  sixty  only  are  known ; 
some  containing  long  mythological  nar- 
ratives, others  much  complicated  incident 
of  a  domestic  character,  in  a  strain  of 
tragedy,  alternnting  with  comedy,  like 
the  romantic  drama  of  modern  Europe. 
The  dramatic  art  appears  to  hare  flour- 


ITO 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    MTKRAiTKE 


[ORA 


ished  in  India  during  a  period  of  several 
ages,  ending  about  ihe  14th  or  15th  cen- 
turies of  our  era.  Dramatic  criticism 
was  also  much  cultivated;  and  the  most 
minute  and  artificial  rules  are  laid  down 
by  Hindoo  commentators  as  to  the  con- 
duct of  a  piece,  the  requisite  ethics,  the 
formal  arrangement,  and  the  character 
which  must  be  introduced.  The  Hindoo 
drama  is  so  widely  ditferent  from  the 
Greek  or  Chinese,  tnat  it  must  be  re- 
garded, like  them,  as  a  spontaneous  off- 
spring of  national  genius. 

Modern  European  Drama.  —  For 
many  centuries  after  the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  dramatic  art  appears 
to  have  been  entirely  lost.  Its  first  re- 
vival in  the  middle  ages  was  owing  to  the 
solemnities  of  the  church,  into  which  dra- 
matic interludes  were  introduced  in  vari- 
ous countries  of  western  Euroj^e,  repre- 
senting at  first  events  in  biblical  history 
or  the  lives  of  the  saints,  and  afterwards 
intermingled  with  allegorical  fantasies. 
The  framers  of  these  early  pieces  were 
monks,  and  the  monks  were  the  only  pre- 
servers of  classical  learning;  but  whe- 
ther we  can  infer  from  these  facts  that 
the  idea  of  these  rude  representations 
was  suggested,  or  their  details  improved 
by  classical  associations,  it  is  not  easy  to 
pronounce.  At  the  period  of  the  revival 
of  literature,  however,  the  dramatic  art 
was  called  nearly  at  once  into  life  in  the 
four  principal  countries  of  western  Eu- 
rope ;  Italy.  France,  Spain,  and  Eng- 
land. In  the  two  first  of  these  countries 
it  arose  simply  classical,  and  unmi.xed 
with  any  original  conceptions,  or  with 
the  sentiments  and  fashions  of  the  mid- 
dle ages  ;  in  the  two  last  it  partook  large- 
ly of  both,  and  was  also  immediately  de- 
rived from  the  mysteries  and  moralities 
above  mentioned  :  hence,  in  a  historical 
view,  arose  the  distinction,  so  elaborately 
explained  by  modern  critics,  between  the 
clnssical  and  romantic  drama. 

Italian  Drama. — Originated  in  close 
imitation  of  classical  models.  The  So- 
fonisba  of  Trissino  (151.5)  is  not  abso- 
lutely the  oldest  Italian  piny,  but  the 
first  which  served  as  a  model  for  subse- 
quent composers.  Rucellai  and  many 
others  followed  in  tlie  same  track ;  Bib- 
bicna,  Michiavel,  Ariosto,  as  closely  imi- 
tated the  model  of  the  Terentian  comedy. 
The  pastoral  drama  of  the  16th  century, 
of  which  Tasso  and  Guarini  were  the 
roost  celebrated  writers,  furnished  the 
first  novelty  in  this  branch  of  literature  ; 
but  these  are  rather  poetical  than  dra- 
matical compositions.     The  true  national 


theatre  of  Italy  arose  in  the  17th  century, 
in  the  musical  drama  (opera),  to  which  Me- 
tastasio,  early  in  the  18th,  communicated 
all  the  charms  of  poetry;  but  since  the 
period  of  that  writer,  the  operatic  part 
of  the  dramatic  art  has  again  been  whol- 
ly disconnected  from  the  literary,  and 
the  words  only  serve  as  vehicles  for  tho 
music.  While  the  higher  classes  were 
devoted  to  the  opera,  the  lower  found 
their  national  amusement  in  the  com- 
medie  dell'  arte  ;  comedies  performed  by 
masqued  characters,  which  gradually  be- 
came fi.xed  in  the  well-known  persons  of 
Harlequin,  Pantaloon,  Brighella,  Ac, 
who  improvised  their  parts:  Goldoni,  in 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  succeeded 
in  establishing  a  regular  comic  drama  in 
possession  of  the  stage ;  while  his  rival, 
Gasparo  Gozzi,  took  up  the  commedie 
dell'  arte  as  models,  and  founded  upon 
them  a  series  of  amusing  extravagances. 
But  since  the  period  of  these  two  sjiirited 
writers  comedy  has  fallen  almost  com- 
pletely into  disrepute.  At  the  end  of  the 
18th  century  Alfieri,  a  bold  and  severe 
genius,  produced  tragedies  in  which  the 
ancient  classical  form  (with  the  exception 
of  the  chorus)  was  again  reverted  to,  in- 
stead of  the  French  imitations  of  it  which 
had  long  been  current  in  Italy  as  well  as 
the  rest  of  Europe;  and  several  dramatic 
poets  have  since  appeared,  who  adopted 
the  same  model. 

French  Drama.  —  The  early  French 
tragic  writers,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century  down  to  Corneille  in  the 
middle  of  the  17th,  produced  nothing  but 
unsuccessful  and  somewhat  barbarous 
imitations  of  the  Greek  tragedy  The 
first  pieces  of  this  kind  represented  on 
the  French  stage  had  prologues  and  cho- 
ruses. Corneille  had  studied  and  loved 
the  Spanish  drama;  and  without  intro- 
ducing much  of  its  varied  form  and  inci- 
dent, he  transfused  a  portion  of  its  bold- 
ness and  romantic  sentiment  into  the 
French  theatre,  together  with  a  power 
of  energetic  declamation  peculiarly  his 
own.  Racine,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a 
pure  admirer  of  antiquity;  but  with  a 
taste  and  delicacy  of  feeling  which  until 
his  time  had  been  very  rarely  found  to 
accompany  classical  knowledge.  The 
French  tragedy  grew  up  with  these  two 
great  writers  as  models,  and  Boileau  as 
its  legislator.  A  peculiar  and  rigorous 
system  of  criticism  was  introduced,  affect- 
ing both  the  form  and  the  substance  of 
dramatic  writing;  and  this  system  be- 
came established  in  the  minds  of  the 
French  public,  as  the  natural  and  not  the 


AND    THE    FIN'K    ARTS. 


171 


conventional  rule  of  beauty.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  enter  into  an  examina- 
tion of  the  rules  of  the  French  ilrama  ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  thej'  banished  from 
the  tragic  stage  all  except  heroic  charac- 
ters and  passion  ;  required  perfect  sim- 
plicity of  plot,  uniformity  of  language, 
and,  in  addition,  the  observance  of  the 
before-mentioned  technical  unities  of 
place  and  time.  These  rules  have  ever 
since  been  scrupulously  followed,  without 
deviation,  on  the  regular  French  stage, 
and  many  of  the  greatest  names  in  dra- 
matic literature  have  voluntarily  subject- 
ed themselves  to  their  restraints.  The 
French  comedy,  however,  is  infinitely 
more  national  and  characteristic  than  the 
French  tragedy ;  it  originated  in  that  of 
Spain,  and  was  carried  at  once  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  by  Moliere, — reject- 
ing the  extravagance  of  the  Spanish 
drama,  confining  itself  within  certain  de- 
finite limits  governed  by  analogy  to  those 
established  for  tragedy,  and  retaining 
satire  instead  of  adventure  as  its  leading 
principle.  Since  that  period  the  French 
comic  stage  has  been,  beyond  all  contra- 
diction, not  01  ly  the  best,  but  the  model 
from  which  that  of  all  other  nations  has 
been  wholly  derived.  Of  the  present 
state  of  the  French  drama  it  is  diQicult 
to  speak  with  precision  ;  but  the  national 
or  regular  stage  seems  to  be  every  day 
losing  in  popularity,  while  the  attempts 
to  establish  a  new  one  on  what  is  termed 
in  France  the  romantic  model  have  hith- 
erto met  with  very  partial  sueces.s. 

Spanish  Drama.  —  Spain  commenced 
her  literary  career  more  independent  of 
foreign  aid  than  any  other  country.  Her 
dramatic  art  appears  to  have  originated 
as  early  as  the  14th  century  ;  which  pro- 
duced satirical  pieces  in  dialogue,  and 
one  complete  dramatic  romance  by  an 
unknown  author  {La  Celestina,)  in  adili- 
tion  to  the  mysteries  and  miracle  plays, 
which  were  exhibited  in  Spain  even  more 
plentifully  than  elsewhere.  The  early 
Spanish  comedies  of  the  16th  century 
were  conversations,  like  eclogues,  be- 
tween shepherds  and  shepherdesses;  with 
occasional  interludes  of  negroes,  clowns, 
and  Biseayans,  the  favorite  subjects  of 
popular  jest.  But  the  Spanish  drama  owed 
to  one" great  author,  Lope  de  Vega,  what 
th"}  English  drama  owed  to  liis  contem- 
porary, Shakspeare, — a  rise  at  a  single 
bound  from  insignificance  to  great  richness 
anil  variety  ;  he  created,  moreover,  nearly 
all  its  numerous  divisions,  and  has  left 
examples  of  each.  The  name  comedy,  in 
the  early  Spanish  stage,  implied  no  lu- 


dicrous or  satirical  representation,  but 
simply  a  play  of  adventure.  Comeding 
divinas,  or  spiritual  comedies,  were  sul)- 
divided  into  lives  of  saints,  and  piece."  of 
the  holy  sacrament :  the  comedies  of  hu- 
man life  into  heroic,  answering  to  (ho 
tragedy  of  our  early  English  dramatists, 
although  even  less  regular  in  form  ;  and 
comedies  of  domestic  adventure.  Besiilcs 
these,  the  interludes  which  were  played 
between  the  prologue  and  the  piece  pos- 
sess a  distinct  character  as  literary  com- 
positions. Almost  all  pieces  have  one 
favorite  invariable  character,  the  gra- 
cioso  or  buffoon.  Calderon,  a  greater 
poet  than  Lope,  and  his  equal  in  dra- 
matic power,  is  the  only  other  great 
name  in  the  Spanish  drama.  Subsequent 
writers  may  all  be  classed  as  imitators 
either  of  their  own  older  poets,  or  of  the 
favorite  dramatists  of  the  French  school. 
KngUsh  Drama. — The  semi-religious 
representations  out  of  which  the  English 
drama  arose,  were  called  Mystery  and 
Morality.  One  of  the  latter,  The  New 
Custom,  was  printed  as  late  as  1.573;  by 
which  time  several  regular  tragedies  and 
comedies,  tolerably  approaching  to  the 
classical  model,  had  appeared.  But  a 
third  species  of  exhibition  soon  took  pos- 
session of  the  stage,  the  historical  drama, 
in  which  the  successive  events  of  a  partic- 
ular reign  or  portion  of  history  were  rep- 
resented on  the  stage  ;  and,  together  with 
it,  arose  the  English  tragedy  and  comedy. 
The  first  dramatic  poets  of  England  (those 
before  Shakspeare)  were  scholars  ;  hence 
they  preferred  the  form  of  the  ancient 
drama,  the  division  into  acts,  itc.  But 
they  were  also  writers,  who  strove  for 
popularity  with  the  general  class  of  their 
countrymen  ;  hence,  instead  of  imitating 
classical  simplicity,  and  confining  them- 
selves to  a  peculiar  cast  of  diction  and 
sentiment  removed  from  the  ordinary 
course  of  life,  they  invented  a  species  of 
composition  which  intermingled  poetical 
with  ordinary  life  and  language.  Com- 
edy, again,  became  in  their  hands  a  rep- 
resentation of  adventures,  differing  from 
those  of  tragedy  only  by  ending  gener- 
ally in  a  happy  instead  of  an  unhappy 
exit,  and  not  materially  either  in  the 
characters  or  language.  Thus  the  dis- 
tinctions which  they  established  between 
tragedy,  comedy,  and  tragi-comedy,  are 
little  more  than  adventitious ;  and  the 
Shaksperian  drama,  properly  consider- 
ed, must  be  looked  on  as  a  miscellane- 
ous compound,  in  which  actors,  language, 
and  sentiments,  of  a  eharai'ter  far  re- 
moved from  those  of  ordinary  life,  alter- 


1V2 


CrCLOPKDIA     OF    LITElJATUIiE 


[dr.! 


nate  with  those  of  a  low  and  even  a 
burlesque  character.  There  is  no  trag- 
edy in  Shakspeare  in  which  comic  scenes 
and  characters  are  not  introduced  :  there 
is  only  one  comedy  {'IVie  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor)  without  some  intermixture 
of  sentiment  approaching  to  tragic.  It 
continued  to  be  the  chief  national  litera- 
ture, as  well  as  the  favorite  national 
amusement,  down  to  the  period  of  the 
civil  wars,  when  the  opinions  and  legis- 
lation of  the  prevailing  party  put  a  stop 
to  dramatic  representations  altogether. 
During  the  interval  thus  created  the  old 
English  art  was  unlearned  altogether, 
and  the  now  drama,  on  the  model  of  the 
French,  introduced  almost  at  once  on  the 
return  of  Charles  II.  and  his  courtiers 
from  the  Continent.  The  distinction  be- 
tween tragedy  and  comedy  was  then  first 
substantially  recognized  :  the  former 
confined  to  heroic  events  and  language, 
the  latter  to  those  of  ordinary  life.  But 
tragedy,  subjected  to  foreign  rules, 
ceased  entirely  to  flourish  :  and  Otway, 
the  last  writer  of  the  old  English  drama, 
who  wrote  partly  on  the  ancient  model, 
although  after  the  Restoration,  is  also 
the  last  tragic  poet  of  England  who  still 
occupies  the  stage  ;  with  the  exception 
of  Rowe,  and  of  a  few  authors  of  that  pe- 
culiar species  of  composition,  the  domes- 
tic tragedy,  in  which  the  distresses  and 
melancholy  events  of  common  life  are 
substituted  for  those  of  an  heroic  charac- 
ter. Comedy,  on  the  other  hand,  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  national  taste 
and  stage  ;  and  although  the  charm  of 
poetry  and  romantic  adventure,  which 
had  belonged  to  tlie  old  drama  under 
either  name,  was  denied  to  the  modern 
comedy,  it  soon  attained  a  high  degree 
of  excellence  as  well  as  popularity. 
The  last  comedies  in  verse  were  written 
shortly  after  the  Restoration ;  since 
which  time,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
insulated  attempts  to  revive  the  older 
form,  it  has  been  entirely  framed  on  the 
French  model.  The  main  element  of  a 
modern  comedy  is  satire  ;  but  it  ailmits 
of  a  subdivision  into  comedy  of  intrigue 
and  coinady  of  manners, — the  former  be- 
ing chiefly  directed  to  tlie  development 
of  a  plot,  the  latter  to  the  delineation  of 
manners;  although  these  qualities  ought, 
properly  speaking,  to  be  united  to  consti- 
tute a  good  play.  The  most  distinguished 
English  dramatic  writers  in  the  former 
line  are,  amongst  manj',  Congrcve,  Van- 
brugh,  Farquhar,  Colman,  Sheridan  :  in 
the  latter,  the  writings  of  Shadwell  and 
Foote.  perhaps,  afford  the  most  remarka- 


ble instances  of  that  less  popular  form  of 
comedy  which  almost  neglects  the  interest 
of  plot,  and  confines  itself  to  a  satirical 
representation  of  prevailing  vices  and 
follies. 

German  Drama. — The  modern  Ger- 
man drama  is  founded  on  the  old  English 
model;  and,  although  the  last  in  order 
of  time,  has  risen  to  a  high  degree  of  ex- 
cellence, the  stage  in  Germany  being  in- 
comparably more  national  and  pojiular 
at  the  present  time  than  in  other  Euro- 
pean countries.  While  France,  England, 
and  Spain  have  to  look  back  two  hundred 
years  for  tho.«e  names  which  form  the 
glory  of  their  dramatic  literature,  Les- 
sing,  Schiller,  and  (loethe  are  writers 
only  of  the  past  generation. 

DRAMATIS  PERSO'N.^,  the  charac- 
ters represented  in  a  drama. 

DRAMATURGY,  the  science  or  art 
of  dramatic  poetry  and  representation; 
a  word  used  by  German  writers. 

DRA'PERY,  in  sculpture  and  paint- 
ing, the  representation  of  the  clothing  of 
human  figures ;  also  hangings,  tapestry, 
curtains,  and  most  other  things  that  are 
not  flesh  or  landscape.  Although  it  is 
the  natural  body,  and  not  some  append- 
age added  by  human  customs  and  reg- 
ulations, that  sensibly  and  visibly  rep- 
resents mind  and  life  to  our  eyes,  and 
has  become  the  chief  object  of  the  plastic 
arts,  yet  the  requirements  of  social  life 
demand  that  the  body  be  clothed;  the 
artist  fulfils  this  obligation  in  such  man- 
ner as  shall  prove  least  detrimental  to 
his  aim.  Drapery  has,  of  itself,  no  de- 
terminate form,  yet  all  its  relations  are 
susceptible  of  beauty,  as  it  is  subordinate 
to  the  form  it  covers.  This  beauty,  which 
results  from  the  motion  and  disposition  of 
the  folds,  is  susce|)tible  of  numerous  com- 
binations very  difficult  to  imitate ;  in- 
deed, casting  of  draperies,  as  it  is  term- 
ed, is  one  of  the  most  important  of  an 
artist's  studies.  The  object  is  to  make 
the  drapery  appear  naturally  disposed, 
the  rc.'iult  of  accident  or  chance.  In  an- 
cient Art,  the  feeling  and  enthusiasm  for 
corporeal  beauty  was  universal,  yet  the 
opportunities  for  representing  it  were 
comparativelj'  rare.  Only  in  gymnastic 
and  athletic  figures  did  nakedness  pre- 
sent itself  as  natural,  ami  become  the 
privileged  form  of  representation  to  the 
sculptor;  it  was  soon,  however,  extended 
to  statues  of  male  deities  ami  heroes, 
(iarments  that  concealed  the  form  were 
universally  discarded ;  it  was  sufficient 
to  retain  only  the  outer-garment,  and 
even  this  was  entirely  laid  aside  when 


dreJ 


AND    THE     FINE     AIM'S. 


173 


the  figure  was  represente  1  in  nction.  In 
sedent  statues,  on  the  contrary,  the  up- 
per garuicnt''is  seMoin  laid  a.sidc  ;  it  is 
then  usually  drawn  around  the  loins  ;  it 
denotes,  therefore,  rest  and  absence  of 
exertion.  In  thi>>  way  the  drapery,  even 
in  ideal  figures,  is  significant,  and  be- 
comes an  expressive  attribute.  Ancient 
Art,  at  the  same  time,  loved  a  compendi- 
ous and  illusive  treatment  ;  the  helmet 
denotes  the  whole  armor;  a  piece  of  the 
chlauiys  the  entire  dress  of  the  Ephebos. 
It  was  customary  at  all  times  to  repre- 
sent children  naked  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
the  unrobing  of  the  developed  female 
body  was  long  unheard  of  in  Art,  and 
when  this  practice  was  introduced,  it  re- 
quired at  first  a  connection  with  life  ; 
here  the  idea  of  the  bath  constantly  pre- 
served itself  until  the  eyes  became  ac- 
customed to  adopt  the  representation  with- 
out this  justification.  The  portrait  sta- 
tue retainad  the  costume  of  life,  if  it  also 
was  not  raised  above  the  common  neces- 
sity by  the  form  being  rendered  heroic 
or  divine. — The  draperies  of  the  Greeks, 
which,  from  their  simple,  and,  as  it  were, 
still  undecided  forms,  for  the  most  part 
only  received  a  determinate  character 
from  the  mode  of  wearing,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  furnished  a  great  alternation 
of  smooth  and  folded  parts,  were  espe- 
cially calculate  1  from  the  outset  for  such 
purposes ;  but  it  also  became  early  an 
artistic  principle  to  render  the  forms  of 
the  body  everywhere  as  prominent  as 
possible,  by  drawing  the  garments  close, 
and  loading  the  skirts  with  small  weights. 
The  striving  after  clearness  of  represen- 
tation dictated  to  tlie  artists  of  the  best 
period  a  disposition  into  large  masses, 
and  a  subordination  of  the  details  to 
the  leading  forms,  precisely  as  is  observ- 
ed in  the  muscular  development  of  the 
body. 

DRAW,  a  word  used  in  a  variety  of 
situations,  and  in  some  of  ver}'  opposite 
meanings,  but  in  most  of  its  uses  it  re- 
tains some  shade  of  its  original  sense — to 
pull,  to  move  forward  by  the  application 
of  force,  or  to  extend  in  length.  It  ex- 
pre.sses  an  action  gradual  or  continuous, 
and  leisurely,  yet  not  requiring  the  toil 
and  ditiiculty  which  its  kindred  word  drag 
implies. 

I)R.A.W'B.4CK,  in  commerce,  a  term 
used  to  signify  the  remitting  or  ])aying 
back  of  the  duties  previously  paid  on  a 
commodity,  on  its  being  exported;  so 
that  it  may  be  sold  in  a  foreign  market 
on  the  same  terms  as  if  it  had  not  been 
taxed  at  all.     By  this  device,  therefore, 


merchants  are  enabled  to  export  com- 
modities loaded  at  home  with  heavj'  du- 
ties, and  to  sell  them  abroad  on  the  same 
terms  as  those  fetched  from  countries 
where  they  are  not  taxed. — In  a  popular 
sense,  draicback  signifies  any  loss  of  ad- 
vantage, or  deduction  from  profit. 

DRAWER,  and  DRAWEE,  in  com- 
merce, the  drawer  is  he  who  draws  a  bill 
of  exchange  or  an  order  for  the  payment 
of  money  ;  and  the  drawee,  the  person  on 
whom  it  is  drawn. 

DRAWING,  the  art  of  representing 
the  appearances  of  objects  upon  a  flat 
surface,  by  means  of  an  outline  which 
describes  their  form  and  shadow,  situa- 
tion, distance,  &c. 

DRAWIXG-ROOM,  a  room  appiopri- 
ated  for  the  reception  of  company  at 
court ;  or  to  which,  in  common  cases, 
parties  withdraw  after  dinner.  Also,  the 
company  assembled  at  court  to  pay  their 
respects  to  the  sovereign. 

DRE.IMS,  may  be  defined  to  be  those 
trains  of  ideas  which  occupy  the  mind, 
or  those  imaginar3'  transactions  in  which 
it  is  engaged,  during  sleep.  Dreams 
constitute  some  of  the  most  curious  phe- 
nomena of  the  human  mind,  and  have  in 
all  ages  presented  to  philosophers  a  sub- 
ject of  most  interesting  investigation. 
The  theory  of  dreams  embraces  two  dis- 
tinct classes  of  phenomena,  physical  and 
psychological :  the  former  relate  to  the 
question  as  to  how  the  body  is  afi"ected  in 
a  state  of  sleep,  how  the  body  in  that  state 
affects  the  mind,  and  how  this  affection 
operates  to  the  production  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  dreams  ;  the  latter  compre- 
hend an  inquiry  into  the  laws  which  reg- 
ulate the  train  of  ideas  that  occur  during 
sleep,  and  the  mode  in  which  these  laws 
operate,  together  with  an  examination 
of  certain  psychological  appearances  pe- 
culiar to  that  state.  To  both  these  classes 
of  phenomena  the  attention  of  some  of 
the  most  distinguished  philosophers,  both 
of  antiquity  and  of  modern  times,  has 
been  directed  ;  and  much  labor  and  in- 
genuity have  been  expended  in  endeavor- 
ing to  ascertain  the  origin  and  nature  of 
dreams,  and  to  account  for  the  various 
phenomena  by  which  they  are  accom- 
panied. Among  a  multitude  of  other 
efficient  ciiinc!',  dreams  have  been  ascrib- 
ed to  direct  impressions  on  the  organs  of 
sense  during  sleep, — to  the  absence  of 
real  impressions  on  the  senses, — to  a  dis- 
ordered state  of  the  digestive  organs, — 
to  a  less  restrained  action  of  the  mental 
faculties, — to  the  suspension  of  volition 
while  the  powers  of  sensation  continue, — 


lit 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATLRE 


[duu 


and  to  the  succession  and  unequal  relax- 
ation and  cessation  of  the  ditl'erent  senses 
at  the  commencement  and  during  the 
time  of  sleep.  From  the  remotest  period 
of  antiquitj',  dreams  have  also  been  as- 
cribed to  supernatural  agency.  The  rec- 
ords of  history,  both  sacred  and  profane, 
abound  in  instances  of  dreams  which  it 
has  been  thought  impossible  to  account 
for  on  any  other  hypothesis  than  that  of 
a  supernatural  interposition ;  and.  as 
has  been  well  observed,  though  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  many  dreams  which 
have  been  considered  supernatural,  as 
revealing  facts  and  scientific  truths,  may 
now  be  explained  by  means  within  our 
own  knowledge,  it  can  just  as  little  be 
doubted  that  many  well-authenticated 
dreams  are  utterly  ine.xplicable  by  ordi- 
nary means.  This  belief  in  the  supernat- 
ural character  of  dreams  is  common  to 
every  nation  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  ; 
but  it  prevails  more  especially  in  the 
countries  of  the  East,  where,  from  time 
immemorial,  there  has  existed  a  class  of 
persons  whose  peculiar  occupation  con- 
sists in  the  interpretation  and  explana- 
tion of  dreams.  Those  who  wish  for  com- 
prehensive details  on  this  subject  may 
consult  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  Lucre- 
tius, Democritus,  &e. ;  and  among  modern 
writers,  of  Locke,  Newton,  Hartley,  Bax- 
ter, Beattie,  and  Stewart;  and  still  more 
recently,  those  of  Abercrombie  and  Mac- 
nish,  which  are  extremely  valuable  for 
the  numerous  instances  of  extraordinary 
dreams  with  which  their  theories  are  il- 
lustrated. 

DRESS,  clothes  worn  as  the  covering 
or  ornament  of  the  body  ;  and  generally, 
though  not  always,  applied  to  elegant  at- 
tire.—  "To  dress,  is  a  military  term  for 
arranging  the  men  in  line. 

DRESS'IXGS,  in  architecture,  mould- 
ings round  doors,  windows,  and  the  like. 

DRIFTING  EAVES,  in  architecture, 
the  lower  edges  of  a  roof  wherefrom  the 
rain  drips  or  drops  to  the  ground. 

DRIVING  NOTES,  in  music,  such 
notes  as  connect  the  Last  note  of  one  bar 
with  the  first  of  the  following  one,  so  as 
to  make  only  one  note  of  both.  They  are 
also  used  in  the  middle  of  a  measure,  and 
when  a  note  of  one  part  terminates  in  the 
middle  of  the  note  of  another,  in  whicli 
case  it  is  called  bindlns^  or  legature. 
Driving  notes  are  also  called  syncopation, 
when  some  shorter  note  at  the  beginning 
of  a  measure  or  half-measure  is  followed 
by  two,  three,  or  more  longer  notes,  be- 
fore any  other  occurs  equal  to  that  which 
occasioned  the  driving  note  to  make  the 


number  even  ;  for  instance,  when  an  odd 
crotchet  succeeds  two  or  three  minims,  or 
an  odd  quaver  two  or  more  crotchets. 

DROPS,  in  arciiitecture,  the  frusta  of 
cones  in  the  Doric  order,  used  under  the 
triglyphs  in  the  architrave  below  the 
toeiiia.  They  are  also  used  in  the  under 
part  of  the  mutuli  or  modillions  of  the 
order.  In  the  Greek  examples  they  are 
sometimes  curved  a  little  inwards  on  the 
profile. 

DRUG'GET,  a  coarse  woollen  fabric, 
used  for  covering  carpets,  and  sometimes 
as  an  article  of  clothing  by  females  of  the 
poorer  classes. 

DRU'IDS,  the  priests  or  ministers  of 
the  ancient  Britons  and  Gauls,  resem- 
bling, in  many  respects,  the  bramins  of 
India.  The  Druids  were  chosen  out  of 
the  best  families;  and  were  held,  both  by 
the  honors  of  their  birth  and  their  office, 
in  the  greatest  veneration.  They  are 
said  to  have  understood  astrology,  geome- 
try, natural  historj',  politics,  and  geogra- 
phy ;  they  had  the  administration  of  all 
sacred  things;  were  the  interpreters  of 
religion,  and  the  judges  of  all  affairs  ; 
and,  according  to  Cfesar,  they  believed  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  its  trans- 
migration through  different  bodies. 

DRUM,  a  military  musical  instrument 
in  form  of  a  C3'linder,  hollow  within,  and 
covered  at  the  ends  with  vellum,  which  is 
stretched  or  slackened  at  pleasure  by  the 
means  of  small  cords  and  sliding  knots 
It  is  beat  upon  with  sticks.  Some  drums 
are  made  of  brass,  but  they  are  common- 
ly of  wood.  There  are  several  beats  of 
the  drum,  as  the  chamadc,  reveille,  re- 
treat, itc.  The  drum  is  supposed  to  be 
an  eastern  invention,  and  to  have  been 
brought  into  Europe  by  the  Arabians,  or 
perhaps  the  Moors.  The  kettle  drum, 
the  bass  drum,  and  tambourine,  are  com- 
mon in  the  East. — -In  architecture,  the  up- 
right part  of  a  cupola  either  above  or  be- 
low a  dome.  The  same  term  is  used  to 
express  the  solid  i)art  or  vase  of  the  Co- 
rinthian and  CiiuiiiDsitc  capitals. 

DRrXK'KXNKSS,  into.\ication.  Phy- 
sically considered,  it  consists  of  a  preter- 
natural compression  of  the  brain,  and  a 
discomposure  of  its  fibres,  occasi(mcd  by 
the  fumes  or  spirituous  parts  of  liquors  ; 
so  that  the  drunkard's  reason  is  disorder- 
ed, and  he  reels  or  staggers  in  walking. 
Drunkenness  appears  in  different  shapes, 
in  different  constitutions;  some  it  makes 
gay,  some  sullen,  and  some  furious. 
Jlobbes  makes  voluntary  drunkenness  a 
breach  of  the  law  of  nature,  which  directs 
us  to   preserve  the    use   of  our  reason. 


duk] 


ANU    Tllli;     FINK    AKTS. 


175 


Paley  calls  it  "  a  social  festive  vice  ;"  and 
says,  ■'  The  drinker  collects  his  circle  ;  the 
circle  naturally  spreads  ;  of  those  who  are 
drawn  within  it,  many  become  the  cor- 
rupters and  centres  of  sets  and  circles  of 
their  own  ;  everj'  one  countenancing,  and 
perhaps  emulating  the  rest,  till  a  whole 
ncighburhood  be  infected  from  the  con- 
tagion of  a  single  example."  Drunken- 
ness is  punishable  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment, and  in  law  is  no  excuse  for  any 
crime  committed  during  the  paroxysm. 

DRY' ADS,  in  the  heathen  theology,  a 
sort  of  deities  or  nymphs,  which  the  an- 
cients thought  inhabited  groves  and 
woods.  They  differed  from  the  Hama- 
dryads, these  latter  being  attached  to 
some  particular  tree  with  which  they  were 
born,  and  with  which  they  died  ;  whereas 
the  Dryads  were  goddesses  of  trees  and 
woods  in  general. 

DRY'ER.S,  substances,  chiefly  metallic 
oxides,  added  to  certain  fixed  oils,  to  im- 
part to  them  the  property  of  drying 
quickly  when  used  in  painting.  That 
most  commonly  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose is  the  oxide  of  lead;  but  icliite  cop- 
peras or  ukitc  vitriol,  (sulphate  of  zinc,) 
oxide  of  manganese,  ground  glass,  oxide 
of  zinc,  calcined  bones,  chlo:ide  of  lime, 
and  verdigris,  (di-acetate  of  copper,)  have 
also  been  used  at  various  periods  in  the 
history  of  Art  as  dr^'ers. 

DRY'IXti  OIL,  Boiled  Oil,  when  Un- 
seed oil  is  boiled  with  litharge,  (oxide  of 
lead.)  it  acquires  the  property  of  drying 
quickly  when  exposed  in  a  thin  stratum 
to  the  air.  Its  uses  as  a  vehicle  and 
varnish  are  well  known. 

J)RY'XESS,  this  terra  is  applied  to  a 
style  of  painting,  in  which  the  outline  is 
harsh  and  formal,  and  the  color  deficient 
in  mellowness  and  harmony.  It  is  not 
incompatible  with  good  composition  and 
other  high  qualities,  as  may  be  seen  in 
some  of  the  works  of  Holbein,  and  the 
earlier  productions  of  Raphael. 

DU'ALI.SM,  a  name  given  to  those 
systems  of  philosophy  which  refer  all 
existence  to  tico  ultimate  principles. 
Dualism  is  a  main  feature  in  all  the  early 
Greek  cosmogonies,  and  is  that  which 
distinguishes  them  from  the  eastern  spec- 
ulations on  similar  subjects,  which  mostly 
regard  all  things  as  emanating  from  a 
single  principle.  The  dualistic  hypothe- 
sis was,  doubtless,  originally  suggested 
by  the  analogy  of  male  and  female  in 
animal  existence.  The  earliest  forms 
under  which  the  theory  appeared  are,  as 
might  be  expected,  rude  in  the  extreme. 
The  Orphic  poets  made  the  ultimate  prin- 


cii)les  of  all  things  to  be  Water  and 
Night;  by  others  ^Ether  and  Erebus, 
Time  and  Necessity,  are  severally  deem- 
ed worthy  of  this  distinction.  The  an- 
cient Greek  and  Roman  mythology  waa 
evidently  constructed  on  this  principle. 
In  its  more  philosophic  form,  the  dual- 
istic theory  was  maintained  among  the 
ancients  by  Pj'thagoras  and  many  of  the 
Ionian  school ;  among  the  moderns, 
chiefly  by  Descartes.  It  may  be  ex- 
pressed generally  as  the  assumption  of 
the  coeternity  and  simultaneous  develop- 
ment of  the  formative  with  the  formed, 
of  the  natura  naturans  with  the  natura 
naturata.  ,So  the  sj-stem  of  philosophy 
which  regards  matter  and  spirit  as  dis- 
tinct principles  is  a  species  of  dualism, 
as  opposed  to  materialism. — In  theology, 
the  doctrine  of  the  two  sovereign  princi- 
ples of  good  and  evil  is  also  dualistic  ; 
and  the  high  Calvinistic  theory  may  be 
said  to  be  a  species  of  dualism,  viz.  that 
all  mankind  are  divided,  in  the  eternal 
foreknowledge  of  God,  and  by  his  sove- 
reign decree,  into  two  classes,— the  elect 
and  reprobate. 

DU'AL  NUMBER,  in  grammar,  is  the 
name  given  to  that  form  of  tbe  verb  and 
substantive  by  which,  in  the  ancient 
Greek,  Sanscrit,  and  Gothic,  and  the 
modern  Lithuanian  languages,  tico  per- 
sons or  things  are  denoted,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  plural,  which  expresses  an 
indefinite  number  of  persons  or  things. 

DUG  AT,  a  foreign  coin  of  ditfereut 
values,  and  which  are  either  of  silver  or 
gold.  The  silver  ducat  is  generally  of 
4s.  6cZ.  sterling,  and  the  gold  ducat  of 
twice  that  value. 

DUCATOON',  a  silver  coin,  struck 
chiefly  in  Italy,  value  about  4s.  8d.  ster- 
ling ;  but  the  gold  ducatoon  of  Holland 
is  worth  twenty  florins. 

DUCES  TECUM,  (bring  with  thee,) 
in  law,  a  writ  commanding  a  person  to 
appear  on  a  certain  day  in  the  court  of 
Chancery,  and  to  bring  with  him  some 
writings,  evidences,  or  other  things, 
which  the  court  would  view. 

DUE,  that  which  one  contract?  to  pay 
or  perform  to  another ;  that  which  law 
or  justice  requires  to  be  paid  or  done. 
Also,  that  which  office,  rank,  station,  or 
established  rules  of  right  or  decorum, 
require  to  be  given  or  performed. 

DUEL,  signified  originally  a  trial  by 
battle  resorted  to  b^'  two  persons  as  a 
means  of  determining  the  guilt  or  inno- 
cence of  a  person  charged  with  a  crime, 
or  of  adjudicating  a  disputed  right ;  but 
in  more  modern  times  it  is  used  to  signify 


176 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    I.ITF.i;  ATURR 


[l)LM 


a  hostile  meeting  between  two  persons, 
arising  from  an  affront  given  by  one  to 
the  other,  and  for  the  purpose  (as  is  said) 
of  affording  satisfaction  to  the  person  af- 
fronted. The  practice  of  the  duel,  as  a 
private  mode,  recognized  only  by  custom, 
of  deciding  private  diS'erencos,  seems  to 
be  of  comparatively  recent  date,  and  de- 
scends by  no  very  direct  transmission 
from  the  ancient  appeal  to  the  judicial 
combat  as  a  final  judgment  in  legal  dis- 
putes. That  it  originated  with  the  feu- 
dnl  system  is  abundantly  clear,  if  it  were 
only  from  the  *"act  that  in  Russia,  where 
tiiat  system  was  never  known,  the  cus- 
tom of  the  duel  was  unheard  of,  until 
introduced  by  foreign  officers,  even  within 
the  memory  of  the  present  generation. 
But  it  is  certain  that  many  antiquarian 
writers  have  confused  together  two  very 
different  institutions  ;  the  appeal  to  arms, 
as  an  alternative  for  the  trial  by  ordeal 
or  by  compurgators,  appointed  by  tra- 
ditionary usage  from  the  earliest  periods 
of  Germanic  history  ;  and  the  voluntary 
challenge  or  defiance,  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  clearing  disputes  involving  the 
honor  of  gentlemen.  This  last  custom 
was  first  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  an  es- 
tablishcil  institution  by  Philip  le  Bel  of 
France,  whose  edict  regulating  the  public 
combat  between  nobles  bears  the  date  of 
1308  :  the  best  comment  on  which  may 
be  found  in  the  spirited  and  accurate  rep- 
resentation, by  Shakspeare,  of  the  quar- 
rel between  Mowbray  and  Bolingbroke. 

DUEN'NA,  the  chief  lady  in  waiting 
on  the  queen  of  Spain.  In  a  more  gen- 
eral sense,  it  is  applied  to  a  person 
holding  a  middle  station  between  a  gov- 
erness and  companion,  and  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  the  junior  female  mem- 
bers of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  families. 

DUET',  a  piece  of  music  composed  for 
two  performers,  either  vocal  or  instru- 
mental. 

1)1  1\E,  a  sovereign  prince  in  Germany, 
and  the  highest  title  of  honor  in  England 
next  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  His  consort 
is  called  a  duchess. — In  England,  among 
the  Sa.\ons,  the  commanders  of  armies, 
Ac.  were  caileil  dukes,  duces,  without  any 
addition,  till  Edward  III.  mnde  his  son, 
the  Black  Prince,  duke  of  Cornwall  ; 
after  whom  there  were  more  made  in  the 
same  manner,  tlie  title  dcsccn'ling  to  tiieir 
posterity.  Duke,  at  present,  is  a  more 
title  of  dignity,  without  giving  any  do- 
main, territory,  or  jurisdiction  over  the 
jdace  from  whence  the  title  is  tnkcn.  The 
title  of  duke  is  siiid  to  have  originated  in 
the  usages  of  the  Lower  Empire,  where  it 


was  given  to  the  military  governors  of 
provinces.  From  thence  it  was  borrowed 
by  the  Franks,  who  adopted,  in  many 
respects,  the  titles  and  distinctions  of  tUo 
empire.  Charlemagne  is  said  to  have 
suffered  it  to  become  obsolete,  but  the 
emperor  Louis  created  a  duke  of  Tluirin- 
gia  in  847.  In  course  of  time,  according 
to  the  usual  progress  of  feudal  dignities, 
the  title  became  hereditary.  In  (Jernniny 
the  dukes  became  the  chief  princes  of  the 
empire  ;  this  title  being  proper  to  all  the 
secular  electors,  and  to  most  of  the 
greater  feudatories.  In  other  countries 
their  dignity  became  merely  titular.  In 
Italy  and  France  dukes  form  the  second 
rank  in  the  nobility,  being  inferior  to 
princes  :  in  England  they  form  the  first. 
The  title  was  not  known  in  the  latter 
country  until  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  ; 
and  the  word  du.x  is  used  by  writers  be- 
fore that  period  as  synonymous  with 
count  or  earl. 

DUL'CIMER,  a  musical  instrument 
played  by  striking  brass  wires  with  little 
sticks. 

DUJVIB,  the  most  general,  if  not  the 
sole  cause  of  dumbness,  is  the  want  of 
the  sense  of  hearing;  and  nothing  is 
more  fallacious  than  the  idea,  that  the 
want  of  speech  is  owing  to  the  want  of 
mental  capacity.  The  necessity  of  com- 
munication, and  the  want  of  words,  oblige 
him  who  is  dumb  to  observe  and  imitate 
the  actions  and  expressions  which  accom- 
pany various  states  of  mind  and  of  feel- 
ing, to  indicate  objects  by  their  appear- 
ance and  use,  and  to  describe  the  actions 
of  persons  by  direct  imitation,  or  panto- 
mimic expression.  Hence  what  has  been 
called  the  natural  sign  language  has 
been  adopted  by  instructors  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  in  order  to  express  all  the 
ideas  we  convey  by  articulate  sounds. 
This  language,  in  its  elements,  is  to  be 
found  among  all  nations,  and  has  ever 
been  the  meilium  of  communication  be- 
tween voyagers  and  the  natives  Of  newly 
discovered  countries.  The  more  lively 
nations  of  Europe,  belonging  to  the  Celtic 
race,  the  French,  Italians,  &c.,  mak(! 
great  use  of  it,  in  connection  with  words, 
and  sometimes  even  without  them.  The 
more  phlegmatic  people  of  the  Tentnnio 
"race,  in  Englnnd  and  Germany,  are  so 
little  disposed  to  it,  that  they  regard  it  as 
a  species  of  affectation  or  butroonery  in 
their  southern  neighbors.  The  method 
of  instructing  the  deaf  and  <lumb.  which 
has  been  most  successfully  employed, 
consists  in  teaching  the  pupil  the  rela- 
tion between   the  names  of  objects  and 


DL'UJ 


AND  THE  f;xe  arts. 


177 


the  objects  themselves,  the  analysis  of 
words  into  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
the  particular  gesture  which  he  is  to  at- 
tach to  each  word  as  its  distinctive  sign — 
showing  to  him  also  the  meaning  of  col- 
lective words,  as  distinguished  from  those 
denoting  individual  objects,  or  parts  of 
objects. 

DUN,  of  a  color  partaking  of  a  dull 
brown  and  black. —  Tb  dun,  to  press  for 
the  payment  of  money  by  repeatedly 
calling  for  it.  Hence  an  importunate 
creditor  is  called  a  dun. 

DUN'KERS,  a  Christian  sect,  which 
formed  itself  into  a  society  under  peculiar 
rules  in  Pennsylvania  in  the  year  1724. 
The  origin  of  their  name  is  unknown. 
They  practise  abstinence  and  mortifica- 
tion, under  the  idea  that  such  austerities 
are  meritorious  in  the  sight  of  (Sod,  and 
effective,  first  in  procuring  their  own 
salvation,  and  further  in  contributing  to 
that  of  others.  They  form  a  society 
strictly  connected  within  itself,  and  hold 
love  feasts,  in  which  all  assemble  to- 
gether; but  their  devotions  and  ordinary 
business  are  carried  on  in  private,  nor  do 
they  recognize  a  community  of  goods. 
They  also  deny  the  eternity  of  future 
punishments  ;  conceiving  that  there  are 
periods  of  purgation,  determined  by  the 
sabbath,  sabbatical  year,  and  year  of 
jubilee,  which  are  typical  of  them. 

DUN'NAGE,  in  commercial  naviga- 
tion, loose  wood  laid  in  the  bottom  and 
against  the  sides  of  the  ship's  hold,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  cargo  from  being 
injured  in  the  event  of  her  becoming 
leakv. 

DUODE'CIMO,  having  or  consisting 
of  twelve  leaves  to  a  sheet ;  or  a  book  in 
which  a  sheet  is  folded  into  twelve  leaves. 

DUPLI'CITY,  the  act  of  dissembling 
one's  real  opinions  for  the  purpose  of 
concealing  them  and  misleading  persons 
in  the  conversation  and  intercourse  of 
life. 

DURAN'TE,  in  law,  During;  as  du- 
rante bene  placito,  during  pleasure  ;  du- 
rante minore  atate,  during  minority  ; 
durante  vitd,  during  life. 

DU'RESS,  in  law,  is  restraint  or  com- 
pulsion ;  as,  where  a  person  is  wrong- 
fully imprisoned,  or  restrained  of  his 
liberty,  contrary  to  law  ;  or  is  threatened 
to  be  killed,  wounded,  or  beaten,  till  he 
executes  a  bond,  or  other  writing.  Any 
bond,  deed,  or  other  oliligation,  obtained 
by  duress,  will  be  void  in  law  ;  and  in  an 
action  brought  on  the  e.xecution  of  any 
such  deed,  the  party  may  plead  that  it 
was  brought  by  duress. 
12 


DUSK,  a  middle  degree  between  light 
and  darkness  ;  as  twilight,  or  the  dusk 
of  the  evening.  Hence  the  words  dus/nj, 
duskiness,  Ac. 

DUTCH  GOLD,  copper,  bra.ss,  and 
bronze  leaf  is  known  under  this  name  in 
commerce  ;  it  is  largely  used  in  Holland 
for  ornamenting  toj's  and  paper. 

DUTCH  SCilOOL,  in  painting,  this 
school,  generally  speaking,  is  founded  on 
a  faithful  representation  of  nature,  with- 
out attention  lo  selection  or  refinement. 
The  ideas  are  usually  low,  and  the  figures 
local  and  vulgar.  Its  merit  lies  in  color- 
ing niid  drawing  with  extreme  fidelity 
what  was  before  the  eye  of  the  artist. 
The  pothouse,  the  workshop,  or  the 
drunken  revels  of  unintellectual  boors, 
seem  to  have  furnished  its  principal  sub- 
jects. The  great  appearance  of  reality 
infused  into  its  productions  induced  Hage- 
dora  to  call  it  the  School  of  Truth.  Not- 
withstanding its  deficiency  in  all  that 
tends  to  raise  the  mind,  it  has  gained  an 
unspeakable  lustre  from  its  great  head, 
Rembrandt  van  Rhyn,  to  whose  name 
may  be  added  those  of  De  Leide,  Heems- 
kirk,  Polemburg,  Wouvermans,  (an  ex- 
ception to  our  general  observations,)  Ge- 
rard Dow,  Mieris,  and  Vandevelde,  &c. 

DUTY,  in  commerce,  any  tax  or  ex- 
cise ;  a  sum  of  money  required  by  gov- 
ernment to  be  paid  on  the  importation, 
exportation,  or  consumption  of  goods. — 
In  a  military  sense,  the  business  of  a 
soldier  or  marine  on  guard. — In  its  uni- 
versal application,  duty  includes  any  nat- 
ural, moral,  or  legal  obligation  ;  as,  it  is 
the  duty  of  every  citizen  of  a  state  to  pay 
obedience  to  its  laws  ;  obedience,  respect, 
and  kindness  are  the  duties  which  chil- 
dren owe  their  parents. 

DUUM'VIRI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
general  appellation  given  to  magistrates, 
commissioners,  and  officers,  where  two 
were  joined  together  in  the  same  func- 
tion. The  office,  dignity,  or  government 
of  two  men  thus  associated,  was  called  a 
duumvirate. — Duumviri  capitales,  were 
the  judges  in  criminal  causes  :  from  their 
sentence  it  was  lawful  to  appeal  to  the 
people,  who  only  had  the  power  of  con- 
demning a  citizen  to  death — Duumviri 
municipales,  were  two  magistrates  in 
some  cities  of  the  empire,  answering  to 
what  the  consuls  were  at  Rome ;  they 
were  chosen  out  of  the  body  of  the  decu- 
riones ;  their  office  usually  lasted  five 
years,  upon  which  account  they  were 
frequently  termed  quin(juin(des  magis- 
trains. — Duumviri  novates,  were  the 
commissaries  of  the  fleet.     The  duty  of 


178 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATURE 


their  office  consisted  in  giving  orders  for  | 
the  fitting  of  ships,  and  giving  their  com- 
missions to  the  marine  officers,  &c.-- 
Duuinviri  sacroriim ,  were  magistrates 
created  by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  for  the 
performance  of  the  sacrifice,  and  keeiiing 
of  the  Sibyl's  books.  They  were  chosen 
from  among  the  patricians,  and  held 
their  office  for  life  :  they  were  exempted 
from  serving  in  the  wars,  and  from  the 
offices  imposed  on  the  other  citizens,  and 
without  them  the  oracles  of  the  Sibyls 
could  not  be  consulted. 

DY'NASTY,  a  race  or  series  of  princes 
who  have  reigned  successively  in  any 
kingdom ;  as  the  dynasties  of  Egypt  or 
Persia. 

DYSPEPSIA,  or  DYSPEP'SY,  in 
medicine,  difficulty  of  digestion.  Hence 
those  who  are  afflicted  with  indigestion 
are  termed  dyspeptic  persons.  The  dis- 
order of  the  digestive  function  is  the  most 
frequent  and  prevailing  of  the  ailments 
that  afflict  man  in  the  civilized  state  ;  all 
classes  and  all  ages  suffer  from  its  attacks. 
But  in  the  higher  ranks  of  society,  and 
amongst  the  lu.xurious  and  opulent,  it  is 
a  common  consequence  of  over  eating,  or 
of  indulgence  in  difficultly  digestible  or 
over-stimulating  food,  or  of  want  of  due 
exercise  and  general  bodily  and  mental 
exertion.  In  others  it  results  from  men- 
tal anxiety  and  labor  associated  with  a 
sedentary  life  ;  from  the  fatigues  of  busi- 
ness or  the  influence  of  debilitating  pas- 
sions. In  the  lower  orders  it  is  the  con- 
stant result  of  indulgence  in  spirituous 
liquors,  combined  in  many  instances  with 
want  of  proper  food,  the  means  which 
ought  to  be  applied  to  procuring  it  being 
disposed  of  in  the  dram  shop.  The  symp- 
toms of  dyspepsia  vary,  therefore,  in  the 
different  grades  of  life.  The  epicure  loses 
his  relish  for  the  most  refined  dishes,  be- 
comes bloated,  plethoric,  heavy,  and  per- 
haps apoplectic  ;  the  laily  of  fashion  suf- 
fers from  headaches,  flatulence,  occasional 
giddiness,  and  dimness  of  sight :  she  be- 
comes indolent,  capricious,  and  full  of  fan- 
cies, or,  as  the  old  physicians  used  to  say, 
she  h;is  the  rapurs ;  the  studious  man 
feeh  the  intensity  of  his  mind  blunted, 
loses  ills  appetite,  or  at  least  all  enjoy- 
ment of  meals,  sleeps  ill,  and  dreams 
much,  gets  whimsical  and  discontented 
with  himself  and  his  friends,  and  becomes 
a  hypochondriac ;  the  lower  classes  at 
first  take  their  glass  of  gin  or  of  rum  be- 
cause they  find  it  a  cheap  stimulant,  little 
thinking  of  the  misery  they  are  laying  up 
for  future  years  ;  this  stimulant  soon  be- 
comes  Iiabitual,   and  they  not  only  feel 


miserable  and  heartbroken  without  it,  but 
the  single  glass  soon  loses  its  efficacy, 
and  the  dose  must  be  gradually  increased 
till  they  degenerate  into  regular  tipplers, 
the  aspect  and  characters  of  whom  it  were 
needless  to  describe.  Complicated  as  are 
the  symptoms  of  dyspepsia,  and  numerous 
as  are  the  remedies  and  modes  of  treat- 
ment proposed  for  its  relief  or  cure,  they 
really  resolve  themselves  into  a  few  siiu- 
ple  rules.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  ah- 
stinence  is  the  first  and  most  essential 
step;  the  epicure  must  abstain  from  the 
luxuries  of  the  table,  eat  and  drink  with 
moderation,  rise  betimes,  and  use  due  ex- 
ercise ;  the  woman  of  fashion  must  revert 
to  regular  hours,  that  is,  the  night  and 
the  day  must  be  employed  as  intended  by 
nature,  and  not  in  inverted  order;  the 
philosopher  and  the  scholar  must  occa- 
sionally, and  often  frequently  and  assidu- 
ously, divest  themselves  of  their  mental 
labors,  and  resort  to  amusements  and  oc- 
cupations of  a  more  trivial  character. 
Those  among  the  lower  orders  who  have 
once  acquired  the  habit  of  dram  drinking 
are  incurable  ;  for  such  is  the  depression 
of  mind  and  body,  and  such  the  gnawing 
restlessness  that  want  of  the  accustomed 
stimulus  occasions,  that  without  it  they 
become  miserable  and  inconsolable,  and 
usually  fall  a  sacrifice  to  mental  or  bodily 
disease,  or  to  both  combined  ;  here,  there- 
fore, prevention  is  the  only  cure. 


E. 

E,  the  fifth  letter  in  the  alphabet,  and 
the  second  vowel,  has  different  pronuncia- 
tions in  most  languages.  The  French 
have  their  e  open,  e  masculine,  and  e 
feminine  or  mute.  In  English,  there  are 
three  kinds  of  e  .•  open,  as  in  wear,  bear; 
long,  as  in  here,  mere,  7ne ;  and  short,  as 
in  iret,  kept,  &c.  As  a  final  letter  it  is 
generally  quiescent ;  but  it  serves  to 
lengthen  the  sound  of  the  preceding  vow- 
el, as  in  mane,  cane,  thine,  which,  withoui 
the  final  e,  would  be  pronounced  man, 
can,  thin.  In  many  other  words  the  final 
e  is  silent,  as  in  examine,  definite,  &c. 
As  a  numeral  E  stands  for  250.  In  sea- 
charts,  E  stands  for  East :  E  by  N.  and 
E  by  S.,  East  by  North,  and  "East  by 
South— In  music,  the  third  note  or  de- 
gree of  the  diatonic  scale,  corresponding 
to  the  mi  of  the  French  and  Italians.  In 
the  bass  clef  it  is  that  on  the  third  space 
of  the  staff,  in  the  tenor  on  the  first  space, 
in  the  counter  tenor  on  the  fourth  line, 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


179 


and  ia  the  treble  clef  that  on  the   first 
line. 

EA'GLE,  in  history,  the  symbol  of 
royalty ;  a5  being,  according  to  I'hilos- 
tratus,  the  king  of  birds.  Hence,  in  the 
Scriptures,  a  Chaldajan  and  Egyptian 
king  are  styled  eagle,*.  The  eagle  was 
borno  as  a  standard  by  many  nations  ol 
antiquity.  The  first  who  as.<uined  it,  ac- 
cording to  Xenophon,  were  the  Persians, 
from  whom  (in  all  probability  through 
the  medium  of  the  (jreeks)  it  was  bor- 
rowed by  the  Romans  at  an  early  period 
of  their  history,  but  first  adopted  as  their 
sole  ensign  in  the  consulate  of  C.  Marius. 
Previously  to  that  period  they  had  used 
as  standards  wolves,  leopard.*,  eagles,  and 
other  animals,  indifferently,  according  to 
the  humor  of  their  generals.  The  Ro- 
man eagles  were  gold  or  silver  figures  in 
relievo,  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon  ;  and 
were  borne  on  the  tops  of  spear.*,  with 
their  wings  displayed,  and  frequently 
with  a  thunderbolt  in  their  talons.  When 
the  army  marched  the  eagle  was  always 
visible  to  the  legions  ;  and  when  it  en- 
camped, the  eagle  was  always  placed  be- 
fore their  prcEtorium  or  tent  of  the  gen- 
eral. The  eagle  on  the  summit  of  an 
ivory  staff  was  also  the  symbol  of  the  con- 
sular dignity.  In  modern  times  an  eagle 
standing  with  outspread  wings,  is  the 
military  emblem  of  the  United  States. 
During  the  sway  of  Napoleon,  he  caused 
the  tricolor  flag,  which  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  first  French  Revolution  had  become 
the  standard  of  France,  to  be  surmounted 
with  an  eagle  ;  and  thus  constituted  it  the 
standard  of  the  consular  and  imperial 
armies.  From  this  circumst.ance,  and 
from  the  almost  unprecedented  career  of 
victory  so  long  pursued  by  the  French 
under  this  standard,  the  expression  ea^/es 
of  Napoleon  is  often  used  metaphorically 
to  designate  the  armies  under  his  com- 
mand. After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  the 
eagle  was  superseded  in  France  by  the 
fleur  de  Ij's,  the  ancient  emblem  of  the 
Bourbon  race.  Eagles  are  frequently 
found  on  ancient  coins  and  medals  ;  where, 
according  to  Spanheim,  they  are  emble- 
matic of  divinitj'  and  providence,  but  ac- 
cording to  all  other  antiquaries,  of  empire. 
They  are  most  usually  found  on  the  med- 
als of  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  and  the 
Soleucidaj  of  Syria.  An  eagle,  with  the 
word  cousecratio,  indicates  the  apotheosis 
of  an  emperor.  The  eagle  is  also  the 
badge  of  several  orders,  as  the  black  ea- 
gle and  the  red  eagle  of  Prussia,  the  white 
eagle  of  Poland,  &c. — In  Christian  Art, 
an  eagle  is  the  attribute  of  St.  John  the 


Evangelist;  the  symbol  of  authority,  of 
power,  and  of  generosity  ;  it  was  regard- 
ed by  St  Gregory  as  the  emblem  of  con- 
templative life.  It  is  represented  drink- 
ing from  a  chalice,  as  an  emblem  of  tho 
strength  the  Christian  derives  from  the 
Holy  Eucharist.  The  conflict  between 
the  "state  of  nature"  and  tho  "state  of 
grace"  is  represented  by  an  eagle  fight- 
ing with  a  serpent,  and  by  an  eagle,  the 
body  of  which,  terminating  in  the  tail  of 
a  serpent,  is  turned  against  the  head.  A 
common  form  for  the  lectern,  constructed 
of  wood  or  brass,  used  to  support  the  sa- 
cred volume  in  the  choir  of  churches,  i.s 
that  of  an  eagle. — Elisha,  the  prophet,  is 
represented  with  a  two-headed  eagle  over 
his  head  or  upon  his  shoulder,  referring 
to  his  petition  to  Elijah  for  a  double  por- 
tion of  his  spirit. 

EARL,  a  title  of  British  nobility,  be- 
tween a  marquis  and  a  viscount ;  now 
the  third  degree  of  rank.  William  tho 
Conqueror  first  made  this  title  hereditary, 
giving  it  in  fee  to  his  nobles,  and  allot- 
ting them  for  the  support  of  their  state 
the  third  penny  out  of  the  sheriff's  court, 
issuing  out  of  all  pleas  of  the  shire  whence 
they  had  their  title.  At  present  the  title 
is  accompanieil  by  no  territory,  private 
or  judicial  rights,  but  confers  nobility, 
and  an  hereditary  seat  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  In  official  instruments,  they  are 
called  by  the  king,  "  trusty  and  well-be- 
loved cousins,"  an  appellation  as  ancient 
as  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  For  some 
time  after  the  Norman  conquest  they 
were  called  counts,  and  their  wives  to  the 
present  day  are  styled  countesses. — The 
Earl's  coronet  has  no  flowers  raised 
above  the  circle,  like  that  of  a  duke  and 
a  marquis,  but  only  points  rising,  and  a 
pearl  on  each  of  them. 

EARL  MARSHAL  OF  ENGLAND,  a 
great  oflicer  who  had  anciently  several 
courts  under  his  jurisdiction,  as  tho 
court  of  chivalry,  and  the  court  of  honor. 
Under  him  is  also  the  herald's  office,  or  col- 
lege of  arms.  He  has  some  pre-eminence 
in  the  Marshalsea  court,  where  he  may 
sit  in  judgment  against  those  who  offend 
within  the  verge  of  the  king's  court 
This  office  is  of  great  antiquity  in  Eng- 
land, and  has  been  for  several  ages  he- 
reditary in  the  family  of  the  Howards. 

EARN'EST,  in  commercial  law,  money 
advanced  by  tho  buyer  of  goods,  to  bind 
the  seller  to  the  performance  of  a  verbal 
bargain. 

EARRING,  an  ornament  worn  at  the 
ear,  by  means  of  a  ring  passing  through 
the  lobe,  with  a  pendant  of  diamonds  or 


180 


CVCLOPEDI.V    OF    LIl'KRATURE 


[ear 


Fig.  1.  l''ig.  2.       pearls,    ic,    at- 

tached. This  or- 
nament ha.s  been 
■worn  by  both 
sexes,  from  the 
earliest  times,  in 
oriental  coun- 
tries, but  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  its  use  was 
confined  to  females.  It  was  usually  con- 
structed of  gold,  of  various  forms,  very 
finely  wrought,  and  set  with  pearls  and 
precious  stones.  The  ears  in  the  statue 
of  the  Medicean  Venus  and  other  statues 
are  pierced,  and  probably  were  at  one 
time  crnamcnted  with  ear-rings.  The 
cut  gives  examples  of  two  antique  ear- 
rings. Fig.  1  is  an  Egyptian  one  of  gold, 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  published  by 
Wilkinson.  Fig.  2  is  from  one  of  the 
Syracusan  medallions. 

EAKTH'QUAKE,  a  concussion  or  vi- 
bration of  the  ground,  usually  preceded 
by  a  rattling  sound  in  the  air,  or  by  a 
subterraneous  rumbling  noise  ;  and  some- 
times accompanied  by  rents,  and  by  shak- 
ing of  the  surface,  so  as  to  swallow  up 
towns  and  tracts  of  country.  At  one  time 
it  is  hardly  perceptible;  at  another,  it  is 
so  violent,  that  it  not  only  demolishes 
the  works  of  art,  but  changes  the  appear- 
ance of  the  ground  itself.  Sometimes  the 
surface  of  the  ground  remains  unbroken  ; 
sometimes  it  bursts  open  into  clefts  and 
chasms  ;  and  then  occasionally  appears 
the  phenomenon  of  the  eruption  of  gases, 
and  also  of  flames,  with  the  ejection  of 
Avater,  mud,  and  stones,  as  in  volcanic 
eruptions.  Volcanoes  are,  indeed,  only 
so  many  spiracles  serving  for  the  dis- 
charge of  this  subterranean  fire,  when  it 
is  thus  assembled ;  and  where  there  hap- 
pens to  be  such  a  structure  and  conform- 
ation of  the  interior  parts  of  the  earth, 
that  the  fire  may  pass  freely  and  without 
impediment  from  the  caverns  therein,  it 
gathers  into  these  spiracles,  anil  then 
readily  and  easily  gels  out  from  time  to 
time  without  shaking  or  disturbing  the 
earth :  but  where  a  communication  is 
wanting,  or  the  passages;  are  not  suffi- 
ciently large  and  open,  so  that  it  cannot 
come  at  these  spiracles,  without  first  forc- 
ing and  removing  all  obstacles,  it  heaves 
up  and  shakos  the  earth,  till  it  makes  its 
way  to  the  mouth  of  the  volcano ;  where 
it  rushes  forth,  sometimes  in  flames  of 
vast  volume  and  velocity.  Earthquakes 
arc  sometimes  confined  to  a  narrow  space, 
■which  is  properly  the  effect  of  the  re- 
action of  the  fire  ;  and  they  shako  the 
earth  just  as  the  explosion  of  a  powder- 


magazine  causes  a  sensible  concussion  at 
the  distance  of  several  leagues.  Theso 
observations  furnish  grounds  for  the  con- 
clusion, that  earthquakes  cannot  proceed 
from  external  causes,  but  arise  from  cer- 
tain powers  operating  within  the  circum- 
ference or  crust  of  the  earth.  The  sub- 
terranean, thunder-like  noises;  the  shak- 
ing, raising,  and  bursting  asunder  of  the 
earth  ;  the  emission  of  fire  and  flames, 
and  the  ejection  of  mineral  substances; 
all  occur,  occasionall3',  in  earthquakes  as 
well  as  in  volcanic  eruptions,  even  when 
at  a  distance  from  active  volcanoes.  All 
the  observations,  in  fact,  that  have  been 
made,  tend  to  prove,  that  earthquakes 
and  volcanic  eruptions  are  effects  of  the 
same  chemical  process,  (so  to  spe.ak.) 
which  must  have  its  seat  at  a  great 
depth  beneath  the  earth's  surface. 
There  is  no  portion  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, whether  it  be  land  or  water,  that  is 
not  more  or  less  subject  to  eiirthquakes ; 
and  records  of  their  destructive  efl^ects 
have  been  transmitted  to  us  through 
every  age.  The  first  earthquake  partic- 
ularly worthy  of  notice  was  that  which 
in  A.D.  63,  destroyed  Herculanenm  and 
Pompeii.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries, some  of  the  most  civilized  parts  of 
the  world  were  almost  desolated  by  these 
awful  visitations.  Thrace,  Syria,  and 
Asia  Minor,  according  to  contemporary 
historians,  suffered  most  severely  On 
the  26th  of  January,  a  d.  447,  subter- 
ranean thunders  were  heard  from  the 
Black  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  earth  w.as 
convulsed  without  intermission,  for  the 
space  of  six  months;  and  in  Phrygia, 
many  cities  and  large  tracts  of  ground 
were  swallowed  up.  On  the  30th  of  May, 
A.D.  205,  the  city  of  Antioch  was  over- 
whelmed by  a  (Ireadful  earthquake,  and 
2.50,000  of  its  inhabitants  are  said  to 
have  been  crushed  in  its  ruins.  In  the 
year  1346,  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  were 
violently  shaken  ;  and  in  the  following 
year  severe  earthquakes  were  experi- 
enced in  Cyprus,  Greece,  and  Italy. 
In  1692,  the  island  of  Jamaica  was  vis- 
ited by  a  terrible  earthquake,  in  which 
enormous  masses  of  earth  were  detached 
from  the  Blue  Mountains ;  and  vast 
quantities  of  timber,  hurled  from  their 
flanks,  covered  the  adjacent  sea  like  float 
ing  islands.  It  was  during  this  earth- 
quake that  the  city  of  Port  Royal,  with 
a  large  tract  of  adjacent  lanii,  s\ink  in- 
stantaneously into  the  sea.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  great  earthquakes  occurred 
in  Sicily,  which  destroyed  Oalania  and 
140  other  towns  and  villages,  with  100, OOC 


ear] 


AND    THE    FIXE    AUra. 


181 


of  their  inhabitants.  Since  tho  records 
of  history,  there  have  been  no  earth- 
quakes equal  in  intensity  to  those  which 
ravaged  dilVerent  jjarts  of  the  world  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  Pa.ssing  over 
the  convuLsiiin  which  in  ITlti  nearly  laid 
waste  Lower  Peru,  and  those  by  wliich 
in  1750  the  ancient  town  of  Concepcion, 
in  Chili,  was  totally  destroyed,  we  come  to 
1755,  wl)en  the  cilj'  of  Lisbon  was  almost 
wholly  destroyed  by  one  of  the  most  de- 
structive earthquakes  which  ever  occur- 
red in  Europe.  It  continued  only  si.x 
minutes  ;  but  such  was  the  violence  of 
the  convulsion,  that  in  that  short  space 
upwards  of  ()0,000  persons  are  said  to 
have  perished.  The  phenomena  that  ac- 
companied it  were  no  less  striking.  Tho 
sea  first  retired  and  laid  the  bar  dry;  it 
then  rolled  in,  rising  fifty  feet  or  more 
above  its  ordinary  level.  Tho  largest 
mountains  in  Portugal  were  impetuously 
shaken  from  their  very  foundations:  and 
some  of  them  opened  at  their  summits, 
which  were  split  and  rent  in  a  wonderful 
manner,  huge  masses  of  them  being 
thrown  down  into  the  subjacent  valleys. 
But  the  most  remarkable  circumstance 
which  occurred  in  Lisbon  during  this  ca- 
tastrophe was  the  entire  subsidence  of 
the  new  quay,  called  Cays  de  Prada,  to 
which  an  immense  concourse  of  people 
had  tie  1  for  safety  from  the  falling  ruins. 
From  this  hideous  abyss,  into  which  the 
quay  sunk,  not  one  of  the  dead  bodies 
ever  floated  to  the  surface ;  and  on  the 
spot  there  is  now  water  to  the  depth  of 
100  fathoms.  This  earthquake  excited 
great  attention  from  the  incredibly  great 
extent  at  which  contemporary  shocks 
were  experienced.  The  violence  of  the 
shocks,  which  were  accompanied  by  a 
terrific  subterranean  noise,  like  the  loud- 
est thunder,  was  chiefly  felt  in  Portugal, 
Spain,  and  northern  Africa  ;  but  the  ef- 
fects of  the  earthquake  were  perceived 
in  almost  all  ttie  countries  of  continental 
Europe,  and  wore  even  <'xperienced  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  on  the  Lake  On- 
tario in  North  America.  Ships  at  sea 
were  atfected  by  the  shocks  as  if  they  had 
struck  on  rocks :  and  even  on  some  of 
the  Scottish  lakes,  Loch  Lomond  in  par- 
ticular, the  water,  without  the  least  ap- 
parent cause,  rose  to  the  perpendicular 
height  of  two  feet  four  inches  against  its 
bank,  and  the-  subsided  below  its  usual 
level.  During  the  next  twenty  years, 
various  earthquakes  occurred  in  diff'erent 
parts  of  the  world,  attended  with  more 
or  less  destructive  consequences.  In 
1759,  Syria  was  agitated  by  violent  earth- 


quakes, the  shocks  of  which  were  pro- 
tracted for  three  months,  throughout  a 
space  of  10,000  square  leagues,  and  lev- 
elled to  the  ground  Accon,  Saphat,  Lal- 
beck,  Damascus,  Sidon,  Tripoli,  and  many 
other  places.  In  each  ot  these  places 
many  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  per- 
isheil ;  and  in  the  valley  of  Balbeck  alone, 
20,000  men  are  said  to  have  been  victims 
to  the  convulsion.  In  1766,  the  island 
of  Trinidad  and  great  part  of  Columbia 
were  violently  agitated  by  earthquakes 
In  1772,  the  lofty  volcano  of  Papanday 
ang,  the  highest  mountain  in  Java,  die 
appeared,  and  a  circumjacent  area,  fifteen 
miles  by  six,  was  swallowed  up.  In  1783, 
the  north-eastern  part  of  Sicily  and  the 
southern  portion  of  Calabria  were  con- 
vulsed by  violent  and  oft-repeated  shocks, 
which  overthrew  the  town  of  Messina, 
and  killed  many  thousands  of  its  inhab- 
itants, as  well  as  many  persons  in  Cala- 
bria. In  the  same  year,  the  islands  of 
Japan,  Java  in  1786,  Sicily  and  the  Ca- 
raccas  in  1790,  Quebec  in  1791,  and  the 
Antilles  and  Peru  in  1797,  were  violently 
agitated  by  convulsions  of  this  kind. 
Since  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  various  earthquakes  have  oc- 
curred both  in  the  Old  and  New  World. 
In  1811,  violent  earthquakes  shook  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi,  by  which  lakes 
of  considerable  extent  disappeared,  and 
new  ones  were  formed.  In  1812,  Carac- 
cas  was  destroyed,  and  upwards  of  12,000 
of  its  inhabitants  buried  in  the  ruins. 
In  1815,  the  town  of  Tombora,  in  the 
island  of  Sumbawa,  was  completely  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  which  extend- 
ed throughout  an  area  100  miles  in  dia- 
meter, and  destroyed  12,000  persons.  In 
1819,  a  violent  earthquake  occurred  at 
Cutch,  in  the  Delta  of  the  Indus,  by  which, 
among  other  disastrous  consequences,  the 
principal  town,  Bhoog,  was  converted 
into  a  heap  of  ruins.  In  1822,  Aleppo 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  In  the 
same  year  Chili  was  visited  by  a  most 
destructive  earthquake,  from  which  the 
coast  for  100  miles  is  stated  to  have  sus- 
tained an  elevation  of  from  two  to  four 
feet,  while  about  a  mile  inward  from  Val- 
paraiso, it  was  raised  from  six  to  seven 
feet.  In  1827,  Popayan  and  Bogota  suf- 
fered severely  from  earthquakes,  during 
which  vast  fissures  opened  in  the  elevat- 
ed plains  around  the  latter  city.  In  1835, 
the  town  of  Concejieion,  in  Cliili,  was  en- 
tirely demolished  by  an  earthquake.  In 
1837,  the  countries  along  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Mediterranean,  especially 
Syria,  were  violently  agitated  by  an  earth- 


182 


CYCLOrEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[eA3 


quake,  which  caused  great  damage  to  the 
towns  of  Damascus,  Acre,  Tyre,  and  Si- 
don,  and  entirel}'  destroyed  Tiberias  and 
Safet.  Such  are  some  of  the  most  vio- 
lent earthquakes  that  have  occurred  with- 
in the  period  of  authentic  history. 

EASEL,  an  apparatus  constructed  of 
wood,  upon  which  the  panel  or  canvas  is 
placed  while  a  picture  is  being  painted. 
Easel-Picture  is  a  term  employed  to 
designate  a  picture  of  small  dimensions, 


such  as  render  it  portable. — In  Christian 
Art,  St.  Luke  is  often  represented  sitting 
before  an  easel,  upon  which  is  a  portrait 
of  the  Virgin.  Our  cut  of  an  artist  of  the 
fifteenth  century  at  work  at  his  easel,  is 
from  a  beautiful  Illumination  in  the  fa- 
mous MS.  Ilomancc  of  the  Rose. 

EASE'MENT,  in  law.  a  privilege  or 
convenience  which  one  man  has  of  anoth- 
er, whether  by  charter  or  prescription, 
without  profit;  such  as  a  way  through 
his  lands,  &c. 

EAST,  one  of  the  four  cardinal  points 
of  the  world  ;  being  that  point  of  the  ho- 
*rizon  where  the  sun  is  seen  to  rise  when 
in  the  equator. — The  word  east  is  indefi- 
nitely used  when  we  speak  of  countries 
which  lie  eastward  of  us,  as  Persia,  India, 
China,  Ac. — In  Christian  churches,  which 
are  generally  built  east  and  west,  the 
chancel  stands  at  tlie  east  end,  with  an 
emblematic  reference  to  Christ,  who  is 
called  the  Sun  of  righteousness  and  the 
Day-spring. 

EAS'TER,  a  solemn  festival  observed 
among  Christians,  in  commemoration  of 
Christ's   re.'-urroelion.      The  Greeks  and 


Latins  call  it  pascJia ;  a  Hebrew  word, 
applied  to  the  Jewisii  feast  of  the  pass- 
over,  to  which  the  Christian  festival  of 
Easter  corresponds.  Thus,  St.  Paul  says  7 
"  For  even  Christ  our  pa.ssover  is  sacri- 
ficed for  us."  This  feast  was  fi.\ed  by  the 
council  of  Nice,  in  the  year  32.5,  to  be 
held  on  the  Sunday  which  falls  upon  or 
immediately  after  the  full  moon  which 
happens  next  after  the  twenty-first  of 
March ;  and  as  such  it  stands  in  the  ru- 
bric of  the  church  of  England. — The  En- 
glish name  Easter,  and  the  German  Os- 
terti,  are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  tlio 
name  of  the  feast  of  the  Teutonic  goddess 
Ostera,  celebrated  by  the  ancient  Saxons 
early  in  the  spring,  and  for  which,  as  in 
many  other  instances,  the  first  mission- 
aries wisely  substituted  the  Christian  fes- 
tival. 

E  AST'ERLING,  a  coin  struck  by  Rich- 
ard If.,  which  is  supposed  to  have  given 
rise  to  the  name  of  sterling,  as  applied 
to  English  money. 

EAST'ER-OFTERINGS,  or  Easter- 
dues,  small  sums  of  money  paid  to  the 
parochial  clergyman  bv  the  parishioners. 

EAST-INDIA  COMPANY,  '^  the  Gov- 
ernor and  company  of  Merchants  of  Lon- 
don trailing  to  the  East  Indies,"  the  most 
celebrated  commercial  association  either 
of  ancient  or  modern  times,  which  has 
extended  its  sway  over  the  whole  of  the 
Mogul  empire,  was  incorporated  about 
the  42d  of  queen  Elizabeth,  a.d.  1600, 
and  empowered  to  trade  to  countries  to 
the  eastward  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
exclusive  of  all  others.  A  variety  of 
causes  had  been  long  operating  in  favor 
of  such  an  incorporation.  Several  very 
valuable  East  India  ships  had  been  taken 
from  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  by 
the  English  fleets,  and  awakened  the  cu- 
pidity of  merchants  to  the  obtaining  a 
share  in  a  traffic  which  promised  such 
great  advantages.  At  length,  in  1593, 
an  armament  fitted  out  for  the  East  In- 
dies by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  com- 
manded by  Sir  John  Borroughs,  fell  in 
with,  near  the  Azores,' the  largest  of  all 
the  Portuguese  carracks.  a  ship  of  1600 
tons  burden  carrying  700  men  and  36 
brass  cannon ;  and,  after  an  obstinate 
conflict,  carried  her  into  Dartmouth. 
She  was  the  largest  vessel  that  had  been 
seen  in  England ;  and  her  cargo,  consist- 
ing of  gold,  spices,  calicoes,  silks,  pearls, 
drugs,  porcelain,  ivory,  Ac,  e.xcited  the 
ardor  of  the  English  to  engage  in  so  opu- 
lent a  commerce.  About  the  year  1698, 
application  being  made  to  parliament  by 
private  merchants,  for  laying  this  trade 


ECC] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


183 


open,  an  act  pai;seJ  empowering  every 
subject  of  Englantl,  upon  raising  a  sum 
of  money,  for  tlie  supply  of  the  govern- 
ment, to  trade  to  thos'o  parts.  A  groat 
subscription  was  accordingly  raised,  and 
the  subscribers  were  styled  the  New  East- 
India  Company  ;  but  the  old  establish- 
ment being  in  possession  of  all  the  forts 
on  the  coast  of  India,  the  new  one  found 
it  its  interest  to  unite  ;  and  both,  trading 
with  one  joint  stock,  have  ever  since  been 
known  under  one  name,  viz.  The  United 
East-India  Company.  Many  and  se- 
vere have  been  the  contests  between  the 
advocates  of  a  free  trade  to  India,  and 
the  friends  of  the  "  incorporated  com- 
pany ;"  but  at  length  the  long-supported 
monopoly  of  that  powerful  body  yielded 
to  an  act  of  Parliament  passed  in  1833, 
for  continuing  the  charter  till  1854, 
which,  in  fact,  has  put  a  limit  to  the  Com- 
pany's commercial  character,  by  enact- 
ing that  its  trade  to  China  was  to  cease 
on  the  22d  of  April,  1834,  and  that  the 
Company  was,  as  soon  as  possible  after 
that  date,  to  dispose  of  their  stocks  on 
hand,  and  close  their  commercial  busi- 
ness. The  functions  of  the  East-India 
Company  are  now,  therefore,  wholly  po- 
litical. She  is  to  continue  to  govern  In- 
dia, with  the  concurrence  and  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Board  of  Control,  till 
the  30th  of  April,  18.54. 

EAVES,  in  architecture,  the  lowest 
edges  of  the  inclined  sides  of  a  roof 
which  project  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall 
so  a>s  to  throw  the  water  off  therefrom, 
that  being  their  office. 

EAVES'-DROPPER,  one  who  skulks 
under  the  eaves  of  houses,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  listening  to  what  passes  within. 

E'BIONITES,  an  ancient  sect  who 
believed  in  Christ  as  an  inspired  messen- 
ger of  God,  but  considered  him  to  be  0,1 
the  same  time  a  mere  man,  born  of  Jo- 
seph and  Mary.  They  maintained  also 
the  universal  obligation  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  ami  rejected  the  authority  of  St. 
Paul.  The  origin  of  their  name  is  un- 
certain, some  deriving  it  from  that  of  their 
supposed  founder  ;  others  deduce  it  from 
a  Hebrew  word  .--ignifying  ^oor,  and  sup- 
pose the  title  to  be  given  to  them  in  ref- 
erence either  to  the  poverty  of  the  class 
to  which  they  mostly  belonged,  or  to  the 
meanness  of  their  doctrine. 

EIJ'ONY,  a  hard,  heavy,  durable, 
black  wood,  which  a<lmits  of  a  fine  polish. 
It  is  the  wood  of  the  eben  tree,  which 
grows  in  India,  Madagascar,  Ceylon,  and 
the  Mauritius.  It  is  wrought  into  toys, 
and  used  for  mosaic  and  inlaiil  work. 


EBOU'LExMENT,  in  fortification,  the 
crumbling  or  falling  away  of  a  wall  or 
rampart. 

EBULLI'TION,  either  the  operation 
of  boiling,  or  the  effervescence  which 
arises  from  the  mixture  of  an  acid  and  an 
alkaline  liquor. 

EC'BASiS,  in  rhetoric,  those  parts  of 
the  proemium,  in  which  the  orator  treat.s 
of  things  according  to  their  events  or 
consequences. 

EC  BOLE,  in  rhetoric,  a  digression 
whereby  the  speaker  introduces  some 
other  person  speaking  in  his  own  words. 

EC'CE  HO'MO,  (Latin;)  '^Behold  the 
man !"  a  painting  which  represents  our 
Saviour,  with  a  crown  of  thorns  on  his 
head,  given  up  to  the  people  by  Pilate. 
The  title  of  it  is  taken  from  Pilate's  ex- 
clamation, John  xix.  5. 

ECCLE'SIA,  in  ancient  history,  the 
great  assembly  of  the  Athenian  people, 
at  which  every  free  citizen  might  attend 
and  vote.  This  assembly,  though  nomi- 
nally possessed  of  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  state  from  the  earliest  times,  yet 
having  no  fi.\ed  times  of  meeting,  was 
but  seldom  convened  at  all  ;  so  that  the 
archons,  who  were  elected  from  the  body 
of  nobles  or  eupatridaa,  had  virtually  the 
whole  management  of  the  state.  But  the 
regulations  of  Solon,  which  appointed  it 
to  meet  regularly  four  times  in  every 
period  of  thirty-five  days,  besides  extraor- 
dinary occasions  on  which  it  might  be 
convened,  called  it  into  active  energy. 
Solon,  however,  restricted  the  subjects 
discussed  in  the  Ecclesia  to  such  as  had 
before  passed  through  the  senate  of  five 
hundred  ;  but  when  the  democratic  spirit 
of  after-  times  prevailed,  this  rule  was  not 
at  all  strictly  observed.  The  magistrates 
who  had  the  management  of  these  as- 
semblies were  the  Prytanes,  the  Prohe- 
dri.  and  Epistates.  The  first  of  these 
sometimes  convened  the  people,  and  hung 
up  in  a  conspicuous  place  a  programme 
giving  iin  account  of  the  matters  to  be 
discussed.  The  Prohedri  proposed  to 
the  people  the  subjects  on  which  they 
were  to  decide,  and  counted  the  votes. 
The  Epistate,  who  presided  over  the 
whole,  gave  the  liberty  of  voting,  which 
might  not  be  done  before  his  signal  was 
given.  The  forms  of  their  proceedings 
were  as  follow  :  — First,  an  expiatory 
victim  was  sacrificed,  and  his  blood  car- 
ried and  sprinkled  round  the  bounds  of 
the  assembly.  Then  the  public  crier  de- 
manded silence,  and  invited  all  persons 
above  fifty  j'ears  of  age  to  speak  ;  after 
that,  any  one  who  pleased.      After  tha 


184 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[ech 


Bubjeot  was  discussed,  they  proceeded  to 
vote  on  the  crier's  deinanding  of  them, 
"  wliether  they  would  consent  to  the  de- 
cree proposed  to  them  .'''  The  votes  were 
commonly  given  by  show  of  hands,  but 
on  some  occasions  by  ballot.  When  the 
suffrages  had  been  examined  and  their 
numbers  declared,  the  Prytanes  dissolved 
the  assembly.  In  order  to  incite  the 
people  to  attend  the  Ecclesia,  a  small 
pay  of  one  or  three  oboli  was  given  for 
early  appearance  ;  and  a  rope,  rubbed 
with  vermilion,  was  carried  through  the 
agora,  to  mark  such  as  lagged  behind, 
who  were  accordingly  fined. 

ECCLESIAS'TES,  one  of  the  canon- 
ical books  of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called 
from  the  Greek  word  signifying  a  preach- 
er Solomon  is  generally  supposed  te  be 
the  author  of  this  book,  though  various 
opinions  havo  been  entertained  on  the 
subject;  and  indeed  the  whole  question 
of  its  author,  date,  and  design  is  involved 
in  such  difficulty,  that  the  labors  of 
critics  and  commentators  serve  rather  to 
perplex  than  to  assist  the  inquirer. 

ECCLESIAS'TIC,  something  per- 
taining to  or  set  apart  for  the  church  :  in 
contradistinction  to  civil  or  secular,  which 
regards  the  world.  Ecclesiastics  are  per- 
sons whose  functions  consist  in  perform- 
ing the  service  or  in  maintaining  the  dis- 
cijjline  of  the  church. 

ECCLESIAS'TICUS.  an  apocryphal 
book  of  Scripture ;  so  called  from  its 
being  read  in  the  church,  (ecclesia,)  as 
a  book  of  piety  and  instruction,  but  not 
of  infallible  authority.  The  author  of 
this  book  was  a  Jew,  called  Jesus  the  son 
of  Sirach.  The  Greeks  call  it  the  wisdom 
of  the  son  of  Sirach.  It  was  originally 
written  in  Syro  Chaldaic,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  meditations  relating  to  religion 
and  the  general  conduct  of  human  life. 
It  di.splays  but  little  regard  for  method- 
ical arrangement ;  but  the  style  is  so 
highly  poetical,  and  the  sentiments  so 
profound,  that  Addison  has  pronounced 
it  one  of  the  most  brilliant  moral  trea- 
tises on  record. 

E'OIIEA,  in  aneient  architecture,  so- 
norous vases  of  metal  or  earth  in  the 
form  of  a  bell,  used  in  the  construction  of 
theatres  for  the  purpose  of  reverberating 
the  sound  of  tlie  ])erformer's  voice.  They 
were  distributed  between  the  scats  ;  and 
are  described  in  the  fifth  book  ofVitru- 
vius,  who  states  that  jNIummius  intro- 
duced them  in  Rome,  after  the  taking  of 
Corinth,  where  ho  found  this  expedient 
used  in  the  theatre. 

ECHELON',  a  term  in  military  tactics 


borrowed  from  the  French,  s'lgnifying  the 
position  of  an  army  with  one  division 
more  advanced  than  another,  somewhat 
like  the  steps  of  a  ladder.  A  battalion, 
regiment  &c.,  marches  en  echelon,  if  tho 
divisions  of  which  it  is  composed  do  not 
march  in  one  line,  but  on  parallel  lines. 
The  divisions  are  not  exactly  behind  each 
other,  but  each  is  to  the  right  or  left  of 
the  one  preceding,  so  as  to  give  the  whole 
the  appearance  of  a  stairway.  This  or- 
der is  used  if  the  commander  wishes  to 
bring  one  part  of  a  mass  into  action,  and 
to  reserve  the  other.  The  word  liUrally 
means  a  ladder  or  stairway. 

ECIIID'NA,  in  Grecian  mythology,  tho 
daughter  of  Geryon  and  the  sea-nymph 
Callirhoe,  or  of  Tartarus  and  Gaia;  a 
monster  that  devoured  travellers:  parents, 
according  to  Hesiod,  of  thoso  well-known 
terrors  of  ancient  Greece,— Cerberus,  the 
Hydra,  the  Sphinx,  and  the  Nemean  lion. 
Hence  some  suppose  the  name  to  repre- 
sent a  sort  of  general  type  of  monsters 
and  terrifio  phenomena. 

ECIII'NUS.  the  "egg  and  tongue"  or 
"  egg  and  anchor"  ornament,  frequently 
met  with  in  classical  architecture,  carved 


on  the  ovolo.  The  type  of  this  ornament 
is  considered  to  be  derived  from  the  chest- 
nut and  shell. 

ECH'O,  a  sound  reflected  or  reverber- 
ated from  some  hard  surface,  and  thence 
returned  or  repeated  to  the  car.  As  the 
undulatory  motion  of  the  air,  which  con- 
stitutes sound,  is  propagated  in  all  direc- 
tions from  the  sounding  body,  it  will  fre- 
quently happen  that  the  air,  in  perform- 
ing its  vibrations,  will  impinge  against 
various  objects,  which  will  reflect  it  back, 
and  so  cause  new  vibrations  the  contrary 
way  ;  now  if  the  objects  arc  so  situated  as 
to  reflect  a  sufficient  number  of  vibra- 
tions back,  viz.,  such  as  proceed  dilTercnt 
ways,  to  the  same  place,  the  second  will 
be  there  repeated,  and  is  called  an  eclio ; 
and  the  greater  the  distance  of  the  object 
is,  the  longer  will  be  the  time  before  tho 
repetition  is  heard  :  and  when  the  sound, 
in  its  progress,  meets  with  objects  at  dif- 
ferent distances,  s ufticient  to  produce  an 
echo,  the  same  sound  will  be  repeated 
several  times  successively,  according  to 
the  different  distances  of  these  objecta 
from   the   sounding  body,   which   makei 


ecl] 


AND    'iIlK     FINK     ARTS. 


185 


■what  is  called  a  repeated  echo.  Echoes 
are  not,  however,  ciiusod  by  a  mere  re- 
pulsion of  the  sonorous  particles  of  air, 
for  tiien  every  hard  substances  would  pro- 
duce an  echo  ;  but  it  is  supi)Osed  to  re- 
quire a  certain  dcfijree  of  concavity  in  the 
repelling  body,  wliich  collects  several  di- 
verging lines  of  sound,  and  concentrates 
them  in  the  place  where  the  echo  is  audi- 
ble, or,  at  least,  reflects  them  in  parallel 
lines,  without  weakening  the  sound,  as  a 
concave  mirror  collects  in  a  focus  the  di- 
verging rays  of  light,  or  sometimes  sends 
them  back  jiarallel.  The  celebrated  echo 
at  Woodstock,  in  Oxfordshire,  repeats  the 
same  sound  fifty  times.  But  the  most 
singular  echo  is  that  near  llosneath,  a 
few  miles  from  Glasgow.  If  a  person 
placed  at  a  proper  distance  from  this  echo 
plays  eight  or  ten  notes  of  a  tune  with  a 
trumpet,  they  are  correctly  repeated  by 
the  echo,  but  a  third  lower  ;  after  a  short 
pause,  another  repetition  is  heard,  in  a 
lower  tone  ;  and  then,  after  another  in- 
terval, a  third  repetition  follows  in  a  still 
lower  tone. — Eclw,  in  architecture,  any 
vault  or  arch  constructed  so  as  to  produce 
an  artificial  echo.  These  are  generally 
of  a  parabolic  or  elliptic  form  ;  of  this 
kind  is  the  whispering-gallery  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral. — J^cho,  in  poetry,  a  sort 
of  verse  which  returns  the  sound  of  the 
last  syllable,  the  elegance  of  which  con- 
sists in  giving  a  new  sense  to  the  last 
■words. 

ECHOM'ETER,  among  musicians,  a 
kind  of  scale  or  rule,  serving  to  measure 
the  duration  and  length  of  sounds,  and  to 
find  their  intervals  and  ratios. 

ECLAIIl'CIS.SEMENT,  the  clearing 
\vp  of  anything  not  before  understood. 

ECLAT',  (French,)  aburst  of  applause  ; 
renown  or  approbation  following  some  ac- 
tion or  event. 

ECLEC  TICS,  those  philosophers  who, 
■without  attaching  themselves  to  any  par- 
ticular sect,  select  whatever  appears  to 
them  the  best  and  most  rational  from 
each. — The  Kclcctics  were  a  sect  of  (J  reek 
■philosojihers  who  endeavored  to  mould 
the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras  a^nd  Plato, 
and  bknid  them  with  the  theology  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  tenets  of  Zoroaster. 
Tliey  borrowed  many  of  the  principal 
truths  of  Christianity  from  the  cateclietic 
Fchool  of  Ale.Kiiiidri:i.,^-ind  blending  these 
with  the  mysticism  of  I'ythiigoras,  the  er- 
rors of  Plato,  and  the  superstition  of 
Egypt,  they  hoped  to  reconcile  the  Chris- 
tians and  Pagans  to  the  same  opinions. 
An  eclectic  spirit,  it  is  evident,  can  only 
arise  at  a  period  of  some  maturity  in  phil- 


osopliical  speculati(m.  AVhethcr  or  not 
it  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  evidence  of  the 
decay  of  original  power  in  the  age  in 
wliich  it  appears,  must  depend  on  the  less 
or  greater  coherence  in  the  system  when 
completed.  In  one  sense  of  the  word, 
Plato  and  Aristotle  may  be  regarded  as 
eclectics.  They  both  availed  themselves 
largely  of  the  labors  of  their  predecessors. 
Plato,  in  particular,  comprehended  in  hia 
scheme  of  philosophy  the  whole  of  more 
than  one  foregoing  system ;  as  the  doc- 
trine of  Ileraclitus  of  the  perpetual  flux 
of  sensible  objects,  and  the  consequent 
uncertainty  of  sensible  impressions.  But 
in  the  hands  of  these  great  thinkers  the 
discerpta  membra  are  reunited,  and  en- 
dued with  a  principle  of  vitality  as  con- 
stituent parts  of  a  harmonious'  whole 
The  same  cannot  be  said  of  others  who 
have  ado|ited  a  similar  method  ;  especial- 
ly of  most  of  those  to  whom  the  term 
eclectic  has  been  more  particularly  ap- 
plied. A  far  more  favorable  specimen  of 
the  eclectic  spirit  has  been  afforded  us  in 
modern  times  in  the  person  of  M.  Victor 
Cousin,  without  doubt  the  most  able  and 
ingenious  thinker  of  modern  France.  See 
his  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Philoso- 
phij,  in  which  eclecticism  is  presented  un- 
der its  fairest  guise,  and  vindicated  with 
the  utmost  vigor  of  style  and  acuteness  of 
thought. 

EC'LOGUE,  in  the  original  meaning 
of  the  word,  the  select  or  choice  pieces  of 
an  author ;  or  extracts  collected  out  of 
former  works,  such  as  were  termed  in 
Latin  e.vcerpta.  It  is  not  known  how 
this  title  was  originally  given  to  the  pas- 
toral poems  of  Virgil ;  but  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  their  being  so  named,  the 
word  eclogue  in  modern  usage  is  applied 
to  that  species  of  poetry.  The  persons 
who  are  introduced  conversing  in  ec- 
logues, or  whose  adventures  are  recounted 
in  them,  are  shepherds ;  that  is,  for  the 
most  part,  imaginary  personages,  whose 
sentiments,  and  the  external  circum- 
stances among  which  they  live,  belong 
rather  to  an  ideal  ago  of  gold  than  to  the 
realities  of  modern  life;  and  their  loves 
constitute  the  main  and  proper  subjects 
of  the  eclogue.  Nevertheless  various 
writers  have  endeavored,  but  with  little 
success,  to  give  an  air  of  greater  reality 
to  pastoral  poetry,  and  give  their  rustics 
more  of  the  costume  and  diction  of  actual 
clowns ;  but  the  result  has  been  a  species 
of  burlesque,  not  at  all  answering  to  our 
conceptions  of  pastoral  poetrj';  nor  can 
we  easily  imagine  that  the  personages  of 
Theocritus,    although   the    ear'iest    an 


186 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LMERATURE 


[edi 


therefore  the  simplest  of  pastoral  poets, 
are  correct  reseinbliinces  of  the  Sicilian 
rustics  among  whom  the  writer  lived. 
The  eclogues  of  Virgil  are  of  various  de- 
scriptions :  some  of  them  only  have  the 
true  character  of  pastorals  ;  others  con- 
tain occasional  poems  on  public  and  pri- 
vate events  of  that  day,  very  slightly 
enveloped  in  the  pastoral  costume.  The 
characteristics  of  this  species  of  poetry, 
as  assumed  by  the  moderns,  are,  first,  the 
representation  of  nature  in  soft  and  quiet 
scenes  of  cultivation;  secondly,  a  slightly 
dramatic  turn  either  of  action  or  narra- 
tion ;  thirdly,  characters  whose  senti- 
ments and  language  are  confined  within 
certain  peculiar  limits ;  thus,  any  strong 
emotion,  virtue,  or  vice,  would  be  an 
unfit  topic  for  a  pastoral  poet  to  dwell 
upon.  In  English  literature,  Spenser, 
PhiliiJS,  and  a  few  others,  may  be  named 
as  pastoral  poets  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word ;  others,  as  Milton  in  his  Lyci- 
das,  have  assumed  the  pastoral  costume 
in  order  to  convey  a  very  different  class 
of  ideas.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
this  species  of  composition  is  among 
those  which  have  wholly  disappeared  in 
the  present  day  :  the  English  have  had 
no  pastoral  poet  since  Gay  and  Collins  ; 
and  Gesner,  in  Germany,  is  the  latest 
author  who  has  acquired  any  degree  of 
celebrity  in  this  line. 

ECON'OMY,  the  frugal  expenditure 
of  money,  with  the  prudent  management 
of  all  the  means  by  which  property  is 
saved  or  accumulated.  It  also  means,  a 
judicious  application  of  time  and  labor. 
In  a  tnore  extended  sense,  it  denotes  the 
regulation  and  disposition  of  the  affairs 
of  a  state  or  nation,  which  is  called  polit- 
ical economy.  And  it  is  likewise  applied 
to  the  regular  operations  of  nature  in 
the  generation,  nutrition,  and  preserva- 
tion of  animals  or  plants;  as,  animal 
economy,  vegetable  economy.    . 

ECOlCCHEE,  (Anatomical  Fig- 
ure,) this  convenient  word,  for  which 
we  have  no  equivalent  in  our  language, 
signifies  the  subject,  man  or  animal, 
Jlayed,  deprived  of  its  skin,  so  that  the 
muscular  system  is  exposed  for  the  pur- 
poses of  study.  The  word  skeleton  is 
limited  in  its  application  to  the  bony 
structure.  The  study  of  the  muscular 
system  is  one  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  the  artist.  The  difiieulties  in  the  way 
of  studying  the  dead  subject  arc  so  great, 
that  it  has  been  found  nece.<sary  to  con- 
struct models  in  pajiicr-mdchc  or  plaster, 
in  which  the  prominent  muscles  are  ex- 
hibited and  colored  after  nature,  which 


are  used  in    academies   and   schools  by 
students. 

ECPHOXE'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  a^figure 
of  speech  used  by  an  orator  to  give  utter- 
ance to  the  warmth  of  his  feelings. 

EC.vTASY,  that  state  of  the  mind  in 
which  the  functions  of  the  senses  b.-'e 
either  suspended  or  transported  with  rap 
tures,  by  the  contemplation  of  some  ex- 
traordinary object. — in  medicine,  a  spe 
cies  of  catalepsy,  when  the  person  re- 
members, after  the  paroxysm  is  over,  the 
ideas  he  had  during  the  fit. 

EC  ST  AT 'I  CI,  a  sort  of  diviners 
amongst  the  Greeks,  who  for  a  considera- 
ble time  lay  in  trances,  deprived  of  all 
sense  and  motion,  but  when  they  return- 
ed to  their  former  state,  gave  strango 
accounts  of  what  they  had  seen  aj?i 
heard  during  their  absence  from  the  body. 

EC  TYPE,  a  word  sometimes  used  by 
antiquarians,  signifying  on  impression  of 
a  medal,  seal,  or  ring,  or  a  figured  copy 
of  an  inscription  or  other  ancient  monu- 
ment. 

ED'DA,  the  ancient  collection  of  Scan- 
dinavian poetry  in  which  the  national 
mythology  is  contained.  There  are  two 
Eddas  :  the  older  is  believed  to  have  been 
reduced  to  writing,  from  oral  tradition, 
in  Iceland,  between  a.d.  1050  and  1133. 
It  was  recovered  and  ])ul)lished  in  Den- 
mark in  164^.  The  new  Edda,  supposed 
to  have  been  composed  200  years  after 
the  former,  is  an  abridgment  of  it,  with 
a  new  arrangement  of  its  parts.  It  was 
translated  by  Resenius  in  1640,  and  is 
thence  called  the  Resenian  Edda.  The 
authenticity  of  these  monuments  of  an 
early  age  has  been  doubted  in  recent 
times,  but  the  latest  researches  of  critics 
(the  brothers  Grimm  and  others)  seem  to 
go  far  towards  establishing  it. 

E'DICT,  an  order  issued  by  a  prince  to 
his  subjects,  as  a  rule  or  law  requiring 
obedience.  In  Roman  history  we  fre- 
quently meet  with  the  edicts  of  the  em- 
perors and  the  edicts  of  the  privtors,  con- 
taining notices  to  the  people  in  what 
manner  they  intended  to  execute  the 
laws. — Edictum  perpetuiim  was  a  col- 
lection of  all  the  laws  which  had  been 
yearly  published  by  the  pr»tors  in  their 
edicts.  It  was  so  called  because  it  was 
intended  to  continue  in  force  forever,  and 
serve  as  a  guide  ai^d  rule  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  throughout  the  empire. 
— The  Edict  of  Milan  was  a  proclama- 
tion issued  by  Constantine  after  the  con- 
quest of  Italy,  A.D.  313,  to  secure  to 
the  Christians  the  restitution  of  their 
civil  and  religious  rites,  of  which  they 


EDU] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


187 


had  long  been  deprived,  and  to  establish 
throughout  his  extended  dominions  the 
princp'es  of  a  wise  and  enlightened  tol- 
eration. The  most  famous  edict  of  mod- 
ern hif'torj'  is  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  issued 
by  Henry  IV.  in  1.598,  to  secure  to  the 
Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion. This  act,  after  continuing  in 
force  nearly  a  century,  was  repealed  by 
Louis  XIV. ;  and,  as  is  well  known,  its 
revocation  led  to  a  renewal  of  the  perse- 
cutions and  bloody  scones  which  previ- 
ously to  the  issuing  of  this  edict  had 
been  enacted  against  the  Protestants. 
The  depopulation  caused  by  the  sword 
was  also  increased  bj- emigration.  Above 
half  a  million  of  her  most  useful  and  in- 
dustrious subjects  deserted  France,  and 
exported,  together  with  immense  sums 
of  money,  those  arts  and  manufactures 
which  had  chiefly  tended  to  enrich  the 
kingdom.  About  50,000  refugees  passed 
over  into  England ;  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  their  representations  of 
the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  King  of 
France  tended  to  excite  the  suspicions  of 
the  English  against  their  own  Roman 
Catholic  sovereign,  and  in  some  degree 
accelerated  the  advent  of  the  Revolution 
of  1688.  In  the  French  law,  the  term 
edict  has  a  wide  signification,  being  ap- 
plied equally  to  the  most  momentous  and 
the  most  trifling  proclamations  of  the 
government. 

EDITIOX,  means  simply  the  (indefi- 
nite) number  of  copies  of  a  work  printed 
at  one  time,  before  the  types  are  distrib- 
uted by  the  compositor.  Any  one  who 
prepares  for  publication  the  writings  of 
another  is  said  to  edit  them,  and  is  called 
the  editor.  In  literary  language,  since 
the  invention  of  printing,  the  editor  of  a 
work  revises,  adds  notes,  prepares  for 
the  press,  Ac,  <tc.  :  the  publisher  is  the 
bookseller  who  negotiates  the  sale  of  the 
impression.  Sometimes  (but  especially 
in  classical  works)  the  edition  goes  gen- 
erally by  the  name  of  the  printer  or  pub- 
lisher, sometimes  by  that  of  the  editor. 
Thus,  we  have  the  Aldine  and  Elzevir 
Classics,  <tc.,  the  houses  of  Aldus  and  El- 
zevir having  been  concerned  both  in 
printing  and  publishing  ;  while  Bentley's 
Horace,  Heyne^s  Homer,  Ac,  are  so  de- 
nominated from  the  name  of  the  editor. 
In  bibliographical  works,  editio  princeps 
signifies  the  earliest  printed  edition  of  an 
author  ;  editio  optima,  that  which  is 
generally  regarded  as  the  best.  Ac. 

ED'ITORS,  are  of  different  species  : — 
1.  Those  who  uiorely  republish  a  text,  or 
content    themselves   with    aiding    notes 


and  commentaries  to  it.  2.  Those  who 
superintend  the  publication  of  a  work,  re- 
ceiving the  manuscripts  from  one  or 
more  contributors  ;  seeing  that  the  ob- 
ject of  the  work  is  attained,  that  the 
language  is  correct,  the  illustrations  ap- 
propriate, and  the  facts  accurately 
stated,  and  that  all  the  parts  of  the 
work  are  properly  adjusted  and  made 
subordinate  to  each  other.  3.  Those  who 
furnish  the  most  important  matter,  ami 
superintend  the  literary  arrangements  of 
a  newspaper  or  other  periodical  publica- 
tion. 

EDUCA'TION.  in  its  most  extended 
signification,  may  be  defined,  in  reference 
to  man,  to  be  *.^b  art  of  developing  and 
cultivating  the  various  physical,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  faculties  ;  and  may 
thence  be  divided  into  three  branches — 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  educa- 
tion. This  definition  is  by  no  means  com- 
plete ;  but  it  is  used  merely  as  indica- 
tive of  the  manner  in  which  this  subject 
has  generally  been  discussed.  Under 
physical  education  is  included  all  that 
relates  to  the  organs  of  sensation,  and 
the  muscular  and  nervous  system.  Intel- 
lectual education  comprehends  the  means 
by  which  the  powers  of  the  understanding 
are  to  be  developed  and  improved,  and  a 
view  of  the  various  branches  of  /knowledge 
which  form  the  objects  of  instruction  of 
the  three  departments  into  which  wc 
have  divided  education.  JNIoral  educa- 
tion embraces  the  various  methods  of 
cultivating  and  regulating  the  afiFections 
of  the  heart.  The  influence  which  edu- 
cation has  exercised  in  humanizing  the 
world  is  universallj'  acknowledged.  Its 
importance  has  been  recognized  by  phi- 
losophers and  legislators  in  every  age ; 
and  by  all  the  nations,  both  of  antiquity 
and  modern  times,  which  have  become 
distinguished  in  history,  it  has  been  re- 
garded as  the  chief  element  in  the  at- 
tainment and  promotion  of  civilization. 
The  reader  will  find,  in  the  writings  of 
Plato,  Plutarch,  and  Quintilian,  among 
the  ancients,  and  in  modern  times  of 
Locke,  Rousseau,  Basedow,  Niemeyer, 
Rehberg,  Cousin,  Ac,  a  view  of  the  chief 
systems  that  have  been  proposed  or 
adopted  in  reference  to  this  subject. — 
Education  in  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
education  of  youth  was  strictly  attended 
to  both  among.st  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Their  minds  and  bodies  were  improved 
at  the  same  time  ;  their  minds  by  every 
necessary  branch  of  knowledge  and 
learning,  and  their  bodies  by  the  manly 
exercises  of  the  Campus  Martius,  or  pri- 


188 


CVCLOTEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[f.is 


vate  contests  and  trials  of  skill,  agility, 
and  strength.  It  was  the  chief  aim  of 
the  Eoinans,  as  well  as  Grecians,  to 
make  them  shine  in  the  senate  and  in 
the  tield,  at  the  forum  and  the  public 
games.  Oratory  was  an  object  which 
tiie_v  kept  con.«tantl3'  in  view  ;  and  what- 
ever was  their  destination,  they  endeav- 
oured to  acquire  the  arts  of  elocution  and 
a  habit  of  fluent  reasoning.  Lacedtemon 
trained  her  hardy  sons  to  despise  danger, 
endure  fatigue,  and  seem  insensible  of 
pain — to  maintain  their  honor  unstained, 
to  love  their  country,  and  hold  in  con- 
tempt riches,  and  all  that  train  of  ener- 
vating pleasures  which  are  the  com- 
panions of  affluence.  So  far  all  this  was 
meritorious  in  a  high  degree  ;  but  how 
circumscribed  must  the  space  have  been 
which  was  then  allowed  for  intellectual 
exertion,  when  the  whole  world  of  science 
was  a  terra  incognita. 

EDMUND  St.  an  Anglo-Saxon  king, 
who  in  870  fell  a  victim  to  the  Danes,  by 
whom  England  was  invaded.  He  was  ta- 
ken prisoner,  scourged,  bound  to  a  tree, 
then  killed  by  arrows  ;  wherefore  he,  like 
St.  Sebastian,  is  represented  as  tied  to  a 
tree,  with  an  arrow  in  his  breast,  but 
bearing  a  crown.  The  sword,  which  is 
also  one  of  his  attributes,  refers  to  the 
legend,  that  he  was  afterwards  beheaded. 
As  St.  Edmund  does  not  always  wear  the 
insignia  of  royalty,  his  picture  is  often 
mistaken  for  that  of  St.  Sebastian ;  but 
the  beard  on  the  upper  lip,  denoting 
military  rank,  is  the  attribute  solely  of 
the  latter. 

EDWARD,  THE  Confessor,  an  Eng- 
lish king,  who  died  a.d.  1066,  is  repre- 
sented in  royal  garments,  and  with  the 
symbols  of  Justice,  a  Mace,  and  also  his 
Book  of  Laws,  lie  sometimes  bears  a 
sick  person,  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
healed  by  carrying  him  into  a  church. 

EDWARD,  THE  ^Iartyr,  a  king  of 
England.  He  was  stabbed  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  stepmother,  while  in  the  act 
of  drinking,  a.d.  978.  Ilis  attributes  are, 
a  goblet,  a  dagger,  and  the  insignia  of 
royalty. 

EFFECT',  the  consequence  of  a  cause, 
sometimes  simjjle  and  visible,  sometimes 
complicated  and  invisible,  but  always 
simultaneous  with  the  cause. — Ejfcrt, 
the  impression  j)roduccd  upon  the  mind 
at  the  sight  of  a  jiicture,  or  other  work 
of  Art,  at  the  first  glance,  before  the  de- 
tails are  examined.  Thus,  some  bold 
outlines  indicating  the  ])rincipal  forms, 
with  the  masses  of  light  ami  shade  proj)- 
orly  thrown  in   and  the  local  colors  put 


on,  are  sufficient  to  produce  a  picture 
which  at  the  first  view  may  appear 
strikingly  brilliant  and  true,  although 
many  of  the  details  proper  to  the  subject 
are  omitted,  or  the  drawing  not  strictly 
correct,  or  the  coloring  deficienl  in  har- 
mony. Such  is  the  state  in  which  most 
good  sketches  or  designs  are  male,  by 
which  the  ultimate  eifect  of  the  work 
when  most  carefully  executed  is  judged. 
Effect  is  also  the  result  of  all  the  pecu- 
liar excellencies  of  the  true  master  ;  the 
ensemble,  which  is  brilliant  and  striking, 
as  in  the  works  of  Rubens. — The  word 
effects  signify  personal  or  movable  goods. 

EFFECTIVE,  in  military  language, 
an  epithet  for  a  body  of  men  that  are  fit 
for  service  ;   as  20,000  effective  men. 

EFFEMINACY,  that  softness,  deli- 
cacy, and  weakness,  which  are  character- 
istic of  the  female  sex,  but  which  in  men 
are  considered  a  reproach. 

EFFEN  DI,  a  Turkish  word  signifying 
lord  or  superior;  applied  to  legal,  eccle- 
siastical, or  other  ciril  functionaries,  in 
contradistinction  to  aga,  the  name  by 
which  high  military  personages  are  desig- 
nated. 

EFFI'CIENT,  producing  the  eff'ect  in- 
tended. The  efficient  cause  is  that  which 
produces;  the  final  cause  is  that  for 
which  it  is  produced. 

EFFIGY,  the  literal  representation  or 
image  of  a  person.  Although  the  word 
is  sometimes  applied  to  a  portrait,  it  is 
not  synonymous  with  it,  but  conveys  an 
idea  of  a  more  exact  imitation,  a  more 
striking  and  authentic  resemblance,  as 
we  meet  with  in  %c  ax -figures.  The  orrli- 
nary  application  of  the  word  is  to  the 
sculptured  figures  on  sepulchral  monu- 
ments, and  to  the  heads  of  monarchs,  &c., 
on  coins  and  medals. 

EFFLU  VIA,  the  small  particles  per- 
petually flowing  out  of  mixed  bodies  in 
the  form  of  vapors,  which  are  sometimes 
visible,  as  in  the  case  of  smoke  or  steam  ; 
and  sometimes  not  ])erceptible,  as  the 
noxious  exhalations  from  putrefying  an- 
imal or  vegetable  substances.  Malig- 
nant olTluvia  are  assigned,  by  physicians, 
as  the  cause  (if  the  plague  and  other  con- 
tagious di.-;cascs. 

EGYPTIAN-BLUE,  a  brilliant  pig- 
ment, which  upon  analysis  is  found  to 
consist  of  the  hydratcd  protoxide  of  cop- 
per, mixed  with  a  minute  quantity  of 
iron.  It  was  long  sup])osed  that  this  fine 
blue  was  an  ore  of  cobalt. 

EISTEDD'FOD,  the  assemblies  orses- 
sions  of  the  Welsh  bards  wore  l<o  termed. 
They  wore  held  at  different  places    for 


eleJ 


AM)    TllK     FINK     ARTS. 


189 


the  minstrels  of  tlinir  respective  neigh- 
borhoods ;  at  Caervvys,  at  Aberfraw  in 
Auglesea,  and  Mathravel  in  Powys.  The 
judges  were  ajtpointed  by  commissions 
from  the  Welsh  ])rinccs,  and  after  the 
Conquest  from  the  English  kings.  The 
last  was  issued  in  1568.  But  the  Gwyn- 
nedigion  and  Cambrian  Societies  have 
lately  revived  the  old  custom  ;  and  annu- 
al meetings  for  the  recitation  of  prize 
poems,  and  for  performances  on  the  harp, 
are  now  held  under  the  name  of  Eistedd- 
fod. 

EJECT'MJINT,  in  law,  a  writ  or  ac- 
tion which  lies  for  the  recovery  of  pos- 
session of  land  from  which  the  owner 
has  been  ejecteil,  and  for  trial  of  title. 
Ejectment  may  be  brought  by  the  lessor 
against  the  lessee  for  rent  in  arrear,  or 
for  holding  over  his  term ;  also  by  the 
lessee  for  years,  who  has  been  ejected  be- 
fore the  expiration  of  his  term. 

ELAB'ORATE,  an  epithet  expressive 
of  great  care,  diligence,  &c.,  used  in  the 
execution  of  any  performance. 

EL'DER,  a  person  advanced  in  life, 
and  who,  on  account  of  his  age  and  ex- 
perience, is  selected  to  fill  some  impor- 
tant office.  In  Jewish  history,  the  elders 
were  persons  the  most  considerable  for 
age,  experience,  and  wisdom.  Of  this 
sort  were  the  seventy  men  whom  Moses 
associated  to  himself  in  the  government 
of  his  people  ;  such  also  were  those  who 
afterwards  held  the  first  rank  in  the  syn- 
agogue, as  presidents.  In  the  first  Chris- 
tian churches,  elders  were  persons  who 
enjoyed  oflices  or  ecclesiastical  functions, 
and  the  word  includes  apostles,  pastors, 
presbyters,  bishops,  or  overseers ;  hence 
the  first  councils  of  tlie  Christians  were 
cnWed  presbyter ia,  or  councils  of  eWers  In 
the  modern  prosbyterian  churches,  elders 
are  officers,  who,  witJi  the  ministers  and 
deacons,  compose  the  sessions  of  the  kirk, 
and  have  authority  to  inspect  and  regu- 
late matters  of  religion  and  discipline. 

EL  DORA'DO,  the  name  given  by  the 
Spaniards  to  an  imaginary  country,  sup- 
posed in  the  IGth  century  to  be  situated 
in  the  interior  of  South  America,  between 
the  rivers  Oronoco  an  1  Amazon,  and,  as 
the  name  implied,  abounding  in  gold  and 
all  manner  of  precious  stones.  After  the 
Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
the  most  cxaggerateil  accounts  of  •the 
wealth  and  riches  of  the  newly  acquired 
territory  Avere  circulated  and  believed. 
A  new  region  was  fabled  to  exist  far 
surpassing  the  wealth  and  splendor  of 
Peru ;  ex})eilitions  were  fitted  out  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  it ;    and   though 


all  sucli  attempts  proved  abortive,  the 
rumors  of  its  existence  continued  to  be 
believed  down  to  the  beginning  of  last 
century.  The  term  then  passed  into  the 
language  of  poetry,  in  which  it  was  used 
to  express  a  land  of  boundless  wealth  and 
felicity,  like  the  ancient  Elysium  or  the 
Mohammedan  Paradise  ;  until  the  recent 
discoveries  in  California  gave  that  coun- 
try a  fresh  claim  to  the  appellation. 

"ELEAT'IC  PIIILOS'OPIIY,  a  system 
owing  its  origin  to  Xenophanes,  a  native 
of  Elea  (in  Latin  Velia,)  who  lived  about 
the  year  Bc.  530.  The  most  celebrated 
of  his  followers  were  Parmenides  and 
Zeno,  also  natives  of  Elea.  The  dialectical 
character  of  the  principal  systems  of  an- 
tiquity may  be  said  to  owe  its  existence 
to  the  Eleatics.  The  tendency  of  their 
speculations  was  the  direct  contrary  of 
that  which  distinguishes  the  Ionic  school. 
While  the  latter  fixed  their  attention  on 
outward  nature,  and  strove  to  discover 
the  laws  which  regulate  its  progress, 
Xenophanes  and  his  disciples  confined 
their  thoughts  to  what  they  conceived  to 
be  the  only  objects  of  real  knowledge — 
the  ideas  of  God,  or  Being  as  it  is  in  it- 
self The  world  of  succession  and  change, 
which  they  designated  under  the  title  of 
that  which  becomes  {to  ylyv6^tpnv^)  they 
held  to  be  utterly  vain  and  illusory;  the 
very  conception  of  change  itself  seeming 
to  them  to  involve  a  contradiction.  Time, 
space  and  motion  they  regarded  as  mere 
phantasms,  generated  by  the  deceiving 
senses,  and  incapable  of  scientific  expla- 
nation. They  vpere  consequently  led  to 
distinguish  between  the  pure  reason,  the 
correlative  of  Being,  and  in  one  sense 
identical  with  it,  and  opinion  or  common 
understanding,  the  faculty  which  judges 
according  to  the  impressions  of  sense. 
Parmenides,  in  particular,  was  the  author 
of  a  philosophical  epic,  the  two  books  of 
which  treated  respectively  of  these  two 
mocles  of  thinking.  For  a  full  account 
of  all  that  can  be  gathered  from  remain- 
ing fragments  of  this  rigid  system  of  ra- 
tionalism, the  reader  must  consult  the 
German  writers  on  the  subject :  in  par- 
ticular Brandis  and  Ritter,  in  their  his- 
tories of  philosophy.  Frequent  allusion 
is  made  both  by  Plato  and  Aristotle  to 
the  Eleatic  doctrines,  the  authors  of  which 
are  mentioned  by  both  those  philosophers 
in  terms  of  evident  respect  and  veneration. 
Plato  has  made  their  system  the  subject 
of  a  whole  dialogue,  entitled  the  Par- 
menides ;  perhaps  the  most  striking  spe- 
cimen of  dialectic  subtlety  which  Grecian 
philosophy  affords. 


100 


CVCl.orEDIA    OF    i.heratire 


[klk 


ELECT',  in  theology,  among  Calvin- 
ists,  a  term  for  those  whom  they  believe 
Gotl  has  chosen,  or  predestinated  to  be 
saved. —  Elect,  in  matters  of  polity,  sig- 
nifies chosen,  but  not  inaugurated.  Thus 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  before 
his  predecessor's  term  of  office  has  ex- 
pired, is  called  the  President  elect. 

ELECTION,  the  act  of  choosing  a  per- 
son to  fill  an  office  or  employment,  by 
any  manifestation  of  preference  ;  and  is 
applicable  to  the  choice  of  members  of 
the  legislature,  which  takes  place  within 
every  seven  years ;  to  the  choice  of 
parish  officers,  annually ;  and  to  the  ad- 
mission of  members  into  societies.  Some- 
times it  is  practised  by  show  of  hands ; 
iometimes  by  ballot,  and  at  others,  by 
every  elector  giving  his  vote  separately, 
with  an  oath  in  regard  to  his  right  and 
integrity. — Election  is  also  the  state  of 
a  person  who  is  left  to  his  own  free  will, 
to  take  or  do  one  thing  or  another,  which 
he  pleases. — Election,  in  theology,  divine 
choice,  by  which  persons,  according  to 
the  Calvinistic  creed,  are  distinguished 
as  objects  for  salvation  by  the  special 
grace  of  God,  without  reference  to  their 
good  or  bad  deeds. 

ELECTIVE  GOVERNMENTS  are 
those  in  which  all  functionaries,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest,  are  chosen  by  the 
suffrages  of  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
citizens.  Of  these  the  government  of 
Athens  in  antiquity,  and  in  modern  times 
that  of  the  United  States,  will  serve  as 
examples.  When  the  functionaries  of  an 
elective  government  are  chosen  by  a  very 
great  number,  it  is  identical  with  a  de- 
mocracy ;  and  when  by  a  comparatively 
small  number,  either  with  an  aristocracy 
or  an  oligarchy. 

ELECTOR,  in  law,  any  one  who  has 
the  right  of  giving  his  vote  at  an  election, 
particularly  at  an  election  of  a  member 
of  parliament. —  Elector,  in  political  his- 
tory, the  title  of  such  (ierman  princes  as 
formerly  had  a  voice  in  the  election  of 
the  emperor  of  Germany. 

ELECTORATE,  the  dignity  or  ter- 
ritory of  an  elector  in  the  German  em- 
pire. 

ELECTROTYPE,  the  process  by  which 
works  in  relief. are  produced  by  the  agen- 
cy of  electricity  through  whieh  certain 
metals,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
are  precij>itated  from  their  solutions  upon 
moulds  in  so  fine  a  state  of  division  as  to 
form  a  coherent  muss  of  j)ure  metal,  equal 
in  toughness  and  flexibility  to  the  ham- 
mered metals.  The  applications  of  this 
beautiful   Art  appear  almost  unlimited. 


and  as  a  means  of  reproducing  fac-sioiiles 
of  art  it  is  most  invaluable. 

ELECTRUiNI,  the  term  is  applied  in 
ancient  art  to  amber,  and  to  a  compound 
of  gold  and  silver,  which  resembled  am- 
ber in  color,  and  was  employed  for  simi- 
lar purposes  to  those  metals. 

ELEEMOS'YNARY,  an  epithet  for 
whatever  pertains  to  the  use  and  manage- 
ment of  charitable  donations,  whether  in- 
tended for  the  relief  of  the  poor  or  sick, 
or  appropriated  to  education.  A  hospital 
founded  by  charity  is  an  eleemosynary 
institution  for  the  sick  ;  a  college  founded 
by  donation  is  aXso  eleemosynary  ;  and  so 
is  the  corporation  which  is  entrusted  with 
the  care  of  such  institutions. 

EL'EGANCE,  in  a  general  sense,  is 
that  which  pleases  by  its  symmetry,  pu 
rity,  or  beauty ;  and  is  select,  as  distin- 
guished from  what  is  common. — In  litera- 
ture, elegance  of  composition  consists  in 
well-chosen  words  and  phrases,  arranged 
in  an  appropriate  and  happy  manner.  It 
implies  neatness,  purity,  and  perspicuous 
arrangement ;  a  style  calculated  to  please 
a  delicate  taste,  rather  than  to  excite  ad- 
miration or  strong  feeling. — In  speaking, 
it  includes  propriety  of  diction  and  rich 
expressions  with  gracefulness  of  action. — 
In  painting,  it  implies  a  certain  manner 
which  embellishes  and  heightens  objects; 
as  in  Corregio,  where,  notwithstanding  all 
the  defects  as  to  justness  of  design,  there 
is  an  elegance  even  in  the  manner  of  the 
design  itself,  as  well  as  in  the  turn  of  the 
attitudes,  &c. — In  architecture,  elegance 
consists  in  the  due  symmetry  and  distri- 
bution of  the  parts  of  an  edifice,  or  in  reg- 
ular proportions  and  arrangement. — It  is 
also  applied  to  various  works  of  art  or 
nature  remarkable  for  their  beauty  of 
form,  &c. 

ELE'GIT.  in  law,  a  writ  of  execution, 
which  lies  for  a  person  who  has  recovered 
debt  or  damages  ;  or  upon  a  recognizance 
in  any  court,  against  a  dcf'cinlniit  that  i.s 
not  able  in  his  goods  to  sati.-;l'y  his  credi- 
tors. 

EL'EGY,  a  mournful  and  plaintive 
kind  of  poem.  The  principal  writers  of 
elegiac  verse  among  the  Latins,  were 
Propertius,  Ovi<l,  anil  TihuUus  ;  the  chief 
writers  of  elegy  among  the  (J reeks,  were 
Callimachus,  Parthcnius,  and  Euphorion. 
The  form  of  verse  in  which  it  was  composed 
was  the  alternate  hexameter  and  pentame- 
ter. In  modern  times  almost  all  the  nations 
of  Europe  have  i)ractiscd  this  species  of 
composition  ;  but  if  we  except  the  elegies 
of  Ilamtnond,  iMilton's  Lycidas,  and 
Gray's   Elegy  among   the   English,   and 


KLoJ 


AND    TUK    FINE    ARTS. 


191 


Mfttthissoii's  Elegie  nmongtho  Germans, 
it  does  not  appear  with  great  success.  The 
noble  poem  of  Tennyson,  entitled  In  iMe- 
moriam,  has,  however,  recently  been 
placed  in  the  highest  rank  of  this  species 
of  compositions  by  the  unanimous  ver- 
dict of  the  most  enlightened  critics. 

EL'EMENT,  in  phj'siology,  a  term 
used  to  denote  the  original  component 
parts  of  bodies,  or  those  into  which  they 
are  ultimately  resolvable.  In  the  an- 
cient and  still  popular  sense  of  the  word, 
the  elements  are  understood  to  be  four  in 
number  ;  namely,  lire,  air,  earth,  and 
water;  but  by  the  researches  of  modern 
science  it  is  fully  demonstrated  that  earth 
is  a  compound  of  many  earths;  air,  a 
compound  of  at  least  two  gases  ;  water,  a 
compound  of  hydrogen  and  o.xygen  ;  and 
fire,  only  the  extrication  of  light  and  heat 
during  combustion.  Modern  chemistry 
has,  in  fact,  determined  that  an  element 
is  merely  the  last  result  of  chemical  anal- 
ysis, or  that  which  cannot  be  decomposed 
by  an  J'  means  now  employed.- — Elements, 
in  a  figurative  sense,  is  used  for  the  prin- 
ciples and  foundations  of  any  art  or  sci- 
ence, as  "  Euclid's  Elements,"  &c. — Ele- 
vients,  in  divinity,  the  bread  and  wine 
prepared  for  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper. 

ELEMEN'TARY,  an  epithet  expres- 
sive of  that  which  is  uneompounded,  or 
having  only  one  princi|)le  or  constituent 
part.  It  also  denotes  rudimental,  or  in- 
itiatory ;  as,  an  elementary  treatise. 

ELEN'CHITS,  in  logic,  a  sophism,  c 
fallacious  argument,  which  deceives  the 
hearer  under  the  appearance  of  truth. 

ELEPHAN'TINE,  in  Roman  anti- 
quity, an  appellation  given  to  the  books 
wherein  were  registered  the  transactions 
of  the  senate  and  magistrates  of  Rome, 
of  the  emperors  or  generals  of  armies, 
and  even  of  the  provincial  magistrates, 
the  births  and  classes  of  the  people,  and 
other  things  relating  to  the  census.  They 
were  so  called,  perhaps,  as  being  made 
of  ivory. 

ELEUSIN'IA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
solemn  and  mysterious  festival  in  honor 
of  Ceres,  kept  every  fourth  year  by  the 
Cele.ans  and  Philiasians,  and  every  fifth 
year  by  the  Athenians,  Lacedemonians, 
Parrhasians  and  Cretans,  at  Eleusis,  a 
borough  of  Attica.  It  was  transferred 
from  thence  to  Rome  by  th^  emperor 
Adrian.  The  Elcusinia  was  the  most 
celebrated  and  mysterious  solemnity  of 
any  in  Greece,  and  often  called  by  way 
of  eminence  mysteria.  The  mj'steries 
were  of  two  kinds,  the  greater  and  the 


less ;  the  less  were  preparatory  to  the 
greater.  They  consisted  of  a  solemn  rep- 
resentation of  what  was  supposed  to  pass  in 
the  regions  of  Elysium  and  Tartarus; 
and  their  chief  design  was,  by  sensible 
means,  to  spread  among  the  people  a 
conviction  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments. To  reveal  the  secrets  of  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries  was  looked  upon  as 
a  crime  that  would  not  fail  to  draw  down 
the  vengeance  of  heaven.  The  per.=on 
who  presided  at  these  rites  was  called 
Hierophantes,  or  the  revealer  of  holy 
truths. 

ELEUTIIB'RIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
a  festival  celebrated  at  Plata^a,  in  mem- 
ory of  the  defeat  of  Mardonius,  the  gen- 
eral of  Xerxes :  and  in  honor  of  those 
who  gallantly  sacrificed  their  lives  for 
the  liberty  of  their  c(^intry.  It  was  held 
every  fifth  year,  when  prizes  were  con- 
tended for. 

ELEVA'TION,  in  its  primary  sense, 
denotes  exaltation ;  the  act  of  raising 
from  a  lower  place  to  a  higher ;  or, 
figuratively,  the  act  of  exalting  in  rank ; 
as,  the  elevation  of  a  man  to  a  throne. — 
In  architecture,  an  orthographic  or  up- 
right draught  of  a  building. — Elevation 
of  the  Host,  in  the  Romish  church,  that 
part  of  the  ceremony  of  the  mass  which 
consists  in  the  priest's  raising  the  host 
above  his  head  for  the  people  to  adore. 

ELF'- ARROWS,  a  name  given  to  flints 
in  the  shape  of  arrow-heads,  vulgarly 
supposed  to  be  shot  by  fairies.  They  are 
frequently  met  with  in  Great  Britain, 
and  there  is  reason  to  believe  they  were 
weapons  of  offence  among  the  ancient 
Britons. 

ELFS,  or  FAIRIES,  imaginary  be- 
ings, honored  more  particularly  by  the 
northern  nations,  in  whose  mythology 
they  occupy  a  prominent  place.  They 
were  divided  into  two  classes — the  good 
and  the  bad ;  and  their  exploits  have 
given  rise  to  a  multiplicity  of  delightful 
stories. 

EL'GIN  MAR'BLES,  a  collection  of 
splendid  basso-relievos  and  fragments  of 
statuary,  which  were  brought  from  the 
Parthenon  from  Athens  to  England,  in 
1814,  by  Lord  Elgin,  (hence  the  name.) 
They  are  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
having  been  purchased  by  the  government 
for  £35,000.  They  are  unquestionably 
some  of  the  finest  remains  of  ancient  Art, 
and  offer  the  richest  field  for  study.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  the  Metopes,  represent 
ing  for  the  most  part  the  combats  of  the 
Centaurs  and  Lapithae  ;  a  portion  of  the 


19: 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    LITiiltATURE 


[elo 


frieze  of  the  cella,  representing  the  Pan- 
athenaic  procession  ;  and  the  statues  or 
fragments  of  them,  which  ornamented  the 
tympana  of  tho  pediments  of  the  Parthe- 
non or  temple  of  Minerva  at  Alliens.  The 
superiority  of  the  Eigfti  Marbles  to  all 
others,  consists  in  this,  that  they  represent 
the  human  frame  draped  and  undraped, 
massive,  and  beyond  the  natural  size,  in 
nearly  every  attitude,  without  the  artist 
having  in  a  single  instance  degenerated 
into  coarseness,  mannerism,  or  been  for- 
getful of  absolute  truth — beauty  ever 
kept  in  view. 

ELI'SHA,  this  prophet  is  represented 
with  a  two-headed  eagle  over  his  head, 
or  upon  his  shoulder ;  referring  to  his 
petition  to  Elijah  for  a  double  portion 
of  his  spirit.  The  subjects  usually  chosen 
in  works  of  Art  in  which  Elisha  appears, 
are  that  of  the  Bears  destroying  the 
Children  ;  Elisha  seizing  Elijah's  man- 
tle;  his  Raising  the  Child  ;  his  Interview 
with  the  King's  messenger  ;  and  his  Caus- 
ing the  Axe  to  Swim. 

ELI'SION,  in  grammar,  the  cutting 
off  or  suppressing  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  a 
word  for  the  sake  of  sound  or  measure, 
when  the  ne.xt  word  begins  with  a  vowel ; 
as,  t,V  ensans;uined.  field. 

ELIZABETHAN  ARCHITECTURE, 
a  name  given  to  the  impure  architect- 


Elizabethan  Winilow,  Rushton  Hall.cir.  1590. 

urn  of  the  times  of  Elizabeth  and  James 
I.,  when  the  worst  forms  of  Gothic  and 


debased  Italian  were  jumbled  together, 
producing  a  singular  and  absurd  hetero- 
gcneousness  in  detail  with  wonderful  pic- 
turesqueness  in  general  elfect.  Its  chief 
characteristics  are  deeply  embayed  win 
dows,  and  galleries  of  great  length. 

ELIZ'Ai3ETII,  the  position  which  the 
mother  of  John,  the  precursor  of  the  Sav- 
iour, occupies  in  Christian  Art,  is  of  im- 
portance only  in  relation  to  the  Visita- 
tion of  the  Virgin.  She  is  found  in  many 
pictures  of  the  Holy  Family,  but,  like 
Anne,  is  inferior  to  the  mother  of  the 
Messiah.  The  pictures  of  the  Visitation 
are  almost  innumerable  ;  they  consist  of 
the  two  women — Elizabeth,  who  is  rep- 
resented as  old,  and  Mary,  as  3'outhful, 
each  praising  God. 

ELLIPSIS,  in  grammar,  a  figure  of 
syntax,  by  which  one  or  more  words  are 
omitted,  which  the  reader  may  supply  ; 
as,  the  horse  I  rode,  for  the  horse  uiiidi 
I  rode.— In  rhetoric,  a  figure  of  speech 
whereby  the  orator,  through  excessive 
emotion,  passes  over  many  things,  which, 
had  he  been  cool,  ought  to  have  been 
mentioned. 

ELOCU'TION,  in  rhetoric,  consists  of 
elegance,  composition,  and  dignity  :  the 
first  comprehends  the  purity  and  perspi- 
cuity of  a  language,  and  is  tho  founda- 
tion of  elocution  ;  the  second  ranges  the 
words  in  proper  order ;  and  the  last  adds 
the  ornaments  of  tropes  and  figures,  to 
give  strength  and  dignity  to  the  whole. 
To  which  may  be  added,  that  there 
should  be  a  certain  musical  cadence  or 
intonation,  to  render  it  pleasing  to  the 
ear. 

E'LOGE,  a  term  applied  in  France  to 
the  panegyrical  orations  pronounced  in 
honor  of  illustrious  deceased  persons,  and 
particularly  of  members  of  the  Royal 
and  other  academies.  Formerly  the 
secretaries  of  the  various  French  literary 
institutions  used  to  comi)ose  and  ]iro- 
nounce  the  cloge  ;  but  this  duty  is  now 
performed  by  tho  new  member  elected  in 
the  room  of  tho  deceased.  This  practice 
is  no  doubt  open  to  censure  ;  but  it  has 
been  the  means  of  giving  to  the  world 
many  interesting  biographical  sketches, 
which  would  never  otherwise  have  ap- 
peared. Kloge  is  also  applied  to  any 
species  of  biographical  writing  in  which 
praise  predominates  over  censure,  ana 
has  been  inuch  cultivated  by  French  and 
Italian  authors. 

ELOPEMENT,  in  law,  the  voluntary 
departure  of  a  wife  from  her  husband  to 
go  and  live  with  another  man.  In  com- 
mon acceptation,  the  secret  departure  of 


ELO 


AND    illK    FINK    ARTS. 


193 


any  foraalo  with  her  lover,  either  to  he 
married  or  to  live  together  illicitlv- 

EL'UQl'ENCE,  the  art  of  clothing 
the  thoughts  in  the  most  suitable  ex- 
pressions, in  order  to  produee  conviction 
or  ijcrsuasiou.  In  its  primary  significa- 
tion, eloquence  had  reference  to  public 
speaking  alone  ;  but  as  most  of  the  rules 
for  pabli,;  speaking  are  applicable  equal- 
ly to  writing,  an  extension  of  the  term 
naturally  took  place  ;  and  wo  find  even 
Aristotle,  the  earliest  systematic  writer 
on  the  subject  whose  works  have  come 
down  to  us,  including  in  his  treatise  rules 
for  such  compositions  as  were  not  intend- 
ed for  public  recitation.  A  still  wider 
extension  of  the  term  was  contended  for 
by  the  ancient  rhetoricians,  who  included 
under  it  all  kinds  of  literary  productions 
(such  as  treatises  on  law,  logic,  &c.,)  and 
whatever  might  be  necessary  to  illustrate 
and  explain  them.  The  invention  of  elo- 
quence was  ascribed  by  the  Egyptians  and 
the  fables  of  the  poets  to  the  god  Mercu- 
ry ;  but  no  certain  account  can  bo  given 
when  or  by  whom  this  art  first  began  to 
be  cultivated.  If  we  may  judge  from  the 
eulogiums  which  Homer  pronounced  upon 
Ulysses  and  Nestor  for  their  attainments 
in  eloquence,  it  must  have  been  very 
early  in  high  esteem  among  the  Greeks. 
But  though,  from  time  to  time,  there 
arose  in  Greece  many  distinguished  wri- 
ters upon  eloquence,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  practice  of  the  art  was  combined 
with  the  theory  for  public  purposes  till 
the  time  of  Pisistratus,  who  owed  to  his 
rhetorical  acquirements  his  elevation  to 
the  throne.  Passing  from  Pericles,  (the 
next  in  order  to  Pisistratus,)  who  was 
distinguished  at  once  as  a  general,  a 
statesman,  and  an  orator,  we  find  many 
eminent  names  during  the  Peloponnosian 
war  immortalized  for  their  eloquence  by 
the  pen  of  Thucydides.  In  the  succeed- 
ing age  arose  the  school  of  rhetoricians, 
or  sophists,  as  they  are  called,  who  en- 
deavored to  graft  upon  eloquence  the 
subtleties  of  logic  ;  and  among  the  earli- 
est and  most  eminent  of  this  school  were 
Gorgias,  Isoerates,  and  Isaeus,  of  whose 
publicly  delivered  orations  there  are  still 
ten  extant  It  was  in  this  age  that  Gre- 
cian eloquence  attained  its  highest  per- 
fection by  the  genius  of  Demosthenes,  to 
whom  the  palm  has  been  conceded  by  the 
unanimous  consent  of  ancient  and  modern 
times.  Of  all  human  productions,  the 
orations  of  Demosthenes  present  to  us  the 
models  which  approach  the  nearest  to 
perfection.  After  this  period,  Grecian 
eloquence  declined  rapidly  ;  and  though 
13 


in  the  following  ages  there  fli>urished 
among  others  ilermagoras,  Athena!us, 
Apollonius,  Cweilius,  and  Dionysitis, 
their  names  have  been  almost  withoi.t 
exception  rescued  from  oblivion  b}'  a 
work  which  may  bo  regardeil  as  the  hi.^t 
expiring  ray  of  (Jrecian  eloquence — the 
incomparable  treatise  of  Longinuson  llic 
Sublime.  In  consequence  of  the  all-ab- 
sorbing spirit  for  military  glory  with 
which  the  ancient  Romans  Avere  anima- 
ted, it  was  long  before  they  found  leisure 
to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  elo- 
quence ;  and  even  so  late  as  the  year  of 
the  city  592,  when,  by  the  inilustry  of 
some  Greeks,  the  liberal  arts  began  to 
flourish  at  Rome,  the  senate  passed  a  de- 
cree banishing  all  rhetoricians  from  the 
country.  But  a  few  j-ears  afterwards, 
when  Carneades.  Critolaus,  and  Diogenes 
were  sent  as  ambassadors  from  Athens  to 
Rome,  the  Roman  youth  were  so  charmed 
with  the  eloquence  of  their  harangues, 
that  the  study  of  oratory  formed  thence- 
forth a  branch  of  a  liberal  education 
Men  of  the  highest  rank  were  now  seen 
teaching  and  learning  respectively  the 
art  of  eloquence  ;  and  such  was  the  im- 
petus given  to  this  study,  that  it  made 
the  most  rapid  advances,  and  was  at  last 
crowned  by  the  appearance  of  Cicero,  to 
whom  critics  have  concurred  in  assigning 
a  rank  inferior  only  to  that  of  Demos- 
thenes. The  mighty  scale  on  which 
everj'thing  was  conducted  at  Rome,  and 
the  enormous  interests  so  frequently  at 
stake,  were  never  so  wonderfully  exhibi- 
ted as  in  the  age  of  Cicero;  and  the  un- 
paralleled exigency  found  or  created  in 
him  a  talent  for  profiting  by  its  advanta- 
ges or  coping  with  its  difficulties.  In 
the  succeeding  ages  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, the  despotic  character  of  the  gov- 
ernment checked  the  growth  of  the  rhe- 
torical art ;  but  the  names  of  Tacitus, 
Quintilian,  and  Pliny  are  an  earnest  of 
what  might  have  been  achieved  in  this 
arena,  had  circumstances  permitted  the 
development  of  their  talents.  With  re- 
gard to  the  early  history  of  eloquence  in 
England,  there  are  found,  indeed,  the 
names  of  several  distinguished  men  who 
in  former  times  directed  the  resolutions 
of  parliament ;  but  no  pains  were  taken 
to  preserve  their  speeches  ;  and  the  au- 
thority which  they  possessed  seems  to 
have  been  owing  to  their  experience, 
wisdom,  or  power,  more  than  to  their 
talents  for  oratory.  It  was  not  until  the 
close  Gf  the  last  century  that  an  era 
arose  in  the  history  of  British  eloquence, 
which     the    genius    of    Chatham,    Pitt, 


194 


CVCI-OPEDIA    OF    LllKKATL'UE 


[kmjb 


Burke,  Fox,  and  Sheridan  has  consecra- 
ted and  immortalized.  The  little  oppor- 
tunity iifTorded  for  a  display  cf  f-.-rensic 
or  senatorial  eloquence  by  the  different 
governments  of  tjermany  has  almost  en- 
tirely checked  its  growth  in  that  country  ; 
and  the  same  remark  is  applicable  to 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal  ;  all  of  which, 
however,  have  been  rich  in  the  eloquence 
of  the  pulpit.  The  only  two  countries  in 
tie  world  whose  orators  can  be  put  in 
competition  with  those  of  Britain,  are 
France  and  America.  To  the  pulpit  ora- 
tory of  the  former,  the  illustrious  names 
of  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  and  Massillon 
have  given  eniluring  celebrity  ;  while 
the  popular  character  of  their  respective 
institutions  has  formed  a  host  of  forensic 
and  senatorial  speakers  worthy  a  prom- 
inent place  among  the  orators  of  antiqui- 
ty, and  modern  times. 

E'LUL,  the  name  of  a  Jewish  month, 
answering  to  part  of  August. 

ELYS'IUM,  or  ELYS'lAN  FIELDS, 
in  heathen  mythology,  the  supposed  resi- 
dence of  the  blessed  after  death.  The 
poets  describe  this  region  as  consisting  of 
beautiful  meadows  alternated  with  pleas- 
ant groves  ;  where  a  serene  and  cloud- 
less sky  was  spread  over  them,  and  a 
soft,  celestial  light  shed  a  magical  bril- 
liancy over  every  object.  The  heroes  there 
renewed  their  favorite  sports ;  danced  to 
the  sound  of  the  lyre  from  which  Orpheus 
drew  the  most  enchanting  tones,  or  wan- 
dered through  the  most  odoriferous 
groves,  where  the  warbling  birds  carolled 
forth  their  harmony  by  the  side  of  re- 
freshing fountains.  There  the  earth 
teemed  with  plenteous  fruits,  and  the 
verdure  of  spring  was  perpetual ;  while 
all  cares,  pains,  and  infirmities,  were  e.x- 
thanged  for  the  purest  bliss. 

EMANCIPA'TION,  by  the  ancient 
Roman  law,  the  son  stood  in  the  relation 
of  a  slave  to  the  father.  By  a  fiction  of 
that  law,  the  son  might  be  freed  from 
"his  relation  by  being  three  times  sold 
oy  the  father.  Hence  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  the  son  derived  from  this  cere- 
mony the  name  of  emancipation.  In 
oour.se  of  time,  various  modes  of  emanci- 
pation, both  tacit  and  e.vpress,  became 
recognized  by  tlie  Roman  jurisprudence. 
The  word,  in  countries  following  that 
law,  signiQes  the  e.vemption  of  the  son 
from  the  jiowcr  of  the  father,  cither  by 
express  act,  or  by  imjilication  of  law.  By 
the  present  civil  hiw  of  France,  majority 
(and  with  it  emancipation)  is  attained  at 
21  years  of  age;  and  the  marriage  of  a 
minor   emancipates    him.       In   ordinary 


language,  emancipation  is  used  in  a  gen- 
eral sense  to  signify  the  enfranchisement 
of  a  slave,  or  the  admission  of  particular 
classes  to  the  enjoyment  of  civil  rights. 

EMBALM'INU,  the  opening  a  dead 
body,  taking  out  the  intestines,  and  fill- 
ing the  place  with  odoriferous  and  dcsic- 
cative  drugs  and  spices,  to  prevent  its 
putrefaction.  The  Egyptians  have  al- 
ways been  celebrated  for  their  adherence 
to  this  practice,  and  the  skill  with  which 
they  performed  it.  AVith  some  variation, 
it  is  still  one  of  the  peculiar  customs  of 
that  nation.  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
metaphysical  notion,  inculcated  as  of 
their  religion,  that  the  soul  continued 
with  the  body.  There  naturally  followed 
an  affectionate  desire  to  do  everything 
that  living  creatures  can  suppose  accept- 
able to  the  dead.  They  were  even  de- 
sirous of  having  the  dead  bodies  of  their 
parents  in  their  houses,  and  at  their 
tables,  and  believed,  as  has  been  suggest- 
ed, that  their  souls  ^yere  present  also; 
and  it  was  essential  to  this  gratification 
that  those  bodies  should  be  preserved  in 
the  most  perfect  manner  possible. — Mod- 
ern chemistry  has  made  us  acquainted  with 
many  means  of  counteracting  putrefac- 
tion, more  simple  and  more  effectual  than 
the  laborious  processes  of  the  ancients. 

EMBAR'GO,  in  commerce,  a  prohibi- 
tion of  sailing,  issued  by  authority  on  all 
shipping,  either  out  of  port,  or  into  port. 
It  is  generally  to  restrain  ships  from 
leaving  a  port. 

EM'BASSY,  the  public  function  or 
employment  of  a  public  minister,  whether 
amijassador  or  envoy. 

E.M'BER  DAYS,"  in  the  Romish  cal- 
endar, are  certain  fasts  appointed  by 
Rope  Cali.xtus  for  imploring  the  blessing 
of  the  Almighty  on  the  fruits  of  the 
earth,  and  upon  the  ordinations  per- 
formed in  the  church  at  tiiese  times. 
They  occur  four  times  a  year,  or  once  in 
each  of  the  four  seasons  ;  being  the  Wed- 
nesday, Friday,  and  Saturday  after  the 
first  Sunday  in  Lent,  after  the  feast  of 
Pentecost  or  Whitsunday,  after  the  fes- 
tival of  Holy  Cross  on  the  14th  of  Sep- 
tember, and  after  the  festival  of  St.  Lu- 
cia on  the  13th  of  December.  The  week.<i 
in  which  the  ember  days  fall  are  called 
ember  weeks.  The  word  embers  signifies 
ashes,  which  the  primitive  Christians 
strewed  on  their  heads  at  these  solemn 
fasts. 

E  MBEZ'ZLE  M  ENT,  the  act  of  fraudu- 
lently appropriating  a  thing  to  one's  own 
use,  which  has  been  intrusted  to  one'i 
care  and  management. 


KMB 


AND     rilK     FINK    ARTS. 


195 


EM'BLEM,  this  word  is  used  frequently 
as  a  synonym  witii  Attribute,  Symbol, 
Image,  and  Allegorical  Figure.  So  in- 
discriminately are  these  terms  enii)loyed, 
that  it  becomes  a  task  of  great  ditViculty 
to  ])oiiit  out  their  special  apidieation, 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  shades 
of  difterence  are  so  light,  that  it  would  be 
most  convenient  to  regard  them  all  under 
the  general  term  Symbol.  Thus  the 
sceptre  is  the  attribute  of  royalty,  and 
the  emblem  or  symbol  of  power.  The 
Paschal  Lamb  of  the  Jews  figures  the 
Lamb,  without  stain,  which  has  expiated 
the  sins  of  the  world ;  but  as  Jesus 
Christ  has  been  depicted  under  this  em- 
blem in  the  New  Testament,  this  emblem 
becomes  a  symbol.  And  to  remove  all 
uncertainty  in  depicting  this  symbol  in 
Christian  Art,  we  give  to  the  Lamb  a 
nimbus  upon  which  is  figured  a  cross  :  or 
the  Cross  oj' the  Resurrection,  or  simply 
place  a  cross  above  its  head  ;  these  are 
the  attributes  which  distinguish  it  from 
other  figures  of  a  lamb,  which  are  neither 
emblems  nor  symbols.  An  emblem  is  a 
symbolical  figure  or  ci  mposition  which 
conceals  a  moral  or  hisioricul  allegory  ; 
when  accompanied  with  some  sententious 
phrase  which  determines  its  meaning,  it 
has  the  same  relntion  as  device. 

EMBLEM A'TA,  the  figures  with  which 
the  ancients  decorated  the  golden,  silver, 
and  even  copper  vessels,  and  which  could 
be  taken  off  at  pleasure.  These  belong 
to  toreutic  art,  and  were  generally  c.Ke- 
cuted  in  the  precious  metals,  but  some- 
times carved  in  amber.  The  Romans 
had  the  Greek  term  emblemala,  but  ap- 
plied the  word  crusta^  to  the  ornaments 
mentioned  above.  The  Greek  term  is 
hamled  down  to  us  in  our  word  emblem, 
a  sign  or  svinbrd. 

EM'BLEMEXTS,  in  law,  a  word  used 
for  the  produce  of  land  sown  or  planted 
by  a  tenant  for  life  or  years,  whose  estate 
is  determined  suddenly  after  the  land  is 
sown  or  planted,  and  before  a  harvest. 

EMBONPOINT,  {rrench,)  a  moder- 
ate and  agreeable  fulness  of  figure. 

EMBOSSING,  the  forming  or  fashion- 
ing works  in  relievo,  whether  by  raising, 
by  carving,  or  by  depression.  It  is,  in 
lihort,  a  kind  of  sculpture,  whore  the 
figures  project  from  the  plane  whereon  it 
is  cut ;  and  according  as  the  figures  are 
more  or  less  prominent,  they  are  said  to 
be  in  alto  mezzo,  or  basso  relicro — -Em- 
hossing  irood.  as  in  picture  frames  and 
other  articles  of  ornamented  cabinet 
work,  is  either  produced  by  means  of 
carving,    or  by   casting    the    pattern  in 


plaster  of  Paris,  or  other  composition, 
and  cementing  it  on  the  surface  of  the 
wood. — Kmbossing  cloth.  Cotton,  woollen 
cloth,  silk,  paper,  and  other  fabrics,  are 
embossed  by  the  powerful  pressure  of  re- 
volving cylinders  on  which  the  required 
patterns  are  engraved. 

EMBOUCHURE',  signifies  a  mouth  of 
a  river  ;  it  is  used  also  for  the  mouth- 
piece of  a  musical  instrument. 

EMBRACERY,  in  law,  the  offence  of 
endeavoring  to  corrupt  or  influence  a 
jury;  punishable  byline  and  imprison- 
ment. 

EMBRA'SURE,  in  architecture,  the 
enlargement  made  of  the  aperture  of  a 
door  or  window,  on  the  inside  of  the  wall. 
— In  fortification,  a  hole  or  aperture  in 
a  parapet,  through  which  cannon  are 
pointed  and  discharged. 

EMBROIDERY,  the  name  given  to 
the  art  of  working  figures  on  stuffs  or 
muslins  with  a  needle  and  thread.  All 
embroidery  may  be  divided  into  two 
sorts,  embroidery  on  stuff's  and  on  mus- 
lin :  the  former  is  used  chiefly  in  church 
vestments,  housings,  standards,  articles 
of  furniture,  &c.,  and  is  executed  with 
silk,  cotton,  wool,  gold  and  silver  threads, 
and  sometimes  ornamented  with  span- 
gles, real  or  mock  pearls,  precious  or  im- 
itation stones,  &c. ;  the  latter  is  employed 
mostly  in  articles  of  female  apparel,  as 
caps,  collars,  &c. ;  and  is  performed  only 
with  cotton.  The  art  of  embroidery  was 
well  known  to  ihe  ancients.  As  early  as 
the  time  of  Moses  we  find  it  practised 
successfully  by  the  Hebrews ;  and  long 
before  the  Trojan  war  the  women  of  Si- 
don  had  acquired  celebrity  for  their  skill 
in  embroidery.  At  a  later  period,  this 
art  was  introduced  into  Greece,  probably 
by  the  Phrygians,  (by  some  considered  as 
the  inventors  ;)  and  to  such  a  degree  of 
skill  did  the  Grecian  women  attain  in  it, 
that  their  performances  were  said  to  ri- 
val the  finest  paintings.  In  our  own 
times  the  art  of  embroidery  has  been 
cultivated  with  great  success,  more  espe 
cially  in  Germany  and  France  ;  and 
though  for  a  long  period  it  was  practised 
only  by  the  ladies  of  these  countries  a? 
ail  elegant  accomplishment,  it  is  now  re- 
garded as  a  staple  of  traffic,  and  fur- 
nishes employment  for  a  large  p(;rtion 
of  the  population.  In  England  also  it 
appears  to  have  taken  deep  root,  as  it 
now  forms  an  accomplishment  of  which 
almost  every  lady  is  in  possession.  A 
great  impetus  has  been  given  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  this  art,  both  on  the  Conti 
nent  and  in  England,  by  the  invention  of 


19G 


CVCLOI'EDIA    OF    LriEllATtrRE 


[em 


a  machine  which  enables  <a  female  to  ex- 
ecute the  most  complex  patterns  with 
130  needles,  all  in  motion  at  once,  as  ac- 
curately as  she  could  former!  v  do  with  one. 

E.MEXDA'TIOM,  an  alteriition  made 
in  the  text  of  any  book  by  verbal  criti- 
cism.—In  law,  the  correction  of  abuses. 

EM'ERALD,  a  well-known  gem  of  a 
beautiful  green  color,  somewhat  harder 
than  quartz,  which  occurs  in  prisms  with 
a  regular  hexagonal  base,  and  ranks  next 
in  value  to  the  oriental  ruby  and  sap- 
phire. It  becomes  electric  by  friction,  is 
often  transparent,  sometimes  only  trans- 
lucent, and  before  the  blow-pipe  is  fusi- 
ble into  a  whitish  enamel,  or  glass.  The 
most  intensely  colored  and  valuable  em- 
eralds are  brought  from  Peru. 

EME'RITI,  the  name  given  to  the  sol- 
diers and  other  public  functionaries  of 
ancient  Rome,  who  had  retired  from  their 
country's  service.  On  these  occasions  the 
parties  were  entitled  to  some  renumera- 
tion,  resembling  half-pay  in  the  English 
service  ;  but  whether  it  was  a  grant  of 
land  or  of  money  has  not  been  accurately 
ascertained. 

E  M  I  G  R  A  '  T I  0  N,  migration  is  the 
movement  of  an  individual  or  a  number 
of  people  frcm  one  place  of  residence  to 
another;  emigration,  their  abandonment 
of  their  former  home  ;  immigration,  (a 
word  of  modern  coinage,)  their  settle- 
ment in  their  new  one.  Emigration  is, 
in  modern  times,  chiefly  regarded  in  the 
light  of  a  mode  of  relieving  a  country  or 
district  laboring  under  excess  of  popula- 
tion. Emigration  from  Europe  has  for 
two  centuries  been  chiefly  directed  to  the 
United  States.  Of  late  years,  the  Capo 
of  Good  Hope  and  Australia  have  begun 
to  absorb  a  small  portion  of  the  surplus 
population  of  Great  Britain. 

EM'INENCE,  an  honorary  title  given 
'.o  cardinals.  They  were  called  illustris- 
simi  and  rererendissimi,  until  the  pon- 
tificate of  Urban  VIII. 

E'MIR,  a  title  of  dignity  among  the 
Saracens  and  Turks.  It  was  at  first  giv- 
en to  the  caliphs,  but  when  they  assumed 
the  title  of  Sultan,  that  of  Emir  remain- 
ed to  their  children. 

EM'ISSARY,  a  secret  agent  sent  to  as- 
certain the  sentiments  and  designs  of  an- 
other, and  to  propagate  opinions  favora- 
ble to  his  employer. 

EMO'TION,  in  a  philosophical  sense, 
an  internal  motion  or  agitation  of  the 
mind  which  passes  away  without  desire. 
When  desire  follows,  the  motion  or  agita- 
tion becomes  a  passion. 

EMPAIS'TIC,  inlaid  work,  resembling 


the  modern  Buhl,  Marquetry;  next  to 
Toreutic  art,  (with  which  it  must  not  be 
confounded,)  that  branch  most  practised 
by  the  ancients.  It  consisted  in  laying 
threads,  or  knocking  pieces  of  different 
metals  into  another  metal. 

EM'PEROR,  was  originally  merely  the 
title  of  a  Roman  general ;  l>ut,  on  the  fall 
of  the  republic  it  was  particularly  ap- 
plied to  the  head  of  the  state.  The  au- 
thority of  the  Roman  emperors  was  form- 
ed principally  by  the  combination  of  the 
chief  offices  of  the  old  republic  in  a  single 
person  ;  besides  which,  some  extr:\ordi- 
nary  powers  were  conferred.  Thus,  Oc- 
tavius  held  the  titles  of  emperor,  procon- 
sul, and  tribune,  pontifex  maximus  or  high 
priest ;  and  was  invested  with  perpetual 
consular  authority,  and  also  that  of  the 
censorship.  Besides  this,  he  was  termed 
prince  of  the  senate,  and  Augustus,  which 
designation  descended  to  his  successors ; 
but  he  was  much  more  moderate  in  his 
use  of  titular  dignities  than  his  successor, 
contenting  himself  with  substantial  pow- 
er. The  provinces  of  the  empire  were 
divided  between  the  senate  and  emperor, 
who  appointed  their  governors,  distin- 
guished by  the  respective  titles  of  procon- 
sul and  propriBtor ;  but  this  division 
threw  all  the  armies  into  the  hands  of  the 
latter,  as  he  took  for  his  share  the  fron- 
tier provinces.  The  emperors  appointed 
their  own  successors,  who  were  dignified 
with  the  title  of  Ca;sar,  and  in  later  times 
enjoyed  a  share  in  the  government.  Dio- 
clesian  first  divided  the  care  of  the  em- 
pire with  a  second  Augustus  in  the  per- 
son of  Maximian,  and  each  of  these  col- 
leagues associated  with  himself  a  Caesar. 
After  the  court  was  removed  to  Constan- 
tinople, the  old  titles  and  forms  of  the  re- 
public vanished  by  degrees,  and  the  em- 
perors assumed  the  style  of  oriental 
princes  — Charlemagne  a,ssumed  the  title 
of  emperor  after  his  coronation  at  Rome  ; 
and  from  his  time  this  title  (in  German 
kaiser)  was  claimed  exclusively,  in  west- 
ern Europe,  by  the  rulers  of  Germany. 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  (Jerman  empire 
in  180,3,  the  title  passed  to  the  emperor 
of  Austria,  and,  in  the  same  year.  Napo- 
leon assumed  it  in  France  ;  the  czars  of 
Russia  claimed  it  in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander. 

EM'PIIASIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  particular 
stress  of  utterance,  or  force  of  the  voice 
and  action,  given  to  such  parts  or  words 
of  an  oration,  as  the  speaker  intends  to 
impre.ss  specially  upon  his  audience. 

EM'PIRE,  originally  the  territory  or 
extent  of  land  under  the  command  and 


AND    TIIK     FINK     A II  IS. 


197 


jurisdiction  of  an  emperor.  The  domin- 
ions under  the  sway  of  ancient  Rome  were 
the  first  to  which  the  term  emi)ire  was 
applied  :  they  consisted  of  two  j^rand  di- 
visions,— the  Empire  of  the  East,  or.  as 
it  was  afterwards  called,  the  Lower  Em- 
pire ;  and  the  Em|)ire  of  t lie  West.  The 
former  admitted  of  various  subdivisions 
in  reference  to  the  different  dynasties  to 
which  it  was  suhjeet ;  and  the  latter  be- 
came, about  the  end  of  the  9th  century, 
the  (iernian  or  Holy  Roman  Empire.  In 
all  these  cases  the  sovereign  or  chief  per- 
son in  the  empire  was  named  the  empe- 
ror. But  the  term  empire  has  in  several 
instances  been  employed  to  designate  a 
large  extent  of  dominion,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  title  of  the  ruler  or  sovereign 
of  a  country  ;  thus  we  hear  of  the  empire 
of  Persia,  Hindostan,  &c.  The  dominions 
of  the  Queen  of  England  are  invariably 
designated  the  British  Empire  ;  and  the 
epithet  "  imperial"  is  officially  prefixed 
to  the  parliament  of  the  united  kingdom. 
The  term  empire  was  applied  from  1804 
to  1814  to  the  dominions  of  France,  in- 
cluding all  the  countries  then  incorpora- 
ted with  it  by  the  conquests  of  Napo- 
leon. 

EMPIR'IC,  one  whose  knowledge  is 
founded  on  experience.  The  empiric 
school  of  medicine  was  opposed  to  the 
dogmatic  ;  it  appears  to  have  originated 
with  Serapion  of  Alexandria.  The  em- 
pirics considered  the  foundation  of  medi- 
cal science  to  rest  upon  experience,  de- 
rived either  directly  from  experiment  or 
from  chance  and  imitation.  They  were, 
however,  a  pretending,  and  generally  ig- 
norant sect ;  so  that  the  term  empiric 
is  generally  applied  to  quacks  and  pre- 
tenders, without  reference  to  its  strict 
etymology,  which  should  have  limited  it 
to  the  study  of  medicine,  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  Lord  Bacon's  philos- 
ophy. 

EMPO'RIUM,  a  common  resort  of 
merchants  for  trade  ;  particularly  a  city 
or  town  of  extensive  commerce,  or  in 
which  the  commerce  of  an  extensive  coun- 
try centres,  or  to  which  sellers  and  buy- 
«rs  resort  from  different  countries. 

EMPYRE'U.M,  or  EMPYRE'AN,  a 
term  used  by  divines  for  the  highest  hea- 
ven, where  the  blessed  enjoy  the  beatific 
vision. — Hence  we  have  the  word  empy- 
real, as  pertaining  to  that  region  of  spice 
which  is  refined  beyond  aerial  substance, 
where  only  pure  fire  or  light  is  supposed 
to  exist. 

ENAM'EL,  a  kind  of  colored  glass, 
principally  formed  by  the  combination  of 


different  metalTic  oxyde^,  and  used  in 
enamelling  and  painting  in  enamel. 
Enamels  have  for  their  basis  a  pure 
crystal-glass,  or  frit,  ground  up  with  a 
fine  calx  of  lead  and  tin,  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  with  the  addition  usually  of 
white  salt  of  tartar.  These  ingredients 
baked  together,  are  the  matter  of  all 
enamels,  and  the  color  is  varied  by  add- 
ing other  substances,  and  melting  or  in- 
corporating them  together  in  a  furnace. 
Enamels  are  distinguished  into  trans- 
parent and  opaque  ;  in  the  former  all 
the  elements  have  experienced  an  equal 
degree  of  liquefaction,  and  are  thus  run 
into  crystal  glass,  whilst  in  the  others, 
some  of  their  elements  have  resisted  the 
action  of  heat  more,  so  that  their  particles 
retain  sufficient  aggregation  to  prevent 
the  transmission  of  light.  They  are  used 
either  in  counterfeiting  or  imitating  pre- 
cious stones,  in  painting  in  enamel,  or  by 
enamellers,  jewellers,  or  goldsmiths,  in 
gold,  silver,  and  other  metals.  This  art 
is  of  so  great  antiquity,  as  to  render  it 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  trace  to  its 
origin.  It  was  evidently  practised  by 
the  Egyptians,  from  the  remains  that 
have  been  found  on  the  ornamented  en- 
velopes of  mummies.  From  Egypt  it 
passed  into  Greece,  and  afterwards  into 
Rome  and  its  provinces,  whence  it  was 
probably  introduced  into  Great  Britain 
as  vnrious  Roman  antiquities  have  been 
dug  up  in  different  parts  of  the  island, 
particularly  in  the  barrows,  in  which 
enamels  have  formed  portions  of  the  orna- 
ments.— Painting  in  enamel,  &c.  is  per- 
formed on  plates  of  gold  or  silver,  but 
more  commonly  of  copper,  enamelled 
with  the  white  enamel ;  the  colors  are 
melted  in  the  fire,  where  they  take  a 
brightness  and  lustre  like  that  of  glass. 
This  painting  is  prized  for  its  peculiar 
brightness  and  vivacity,  which  is  very 
permanent :  the  force  of  its  colors  not 
being  effaced  or  sullied  by  time,  as  in 
other  painting,  and  continuing  alwaj's  as 
fresh  as  when  it  came  out  of  the  work- 
man's hands.  The  town  of  Limoges,  in 
the  south  of  France,  has  acquired  a  great 
name  in  the  history  of  the  art  of  enamel- 
ling ;  it  was  particularly  distinguished  in 
the  twelfth  century,  and  its  productions 
wore  called  Opus  de  Limogia  and  Labor 
Ltimogice.  Many  reliquaries  of  that 
time  are  still  extant,  the  sides  and  slop- 
ing roofs  of  which  are  composed  of  plates 
of  copper,  covered  with  etchings  and 
enamel  paintings.  The  most  famous 
artist  in  enamelling  was  Leonard  Limou- 
sin of  Limoges,  from  whom  the  French 


198 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKRAiUUK 


[eno 


works  of  Art  of  that  period  were  called 
Limousins:  other  masters  in  this  art 
were  Pierre  Rexraon,  Jean  Court,  called 
Vigier,  J.  Laudin,  P.  Nouaillior,  the 
master  J.  P.,  who  is  known  to  us  only  by 
his  cipher,  but  whose  works  are  excel- 
lent, displaying  noble  ideas,  and  the  mas- 
ter P.  C,  who  is  held  in  high  estimation. 
As  regards  the  technical  part  of  painting, 
the  works  of  these  masters  rank  far  be- 
low those  produced  in  more  recent  times  ; 
they  are  rather  illuminated  line-draw- 
ings, with  a  glazed  transparency  of  color, 
or  monochrome  paintings,  the  naked  fig- 
ures being  well  modelled  and  generally 
of  a  reddish  tint ;  the  ornaments  in  gold 
and  the  gilded  lights  make  the  paintings 
appear  rich  and  brilliant.  In  the  course 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  technical 
part  of  the  art  of  enamel  painting  im- 
proved considerably,  progressing  from 
monochrome  to  that  in  various  colors. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries, 
the  art  arrived  at  technical  perfection, 
and  real  pictures  were  produced  with  the 
softest  and  most  delicate  gradations  of 
color.  But  the  works  of  this  period  were 
of  very  small  dimensions,  the  paintings 
being  sometimes  on  silver,  but  generally 
upon  gold,  and  principally  portrait  me- 
dallions, for  which  the  art  was  now  em- 
ployed. Much  that  was  excellent  was 
produced,  but  in  historical  representation 
the  artists  followed  the  degenerate  style 
of  the  compositions  of  those  days,  so  that 
these  works,  in  spite  of  their  technical 
perfection,  must  rank  below  those  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

ENAMEL  PAINTING  on  Lava,  a 
newly-invented  stj'le  of  painting  very 
serviceable  for  monuments.  This  inven- 
tion of  enamelling  upon  stone,  discovered 
in  France,  and  well  known  in  Germany, 
has  produced  a  kind  of  painting  having 
all  the  advantages  of  color  and  treat- 
ment, and  the  great  recommendation  of 
being  nearly  indestructible.  The  material 
used  was  discovered  by  Count  Chabrol  de 
Volvic;  it  consists  of  volvic  stone,  and 
lava  from  the  mountains  of  Auvergne. 
The  method  of  painting  is  a  now  kincl  of 
enamelling,  and  has  been  used  by  Abel 
du  Pujol  and  others  in  various  works  of 
Art ;  for  example,  the  altar  of  the  church 
of  St.  Elizabeth,  at  Paris  ;  it  has  recently 
been  used  in  architecture  by  llittorf  of 
Cologne,  for  the  exterior  of  buildings. 
In  Paris  there  are  several  tablets  paint- 
ed with  figures  in  the  Arabesque  and 
Pompeiian  styles,  which  have  excited 
great  admiration  by  the  case    and   yet 


preciseness  of  the  treatment,  as  well  as 
by  the  firmness  of  the  materials,  for  a 
sharp  piece  of  iron  might  be  drawn  ovei 
them  without  injuring  the  painting. 

ENCE'NIA,  in  antiquity,  anniversary 
feasts  to  commemorate  the  completing  or 
consecrating  any  new  and  public  work, 
&c.  In  modern  times,  this  term  is  used 
for  any  commemorative  festival. 

ENCAMP'MENT,  the  act  of  pitching 
tents  for  the  accommodation  of  an  army 
in  the  open  country. 

ENCAU.S'TIC  PAINTING,  a  peculiar 
mode  of  painting  in  wa.x,  liquefied  by 
fire  ;  by  which  the  colors  acquire  consid- 
erable hardness,  brilliance,  and  durabil- 
ity. Ancient  authors  often  mention  this 
species  of  painting,  but  we  have  no  an- 
cient pictures  of  this  description,  and, 
therefore,  the  precise  manner  formerly 
adopted  is  not  completely  developed, 
though  many  moderns  have  closely  in- 
vestigated the  subject  and  described  their 
processes.  As  the  thing  chiefly  regarded 
in  encaustic  painting  was  the  securing  of 
permanence  and  durability,  by  the  ap- 
plication of  fire,  the  word  evcaustic  has 
been  applied,  in  a  very  general  sense,  to 
other  processes,  in  which  both  the  mate- 
rial and  the  mode  of  applying  the  heat, 
are  entirely  different  from  what  is  con- 
ceived to  have  been  the  ancient  materials 
and  modes.  The  moderns  have  used  the 
term  for  painting  on  porcelain,  and  work 
in  enamel ;  and  in  the  same  way  it  was 
given  to  the  painting  on  glass  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  such  as  is  still  seen  in  the  win- 
dows of  some  Gothic  churches.  It  has 
also  been  just  as  erroneously  applied  to 
works  in  metal ;  where  gold  and  silver 
were  inlaid,  melted,  or  laid  on,  and  of 
everything  which  was  gilt  or  silvered  by 
fire  ;  which  was  called  gold  or  silver  en- 
caustic. 

ENCHANT'MENT,  the  use  of  magic 
arts  and  spells,  or  the  invocation  of  de- 
mons, in  order  to  produce  wonderful  or 
supernatural  eff'ects. 

ENCIIA'SING,  or  CHA'SING,  the  art 
of  enriching  and  beautifying  gold,  silver, 
Ac,  by  some  design  represented  thereon, 
in  low  relievo.  It  is  performed  by  punch- 
ing, or  driving  out  the  metal,  to  form  the 
figure,  from  within  side,  so  as  to  stand  out 
prominently  from  the  plane  or  surface 
of  the  metal. 

ENCIIYRID'ION,  a  manual  or  small 
volume. 

ENCLIT'IC,  in  grammar,  a  particle 
so  closely  united  with  any  other  word  as 
to  seem  to  be  part  of  it,  as  que,  in  vi- 
rumque. 


enf] 


AND    TilK     FINE    AlllS. 


199 


ENCOMBOMA,  a  portion  of  Greek 
costume  consist- 
ing of  a  kind  of 
apron,  fastened 
loosely  round  the 
loins  by  being  gii- 
thered  into  a 
knot.  It  was  worn 
chiefly  by  young 
maidens ;  its  use 
appears  to  have 
been  to  keep  the 
tunic  clean.  The 
annexed  woodcut 
represents  ay  oung 
female  playing  on 
the  double  pipes, 
probably  an  at- 
tendant in  the 
scene  of  some 
play. 

ENCORE',  a 
word  signifying 
again;  used  by 
the  audience  at 
theatres,  and  other  places,  when  they 
call  for  a  repetition  of  a  particular  song, 
&c. 

ENCRATI'TES,  in  church  history,  a 
sect  which  appeared  towards  the  end  of 
the  second  century  :  they  were  called  en- 
cratites,  or  continentes,  because  they  ab- 
stained from  marriage,  and  the  use  of 
wine  and  animal  food. 

ENCROACH'MENT,  in  law,  an  un- 
lawful intrusion  or  gaining  upon  the 
rights  and  possessions  of  another. 

ENCYCLOPE'DIA,  a  general  system 
of  instruction  or  knowledge,  embracing 
the  principal  facts  in  all  branches  of 
science  and  the  arts,  properly  digested, 
and  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  See 
Cyclopedia. 

ENDEM'IC,  a  disease  peculiar  to  a 
certain  class  of  persons,  or  to  a  certain 
district.  Thus  agues  or  intermittent 
fevers  are  endemic  in  low  countries, — the 
goitre  in  the  Alps,  the  jjUcu  Poloiuca  in 
Poland. 

ENDORSING,  the  writing  one's  name 
on  the  back  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or 
check :  by  which  responsibility  for  its 
amount  is  incurred,  if  duly  presented  and 
not  paid. 

ENDOWMENT,  in  law,  the  act  of 
giving  or  assuring  a  dower  to  a  womnn. 
Also,  the  as'signing  certain  rents  ami  rev- 
enues for  the  maintenance  of  a  viear, 
almshouses,  &c — The  word  etidowmen* 
has  also  a  more  enlarged  signification, 
implying  any  quality  or  faciilt}'  bestowed 
on  man  by  the  Creator. 


ENDRO'MIS,  a  cloak  mailc  of  warm 
coarse  materials  liko  a  blanket,  used  to 
throw  over  those 
who  were  heated 
by  the  foot  race; 
or,  after  athletic 
exercises,  to  pro- 
tect the  wearer 
from  the  effects  of 
exposure  to  cold. 
In  more  recent 
times      the     name 


was  applied  to  a 
luxurious  garment 
worn  by  women, 
especially  those  of 
Rome.  Figures 
clothed  in  the  En- 
dromis  are  of  fre- 
quent occurence  in 
works  of  Art  relat- 
ing to  the  exer- 
cises of  the  gym- 
nasium. This  word 
also  designates  the 
hunting  boots  worn 
by  Diana,  as  being 
peculiarly  suitable  for  the  chase,  the  toes 
being   left  uncovered. 

E  N  D  Y '  M  I  0  N,  according  to  some,  a 
huntsman,  according  to  others,  a  shep- 
herd, and  according  to  a  third  account,  a 
king  of  Elis.  lie  is  said  to  have  asked 
of  Jupiter,  w!-,om  many  have  called  his 
father,  eternal  youth  and  immortality. 
His  beauty  excited  passion  even  in  the 
cold  Diana,  tind  hence  he  has  served  in 
all  ages  as  an  ideal  of  loveliness,  and 
Diana's  love  to  him  as  that  of  the  ten- 
derest  affection.  He  is  most  generally 
conceived  as  sleeping  in  the  wood,  where 
the  mild  rays  of  the  moon  kiss  his  slum- 
bering eyes. 

EN'EMY',  in  a  political  sense,  any  one 
belonging  to  a  nation  with  whom  our  own 
country  is  at  war. — In  law,  it  denotes  an 
alien  or  foreigner,  who  in  a  public  capaci- 
ty, and  with  a  hostile  intention,  invades 
any  kingdom. 

EN  ERGY,  the  internal  or  inherent 
power,  virtue,  or  efficacy  of  a  thing;  as, 
Danger  will  rouse  our  dormnnt  energies, 
into  action  ;  the  administration  of  the 
laws  requires  eitergij  in  the  magistrate. 
It  also  signifies  the  momentum  which 
any  simple  or  compound  borly  exhibits, 
bv  causes  ohvifius  or  concealed. 

"EXER'VATE,  to  deprive  of  nerve, 
force,  or  strength  ;  as,  idleness  and  luxu- 
ry enervate  both  body  and  mind. 

ENFEOFF'MENt,  in  law,  the  act  of 
giving  the  fee  simple  of  an  estate 


200 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEUATLRE 


[esq 


ENFILADE',  in  military  tactics,  is 
used  in  speaking  of  trenches,  or  other 
phiL-cs,  which  may  be  seen  and  scoured  by 
the  enemy's  shot  along  the  whole  length 
of  a  line. 

EXFRAX'CHISEMEXT,  in  law,  the 
incorporating  a  person  into  any  society  or 
body  politic  ;  to  admit  to  the  privileges 
of  a  freeman. 

ENGA'UED  COLUMNS,  in  architect- 
ure, columns  attached  to  walls,  by  which 
a  portion  of  them  is  concealed ;  they 
never  stand  less  than  one  half  out  from 
the  walls. 

EXCIAGE'MENT,  a  word  used  in  dif- 
ferent senses.  Any  obligation  by  agree- 
ment or  contract,  is  an  engagement  to 
perform,  &c. ;  the  conflict  of  armies  or 
fleets  is  an  engagement ;  and  any  occu- 
pation, or  emploj'ment  of  the  attention, 
is  likewise  cnlled  an  engagement. 

EN'GLISH,  the  language  spoken  by 
the  people  of  England,  and  their  de- 
scendants in  India,  North  America,  and 
the  British  colonies.  The  ancient  lan- 
guage of  Britain  is  generally  allowed  to 
have  been  the  same  with  that  of  the 
Cauls  ;  this  island,  in  all  probability, 
having  been  first  peopled  from  Gallia,  as 
both  CcBsar  and  Tacitus  prove  by  many 
strong  and  conclusive  arguments.  Julius 
Cii3sar,  sometime  before  the  birth  of  our 
Saviour,  made  a  descent  upon  Britain, 
though  he  may  be  said  rather  to  have 
discovered  than  conquered  it :  but,  about 
the  year  45,  in  the  time  of  Claudius, 
Aulus  Plautius  was  sent  over  with  some 
lloman  forces,  by  whom  two  kings  of  the 
Britons,  Codigunus  and  Caractacus,  were 
both  signally  defeated  :  whereupon  a  Ko- 
man  colony  was  planted  at  Maiden  in 
Essex,  ancl  the  southern  parts  of  the 
island  were  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  llo- 
man province.  Britain  was  subsequently 
conc|uered  as  far  north  as  the  friths  of 
Dumbarton  and  Edinburgh,  by  Agrieola, 
in  the  time  of  Domitian  ;  and  a  great 
number  of  the  Britons,  in  the  conquered 
jiart  of  the  i.-land  retired  to  the  western 
part,  called  Wales,  where  their  language 
ciintinued  to  be  spoken  without  any  for- 
eign adini.xturo.  Tin;  greatest  i)art  of 
Britain  b(^ing  thus  beciome  a  lloman 
provinc",  the  lloman  legions,  wlio  resided 
in  Uritain  for  above  two  hundred  years, 
undoubtedly  disseminated  the  Latin 
longue  ;  and  the  people  being  afterwards 
governed  by  laws  written  in  Latin,  it 
must  have  necessarily  followed  tliat  the 
language  would  undergo  a  considerable 
change.  In  fact,  the  Itrilisii  tongue  con- 
tinued,  lor  .-omo  time,    mi.xed   with  the 


provincial  Latin ;  but  at  length,  the  de- 
clining state  of  the  lloman  empire  ren- 
dered the  aid  of  the  Roman  legions  ne- 
cessary at  home,  and  on  their  abandoning 
the  island,  the  Scots  and  Picts  took  the 
opportunity  to  attack  and  harass  South 
Britain  :  upon  which,  Vortigern,  the  king, 
about  the  year  440,  called  the  Sa.xons  to 
his  assistance,  who  coming  over  with 
several  of  their  neighboring  tribes,  re- 
pulsed the  Scots  and  Picts,  and  wer« 
rewarded  for  their  services  with  the  ish 
of  Thanet,  and  the  whole  county  of  Kent 
Growing  at  length  too  ]OTwerful,  and  no 
being  contented  with  their  allotment 
they  dispossessed  the  inhabitants  of  al 
the  country  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sev- 
ern ;  and  thus  the  British  language  wag 
in  a  great  measure  destroyed,  and  that 
of  the  Saxons  introduced  in  lieu  of  it. 
What  the  Saxon  tongue  was  long  before 
the  Conquest,  viz.  about  the  year  709, 
may  be  seen  in  the  most  ancient  manu- 
script of  that  language,  which  is  a  gloss 
on  the  Evangelists,  by  bishop  Eadfride, 
in  which  the  three  first  articles  of  the 
Lord's  praj-er  run  thus :  "  Uren  fader 
thic  arth  in  heofnas,  sic  gehalgud  tiiin 
noma,  so  symeth  thin  ric.  Sic  thin  willa 
sue  is  heofnas,  and  in  eortho,  &c."  In 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  the 
Danes  invaded  England,  and  getting  a 
footing  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts 
of  the  country,  their  power  gradually  in- 
creased, and  in  about  two  hundred  years 
they  became  its  sole  masters.  ]{y  this 
means  the  ancient  English  obtained  a 
tincture  of  the  Danish  language  :  but  their 
government,  being  of  no  long  continu- 
ance, did  not  make  so  groat  an  alteration 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon,  as  the  next  revolu- 
tion, when  tlio  whole  land,  A  n.  10()7,  was 
subdueil  by  William  the  Conqueror,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  in  France  :  for  the  Nor- 
mans, as  a  monument  of  their  conquest, 
endeavored  to  make  their  language  as 
generally  received  as  their  commands : 
and  thereby  the  English  language  be- 
came an  entire  medley.  Aljout  the  year 
000,  the  Lord's  prayer  in  the  ancient  \n- 
glo-Saxon,  read  as  follows :  "  Thu  ure 
fader  the  eart  on  heofenum,  si  thin  nania 
gchalgod  ;  cumo  thin  rice  si  thin  willa  on 
eorthan  swa,  swa  on  heofnuin,  ite."  And, 
about  the  year  IIGO,  ])ope  Adrian,  an 
Englishman,  thus  rendered  it  in  rhyme : 

"  Uio  fmler  in  heaven  rich, 
Thy  niime  lie  hayluil  ever  lich, 
Thou  hnuf  iis  Ihy  micholl  hiisse : 
A  Is  hit  in  heaven  y-<li)e, 
Kvar  III  yeiirth  hetnu  it  also,  fee." 

It   continued    to   und(M-go  various  mut;v 


engJ 


AND    THE    FIXE    AIITS. 


201 


tions.  till  the  year  1537,  when  the  Lord's 
prayer  was  thus  printuJ  :  "  0  oiirc  father 
which  •ftrto  in  heven,  halowed  be  thy 
name  :  let  thy  kinj^doine  come,  thy  will 
be  fulfiled  as  well  in  erth  as  it  is  in 
hcven  ;  gave  us  this  daye  in  dayly  bred, 
&c."  Here,  it  may  be  observed,  the  dic- 
tion is  brought  almost  to  the  present 
standard,  the  chief  variations  being  only 
in  the  orthography.  By  these  instances, 
and  many  others  that  might  be  given,  it 
appears,  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  language, 
which  the  Normans  in  a  great  measure 
despoileil  and  rendered  obsolete,  had  its 
beauties,  was  significant  and  emphatical, 
and  preferable  to  what  they  substituted 
for  it.  "  Great,  verily,"  saj's  Camden, 
"  was  the  glory  of  our  tongue,  before  the 
Norman  Conquest,  in  this,  that  the  old 
•  English  could  express,  most  aptly,  <all 
the  conceptions  of  the  mind  in  their  own 
tongue,  without  borrowing  from  any." 
Of  this  he  gives  several  examples.  After 
the  Conquest,  it  was  ordained  that  all 
law  proceedings  should  be  in  the  Norman 
language  ;  and  hence  the  early  records 
and  reports  of  law  cases  came  to  be 
written  in  Norman.  But  neither  royal 
authority,  nor  the  influence  of  courts, 
could  absolutely  change  the  vernacular 
language.  After  an  experiment  of  three 
hundred  years,  the  law  was  repealed ; 
and  since  that  period,  the  English  has 
been,  for  the  most  part,  the  official  as 
■well  as  the  common  language  of  the  na- 
tion. Since  the  Norman  invasion,  the 
English  has  not  suffered  any  shock  from 
the  intermixture  of  conquerors  with  the 
natives  of  England  ;  but  the  language 
has  undergone  great  alterations,  by  the 
disuse  of  a  large  portion  of  Saxon  words, 
and  the  introduction  of  words  from  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages,  with  some 
French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  words. 
These  words  have,  in  some  instances, 
been  borrowed  by  authors  directly  from 
the  Latin  and  Greek  ;  but  most  of  the 
Latin  words  have  been  received  through 
the  medium  of  the  French  and  Italian. 
For  terms  in  the  sciences,  authors  have 
generally  resorted  to  the  Greek ;  and 
from  this  source,  as  discoveries  in  science 
demand  new  terms,  the  vocabulary  of  the 
Jjnglish  tongue  is  receiving  continual 
augmentation.  It  has,  also,  a  few  words 
from  the  German  and  Swedish,  mostly 
terms  in  mineralogy  ;  and  commerce  has 
introduced  new  commodities  of  foreign 
growth  or  manufacture,  with  their  for- 
eign names,  which  now  make  a  part  of 
our  language.  It  may  then  he  stated, 
that   the    English    is   composed    of,    1st, 


Saxon  and  Danish  words  of  Teutonic  and 
Gothic  origin.  2nd,  British  or  Welsh, 
which  may  be  considered  as  of  Celtic 
origin.  3rd,  Norman,  a  mixture  of 
French  and  Gothic.  4th,  Latin.  5th, 
French.  6th,  Greek.  7th,  A  few  words 
directly  from  the  Italian,  Spanish,  (ier- 
raan,  and  other  languages  of  the  conti- 
nent. 8th,  A  few  foreign  words,  intro- 
duced by  commerce,  or  by  political  or 
literary  intercourse.  Of  these  the  Saxon 
words  constitute  our  mother  tongue. 
The  Danish  and  Welsh  also  are  primi- 
tive words,  and  may  be  considered  as 
part  of  our  vernacular  language. 

ENGRA'VING,  the  art  of  producing  by 
incision  or  corrosion  designs  upon  blocks 
of  wood,  plates  of  metal,  or  other  mate- 
rials, from  which  impressions  or  prints 
upon  paper  or  other  soft  substances  are 
obtained  by  pressure.  Engraving,  as  an 
art,  seems  to  have  nearly  the  same  rela- 
tion to  design  and  painting  as  typography 
bears  to  written  language  ;  and  its  utility 
and  great  importance  must  be  obvious  to 
every  one  from  its  capability  of  giving  a 
boundless  circulation  to  representations 
of  the  most  valuable  examples  of  the  arts 
and  of  objects  connected  with  science. 
Xylograph}',  or  wood-engraving,  was  the 
earliest  method  practised  ;  but  its  origin 
is  involved  in  obscurity.  It  is  possible 
that  it  was  known  in  China  1120  years 
before  Christ ;  though  we  think  its  inven- 
tion is  of  a  much  later  period,  as  the  Chi- 
nese were  not  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
making  paper  till  95  B.C.  It  has  been 
stated  that  this  art  was  introduced  into 
Europe  from  China  through  the  inter- 
course of  the  Venetian  merchants  with 
its  inhabitants  ;  for  it  is  proved  that  en- 
graving on  wood  had  been  practised  in 
that  part  of  Italy  which  borders  on  the 
Adriatic  as  early  as  the  13th  century. 
The  first  wood  engravings  in  Europe  of 
which  anything  is  known  with  certainty, 
were  executed  in  1285,  by  a  brother  and 
sister  of  a  noble  family  of  the  name  of 
Cunio.  They  represent  the  actions  of 
Alexander.  But  for  the  accidental  dis- 
covery by  a  Venetian  architect  of  the 
name  of  Temanza  of  a  decree  of  the 
magistracy  of  Venice,  in  1441,  we  might 
have  been  without  positive  j)roof  of  the 
practice  of  the  art  in  Italy  previous  to 
1467,  and  the  Germans  might  still  jiave 
continued  to  claim  the  honor  of  its  intro- 
duction into  Europe.  This  decree  plainly 
indicates  that  wood  engraving  was  prac- 
tised in  Venice  as  early  as  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fifteenth  century.  In  Ger- 
many and  the   Low  Countries,  the  early 


202 


CVtLOrEDlA     OF     LITERATURE 


[eng 


block  books  seem  to  have  existerl  as  early 
as  l-i'20,  and  to  have  given  Guttenburg 
the  hint  for  using  movable  types.  Ac 
Home,  in  1467,  a  woik  intituled  Medlta- 
tiones  Johanni^  de  Tarrecremala  issued 
from  the  press  of  Ulric  Han,  embellished 
with  wood  engravings,  in  which  the  de- 
sign and  execution  of  an  Italian  artist 
are  evident.  The  decorations  of  the 
Work  of  Valturius  bj'  Mattco  Pasti,  of 
Verona,  published  five  years  afterwards, 
exhibit  cnnsiderable  spirit  and  accuracy  ; 
and  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cent- 
ury the  art  had  been  carried  to  great 
perfection,  as  may  be  proved  by  the  deli- 
cacy and  purity  with  which  the  designs 
are  engraved  in  the  celebrated  Ilypnero- 
tomachia  of  Colonna.  At  this  period,  how- 
ever, the  discovery  of  copper-plate  en- 
graving had  been  made,  and  to  this  the 
more  ancient  art  yielded  place.  Maso 
Finiguerra,  a  goldsmith  and  sculptor  of 
Florence,  and  pupil  of  Masaccio,  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  seems 
from  the  most  authentic  accounts  to  have 
been  the  person  to  whom  the  world  is  in- 
debted fur  the  discovery.  Finiguerra 
was  followed  by  Baccio  Baldini,  a  gold- 
smith of  Florence.  His  works  were  nu- 
merous, and  are  of  course  much  sought 
after  by  collectors.  Botticelli,  a  painter 
of  eminence  as  well  as  an  engraver,  was  a 
native  of  Florence,  where  he  was  born  in 
1437.  He  is  spoken  of  with  praise  by 
Vasari,  and  especially  for  his  picture  at 
San  I'ietro  Maggiore,  of  the  assumption 
of  the  Virgin:  among  the  works  he  en- 
graved from  his  own  designs  are  subjects 
illustrative  of  Dante,  and  a  number  of 
prints  of  prophets  and  sibyls.  His  death 
occurred  in  1.51.5.  Contemporary  with 
him  flourished  Antonio  del  Pollajuolo, 
and  rather  later  Ghcrardo  and  Kobetta, 
who  advanced  the  art  ;  though  it  was 
still  dry  in  execution,  and  more  to  be  ad- 
mired for  correctness  of  drawing  and  de- 
sign than  for  any  attempt  at  relief  or 
effect.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  at 
this  period  the  art  was  practised  at 
Home,  though  the  Venetian  state  and 
other  parts  of  the  no,  Ih  of  Italy  fur- 
nished a  more  abundant  supply  of  artists. 
In  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries  the 
art  of  engraving  had  male  extraordinary 
progress  during  the  fifteenth  cfMitiirv; 
and  the  name  of  Martin  Scliocn  or  .'>chiin- 
gauer  must  not  be  forgotten.  This  artist, 
who  was  also  a  painter  and  goldsmith, 
was  the  father  of  the  (Jerman  school  of 
engraving.  He  was  a  native  of  Culm- 
bach  in  Franconia,  and  born  about  1420. 
He  began  the  i)raclice  of  the  art  wiieu  it 


was  in  its  infancy,  and  succeeded  in  car- 
rying it  to  a  great  degree  of  perfection. 
His  death  occurred  at  Colinar  in  1486. 
Vasari  relates  that  Michael  Angelo, 
when  young,  was  so  pleased  with  a  print 
by  Sehongaiier,  representing  St.  Anthony 
tormented  by  devils,  that  he  copied  it  in 
colors.  Albert  Durer,  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  ^arly  engravers  of  Germany,  was 
born  at  Nuremburg,  in  1471.  Skilled  in 
many  arts,  and  a  painter  of  no  ordinary 
powers,  it  is  astonishing  that,  in  a  life 
not  exceeding  fifty-eight  years,  he  should 
have  succeeded  so  eminently  in  that  of 
engraving  that  he  has  even  hardly  been 
surpassed.  On  copper  as  well  as  wood 
his  works  exhibit  specimens  of  executive 
excellence,  which  the  experience  of 
centuries  has  not  been  able  to  surpass. 
Durer  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  in-* 
ventor  of  the  art  of  etching,  at  least  no 
etchings  are  known  before  those  which 
are  extant  from  his  hand.  Of  the  works 
he  has  left,  which  are  very  numerous, 
his  wood  engravings  are  the  most  free 
and  masterly.  Following  Albert  Uurcr 
were  Aldegrever  his  pupil,  Hans  Beham 
and  his  brother  Bartholomew,  Altdorfer, 
Binck,  Goerting,  Penz,  and  Solis.  Hans 
Holbein,  who,  according  to  some  was  a 
native  of  Basle,  and  according  to  others 
of  Augsburg,  besides  acquiring  celebrity 
as  a  painter,  is  known  as  an  engraver  on 
wood,  executed  many  pieces :  the  best 
known  and  most  remarkable  of  which  are 
the  fifty-three  prints  called  the  "  Dance 
of  Death,"  first  published  about  1530. 
Of  the  Dutch  and.  Flemish  schools  Lucas 
van  Lcyden  must  be  considered  the  head. 
Born  in  1494,  at  the  place  whence  he  de- 
rives his  name,  he  was  the  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Albert  Durer;  to  whom, 
though  inferior  in  design,  he  was  supe- 
rior in  composition.  His  works,  which 
were  both  on  wood  and  copper,  are  few  in 
number.  The  Low  Countries  furnished  a 
host  of  engravers,  among  whom  we  think 
it  unnecessary  to  name  more  than  the 
Sadclers ;  Bloemart,  who  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  principles  upon  which  lines  be- 
come capable  of  expressing  quality,  color 
and  chiaro  oscuro,  which  the  French  en- 
gravers afterwards  improved;  Goltzius 
and  his  pupils;  Muller;  and  Lucas 
Kiliau  :  the  three  last,  though  they 
handled  the  graver  with  great  freedom 
and  dexterity,  fell  into  boundless  absurd- 
ity and  extravagance  which,  however, 
were  tempered  and  corrected  by  Mathieu 
and  Saenredam.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  two  Bolswerts 
appeared,    whose   style    was    much   im- 


ENO] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


203 


proved  b}'  the  instructions  of  Rubens. 
Vosterman,  Pontius,  and  Peter  de  Jode 
tUo  younger,  were  of  this  school,  which  is 
distinguished  for  the  success  and  correct- 
ness witli  which  it  transferred  the  picture 
to  the  copper.  Kembrandt,  notwithstand- 
ing all  his  faults  and  absurdities,  claims 
a  special  notice  in  this  place  as  an  en- 
graver. The  Descent  from  tlie  Cross, 
and  the  print  called  "Hundred  Guilder 
Print,"  are  extraordinary  efforts  of  art. 
His  portraits  and  landscapes  are  full  of 
nature,  expression,  and  character  ;  and  it 
is  dithoiilt  to  say  whether  he  is  more  suc- 
cessful in  his  sunshine  effects,  than  in  the 
Bober  solemn  twilight  with  which  his 
varied  subjects  are  enveloped.  Vandyke 
has  left  a  few  specimens  of  etchings  wor- 
thy of  his  name.  Jegher,  Lutma,  and 
above  all  the  family  of  the  Vischers,  ex- 
hibited great  excellence  in  the  art,  which 
continued  to  advance  under  the  hands  of 
Waterloo,  Jacob  Ruysdael,  and  Paul  Pot- 
ter; the  last  of  whom,  in  his  etchings  of 
animals,  displayed  a  scientific  acquaint- 
ance with  drawing  and  anatomy  till  his 
time  unpractised. 

We  must  now  return  to  close  the  brief 
account  of  the  Italian  school,  in  which 
the  appearance  of  Marc  Antonio  Raimon- 
di  forms  the  most  splendid  era.  Born  at 
Bologna  about  1488,  he  became  the  pupil 
of  Raibolini,  an  artist  of  that  city.  His 
master  in  the  art  of  engraving  is,  how- 
ever, unknown.  We  first  hear  of  him  at 
Venice,  whither  Albert  Durer  went  to 
institute  proceedings  against  him  for 
pirating  his  prints,  wliich  had  been 
copied  by  Raimondi  with  such  wonder- 
ful accuracy  th.it  they  were  sold  for  the 
originals.  But  the  proper  sphere  for 
Marc  Antonio  was  Rome,  whither  he 
Boon  bent  his  steps.  There  his  merit 
Eoon  gained  him  the  friendship  and  es- 
teem of  Raffaelle,  then  in  the  plenitude 
of  his  glory,  by  whom  he  was  employed 
to  engrave  from  his  designs.  His  first 
plate  from  a  design  by  Raffaelle  was  the 
Lucretia,  soon  after  which  he  executed 
the  Judgment  of  Paris.  His  engravings 
after  this  master  are  very  numerous ; 
and  though  free  from  the  blandishments 
of  style,  chiaroscuro,  and  local  color  which 
the  art  has  received  since  his  time,  such 
was  his  knowledge  of  drawing,  such  the 
beautiful  character  that  pervailes  his 
works,  that  he  is  entitled  to  the  highest 
rank  in  the  art  to  which  excellence  has 
ever  attained  His  school  attracted  to 
Ri  rac  artists  from  all  parts ;  among 
whom  may  be  enumerated  Marco  de 
Ravenna,  Giulio  Bonasoni,  Agostino  de 


Musis,  Enea  Vico,  and  Nicolo  Beatrici. 
Some  of  the  German  artists  whom  wo 
have  named  above,  viz.,  Bchani,  I'enz, 
and  James  Binck,  resorted  to  Rome  for 
the  benefit  of  his  instructions.  On  the 
death  of  Raffaelle,  he  executed  engrav- 
ings of  some  of  the  works  of  GiuUio 
Romano.  His  last  print,  the  Battle  of 
the  LapithiB,  is  dated  153'J.  Some  of  the 
principal  pupils  of  Marc  Antonio  have 
already  been  named ;  to  them  may  be 
added  Georgio  Oirisi,  commonly  called 
Mantuanus,  and  others  of  his  family. 
Man}'  of  the  Italian  painters  were  ex- 
tremely successful  in  engraving,  among 
whom  Titian  etched  many  landscapes  ; 
but  none  cultivated  the  art  with  more 
success  than  Agostino  Caracci,  who  studied 
under  Cornelius  Cort,  a  Dutch  engraver, 
born  at  Hoorn  in  1.536.  His  design  and 
execution  are  equally  to  be  admired  ;  and 
had  he  but  concentrated  his  lights  more, 
and  attended  to  local  color,  he  would 
have  been  exceeded  by  none.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  Delia  Bella,  Callot, 
who,  though  born  in  France,  belongs  to 
the  Italian  school,  Guercino,  Salvator 
Rosa,  and  Claude,  continued  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  art.  At  the  latter  end  of 
this  century  was  born  Antonio  Canaletti, 
originally  a  scene  painter,  like  his  father 
Bernardo.  His  etchings  opened  an  en- 
tirely new  field  in  architectural  engrav- 
ing, and  may  be  considered  almost,  if 
not  quite,  the  first  in  which  fine  spark- 
ling effects  of  light  are  introduced,  and 
in  which  the  darkest  shadows  partake  of 
the  transparency  and  clearness  which 
nature  herself  exhibits.  Piranesi,  who 
was  born  in  Venice,  and  died  in  1770, 
appeared  about  the  middle  of  that  cen- 
tury ;  he  was  one  of  the  most  surprising 
architectural  engravers  that  have  ever 
existed,  whether  we  consider  the  aston- 
ishing power  or  number  of  his  works. 
His  use  of  the  etching  needle  surp.assed 
all  that  has  been  done  before  or  since  ; 
and  in  our  own  time  Volpato  of  Florence, 
who,  besides  his  other  works,  engraved 
almost  all  the  celebrated  performances 
of  Canova  with  a  delicacy,  grace,  and 
correctness  of  the  first  order. 

The  French  school  commenced  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  with 
Noel  Gamier,  who  was  followed  by  many 
clever  artists  ;  but  till  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  high- 
ly distinguished.  At  that  epoch  we  have 
Gerard  E  lelinck,  who,  though  born  at 
Antwerp,  belongs  properly  to  the  French 
school,  and  Gerard  Audran.  The  former 
of  these,  who  worked  entirely  with  the 


204 


CYCLOTEDIA     OF    LITEUAIUHE 


[exo 


graver,  carried  wliat  is  calleil  color  in  en- 
graving to  a  much  greater  degree  of  per- 
fection than  had  ever  before  been  prac- 
tised. His  facility  was  amazing,  and  por- 
trait and  history  were  equally  ihe  subjects 
of  his  burin.  The  name  of  Audran,  not  less 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  family  hav- 
ing produced  six  engravers,  than  for  Ge- 
rard Audran,  who  engraved  the  well- 
known  battles  of  Alexander  after  Le 
Brun,  is  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  the 
art  ;  his  name,  however,  will  descend  to 
posterity  with  greater  lustre  from  his 
engravings  after  the  Italian  school,  and 
particularly  those  of  Xicolo  Poussin. 
(lerard  Audran  was  born  at  Lj-ons  in 
1640,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1703.  John 
Audran,  the  last  of  the  family  who  exer- 
cised the  art,  and  nephew  of  Gerard,  died 
in  1756.  Nanteuil,  the  three  Drevets, 
of  whom  Peter  was  the  most  eminent, 
Le  Clerc,  Chereau,  Cochin,  Beauvais, 
Simonneau  Dupuis,  and  many  other  mas- 
ters, belong  to  this  period  ;  but  Balechon 
anii  Wille,  towards  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury, outstripped  all  that  had  been  done 
by  their  predecessors.  AVille  was  a  Ger- 
man ;  but  his  residence  having  been 
chiefly  at  Paris,  he  is  always  ranked 
pmong  the  French  engravers.  His  ex- 
traonlinar}'  powers  in  imitating  the 
qualities  of  objects,  and  particularly  of 
satin,  the  smoothness  of  eflect  he  pro- 
duced, and  his  extraordinary  clearness 
in  the  use  of  the  graver,  entitle  him  to  a 
jilaee  of  the  first  rank  in  the  French 
school,  which,  since  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.,  has  been  more  distinguished  for 
its  great  mechanical  skill,  than  for  grace, 
correctness,  and  beauty  in  the  higher  de- 
partments of  the  art. 

Till  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury England  was  indebted  to  foreign 
artists  for  the  embellishment  bestowed 
upon  the  typographical  works  she  pro- 
duced, as  well  as  for  such  engravings, 
either  in  history,  portrait,  or  landscape, 
as  the  taste  of  the  nation  required. 
Among  tlie  artists  who  visited  England 
and  made  it  their  permanent  or  tempo- 
rary residence  were  the  Passes,  Vaillant, 
Hondius,  Vosterman,  Hollar,  Blooteling, 
Dorigny,  and  sf^vcral  others.  Payne, 
who  died  about  1648,  and  Faithornc,  who 
executed  many  historical  pieces  and  por- 
traits in  a  masterly  manner,  were  the 
earliest  English  engravers  deserving  men- 
tion. William  Faithorne,  son  of  the  last 
named,  was  eminent  as  one  of  the  earliest 
incz/.otinto  engravers.  This  invention, 
which  is  usually  attributeil  to  Prince 
Rupert,  is  claimed  by  llcinoken  for  Lieu- 


tenant Colonel  Siegen,  who  was  a  Hessian 
officer,  from  whom  Heineken  says  Prince 
llupe.rt  learned  the  secret,  which  ho 
brought  to  England  on  his  return  with 
Charles  II.  After  the  two  Whites,  father 
and  son,  appeared  Vertue,  who  was  born 
in  1684.  He  was  the  scholar  of  Vandar- 
gucht,  and  from  the  numerous  works  bo 
brought  out  must  have  been  an  artist  of 
great  industry  and  facility.  The  larger 
portion  of  his  labors  was  confined  to  por- 
trait?. The  works  of  Pond  and  Knapton 
can  only  be  mentioned  as  continuing  tho 
history,  though  occasionally  they  possess 
some  spirit ;  but  Vivares,  a  Frenchman 
by  birth,  belonging,  however,  to  the  En- 
glish school,  and  indeed  the  founder  of 
it  in  landscape  engraving,  has  shown  in 
his  engravings  from  the  pictures  of 
Claude,  talents,  the  precursors  of  that 
pre-eminence  in  landscape  engraving 
which  the  English  have  not  only  improved 
upon  but  exclusively  possessed.  Wool- 
lett  carried  execution  to  a  far  greater 
extent  than  Vivares,  uniting  with  that 
engraver's  spirit  all  the  elegance,  clear- 
ness, and  delicacy  of  the  French  school ; 
and  to  these  Woollett  superadiled  every 
beauty  that  mechanical  skill  could  efTcct. 
John  Browne  was  a  cont(;mporary  worthy 
of  Woollett,  whose  works  after  Salvator, 
Both,  and  others,  are  well  executed.  Sii 
Robert  Strange  distinguished  himself  by 
his  great  mechanical  skill,  whence  re- 
sulted beautiful  execution,  by  the  breadth 
he  preserved  in  the  eftecfs  he  copied,  and 
bj-  the  delicacy  he  imparted  to  flesh  in  a 
manner  that  has  never  been  equalled. 
His  principal  engravings  are  from  the 
Italian  painters,  especially  Titian.  Guido, 
and  Corregio,  and  reflect  great  honor  on 
the  English  school,  which  since  his  time 
has  never  been  deficient  in  producing 
artists  of  the  first  class.  Strange  was  a 
native  of  one  of  the  Orkney  islands, 
where  ho  was  born  in  1721,  and  died  in 
1792.  Since  his  time  the  names  of  artists 
of  talent  might  be  here  supplied  to  a  \ery 
great  extent  :  we  shall  merely  mention 
those  of  Basire,  Bartolozzi,  Booker, 
Heath,  Byrne,  Broiuley,  Lowry,  Earlom, 
Raphael,  Smith,  &c.  In  the  {)resent  day, 
the  demand  of  prints  for  the  cnibcllisii- 
ment  of  books  lias  produced  talent  both 
in  England  and  in  the  United  States 
which,  perhaps,  might  be  more  nobly 
employed  in  works  of  a  higher  order, 

T'his^ruring  on.  ]]'ot)</,  or  A"i//oi,Ta- 
plnj. — In  this  branch  of  the  art  the  ma- 
terial used  is  a  block  of  box  or  pear-treo 
wood,  cut  at  right  angles  to  tho  direction 
of  the  fibres,  its  thickness  being  regulated 


ENOJ 


AND    Till':     FINE     ARTS. 


20c 


by  the  size  vif  the  print  to  be  executed. 
The  subject  is  drawn  on  the  block  with  a 
black-lead  pencil,  or  with  a  pen  and  In- 
diau  ink,  taking  caro  that  the  whole 
effect  is  represented  in  the  lines  so  drawn. 
The  whole  of  the  wood  is  then  cut  away, 
except  where  the  lines  are  drawn,  which 
are  left  as  raised  parts  ;  in  which  point 
it  is  that  this  mode  of  engraving  differs 
80  essentially  from  copper-plate  engrav- 
ing, wherein  the  lines  are  cut  out  or 
sunk  in  the  metal,  instead  of  being  raised 
from  it.  The  impressions  from  wood 
blocks  are  taken  in  the  same  manner  as 
from  printing  types. 

Engraving  on  Copper  is  performed  by 
cutting  lines  representing  the  subject  on 
a  copper-plate  by  means  of  a  steel  instru- 
ment ending  in  an  unequal-sided  pyram- 
idal point,  such  instrument  being  called 
a  graver  or  burin.  Besides  the  graver 
there  are  other  instruments  used  in  the 
process  :  viz.,  a  scraper,  a  burnisher,  an 
oil  stone,  and  a  cushion  for  supporting 
the  plate.  In  cutting  the  lines  on  the 
copper  the  graver  is  pushed  forward  in 
the  direction  required,  being  held  in  the 
hand  at  a  small  inclination  to  the  plane 
of  the  copper.  The  use  of  the  burnisher 
is  to  soften  down  lines  that  are  cut  too 
deep,  and  for  burnishing  out  scratches  in 
the  copper  :  it  is  about  three  inches  long. 
The  scraper,  like  the  last,  is  of  steel,  with 
three  sharp  edges  to  it,  and  about  six 
inches  long,  tapering  towards  the  end. 
Its  use  is  to  scrape  off  the  burr,  raised  by 
the  action  of  the  graver.  To  show  the 
appearance  of  the  work  during  its  pro- 
gress, and  to  polish  off  the  burr,  engrav- 
ers use  a  roll  of  woollen  or  felt  called 
a  rubber,  which  is  put  in  action  with  a 
little  olive  oil.  The  cushion,  which  is 
a  leather  bag  about  nine  inches  diame- 
ter filled  with  sand  for  laying  the  plate 
on,  is  now  rarely  used  except  by  writing 
engravers. 

Etching  is  a  species  of  engraving  on 
copper  cr  other  metals  with  a  sharp- 
pointed  instrument  called  an  etching  nee- 
dle. The  plate  is  covered  with  a  ground 
or  varnish  capable  of  resisting  the  action 
of  aquafortis.  The  usual  method  is  to 
draw  the  design  on  paper  with  a  black- 
lead  pencil  ;  the  paper  being  damped  and 
laid  upon  the  plate,  prepared  as  above, 
fith  the  drawing  next  the  etching  ground, 
is  passed  through  the  rolling  press,  and 
thus  the  design  is  transferred  from  the 
pai)er  to  the  ground.  The  needle  then 
scratches  out  the  lines  of  the  design  ;  and 
aquafortis  being  poured  over  the  pmte, 
which  is  bordered  round  with   wax,  it   is 


allowed  to  remain  on  it  long  enough  tc 
corrode  or  bite  in  the  lines  which  the  etch- 
ing needle  has  made.  Etching  with  a  dry 
point,  as  it  is  called,  is  performed  entirely 
with  the  point  without  any  ground,  the 
burr  raisei!  being  taken  off  by  the  scra- 
per. Etching  with  a  soft  groimd  is  used 
to  imitate  chalk  or  black-lead  drawings. 
For  this  purpose  the  ground  is  mixed 
with  a  portion  of  tallow  or  lard,  according 
to  the  teuiperature  of  the  air.  A  piece 
of  thin  paper  being  attached  to  the  plate 
at  the  four  corners  by  some  turner's  pitch 
and  lying  over  the  ground,  the  drawing 
is  made  on  the  paper  and  shadowed  with 
the  black-lead  pencil.  The  action  of  the 
pencil  thus  detaches  the  ground  which 
adheres  to  the  paper,  according  to  the  de- 
gree to  which  the  finishing  is  carried  ;  the 
paper  being  then  removed,  the  work  is 
bit  in  the  ordinary  way.  Stippling  is 
also  e.vecuted  on  the  etching  ground  by 
dots  instead  of  lines  made  with  the  etch- 
ing needle,  which,  according  to  the  inten- 
sity of  the  shadow  to  be  represented,  are 
made  thicker  and  closer.  The  work  is 
then  bit  in.  Etcking  on  Steel  is  executed 
much  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  process 
on  copper.  The  plate  is  bedded  on  com- 
mon glazier's  putt}',  and  a  ground  of 
Brunswick  black  is  laid  in  the  usual  way, 
through  which  the  needle  scratches.  It 
is  then  bit  in,  in  the  way  above  described. 
— Etching  on  Glass.  The  glass  is  cover- 
ed with  a  thin  ground  of  beeswax;  and 
the  design  being  drawn  with  the  etching 
needle,  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  sul- 
phuric acid  sprinkled  over  with  pounded 
flour  or  Derbyshire  spar.  After  four  or 
five  hours  this  is  removed,  and  the  glass 
cleaned  off  with  oil  of  turpentine,  leaving 
the  parts  covered  with  the  beeswax  un- 
touched. This  operation  may  be  inverted 
by  drawing  the  design  on  the  glass  with  a 
solution  of  beeswax  and  turpentine,  and 
subjecting  the  ground  to  the  action  of  the 
acid. 

Mezzotiuto  Engraving. — In  this  spe- 
cies of  engravTng  the  artist,  with  a  knife 
or  instrument  made  for  the  puriiose, 
roughs  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  cop- 
per in  every  direction,  so  as  to  make  it 
susceptible  of  delivering  a  uniform  black, 
smootii,  or  flat  tint.  After  this  proeesa 
the  outline  is  traced  with  an  etching  nee- 
dle, and  the  lightest  parts  are  scraped 
out,  then  the  middle  tints  so  as  to  leave  a 
greater  portion  of  the  ground,  and  so  ou 
according  to  the  depth  required  in  the 
several  parts  of  the  work. 

Steel  Engraving  was  introduced  by 
our  celebrated  countryman,  Mr.  Perkins. 


206 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    UTEKATCRE 


[exo 


The  steel  plate  is  softened  by  being  de- 
prived of  a  part  of  its  carbon  ;  the  en- 
graving is  then  made,  and  the  plate  hard- 
ened again  by  the  restoration  of  the  car- 
bon. The  great  advantage  of  steel  plates 
consists  in  their  hardness,  by  which  they 
are  made  to  yield  an  indefinite  number 
of  impressions ;  wnereas  a  copper  plate 
wears  out  after  2  or  3000  impressions,  and 
even  much  sooner  if  the  engraving  be 
fine.  An  engraving  on  a  steel  plate  may 
be  transferred,  in  relief,  to  a  softened 
Bteel  cylinder  by  pressure  ;  this  cjiinder, 
after  being  hardened,  may  again  transfer 
the  design,  by  being  rolled  upon  a  fresh 
steel  plate  :  thus  the  design  may  be  mul- 
tiplied at  pleasure. 

Aquntinta  Kngrating,  whose  effect 
somewhat  resembles  that  of  an  Indian-ink 
drawing.  The  mode  of  effecting  this  is 
(the  design  being  already  etched)  to  cov- 
er the  plate  with  a  ground  made  of  resin 
and  Burgundy  pitch  or  mastic  dissolved 
in  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  which  is  poured 
over  the  plate  lying  in  an  inclined  posi- 
tion. The  spirit  of  wine,  from  its  rapid 
evaporation,  leaves  the  rest  of  the  com- 
position with  a  granulated  te.'cture  over 
the  whole  of  the  plate,  by  which  means  a 
grain  is  produced  by  the  aquafortis  on 
the  parts  left  open  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  spirit  of  wine.  The  margin  of  the 
plate  is  of  course  protected  in  the  usual 
way.  After  the  aquafortis  has  bitten  the 
lighter  parts  they  are  stopt  out,  and  the 
aquafortis  is  again  applied,  and  so  on  as 
often  as  any  parts  continue  to  require 
more  depth.  Formerly  the  grain  used  to 
be  produced  by  covering  the  copper  with 
a'powder  or  some  substance  which  took  a 
granulated  form,  instead  of  using  the 
compound  above  mentioned  ;  but  this 
process  was  found  to  be  both  uncertain 
and  imperfect.  In  the  compound  the 
grain  is  rendered  finer  or  coarser,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  resin  intro- 
duced. This  mode  of  engraving  was  in- 
vented by  a  Frenchman  of  the  name  of 
St.  Non,  about  1662. 

'Engraving  on  Stone,  or  Lithography. 
■ — A  modern  invention,  by  means  whereof 
impressions  may  be  taken  from  drawings 
made  on  stone.  The  merit  of  this  dis- 
eovery  belongs  to  Aloys  Ponefolder,  a 
musical  performer  of  the  theatre  at  Mu- 
nich about  the  year  1800.  The  following 
are  the  principles  on  which  the  art  of 
lithography  depends  : — First,  the  facility 
with  which  calcareous  stones  imbibe  wa- 
ter; second,  tlie  great  dispo.^ition  they 
have  to  adhere  to  resinous  and  oily  sub- 
itances;  third,  the  affinity  between  each 


other  of  oily  and  resinous  jubytances,  an<^ 
the  power  they  jiossess  of  rejielling  water 
or  a  body  moistened  with  water.  Hence, 
when  drawings  are  made  on  a  polished 
surface  of  calcareous  stone  with  a  resin- 
ous or  oily  medium,  they  are  so  ailhesive 
that  notliing  short  of  mechanical  means 
can  effect  their  separation  from  it,  and, 
whilst  the  other  parts  of  the  stone  take 
up  the  water  poured  upon  them,  the  res- 
inous or  oily  parts  repel  it.  Lastly,  when 
over  a  stone  prepared  in  this  manner  !• 
colored  oily  or  resinous  substance  is  pass- 
ed, it  will  adhere  to  the  drawings  made 
as  above,  and  not  to  the  watery  parts  of 
the  stone.  The  ink  and  chalk  used  in 
lithography  are  of  a  saponaceous  quality  ; 
the  former  is  prepared  in  (Jermany  from 
a  compound  of  tallow  soap,  ))ure  white 
wa.x.  a  small  quantity  of  tallow,  and  a 
portion  of  lamp-black,  all  boileil  together, 
and  when  cool  dissolved  in  distilled  wa- 
ter. The  chalk  for  the  crayons  used  in 
drawing  on  the  stone  is  a  composition 
consisting  of  the  ingredients  above  men- 
tioned, but  to  it  is  added  when  boiling  a 
small  quantity  of  potash.  After  the  ilraw- 
ing  on  the  stone  has  been  executed  and 
is  perfectly  dry,  a  very  weak  solution  of 
vitriolic  acid  is  poured  upon  the  stone, 
which  not  only  takes  up  the  alkali  from 
the  chalk  or  ink,  as  the  case  may  be, 
leaving  an  insoluble  substance  behind  it, 
but  it  lowers  in  a  very  small  degree  that 
part  of  the  surface  of  the  stone  not  drawn 
upon,  and  prepares  it  for  absorbing  water 
with  greater  freedom.  Weak  gum  water 
is  then  applied  to  the  stone,  to  close  its 
pores  and  keep  it  moist.  The  stone  is 
now  washed  with  water,  and  the  daubing 
ink  applied  with  balls  as  in  printing; 
after  which  it  passed  in  the  usual  way 
through  the  press,  the  process  of  water- 
ing and  daubing  being  applied  for  every 
impression.  There  is  a  moile  of  trans- 
ferring drawings  made  with  the  chemical 
ink  on  paper  prepared  with  a  solution  of 
size  or  gum  tragacanth,  which  being  laid 
on  the  stone  and  passed  through  the  press 
leaves  the  drawing  on  the  stone,  and  the 
process  above  described  for  preparing  the 
stone  and  taking  the  impressions  is  car- 
ried into  effect.  In  Germany  many  en- 
gravings are  made  on  stone  with  the 
burin,  in  the  same  way  as  on  copper  ;  but 
the  very  great  inferiority  of  these  to  cop- 
per engravings  makes  it  improbable  that 
this  method  will  ever  come  into  general 
use.  Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tages of  the  art  of  lithography  is  the  e.t- 
traordinary  number  of  copies  that  may 
be    taken    from    a   block.     As   many   as 


bnt] 


AND     illE     FINE     ARTS. 


20Y 


70,000  copies  or  prints  have  been  taken 
from  one  block,  and  the  last  of  them 
nearly  as  good  as  the  first.  Exiiedition 
is  also  gained,  inasmuch  as  a  fifth  more 
copies  can  be  taken  in  the  same  time  than 
from  a  copper-plate  :  and  as  regards  econ- 
omy the  adv;intagc  over  every  other  spe- 
cies of  engraving  is  very  great. 

Zincographij. — This  art,  which  is  of 
very  recent  introduction,  is  similar  in 
principle  to  lithography,  the  surface  of 
the  plates  of  zinc  on  which  it  is  executed 
being  bit  away,  leaving  the  design  prom- 
inent or  in  relief. — A  species  of  engrav- 
ing on  copper,  called  the  medallic,  has 
been  invented  within  the  last  twenty-five 
years.  Its  object  is  to  give  accurate  rep- 
resentations of  medals,  coins,  and  bassi- 
relievi  of  a  small  size.  Some  of  the  im- 
pressions are  exceedingly  accurate  and 
beautiful,  and  appear  so  salient,  that  we 
can  hardly  convince  ourselves  at  first  that 
we  are  looking  upon  a  fiat  surface. 

EXGROSS'ING,  the  writing  of  a  deed 
over  fair,  and  in  proper  legible  charac- 
ters. Among  lawyers  it  more  particu- 
larly means  the  copying  of  an}'  writing 
upon  parchment  or  stamped  paper.  In 
etatute  law,  engrossing  means  the  buying 
up  of  large  quantities  of  any  commodity 
In  order  to  sell  it  again  at  an  unusuall}' 
high  price. 

ENHARMOX'IC  SCALE,  in  music,  a 
icale  in  which  the  modulation  proceeds 
by  intervals  less  than  semitones  ;  that  is, 
by  quarter  tones,  having  two  dieses  or 
«gns  of  raising  or  lowering  the  voice. 

ENIG'MA,  a  proposition  put  in  ob- 
jcure  or  ambiguous  terms  to  puzzle  or 
exercise  the  ingenuity  in  discovering  its 
meaning.  In  the  present  day,  the  enig- 
ma is  only  a  jeu  d'esprit,  or  a  species  of 
amusement  to  beguile  a  leisure  hour; 
but  formally  it  wa.T  a  matter  of  such  im- 
portance that  the  eastern  monarchs  used 
to  send  mutual  embassies  for  the  solution 
of  enigmas.  Every  one  remembers  the 
enigma  which  Samson  proposed  to  the 
Philistines  for  solution ;  and  the  still 
more  famous  enigma  of  the  Sphinx,  the 
iourcj  at  once  of  the  elevation  and  the 
misfortunes  of  OEdipus.  About  the  17th 
jentury  the  enigma,  wl|ich  had  been  for 
ieuturies  neglected  as  a  species  of  liter- 
iry  display,  again  came  into  favor  ;  and 
'n  France  particularly  it  was  cultivated 
ti\i\i  so  much  zeal,  that  several  grand 
treatises  were  dedicate'!  to  its  history  and 
characteristics.  The  best  enigmas  with 
which  we  arc  acquainted  were  written  by 
Schiller,  and  have  been  incorporated  in 
his  works.     Even  in  the  present  day  the 


periodical  literature  of  France  and  Ger- 
many does  not  disdain  this  species  of  writ- 
ing ;  though,  as  was  before  observed,  it 
is  now  employed  generally  for  amuse- 
ment, and  rarely  to  convey  moral  in- 
struction. 

ENNUI,  {fvench,)  a  word  expressive 
of  lassitude,  or  weariness  arising  from 
the  want  of  employment. 

ENS,  among  metaphysicians,  denotes 
entity,  being,  or  existence  :  this  the 
schools  call  ens  reale,  and  ens  positivum, 
to  distinguish  it  from  their  ens  rationis, 
which  exists  only  in  the  imagination. — 
E>is,  among  chemists,  signifies  the  es- 
sence or  virtue  of  any  substance. 

ENSEM'BLE,  {French,)  a  term  u.sed 
in  the  fine  arts  to  denote  the  general  effect 
of  a  whole  work,  without  reference  to  the 
parts.  The  ensemble  of  a  picture,  for 
instance,  may  be  satisfactory  to  the  eye 
of  the  spectator,  though  the  several  parts 
may  not  bear  a  critical  analysis  ;  or,  in  a 
drama,  the  characters  maybe  well  drawn, 
and  yet  it  may  be  deficient  in  the  ensem- 
ble, that  is,  as  a  whole. 

EN  SIFORM,  an  epithet  for  that  which 
resembles  a  sword,  {ensis  ;)  as  an  ensi- 
form  leaf. 

EN'SIGN,  the  flag  or  banner  under 
which  soldiers  are  ranged,  according  to 
the  different  regiments  to  which  they  be- 
long.— Ensign  is  also  the  officer  that 
carries  the  colors,  being  the  lowest  com- 
missioned officer  in  a  company  of  infan- 
try.— Naval  ensign,  is  a  large  banner 
hoisted  on  a  staff,  and  carried  over  the 
poop  or  stern  of  a  ship. 

ENTAB'LATURE,  in  architecture,  the 
architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  at  the  top 
of  a  column,  and  which  is  over  the  capi- 
tal ;  the  horizontal  continuous  work 
which  rests  upon  a  row  of  columns. 

ENTAIL',  in  law,  an  estate  entailed, 
abridged  and  limited  by  certain  condi- 
tions prescribed  by  the  first  donor.  Es- 
tates tail  are  either  general  or  special ; 
and  are  always  less  estates  than  a  fee 
simple. —  To  entail,  is  to  settle  the  de- 
scent of  lands  and  tenements,  by  gift  to 
a  man  and  certain  heirs  specified,  so 
that  neither  the  donee  nor  any  subse- 
quent possessor  can  either  alienate  or  be- 
queath it. 

ENTASIS,  in  architecture,  a  delicate 
and  almost  imperceptible  swelling  of  the 
shaft  of  a  column,  to  be  found  in  almost 
all  the  Grecian  examples,  adopted  to  pre- 
vent the  shafts  being  strictly  frusta  of 
cones.  This  refinement,  which  is  alluded 
to  in  the  second  chapter  of  the  third  book 
of  Vitruvius,  was  first  observed  in  exe- 


208 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATURE 


oution  by  Mr.  Allason  in  1814  in  the 
Athenian  edifices. 

ENTEL'ECHY,  a  peripatetic  term,  in- 
vented by  Aristotle  in  order  to  express 
an  object  in  its  complete  actualization, 
as  opposed  to  merely  potential  existence. 

ENTERTAINMENT,  the  pleasure 
which  the  mind  receives  from  anything 
interesting,  and  which  arrests  the  atten- 
tion. Also,  the  hospitable  reception  of, 
and  amusement  we  provide  for,  our 
guests. — In  a  dramatic  sense,  the  farce 
or  pantomime  which  follows  a  tragedy  or 
comedy. 

ENTHUSIASM,  in  a  religious  sense, 
implies  a  transport  of  the  mind,  whereby 
a  person  vainly  fancies  himself  inspired 
with  some  revelation  from  heaven,  or 
that  his  actions  are  governed  by  a  divine 
impulse.  Devotion,  when  it  does  not  lie 
under  the  check  of  reason,  is  apt  to  de- 
generate into  enthusiasm  ;  and  when  once 
it  fancies  itself  under  the  influence  of  a 
divine  impulse,  it  is  no  wonder  that  it 
should  slight  human  ordinances,  and  trust 
to  the  conceits  of  an  overweening  imagi- 
nation. But  enthusiasm,  in  another 
sense,  when  under  the  control  of  reason 
and  experience,  becomes  a  noble  passion, 
that  forms  sublime  ideas,  and  prompts  to 
the  anient  pursuit  of  laudable  objects. 
Such  is  the  enthusiasm  of  the  poet,  the 
orator,  the  painter,  and  the  sculptor — 
such  is  the  enthusiasm  of  the  patriot,  the 
hero,  the  philanthropist,  and  the  truly 
devout  Christian, 

EN'THYMEME,  among  logicians,  de- 
notes a  syllogism,  perfect  in  the  mind, 
but  imperfect  in  the  expression.  This 
is  the  character  under  which  the  univer- 
sal form  of  reasoning,  or  syllogism,  gen- 
erally presents  itself  in  connected  wri- 
ting. For  example,  the  following  argu- 
ment, if  drawn  out  in  the  correct  logical 
form,  would  stand  thus,  "  All  tyrants 
deserve  death ;  but  Cicsar  is  a  tyrant, 
therefore  Cajsar  deserves  death."  But  in 
the  rapid  diction  of  oratory,  or  poetry,  it 
would  probably  be  expressed  either,  •'  All 
tyrants  deserve  death,  therefore  so  does 
Caesar  ;"  in  which  case  the  minor  pre- 
miss, "  Caesar  is  a  tyrant,"  is  suppressed  : 
or,  "  Csesar  is  a  tyrant  therefore  he  de- 
serves death."  by  .suppressing  the  major 
premi.^s.  Instances  may  be  cited  in 
which  the  enthymemo  consists  merely  of 
one  of  the  premisses  expressed,  while 
both  the  other  premiss  and  the  conclusion 
are  to  he  su)i])li('d  by  a  rapid  exercise  of 
thought.  Thus  in  the  well-known  words, 
''  But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious,  and 
Brutus  is  an  honorable  man,"  the  last  of 


these  propositions  contains  a  complet^e 
argument, — "  what  honorable  men  say  is 
to  be  believed  :  Brutus  is  an  honorable 
man,  therefore  what  Brutus  says  is  to  be 
believed." 

ENTl'EKTIE,  or  ENTIRETY,  in  law, 
the  whole  of  a  thing,  in  distinction  from  a 
moiety  :  thus  a  bond,  damages,  &c.,  are 
said  to  be  entire,  when  they  canujt  be 
apportioned. 

ENTRE  METS,  small  plates,  or  dain- 
ties, set  between  the  principal  dishes  at 
table. — In  music,  the  inferior  and  lesser 
movements  inserted  in  a  composition  be- 
tween those  of  more  importance. 

ENTREPAS',  m  horsemanship,  is  a 
short  broken  pace,  nearly  resembling  an 
amble. 

ENTREPOT',  a  warehouse  or  maga- 
zine for  the  deposit  of  goods. 

ENTKY',  in  law,  the  act  of  taking 
possession  of  lands. — In  commerce,  the 
act  of  setting  down  in  an  account-book 
the  particulars  of  trade;  as  make  an 
entry  of  that  sale,  debt,  or  credit.  Book- 
keeping is  performed  either  by  single  or 
double  entry — Entry,  at  the  custom- 
house, the  exhibition  or  depositing  of  a 
ship's  papers  in  the  hands  of  the  proper 
officers,  and  obtaining  permission  to  land 
the  goods. 

ENU  CLEATE,  to  open  as  a  nucleus  ; 
to  clear  from  knots  or  lumps;  hence,  to 
explain,  or  clear  from  obscurity. 

ENUMERATION,  an  account  of  sev- 
eral things,  in  which  mention  is  made  of 
every  particular  article. — Enumeration, 
in  rhetoric,  is  that  part  of  a  peroration 
in  which  the  orator  recapitulates  the 
principal  points  or  heads  of  the  discourse 
or  argument. 

EN  \T 'RONS,  the  parts  or  places  which 
surround  another  pLoce  ;  as  the  enrii-ons 
of  a  city  or  large  town. 

EN'VOY,  a  person  deputed  by  govern- 
ment to  negotiate  some  affair  with  any 
foreign  prince  or  state.  There  are  en- 
voys ordinary  and  extraordinary,  as  well 
as  ambassadors;  they  are  equally  the 
same  under  the  protection  of  the  law  of 
nations,  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of 
ambassadors,  but,  being  in  rank  below 
them,  they  are  Jiot  treated  with  equal 
ceremony.  The  word  envoy  is  also  some- 
times ap|)lied  to  resident  ministers. 

EN'VY,  a  feeling  that  springs  from 
pride  or  disappointed  ambition,  excited 
by  the  sight  of  another's  superiority  or 
success,  accompanied  with  some  degree  of 
malignity,  and  usually  with  a  desire  to 
dejireciato  him. 

E' PACTS,  in  chronology,  the  e.xcewei 


KPl] 


AND    THE    B'INE    ARTS. 


209 


of  the  solar  month  above  the  lunar  synod- 
ical  month,  and  of  the  solar  ycnr  above  the 
lunar  year  of  twelve  synodical  months. 
The  cpat'ts,  then,  are  either  annual  or 
monthly.  Sujipose  the  new  moon  to  be  on 
the  1st  of  January :  since  the  lunar 
month  is  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes,  3 
seconds,  and  the  month  of  January  con- 
tains 31  days  ;  the  monthly  epact  is  1  day, 
11  hours,  15  minutes,  57  seconds.  The  an- 
nual epact  is  nearly  11  days  ;  the  Julian 
solar  year  being  365  days,  6  hours  ;  and 
the  Julian  lunar  year  354  days,  8  hours, 
48  minutes,  38  seconds.  In  the  ordinary 
tables  of  the  church  calendar  the  epacts 
are  given  only  for  a  single  century  ;  but 
as  the  (jregorian  calendar  now  in  use  de- 
fines precit<ely  the  length  of  the  year, 
tables,  though  somewhat  more  compli- 
cated, have  been  formed,  which  show  the 
epacts  of  every  future  year  in  all  time  to 
come.  The  epacts  were  invented  by 
Luigi  Lilio  Ghiraldi,  more  frequently 
styled  Aloysius  Lilius,  a  physician  of  Na- 
ples, and  author  of  the  Gregorian  Calen- 
dar, for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  days 
of  the  new  moons,  and  thence  the  moon's 
age  on  any  day  of  the  year,  and  conse- 
quently of  regulating  the  church  festi- 
vals. It  is  only  in  ecclesiastical  compu- 
tations that  the  epacts  are  ever  employed  ; 
in  civil  affairs  the  civilized  portion  of 
mankind  have  long  since  laid  aside  the 
use  of  the  lunisolar  year,  and  regulated 
time  entirely  by  the  sun.  In  the  calen- 
dar of  the  Church  of  England,  Easter  and 
the  other  movable  feasts  are  determined 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  old  Romish 
calendar,  e.xcepting  that  the  golden  num- 
bers are  prefi.xed  to  the  da3's  of  the  full 
moons,  instead  of  the  days  of  the  new 
moons.  The  epacts  are  consequently  not 
used.  It  is  desirable  that  the  custom  of 
reckoning  time  by  th'^  moon,  which  had 
its  origin  'n  ignorant  ages,  were  aban- 
doned, and  the  civil  year  adopted  for 
every  purpose. 

EP'ARCHY,  the  prefecture  or  terri- 
tory under  the  jurisdiction  of  an  eparch  or 
governor. 

EPAU'LE,  in  fortification,  the  shoul- 
der of  the  bastion,  or  the  angle  of  the 
face  a;/'  flank  ;  which  is  often  called  the 
auffle  oj  .'"f  cpaule. 

EPAU  Li^MENT,  in  fortification,  a 
work  raised  to  cover  sidewise,  made  of 
earth,  gabions,  &e.  It  also  denotes  a 
mass  of  earth,  called  a  square  orillon, 
raised  to  cover  the  cannon  of  a  casement, 
and  faced  with  a  wall. 

EPAULETTE.^',  distinguishing  orna- 
ments worn  both  by  military  and  naval 

14 


oBBcers.  In  the  different  armies  of  the 
German  states  ensigns  are  not  allowed  to 
wear  epaulettes;  and  hence  the  phrase 
"to  obtain  epaulettes,"  is  synonymous 
with  "  to  become  a  lieutenant."  In  the 
British  army  all  officers  with  the  rank  of 
captain  upwards  wear  two  epaulettes;  all 
under  that  rank  only  one. 

EPENET'IC,  the  laudatory  or  "en- 
comiastic" species  of  oratory:  a  branch 
of  the  Epideictic,  according  to  the  di- 
vision of  Aristotle's  Rhetoric. 

EPEN'THESIS,  a  figure  of  grammar, 
by  which  one  or  more  letters  are  in- 
serted in  the  middle  of  a  word  ;  as  in  the 
Latin  rettuUt  for  retulit. 

EPIIEBEI'UM,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, the  building  appropriated  for  the 
wrestling  and  exercises  of  youth  till  they 
had,  on  their  arrival  at  manhood,  the 
right  to  enter  the  gymnasium. 

EPIIE'BI,  applied  particularly  to  the 
Athenian  youth  between  the  ages  of 
eighteen  and  twenty  years. 

EPH'OI),  in  Jewish  antiquity,  a  part 
of  the  sacerdotal  habit,  being  a  kind  of 
girdle  which  was  brought  from  be- 
hind the  neck 
over  the  two 
shoulders, 
and  hanging 
down  before, 
it  was  extend- 
ed across  the 
stomach, then 
carried  round 
the  waist  and 
used  as  a  gir- 
dle to  the  tu- 
nic. They 
were  of  two 
sorts  ;  one  of 
plain  linen, 
and  the  other 
embroidered 
for  the    high 

priest.  On  the  part  in  front  were  two 
precious  stones,  on  which  were  engr.aven 
the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 
Before  the  breast  was  a  square  piece  or 
breast-plate. 

EPH'ORI,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  ma- 
gistrates established  in  ancient  Sparta  to 
balance  the  regal  power.  The  authority 
of  the  ephori  was  very  great :  they  were 
five  in  numher,  presideil  over  shows  and 
festivals,  had  the  care  of  the  public  mo- 
ney, specially  superintended  the  educa- 
tion of  youth,  and  were  the  arbiters  of 
war  and  peace. 

EP'IC,  a  poem  of  an  elevated  charac- 
ter, describing  generally  the  exploits  of 


210 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIIERATUKE 


[eI'I 


heroes.  This  species  of  pietry  claims  a 
very  ancient  origin,  and  is  universally 
allowed  to  be  the  most  dignified  and  ma- 
jestic to  which  the  powers  of  the  poet  can 
be  directed.  There  are  various  theories 
reg.irding  the  character  of  an  epic  poem  ; 
and  while  some  critics  claim  this  title  e.v- 
clusively  for  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  ITo- 
iiier,  the  A'Jneid  of  Virgil,  and  tlie  Para- 
dise Lust  of  Milton,  others — and  particu- 
larly the  Germans — embrace  in  the  cata- 
logue of  epic  writers  Scott,  Byron,  Pope, 
Moore,  and  Campbell.  Epic  poetrj-  has 
often  been  compared  to  the  drama;  and 
the  es.sential  difference  between  them  is, 
that  description  is  the  province  of  the 
former — action  of  the  latter.  The  emo- 
tions which  epic  poetry  e.vcite  are  not  so 
frequent  and  violent  as  those  produced 
by  dramatic  composition ;  but  they  are 
more  prolonged,  and  more  developed  by 
actual  occurrences;  for  an  epic  poem  em- 
braces a  wider  compass  of  time  and  action 
than  is  admissible  in  the  drama.  History 
has  generally  supplied  the  best  epic  wri- 
ters with  themes;  but  a  close  attention  to 
historical  truth  in  the  development  of  the 
story  is  by  no  means  requisite.  Fiction, 
invention,  imagination,  may  be  indulged 
in  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent ;  pro- 
vided always  the  poet  be  careful  to  pre- 
serve what  the  critics  call  unity,  i.  e.  pro- 
vided his  work  embrace  an  entire  action, 
or  have  a  beginning,  a  middle,  and  an 
end.  This  is  the  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  the  great  epic  poenjs.  If  the 
epic  is  the  highest,  it  is  also  the  most 
difficult  style  of  poetical  composition,  and 
that  in  which  mediocrity  is  least  endura- 
ble ;  and  hence  few  of  the  writers  of  epics 
on  the  classical  model  have  obtained  a 
high  reputation  as  national  poets  in  any 
language.  Virgil  is  the  earliest  imitator 
of  Homer  whose  epic  has  been  preserved, 
and  the  most  successful.  The  other 
Greek  and  Latin  epic  poets  contain  pas- 
sages of  great  beauty  ;  but  their  poems, 
as  wholes,  are  of  an  inferior  order.  In 
the  English  language  there  are  only  two 
epics  which  can  he  said  to  form  part  of 
the  national  literature,  and  those  only  in 
part  fri^med  on  the  classical  model  :  the 
Paradise  Ltost  and  Regained  of  Milton. 
French  epics,  including  even  the  Hcnri- 
ade  of  Voltaire,  so  famous  in  its  time, 
have  no  place  among  the  chefs-d'oeuvre 
of  the  national  literature.  Of  the  great 
Italian  poems,  only  one  (the  Jenisalern 
Delivered  o{  TiiS!i(>)  fulfils  the  conditions 
of  an  epic.  The  poem  of  Dante,  however 
sublime  in  style,  has  no  unity  of  event  or 
action :    those  of  Ariosto,  and  the  other 


Romanzieri.  form  a  class  distinguished 
from  the  epic  by  the  mixture  of  the  seri- 
ous auii  ludicrous.  The  old  German  and 
Spanish  national  poems, — the  Romance 
of  t'te  Cid,  and  the  Nicbelungen-Ijied, 
especially  the  latter,  which  is  closely 
confined  to  the  conduct  of  one  great  ac- 
tion,— although  the  work  of  writere  un- 
skilled in  classical  literature,  deserve  the 
title  of  epic  as  truly  as  those  of  Ilomer. 

EP'ICEXE,  in  grammar,  an  epithet 
for  the  gender  of  such  words  as  are  com- 
mon to  both  sexes. 

EPICHIRE'MA,  in  logic,  a  mod*^  of 
reasoning,  which  comprehends  the  pi  oof 
of  one  or  both  the  premises  of  a  syllo 
gism,  befiire  the  conclusion  is  drawn. 

EPICHIROTONIA,  in  Grecian  an- 
tiquity, the  annual  ceremony  of  revising 
the  laws,  which  was  instituttd  by  Solon. 
They  gave  their  votes  by  holding  up  their 
hands  :  hence  the  name. 

EPICITHARIS'MA,  in  the  ancient 
dramn,  the  last  part  of  the  interlude,  or 
a  flourish  of  music  after  the  play  was 
over. 

EPIC  REPRESENTA'TION,  the  Epos 
or  epic  poem,  relates  a  grand  event  on 
which  important  consequences  depend.  In 
plastic  art,  reliefs  on  walls,  and  friezes, 
and  encaustic,  and  fresco-painting  which 
can  be  executed  on  large  surfaces  as  well 
as  oil-paintings,  by  which  a  considerable 
space  on  canvas  may  be  filled,  are  pe- 
culiarly adapted  for  the  representation 
of  an  Epos,  or  of  a  great  action.  But 
the  artist  has  not,  like  the  poet,  the 
power  of  representing  in  connection, 
those  consequences  of  single  events, 
scones,  &c.,  which  form  the  whole.  The 
limits  of  connection  (with  the  poet  of- 
ten only  single  words,  clever  phrases,  or 
striking  transition*)  are  denied  to  the 
artist,  and  he  must  therefore  limit  him- 
self to  the  means  at  his  command,  of 
showing  in  the  clearest  manner  possible, 
the  point  of  the  event  from  which  its  con- 
sequences are  developed.  The  plastic 
artist  can  and  may  depict  the  moment  of 
an  event  or  a  scene,  including  several 
events  which  he  may  define  or  suggest. 
To  choose  this  moment  rightly,  to  draw 
strikingly,  and  to  execute  intelligibly,  is 
the  important  task,  in  the  performance 
of  which  the  true  master  and  epic  artist 
are  seen.  The  epic  picture,  whether  it 
belong  to  plastic  work  or  painting,  is  thus 
the  representation  of  an  important  action 
of  human  life,  of  ancient  or  modern 
times,  of  distant  or  neighboring  nations, 
of  events  which  have  happened  or  which 
have  been  invented.      It  must  in  e'v  My 


EPiJ 


AND     THE     FINE    ARTS. 


2U 


cas3  ^e  true  or  probable,  i.  e.,  belonging 
to  history  anl  reality,  or  possible ;  iu 
olh'jr  words,  the  circumstances  to  be  rep- 
ro.-enJe  I  must  be  brought  out  cjnt'oruia- 
bly  to  Nature  anj  Art,  anJ  have  nothing 
coutraJictory  ia  themselves.  The  epic 
work,  of  Art,  is  always  only  a  fragment 
(thougii  ail  important  oae)  of  a  classic 
or  romantic,  of  a  more  or  less  historical, 
or  of  a  pure  poetic  epos,  often  the  quin- 
tessence of  an  epos,  but  never  the  epos 
itself.  The  plastic  descriptive  work  of 
Art  is  thus  limite  1  to  the  poetical  im- 
port lut  event,  but  is  in  its  limitation  the 
utmost  concentration  of  history,  while  it 
brings  forward  a  principal  action,  with  a 
short  but  clear  glance  of  the  most  im- 
portant preceding'  and  succeeding  cir- 
cumstances, so  that  all  forms  are  arrang- 
■^d  in  action  in  their  due  relation  to 
each  other,  or  to  the  principal  point  of 
the  picture.  If  this  be  undertaken  with 
genius  and  happily  execute  1  by  a  mas- 
terly hand,  the  whole  will  not  only  at- 
tract the  ej^e  of  the  spectator,  as  a  har- 
monious grouping  of  different  details, 
rich  in  refereuoes,  and  finding  a  centre 
point  of  union  and  conclusion,  but  will 
rivet  his  attention. 

EPICTE'TIAX,  pertaining  to  Epicte- 
tus,  the  .Stoic  philosopher;  a  man  who 
■was  held  in  such  high  esteem,  that  it  is 
said  his  stuly  lamp  was  sold  after  his 
death  for  three  thousand  drachmas. 

EPICURE'AXS,  a  numerous  sect  of 
philosophers  in  Greece  and  Home  :  the 
disciples  of  Epicurus,  who  flourished 
about  300  years  B.C.  They  maintained 
that  sensual  pleasure  was  man's  chief  fe- 
licity ;  that  the  world  was  formed  by  a 
concourse  of  atoms,  and  not  governed  by 
Providence  ;  that  the  gods  resided  in  the 
extramundane  spaces,  in  soft,  inactive 
ease,  and  eternal  tranquillity ;  that  fu- 
ture rewards  and  punishments  were  idle 
chimeras ;  and  that  the  soul  was  extin- 
guished with  the  body.  They  are  men- 
tioned in  the  xviith  chapter  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  Epicurus  himself  main- 
tained a  more  manly  philosophy  than  the 
generality  of  his  followers  ;  he  held,  in- 
deed, that  pleasure  was  the  chief  end  of 
human  pursuit ;  and  this  pleasure  he 
placed  in  an  exemption  from  pain,  and  a 
perfect  tranquillity  of  body  and  mind ; 
but  the  means  which  he  pointed  out  as 
conducive  to  this  end  were  prudence, 
temperance,  fortitude,  and  justice,  in  the 
uniun  of  which  perfect  happiness  consists, 
lie  pursued  pleasure,  therefore,  in  its 
mo.?t  rational  acceptation,  and  his  life 
seems  to  have  been  stained  with  few  vices. 


The  precepts  and  practices  of  the  Epicu- 
reans have,  however,  loaded  his  memory 
with  unmerited  infamy  ;  and  an  Epicure- 
an, according  to  the  perverted  meaning 
of  his  doctrine,  is  one  who  is  devoted  to 
sensual  enjoyments,  particularly  those  of 
the  table. 

EPIDE'MIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
festivals  kept  in  honor  of  Apollo  and  Di- 
ana, at  the  stated  seasons  when  these  dei- 
ties, who  could  not  be  present  every- 
where, were  supposed  to  visit  different 
places,  in  order  to  receive  the  vows  of 
their  adorers. 

EPIDEM'IC,  a  disease  which  prevails 
in  a  place  or  tract  of  country  only  for  a 
temporary  period,  or  that  attacks  many 
people  at  the  same  season.  There  are 
some  epidemics  which  prevail  every  year, 
and  which  are  produced  by  the  various 
changes  of  the  seasons.  Thus,  the  spring 
is  accompanied  by  inflammatory  diseases  ; 
summer  by  complaints  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels  ;  autumn  by  catarrhs  ;  and 
winter  by  intermittents.  An  epidemic  at 
its  commencement  is  usually  mild,  and 
becomes  more  dangerous  as  it  spreads  ; 
but  as  it  goes  off,  it  again  generally  as- 
sumes a  mild  form.  Epidemics  are  not 
originally  contagious ;  it  is  only  under 
particular  circumstances,  especially  if  the 
disorder  is  a  violent  one,  and  many  pa- 
tients are  crowded  into  a  small  room,  so 
as  to  form  a  corrupt  atmosphere  about 
the  sick,  that  contagion  takes  place.  That 
which  is  frequently  ascribed  to  contagion, 
is  only  the  consequence  of  a  violent  shock 
of  the  nervous  system  at  the  sight  of  a 
sick  person,  perhaps  in  a  loathsome  state, 
whereby  the  disease,  to  which  the  boily 
was  already  disposed,  is  more  quickly  de- 
veloped. It  is  essential  to  the  medical 
notion  of  an  epidemic  that  it  be  of  a  tem- 
porary, in  contradistinction  to  a  perma- 
nent character.  It  differs  from  endemic, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  class  of  diseases 
are  of  a  permanent  nature,  and  prevail 
only  among  certain  people,  and  in  certain 
districts. 

EPIG'ONI,  the  collective  appellation 
of  the  sons  of  the  seven  Greek  princes 
who  conducted  the  first  war  against  Thebes 
without  success.  The  war  subsequently 
undertaken  by  the  Epigoni  to  avenge  the 
defeat  of  their  forefathers  is  celebrated  in 
history.  Their  capture  of  Thebes  forms 
the  theme  of  Wilkie's  epic  poem,  the 
Epigoniad,  which  was  published  about 
the  mid'Ue  of  the  last  century,  and  pro- 
cured for  its  author  great  reputation. 

EP'IGRAM,  in  poetry,  a  short  poem 
or  piece  in  verse,  which  has  only  one  Bub- 


212 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATLUE 


[kpi 


ject,  and  finishes  by  a  witty  or  ingenious 
turn  of  thought ;  or,  to  use  a  more  gen- 
eral definition,  an  interesting  thought 
represented  happily  in  a  few  words.  The 
first  of  these  definitions,  although  tolera- 
bly aorrect  as  to  the  modern  epigram,  dif- 
fers, as  it  will  be  seen,  widely  from  the 
original  sense  of  the  word  in  Greek.  The 
Greek  epigram  was,  in  the  first  instance, 
a  short  collection  of  lines  actually  in- 
scribed on  a  monument,  statue,  fountain, 
&e. ;  and  the  word  was  thence  transferred 
to  such  short  poems  as  might  serve  for 
inscriptions  :  of  such  the  collection  termed 
the  Greek  epigram  is  almost  wholly 
composed.  Their  general  characteristic 
is  perfect  simplicity,  and  the  seemingly 
studied  absence  of  that  point  which  char- 
acterizes the  modern  epigram.  They  are 
almost  wholly  in  one  form  of  metre,  the 
elegiac.  In  the  poetry  of  classical  Rome, 
the  term  epigram  was  still  somewhat  in- 
discriminately used  to  designate  short 
pieces  in  verse;  but  the  works  of  Catul- 
lus, and  still  more  the  well-known  col- 
lection of  the  Epigrams  of  Martial,  con- 
tain a  great  number  which  present  the 
modern  epigrammatic  character :  and 
Martial  has,  in  fact,  alTorded  the  model 
on  which  the  modern  epigram  has  been 
framed.  In  this  class  of  composition,  and 
especially  where  the  turn  of  thought  is 
satirical,  the  French  writers  have  been 
far  more  successful  than  those  of  any 
other  nation  ;  and  the  term  "  piquant" 
seems  expressly  invented  to  designate  the 
peculiar  force  of  those  epigrammatic  sal- 
lies of  fancy  of  which  their  literature  is 
full. 

EPIGRAPH,  also  termed  motto.  In 
literature,  a  citation  from  some  author, 
or  a  sentence  frame  I  for  the  purpose, 
placed  at  the  commencement  of  a  work 
or  of  its  separate  divisions. 

EP' I  LOG  UK,  in  the  drama,  a  speech 
addressed  to  the  audience  when  the  play 
is  ended.  In  the  modern  tragedy  the 
epilogue  is  usually  smart  and  lively,  in- 
tended, probably,  to  compose  the  passions 
raised  in  the  course  of  the  representa- 
tion ;  but  it  has  been  compared  to  a  merry 
jig  upon  the  organ,  after  a  good  sermon, 
to  wipe  away  any  impression  that  might 
have  been  made  by  it.  and  send  the  congre- 
gation away  Just  as  they  came. — In  rhet- 
oric, the  conclusion  of  a  speecli,  contain- 
ing a  roeapitubition  of  the  whole. 

EPINI'CIOX,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
poetry,  is  a  poem  or  composition  cele- 
brating a  victory.  Also,  a  festival  on  ac- 
count of  a  victory. 

EPIPII'ANY   a  Christian  festivl,  ob- 


served on  the  sixth  oi"  January,  (the 
twelfth  day  after  Christmas,)  in  honor 
of  the  appearance  of  our  Saviour  to  the 
magi,  or  wise  men,  who  came  to  adore 
him,  and  bring  him  presents.  The  Greek 
fathers  used  the  word  for  the  aj^earance 
of  Christ  in  the  world. 

EPIPIIUNE  MA,  in  rhetoric,  a  sen- 
tentious e.xclamation  or  remark,  not  close- 
ly connected  with  the  general  tenor  of 
the  oration,  and  generally  expressed  with 
vehemence. 

EPlPli  ORA,  in  rhetoric,  the  emphatic 
repetition  of  a  word  or  series  of  words  at 
the  end  of  several  sentences  or  stanzas. 
One  of  the  finest  instances  of  this  figure 
in  modern  oratory  occurs  in  Fox's  defence 
of  himself  and  his  measures  in  the  House 
of  Commons  after  the  di.siolution  of  the 
Coalition  ministry. 

EPIPLEX'IS,  a  rhetorical  figure, 
which,  by  an  elegant  kind  of  upbraiding, 
endeavors  to  convince. 

EPIP'LOCE,  a  rhetorical  figure,  by 
which  one  aggravation,  or  striking  cir- 
cumstance, is  added  to  another;  as,  "He 
not  only  spared  the  rebels,  but  encour- 
aged them ;  not  only  encouraged  them, 
but  rewarded  them." 

EPISCOPACY,  a  form  of  church  gov- 
ernment b3'  diocesan  bishops. 

EPISCOPA'LIANS,  an  appellation 
given  to  those  who  adhere  to  the  epis- 
copal form  of  church  government  and 
discipline. 

EP'ISODE,  in  poetry,  a  separate  inci- 
dent, story,  or  action,  which  a  poet  in- 
vents, and  connects  with  his  principal 
action,  that  his  work  may  abound  with  a 
greater  variety  of  events :  though,  iu  a 
more  limited  sense,  all  the  particular  in- 
cidents of  which  the  action  or  narration 
is  compounded,  are  called  episodes.  In 
epic  poetry,  there  is  much  more  room  for 
the  episode  than  in  dramatic,  where  the 
poem  is  confined  to  a  present  action. 
The  term  episode  has  also  been  trans- 
ferred to  historical  painting,  in  a  sense 
analogous  to  that  which  it  bears  in  poe- 
try. 

EPIS'TATES,  the  title  of  the  presi- 
dents of  the  two  great  councils  of  the 
Athenians,  viz,.,  the  Ecclcsia  and  the  sen- 
ate of  the  Five  Hundred.  They  were 
both  respectively  elected  from  the  num- 
ber of  the  prohodri  of  the  ecclesia  and 
senate,  and  their  office  only  histed  one 
day.  The  latter  of  these  two  officers  had 
the  j)ost  of  the  greatest  trust,  as  in  his 
liands  wore  i)lacod  the  keys  of  the  citadel 
and  public  treasury. 

EPISTLE,  tlie  use  of  this  word  is  now 


El'l] 


AM)    TUiC     FINK     AIMS. 


213 


confined  to  the  designation  of  those  writ- 
ten addresses  b}'  apostoliciil  writers  to 
their  Christian  brethren  which  are  con- 
tained in  the  canon  of  Scripture  ;  a  few 
others,  either  sfsurious  or  of  hi^^li  anti- 
quity, although  not  rec()gnizc<l  among 
inspired  writings,  are  also  so  denomi- 
nated. The  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  oth- 
ers contained  in  the  volume  of  the  New 
Testament,  are  not  arranged  according 
to  their  date,  but,  in  all  probability,  ac- 
C(jrding  to  the  views  which  those  who  ar- 
ranged the  canon  entertained  of  the  rel- 
ative importance  either  of  the  writings 
themselves,  or  of  the  parties  to  whom 
they  are  addressed.  Thus,  the  epistles 
of  St.  Paul  to  the  different  churches,  and 
the  Catholic  epistles  of  St.  John  (i.  e.  ad- 
dressed to  the  universal  church,)  are 
ranked  before  the  epistles  of  those  saints 
to  individual  Christians.  An  exception 
to  this  rule  is  to  be  found  in  the  epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  which  is  placed  last 
among  those  of  St.  Paul,  and  seems  to 
have  been  admitted  into  the  canon  at  a 
comparatively  recent  period.  The  prac- 
tice of  reading  a  portion  of  an  epistle  in 
the  service  of  the  church  is  extremely 
ancient,  and  said  to  be  noticed  by  .Justin 
in  his' fVrst  Apology. 

EP.ISTOLOG'RAPHY,  the  art  or  prac- 
tice of  writing  letters. 

EPISTROPHE,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
of  speech  in  which  several  successive  sen- 
tences end  with  the  same  word  or  affirm- 
ation, as,  "  Are  they  Hebrews  7  so  am  I. 
Are  they  Israelites?  so  am  I.  Are  they 
of  the  seed  of  Abraham  7  so  am  I,"  &c. 

EPISTYLE,  in  ancient  architecture, 
a  term  used  by  the  Greeks  for  what  we 
call  the  architrave,  viz.,  a  massive  piece 
of  stone  or  wood  laid  immediately  over 
the  capital  of  a  column. 

EP'ITAPH,  literally  an  inscription  on 
a  tomb.  As  has  been  well  observed,  in- 
scriptions in  honor  of  the  dead  are  per- 
haps as  old  as  tombs  themselves  ;  though 
they  were  by  no  means  bestowed  in  such 
profusion  in  ancient  as  in  modern  times. 
Among  the  Greeks,  for  instance,  this 
honor  was  paid  only  to  the  tombs  of 
heroes,  as  in  the  case  of  Leonidas  and  his 
gallant  comrades.  The  Romans  were  the 
first  to  deviate  from  this  course.  Every 
Roman  family  who  consecrated  a  tomb  to 
their  relations  had  the  privilege  of  in- 
scribing an  epitaph  thereon  ;  and  as  their 
tombs  were  usually  situated  on  the  high- 
way, the  attention  of  passers-by  was 
{ought  to  be  arrested  by  the  words  "sta 
viator" — the  formula  with  which  all  their 
epitaph.s  were  prefaced.     But  how  much 


soever  the  epitaphs  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans  differed  in  point  of  number, 
there  were  three  qualities  which  they 
possessed  in  common — brevity,  simpli- 
city, and  familiarity ;  qualities  which  a 
modern  critic,  Boiloau,  has  pronounced  to 
bo  indispensable  in  this  species  of  writing. 
At  what  period  sepulchral  inscriptions 
came  into  use  in  England  has  not  been 
precisely  ascertained  ;  though  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  this  practice  was  in- 
troduced by  the  Romans  at  the  period  of 
their  invasion  of  Britain.  During  tlio 
first  twelve  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
monumental  inscriptions  were  all  written 
in  Latin.  About  the  13th  century,  the 
French  language  was  adopted  and  con- 
tinued to  bo  used  for  this  purpose  till 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century  ;  at  which 
time  monumental  inscriptions  in  the  ver- 
nacular tongue  became  common,  though 
the  clergy  and  learned  of  that  time,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  still  preferred 
the  Latin,  as  their  more  familiar  idiom. 
The  modern  English.  French,  and  Ger- 
man epitaphs,  of  which  several  collections 
have  been  made,  are  infinitely  more  nu- 
merous than  those  of  any  time  or  nation, 
and  exhibit  every  variety  of  style  and 
sentiment ;  from  the  most  chaste  and 
majestic  gravity,  impressive  tenderness, 
and  laconic  terseness,  to  the  most  puerile 
epigrammatic  conceits,  pointed  satire,  and 
heraldic  prolixity. 

EPITA'SIS,  in  ancient  poetry,  the 
second  part  or  division  of  a  dramatic 
poem,  in  which  the  plot,  entered  upon  in 
the  first  part,  or  protasis,  was  carried  on, 
heightened,  and  worked  up  till  it  arrived 
at  its  height,  called  catastasis. — In  rhet- 
oric, that  part  of  an  oration  in  which  the 
orator  addresses  himself  most  forcibly  to 
the  passions. 

EPITHALA'MIUM,  a  nuptial  song, 
sung  by  a  chorus  of  boys  and  girls  when 
the  bride  and  bridegroom  entered  the 
bridal  chamber,  and  again  on  the  first 
morning  after  the  marriage.  This  was 
the  custom  in  Greece,  which  was  some- 
what varied  at  Rome,  where  the  chorus 
consisted  of  girls  only,  who  sang  before 
the  door  of  the  nuptial  chamber  till  mid- 
night. The  most  perfect  examples  of 
this  species  which  antiquity  has  left  us 
are  by  Theocritus  and  Catullus. 

EP'ITIIET,  in  rhetoric  and  compo- 
sition, denotes  a  term  employed  in  an 
adjective  sense  to  express  an  attribute  or 
quality  of  another  substantive  term.  The 
abundance  and  the  propriety  of  epithets 
form  peculiar  characteristics  of  various 
poetical  styles.     In  the  strict  rhetorical 


214 


CVCI.ol'K.DIA     OK     I.ITEKATLKK 


[equ 


sense,  epithets  are  only  such  adjectives 
as  convey  a  notion  already  implied  in 
the  noun  substantive  itself,  and  add  no- 
thing to  the  sense.  Thus,  the  "glorious" 
sun  is  a  mere  epithet ;  while  the  "  rising" 
or  the  "setting"  sun  would,  as  convey- 
ing some  additional  idea  into  the  sense 
of  the  passage,  not  be  considered  as  epi- 
thets. The  former  sort,  however,  are 
Boinetin  es  called  in  disparagement  by 
writers  on  rhetoric  "  otiosa,"  or  idle  epi- 
thets. 

EPITITiriDES,  in  architecture,  the 
crown  or  upper  mouldings  of  an  entab- 
lature. 

EPIT'OME,  in  literature,  an  abridg- 
ment ;  a  work  in  which  the  contents  of  a 
former  work  are  reduced  within  a  smaller 
space  by  curtailment  and  condensation. 
In  the  later  classical  period,  extending 
through  the  declining  age  of  the  Western 
Empire,  the  practice  of  epitomizing  the 
writings  of  older  writers,  especially  in 
history,  became  very  prevalent ;  and 
while  some  regard  the  works  of  Justin, 
Eutropius,  and  similar  writers,  as  having 
preserved  to  us  much  historical  knowl- 
edge which  would  otherwise  have  been 
lost,  others  have  maintained  that  these 
laborious  compilers  have  done  great  dis- 
service to  literature,  inasmuch  as  the 
voluminous  works  which  they  abridged 
being  superseded  by  their  more  popular 
and  cheaper  compendia,  in  an  illiterate 
age,  have,  from  that  cause,  for  the  most 
part  perished. 

EPIT'ROPE,  or  EPIT'ROPY,  in  rhet- 
oric, a  figure  of  speech,  by  which  one 
thing  is  granted,  with  a  view  to  obtain 
an  advantage  ;  as,  "  I  concede  the  fact, 
but  this  very  concession  overthrows  your 
own  argument." 

EPIZBUX'LS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
which  repeats  the  same  word,  without 
any  other  intervening  ;  such  is  that  of 
Virgil,  "  nunc,  nunc,  insurgite  remis." 

E  l'()CII,  a  certain  fi.\ed  period,  or 
point  of  time,  made  famous  by  some  re- 
markable event,  and  serving  as  a  stand- 
ard in  chronology  nnd  history.  The  prin- 
cipal are  the  Creation,  4004  n  c.  ;  the 
Flood,  2348  B.C.;  the  birth  of  Abraham, 
199<j  B  c. ;  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  14.51 
B  c. ;  the  taking  of  Troy,  1184  b  c.  ;  the 
finisliing  of  Sobjmon's  temple,  1104  b  c; 
the  lirst  Olynipiail,  776  n  c  :  the  building 
of  H  >me,  7o'.i  n  c. ;  the  era  of  Xabduassar, 
74"  B  c  ;  the  founding  of  the  Persian 
Etapire,  by  Cyrus,  5.59  b  c.  ;  the  death 
of  Ale.vander,  'i'i.i  bc;  the  death  of 
C:csar,  44  B  c  ;  the  birth  of  Christ,  1,  or 
tbb  ooiumencement  of  the  Christian  era  ; 


the  Hegira  of  Mahomet,  622  a.d — Th« 
Christian  era,  used  by  aljiost  all  Chris- 
tian nations,  dates  from  J.tnunry  1st,  th« 
middle  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194tb 
Olympiad,  in  the  753d  of  the  building  («( 
Home,  and  4714th  of  the  Julian  period 
The  Christian  year,  in  its  division,  fol- 
lows exactly  the  Roman  j'ear,  consisting 
of  365  days  for  three  successive  years 
and  of  366  in  the  fourth  year,  which  is 
termed  leap  year.  The  simplicity  of  tliij 
form  hf.s  brought  it  into  very  genera; 
use,  and  it  is  customary-  f->r  as».ror.i)mer3 
and  chronologists,  in  treating  of  ancient 
time,  to  date  back  in  the  same  order 
from  its  commcncercsnt. —  -^ee  Calen- 
dar. 

EP'ODE,  in  lyric  poetry,  the  third  or 
last  part  of  the  odo,  the  ancient  oiie  being 
divided  into  strophe,  antistrophe,  anci 
epode.  The  word  is  now  used  for  any 
little  verse  or  verses,  that  follow  one  or 
more  great  ones. 

EPOPEE',  or  EPOPffi'IA.  in  poetry, 
the  fable,  or  subject  of  an  epic  poem. 

EPOP'T.iE,  in  antiquity,  a  name  given 
to  those  who  were  aduiittei  to  view  thw 
secrets  of  the  greater  mysteries,  or  ro 
ligious  ceremonies  of  the  Greeks. 

EPOT'IDE.S,  in  the  naval  architecture 
of  the  ancients,  two  thick  blocks  of  woou, 
one  on  each  side  the  prow  of  a  galley, 
for  warding  off  the  blows  of '.he  rostra  of 
the  enemy's  vessels. 

EPULO'XES,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
public  officers  who  assisted  at  the  sacri- 
fices, and  had  the  care  of  the  epulum,  or 
sacred  banquet,  co.nmitted  to  them. 

EQUALITY,  a  term  of  relation  be- 
tween things  the  same  in  magnitude, 
quantity,  or  quality.  Also,  the  same  de- 
gree of  dignity  or  claims  ;  as,  equality 
of  men,  in  the  scale  of  being  ;  an  eqiial- 
ity  of  rights,  &c. 

EQUANIMITY,  that  even  and  calm 
frame  of  mind  and  temper,  under  good  or 
bad  fortune,  which  is  not  easily  elated  or 
depressed.  A  truly  groat  man  boars 
misfortunes  with  equaniniitij,  and  carries 
himself  in  prosperity  without  vain  exult- 
ation or  excessive  joy. 

EQ  UERRY,  an  officer  of  state  under 
the  master  of  the  horse.  There  are  five 
equerries,  who  ride  out  with  her  majesty  ; 
for  which  purpose  they  give  their  attend- 
ance monthly,  one  at  a  time,  and  have  S 
table  iir(>vide<l  for  thorn. 

E'QUE.'*  AURATU.S,  a  Roman  knight, 
so  called  because  none  but  knights  wera 
allowed  to  gild  their  armor. 

EQUE.S'TRIA,  a  placo  in  the  Romas 
theatres  where  the  knights  or  equites  sai 


BQU] 


AND    THE    FIXE    AKTS. 


21; 


EQTTES'TRTAN  GAMES,  in  Roman 
antiquity,  (ludi  equestres,)  horse-races, 
of  which  there  are  five  kinds;  tlie  pro- 
dromus  or  jilain  horse-race,  the  chariot 
race,  the  decursory  race  about  funeral 
piles,  the  ludi  secirales,  and  the  ludi 
neptanales. — Equestrian  order,  the  sec- 
ond rank  in  Rome,  next  to  the  senators. 
— Equestrian  statue,  the  representation 
of  a  person  on  horseback. 

EyUIPAuE',  in  ordinary  language, 
signifies  the  carriage,  horses,  and  liveries 
of  any  gentleman  when  he  appears 
abroivil. — Equipage,  in  marine  affairs, 
signifies  the  crew  of  a  siiip,  together  with 
all  a  shii)'s  furniture,  masts,  sails,  am- 
munition, &c.  In  the  art  military,  it 
denotes  all  sorts  of  utensils  and  artillery. 
Ac.,  nocessarj'  for  commencing  and  pros- 
ecuting with  ease  or  success  any  military 
operation. 

EQUIPOL'LENCE,  in  logic,  an  equiv- 
alence, or  agreement,  either  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  thing,  or  as  to  the  gram- 
matical sense  of  any  two  or  more  propo- 
sitions ;  that  is,  when  two  propositions 
signify  one  and  the  same  thing,  though 
they  express  it  differently. 

EQUI'RIA,  in  antiquity,  games  insti- 
tuted by  Romulus  in  honor  of  Mars,  and 
which  consisted  in  horse-racing.  They 
were  celebrated  on  the  third  of  the  cal- 
ends of  March. 

EQ'UITES,  amongst  the  Romans,  were 
persons  of  the  second  degree  of  nobility, 
immediately  succeeding  the  senators  in 
point  of  rank.  Every  eques  or  knight 
had  a  horse  kept  at  the  public  charge; 
he  received  also  the  stipend  of  a  horse- 
man, to  servo  in  the  wars,  and  wore  a 
ring,  which  was  given  him  by  the  state. 
The  equites  composed  a  large  bod}'  of 
men.  and  constituted  the  Roman  caval- 
ry ;  for  there  was  always  a  sufficient 
number  of  them  in  the  city,  and  nothing 
but  a  review  was  requisite  to  fit  them  for 
service. 

EQ'UITY,  in  a  moral  sense,  is  the  im- 
partial distribution  of  justice.  So,  in  an 
enlarged  view,  Black.^tone  observes  : — 
"  Equity,  in  its  true  and  general  mean- 
ing, is  the  soul  and  spirit  of  all  law ; 
positive  law  is  construed,  and  rational 
law  is  made  by  it.  In  this,  equity  is  sy- 
nonymous with  justice."  In  English  ju- 
risprudence, a  court  of  equity  or  chan- 
cery, is  a  court  which  corrects  the  opera- 
tion of  the  literal  text  of  the  law,  and 
supplied  its  defects,  by  reasonable  con- 
struction, anil  by  rules  of  proceeding  and 
deciding,  which  are  not  admissible  in  a 
court  of  law.     Equity  then,  is  the  law  of 


reason,  exercised  by  the  chancellor  or 
judge,  giving  remedy  in  cases  to  which 
the  courts  of  law  are  not  comi)etent.  It 
will  remove  legal  impediments  to  the 
fair  decision  of  a  question  depending  at 
law.  It  will  prevent  a  party  fiom  im- 
properly setfing  up,  at  atrial,  some  title 
or  claim  which  would  be  inequitable.  It 
will  compel  him  to  discover,  on  his  own 
oath,  facts  which  he  knows  are  material 
to  the  right  of  the  other  party,  but  which 
a  court  of  law  cannot  compel  the  party  to 
discover.  It  will  provide  for  the  safety 
of  property  in  dispute  pending  litigation. 
It  will  counteract,  or  control,  or  set  aside, 
fraudulent  judgments.  It  will  also  exer- 
cise, in  many  cases,  exclusive  jurisdic- 
tion;  particularly  in  granting  special  re- 
lief beyond  the  reach  of  the  common 
law.  It  will  grant  injunctions  to  prevent 
waste  or  irreparable  injury,  or  to  secure 
a  settled  right,  or  to  prevent  vexatious 
litigations,  or  to  compel  the  restitution 
of  title  deeds ;  it  will  appoint  receivers 
of  property,  where  it  is  in  danger  of  mis- 
application ;  it  will  prohibit  a  partj'  from 
leaving  the  country  in  order  to  avoid  a 
suit ;  it  will  decree  a  specific  performance 
of  contracts  respecting  real  estates ;  it 
will,  in  many  cases,  supply  the  imperfect 
e.xecution  of  instruments,  and  reform  and 
alter  them  according  to  the  real  intention 
of  the  parties;  it  will  grant  relief  in  cases 
of  lost  deeds  and  securities;  and,  in  all 
cases  in  which  its  interference  is  asked, 
its  general  rule  is,  that  he  who  asks 
equity  must  do  equity.  In  short,  its  ju- 
risdiction is  almost  undefined,  where  the 
positive  law  is  silent,  but  substantial  jus- 
tice entitles  the  party  to  relief. 

EQUITY  OF  REDEMPTION,  in  law, 
is  the  advantage  allowed  to  one  who 
mortgages  his  property,  to  have  a  reason- 
able time  allowed  him  to  redeem  it;  for 
althougli  the  estate,  upon  non-payment 
of  the  money,  becomes  vested  in  the 
mortgagee,  yet  equity  considers  it  only  a 
pledge  for  the  money,  and  gives  the  party 
a  right  to  redeem,  which  is  called  his 
equity  of  redemption. 

EQUIVOCAL,  an  epithet  for  whatever 
is  ambiguous  or  susceptible  of  different 
constructions  ;  as,  that  man's  character  is 
very  equivocal. 

EQUIVOCAL  TERM,  in  lo^ic,  a  term 
which  has  several  significations,  applying 
respectivel}'  ami  equally  to  several  ob- 
jects. A  word  is  generally  said  to  bo 
employed  equivocally  where  the  middle 
term  is  used  in  different  senses  in  the  two 
premisses,  or  where  a  proposition  is  liable 
to  be   understood  in   various   senses,  ac- 


216 


CYCl-Ol'KDlA     OF    LITKK  A;  U  UE 


cording  to  tlie  various  meanings  of  one  of 
its  terms. 

EQUIVOCATION,  the  use  of  equivo- 
cal terms,  which  may  be  understood  by 
the  hearer  in  a  dilTerent  sense  from  that 
In  which  they  are  taken  by  tlie  sijeaker. 
He  who  is  guilty  of  equivocation,  may  be 
fairly  suspected  of  hypocrisy. 

EQ  L'lVOQUE,  a  word  or  phrase  sus- 
ceptible of  different  significations. 

ERAS'TIANS,  the  followers  of  Eras- 
tus,  a  German  divine  ;  a  sect  which  ob- 
tained some  notoriety  in  England  in  the 
time  of  the  civil  wars.  They  referred  the 
punishment  of  all  ofl'ences,  civil  or  re- 
ligious, to  the  civil  magistrate  ;  and  as- 
serted that  the  church  had  no  power  to 
enforce  any  acts  of  discipline,  nor  to  re- 
fuse the  communion  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
to  any  one  who  desired  it. 

ERA'TO,  me  of  the  muses,  whose 
name  signifies  lov- 
ing or  lovely.  She 
has  much  in  com- 
mon with  Terpsi- 
chore— the  same  at- 
tributes, the  same 
dress,  and  frequent- 
ly a  lyre  and  plec- 
trum. She  presides 
over  the  songs  of 
lovers. 

EREBUS,  accor- 
ding to  the  classic 
mj'thology,  the  son 
of  chaos  and  dark- 
nes.s,  who  dwelt  in 
the  lowest  part  of 
hell,  which  is  fre- 
quently called  by  his 
name. 

EREMITICAL,  (from  eremite,  a  her- 
mit.) living  in  solitude,  or  in  seclusion 
from  the  world. 

EROTIC  POETRY,  a  term  for  ama- 
tory poetry.  The  name  of  erotic  writers 
has  been  applied  particularly  to  a  class 
of  romance  writers  who  belong  to  the 
later  periods  of  Greek  literature,  and 
whose  works  abound  in  sophistical  subtle- 
ties and  ornaments 

EROTOM'ANY,  a  term  employed  by 
80'je  writers  to  denote  that  modification 
of  insanity,  of  which  the  passion  of  love  is 
the  origin,  and  in  which  the  love  of  a 
particular  individual  constitutes  the  pre- 
dominant idea,  occupying  the  whole  at- 
tention of  the  patient.  It  sometimes 
passes  into  perfect  delirium,  leads  to  sui- 
cide, hysterics,  &c.  Young  people  are 
peculiarly  subject  to  it,  who  have  an  ex- 
citable nervous  system  and  lively  imngi- 


nation,  who  give  themselves  up  to  an  ex- 
cess in  pleasure,  or  are  spoiled  by  read- 
ing romances,  and  rendered  effeminate 
by  an  injudicious  education  and  indo- 
lence. 

ERRAT'IC,  wandering,  or  having  no 
certain  course  ;  also,  not  fi.\ed  or  station- 
ary ;  hence  the  planets  are  called  erratic 
stars;  and  fevers  which  observe  no  reg- 
ular periods,  are  denominated  erratic 
fevers. 

ERRA'TUM,  an  error  of  the  press;  in 
the  plural,  Errata,  a  list  of  which  is 
usually  printed  at  the  beginning  or  end 
of  a  book. 

ER'ROR,  a  wandering  or  deviation 
from  the  truth.  An  error  may  be  either 
voluntary  or  involuntary;  when  com- 
mitted through  carelessness  or  haste  it  is 
a  blunder. — Error,  in  law,  is  a  mistake 
committed  in  pleading,  or  in  a  process  ; 
whereupon  a  writ  of  error  is  brought  to 
remedy  it,  which  carries  the  suit  to  an- 
other tribunal  for  redress. 

ERSE,  the  language  of  the  descendants 
of  the  Gaels  or  Celts,  in  the  highlands  of 
Scotland. — Erse  is  a  corruption  of  Iri^h. 
The  highlanders  were  supposed  by  their 
Gothic  neighbors  to  be  an  Irish  colony, 
and  hence  the  !iame  given  to  their  lan- 
guage. The  highlanders  themselves  in- 
variably call  it  (laclic.  It  first  attracted 
notice  after  the  publicatiim  in  the  English 
language  of  the  poems  of  Ossian,  said  to 
be  derived  from  it  about  the  middle  of 
the  last  century.  These,  it  was  pre- 
tended, were  translated  from  manuscripts 
in  the  translator's  possession  ;  but  si«;h 
poems  in  a  written  form,  it  is  now  suffi- 
ciently known,  never  had  any  e.xistonce 
either  in  the  Irisii  or  Gaelic  languaga 
Although  not  committed  to  writing,  or 
rather  not  handed  down  in  writing,  these 
poems,  committed  to  memory  and  hand- 
ed down  from  one  bard  or  storj'-teller  to 
another,  still  e.xist  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotlanil,  anil  in  a  dress  not  remote  from 
that  in  which  they  were  rendered  by 
Macphcrson  into  English.  Their  scene  is 
sometimes  laid  in  Scotland,  but  more  fre- 
quently in  Ireland.  In  short,  they  are 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  the  Celtic  race 
of  the  two  islands,  handed  down  by  tradi- 
tion only, — what  the  poems  of  Homer 
were  in  all  likelihood  to  the  Greeks 
themselves,  before  the  art  of  writing  was 
known  to  them.  The  Erse,  although  a 
rude  and  uncultivated  language,  is  a 
nervous  and  manly  one,  botli  as  to  ex- 
pression and  sound,  and  well  suited  to 
poetrj',  whether  sublime  or  tender.  The 
range  of  its  sounds  is  very  great ;  fojr  it 


F.SO] 


AND    THE     FINE     A  KTS. 


217 


possesses  twelve  vowels,  and  no  less  than 
eiglitecn  diphthongs  and  triphthongs,  with 
forty-one  consonants,  including  aspirates. 
Many  of  the  consonants  are  guttural ; 
and  of  these,  as  well  of  the  voaalic  sounds, 
there  are  several  utterly  unjironounce- 
able  by  a  stranger:  tlie  attempts  nuule 
to  express  such  a  variety  of  sounds  by 
the  Roman  alphabet  are,  of  course,  both 
awkward  and  imperfect.  As  to  the 
granunar,  that  of  the  Gaelic  is  of  complex 
structure,  implying  a  primitive  language 
which  has  undergone  little  change  by  ad- 
mixture with  other  tongues. 

EQUES'TRIAN  STATUE,  statues  of 
men  on  horseback,  usually  formed  of 
bronze,  but  sometimes  of  lead  and  stone. 
London  enjoys  the  singular  eminence  of 
possessing  the  worst  equestrian  statues  to 
be  found  in  any  city  of  Europe. 

ER'MINE,  the  fur  of  the  animal  of 
this  name.  It  is  an  emblem  of  purity, 
and  of  honor  without  stain.  Robes  of 
royal  personages  are  lined  with  it  to  sig- 
nify the  internal  purity  that  should  regu- 
late their  conduct. 

ERUDI'TION,  the  attainment  of  pro- 
found learning  and  extensive  knowledge, 
obtained  by  study  and  instruction  ;  par- 
ticularly learning  in  history,  antiquity, 
and  languages,  as  distinct  from  the  use- 
ful arts  and  sciences. 

ESCALADE',  in  the  military  art,  a 
furious  attack  made  upon  a  rampart,  or 
scaling  the  walls  of  a  fortification,  by  fill- 
ing up  the  ditches  with  bundles  of  fag- 
ots, called  fascines,  and  entering  by  lad- 
ders ;  without  proceeding  in  form,  break- 
ing ground,  or  carrying  on  regular  works 
to  secure  the  men — a  mode  of  attack 
much  adopted  in  the  late  wars,  but  gen- 
erally accompanied  with  great  slaughter. 
ESCAL'LOP,  an  emblem  of  St.  James 
the  Great,  which  is 
frequently  met  witli  in 
churches,  dedicated  to 
his  honor.  It  is  one 
of  the  attributes  and 
insignia  of  pilgrims, 
adopted  by  them  in 
their  voyages  to  the 
sepulchre  of  this  apostle,  gathered  by 
them  on  the  sea-shore,  and  fastened  on 
their  hoods  or  hats  as  a  mark  of  the  pil- 
grin»age. 

ESCAPE,'  in  law,  is  where  a  person 
arrested  gains  his  liberty  before  he  is  de- 
livered by  law.  In  civil  eases,  after  the 
prisoner  has  been  suffered  voluntarily  to 
escape,  the  sheriff  can  never  after  retake 
hira,  and  must  answer  for  the  debt;  but 
the  plaintiff  may  retake  him  at  any  time. 


In  the  case  of  a  negligent  escape,  the 
sheriff,  upon  fresh  pursuit,  may  retake 
the  prisoner,  and  the  sheriff  shall  be  ex- 
cused if  he  have  him  again  before  any  ac- 
tion is  brought  against  himself  for  the 
e.scapo.  In  criminal  cases,  an  escape  of 
a  jierson  arrested  is  an  offence  against 
public  justice,  and  the  party  is  punishable 
byline  and  imprisonment. 

ESCARP'MENT,  or  ESCARP',  in  the 
military  art,  the  exterior  slope  facing 
fortified  works ;  the  interior  slope  being 
the  counterscarp. 

ESCHEAT',  in  law,  lands  or  profits 
that  fall  to  a  lord  within  his  manor,  either 
by  forfeiture,  the  death  of  the  tenant,  or 
through  failure  of  heirs. 

ESCORT,  n  guard  or  company  of  arm- 
ed men  attending  an  officer,  or  baggage, 
provisions,  or  munitions  conveyed  by 
land,  to  protect  them  from  an  enemy,  &c. 

ES'CUAGE,  in  feudal  customs,  a  kind 
of  knight-service,  called  service  of  the 
shield,  by  which  the  tenant  was  bound  to 
follow  his  lord  to  the  wars  at  his  own 
charge. 

ESCULA'PIAN,  (from  Aesculapius 
the  physician,)  pertaining  to  the  healing 
art. 

ES'CULENT,  an  epithet  for  such 
plants  or  roots  as  may  bo  eaten. 

ESCU'RIAL,  a  celebrated  palace  and 
monastery  in  Spain,  about  twenty  miles 
from  Madrid,  built  by  Philip  II.  It  is  in 
the  shape  of  a  gridiron,  and  contains  the 
king's  palace  St.  Lawrence's  church,  the 
monastery  of  Jerenomitcs.  and  the  free 
schools.  It  was  erected  in  consequence 
of  a  vow  made  by  Philip,  on  the  day  of 
the  battle  of  St.  Quentin,  and  dedicated 
to  St.  Lawrence,  whose  festival  was  on 
that  day.  Though  the  building  is  im- 
mensely largo  and  the  most  superb  in  the 
kingdom,  its  exterior  has  rather  the  aus- 
tere simplicity  of  a  convent  than  the  ele- 
gance of  a  palace.  It  is  a  quadrangle, 
740  feet  in  length  by  580  in  breadth  ;  and 
is  said  to  have  cost  50  millions  of  dollars. 

ES'DRAS,  the  name  of  two  apocryphal 
books,  usually  bound  up  with  the  Scrip- 
tures. They  were  always  excluded  the 
Jewish  canon. 

ESOTERIC,  an  epithet  applied  to  the 
private  instructions  and  doctrines  of  Py- 
th.agoras  ;  opposed  to  exoteric,  or  public. 
Much  dispute  has  prevailed  among  the 
learned  as  to  the  precise  import  of  this 
distinction.  By  some  it  was  thought  that 
the  ancient  philosophers  had  a  set  of  mys- 
terious doctrines  which  they  communi- 
I  cated  only  to  the  more  enlightened  of 
1  their  disciples,  and  another  more  popular 


218 


CYCLOPEDIA    OK    LITEIJATLKE 


[est 


doctrine  which  they  promulgated  to  the 
multitude.  In  the  case  of  Aristotle,  to 
whose  writings  the  distinction  properly 
applied,  this  opinion  is,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, Avell  founded  ;  except  so  far  as  re- 
gards the  suspicion  of  intenlional  conceal- 
ment implied  in  it.  The  exoteric  or  pub- 
lished writings  of  that  ;>Mlo3opher  appear 
to  have  been  written  in  .ne  form  of  dia- 
logues, all  of  which  are  lost.  His  esoteric 
works,  we  gather  from  the  s3'nonymous 
ter>u  acroamutic,  were  not  intended  to  su 
persedc  tlic  necessity  of  oral  instruction 
to  render  Ihem  intelligible.  This  agrees 
well  enough  with  the  brevity,  the  frequent 
repetitions,  and  the  perplexed  arrange- 
ment of  the  works  of  Aristotle  which  sur- 
vive. 

ES'PION.AOE,  a  system  of  employing 
spies,  or  secret  emissaries,  either  in  mili- 
tary or  political  affairs. 

ESPOUS'ALS,  in  law,  a  contract  or 
mutual  promise  of  marriage  between  a 
man  and  woman. 

ESPLANADE',  in  fortification,  the 
glacis  of  the  counterscarp,  or  sloping  of 
'the  parapet  of  the  covered  way  towards 
the  country.  The  word  is  now  also  used 
for  a  sloping  walk  or  promenade. 

ESPRIT'^DE  CORPS,  a  French  phrase, 
signifying  that  species  of  attachment  with 
which  persons,  more  especially  military 
men,  are  animated  to  the  corps  or  service 
to  which  they  belong. 

ESQUIRE',  anciently  a  shield  or  ar- 
mor-bearer ;  the  person  that  attended  a 
knight  in  time  of  war,  and  carried  his 
shield.  It  is  now  a  title  given  to  the  sons 
of  knights,  or  those  who  serve  the  king  in 
any  worshipful  calling,  as  officers  of  the 
king's  courts,  counsellors  at  law,  Ac.  It 
has,  however,  become  a  sort  of  vague  and 
undefined  compliment,  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  man's  name,  and  may  bo  regarded 
more  as  an  expression  of  respect  than 
anything  else. 

E.S'SAY,  in  literature,  an  attempt;  a 
species  of  composition.  In  general,  this 
title  is  given  to  short  disquisitions  on 
subjects  of  taste,  philosophy,  or  common 
life.  In  this  sense  it  has  been  applied  to 
periodical  i)apcr.«,  published  at  regular 
intervals  under  a  collective  name,  by  one 
or  more  writers,  containing  remarks  on 
topics  of  the  day.  or  on  more  serious  sub- 
jects. From  th(!  appearance  of  the  Tal- 
ler, in  the  beginning  of  the  Last  century, 
which  was  chiefly  written  by  Sir  Richard 
Steele,  this  species  of  literature  continued 
to  bo  a  favorite  in  PIngland  for  seventy 
years,  and  many  similar  series  of  essays 
were   produced ;    the  best  of  which  are 


united  in  one  collection  under  the  name 
of  The  Knglish  Essnijists.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  works  was  the  Spec- 
tator, to  which  Addison  was  the  best  con- 
tributor ;  and  next  to  it  the  Humbler, 
published  and  almost  wholly  written  by 
Samuel  Johnson.  The  title  of  essay  has 
been  also  adopted,  by  way  of  indicating 
diffidence  in  the  completeness  of  their 
work,  bj'  various  authors  of  more  ex- 
tended performances  ;  as,  by  Locke  {Es- 
sa'j  on  the  Human  Understanding .) 

ES'SEXCE,  in  philosophy,  a  scholastic 
term,  denoting  what  the  Platonists  called 
the  idea  of  a  species.  The  school  phi- 
losophers give  two  significations  of  tha 
word  essence  :  the  first  denoting  the 
whole  essential  perfection  of  a  being,  and 
consequently  its  entity,  with  all  its  in- 
trinsic and  necessary  attributes  taken  to- 
gether; the  second  denoting  the  principal 
or  most  important  attributes  of  anything. 
The  essences  of  things  were  hold  by  m.any 
to  he  uncreated,  eternal,  and  immutable. 

ESSEXES',  a  sect  among  the  Jews  in 
ihe  time  of  our  Saviour,  of  whom  an  ac- 
count is  preserved  to  us  by  Josephus  and 
Philo,  though  they  are  not  mentioned  in 
Scripture.  They  were  few  in  number, 
and  lived  chiefly  in  solitude,  t.aking  no 
part  in  public  affairs,  but  devoting  their 
lives  to  contemplation.  There  were  in- 
deed two  classes  of  them,  distinguished 
as  the  practical  and  contemplative,  who 
differed  in  the  degree  of  strictness  and 
austerity  which  they  observed.  They 
believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  held  the  Scripture  in  the  highest 
reverence  ;  interpreting  it,  however,  after 
an  allegorical  svstem  of  their  own. 

ESSENTIAL  PROP'EKTIE.S,  in  logic, 
such  as  necessarily  depend  upon,  and  are 
connected  with,  the  nature  and  essence  of 
a  thing,  in  distinction  from  the  accidental. 

E.SSOIN',  in  law,  an  excuse  by  reason 
of  sickness  or  any  other  just  cause  for  one 
that  is  summoned  to  appear  and  answer 
an  action,  Ae.— The  first  three  days  of  a 
term  are  called  essoin  days,  as  three  d.ays 
are  .allowed  for  the  appearance  of  suitors. 

ESTAB'LISIIMENT,  in  a  military 
sense,  the  quota  of  officers  and  men  in  an 
army,  regiment,  or  company,  which  be- 
ing much  greater  in  war  than  in  peace, 
has  given  rise  to  the  distinctive  terms  of 
AVar  Establishment  and  Peace  Establish- 
ment— The  word  is  also  used  when  speak- 
ing of  tho  ministers  of  a  church  estab- 
lished by  law,  as  belonging  to  the  Estab- 
Ushment. 

ESTAOADE',  in  the  military  art,  a 
French  word  for  a  dyke,  constructed  with 


etyJ 


ANr)     IIIK    KINK    AHTS. 


219 


piles  in  tlie  soa,  a  river,  or  morass,  to 
oppose  the  entry  of  troops. 

ESTAFET'TK,  a  military  courier,  sent 
from  one  part  of  an  army  to  another;  or 
a  speedy  messenger  who  travels  on  horse- 
back. 

ESTATE',  in  law,  the  title  or  interest 
that  a  person  has  in  lands,  tenements,  or 
other  effects;  comprehending  the  whole 
in  which  a  person  has  any  property.  Es- 
tates are  either  real  or  personal;  other- 
wise distinguished  into  freeholds,  which 
descend  to  heirs;  or  chattels  and  eflects, 
which  go  to  executors  or  administrators. 
There  are  also  estates  for  life,  for  years, 
at  will,  &c. — Estates  of  the  realm  are 
the  distinct  parts  of  any  state  or  govern- 
ment, as  the  king,  lords,  and  commons, 
in  England. 

ESTHER,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  containing  the  history  of  a 
Jewish  virgin,  dwelling  with  her  uncle 
Mordecai  at  Shushan,  in  the  reign  of  Aha- 
suerus,  one  of  the  kings  of  Persia.  Arch- 
bishop Usher  supposes  Darius  Hystaspes 
to  be  the  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture,  and 
Artystona  to  be  Esther.  Scaliger  con- 
siders him  as  Xerxes,  and  his  queen  Ila- 
mestris  as  Esther.  Josephus,  on  the  con- 
trary, asserts  that  Ahasuerus  was  Arta- 
xerxes  Longimanus;  and  the  Septuagint, 
throughout  the  whole  book  of  Esther, 
translates  Ahasuerus  by  Artaxer.Kes. 

ES'TIMATE,  a  judgment  or  opinion 
formed  of  the  value,  degree,  extent,  or 
quantity  of  anything,  without  ascertain- 
ing it.  Also  a  computation  of  probable 
value  or  cost,  such  as  is  generally  pre- 
pared by  engineers,  architects,  and  build- 
ers, previous  to  the  commencement  of 
any  imdertaking. 

ESTO'VERS,  in  law,  a  reasonable  al- 
lowance out  of  lands  or  goods  for  the  sub- 
sistence of  a  man  accused  of  f'elony^,  du- 
ring his  imprisonment.  But  it  is  more 
generally  taken  for  certain  allowances  of 
wood  made  to  tenants,  and  called,  from 
the  S:ixon.  house-bote,  hedge-bote,  plougk- 
bote.  &c. 

ESTRAY',  a  tame  beast  found  without 
any  owner  known,  which,  by  the  English 
law  if  not  reclaimed  within  a  year  and  a 
day,  falls  to  the  lord  of  the  manor. 

ESTRE.\T',  in  law,  a  true  copy  or 
duplicate  of  an  original  writing,  partic- 
ularly of  the  penalties  or  fines  to  be 
levied  by  the  bailiff  or  other  Officer,  of 
every  man  for  his  offence.  • 

ET  CETERA,  and  the  contraction 
ttc.  or  tf'c,  denote  the  rest  or  others  of 
the  kind  ;   and  so  forth. 

ETCH  ING,  a  method  of  engraving  on 


copper  or  steel,  in  which   the    lines   antl 
strokes  are  oaten  in  with  aquafortis.    See 

ICXGRAVIXG. 

ETERNITY,  everlasting  duration, 
without  beginning  or  end;  a  term  ex- 
pressive of  that  perpetuity  which  can 
only  be  imagined,  on  account  of  the  im- 
possibility of  conceiving  when  time  was 
not,  or  will  not  be  ;  hence  many  have 
concluded  that  there  has  been  an  eter- 
nity of  past  time,  and  must  be  an  eter- 
nity of  future  time. 

ETHICS,  the  doctrine  of  manners,  or 
science  of  moral  philosoph}',  which  teach- 
es men  their  duty  and  the  springs  and 
principles  of  human  conduct. 

ETHNOGRAPHY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  particularities  of  nations,  de- 
scribing their  customs,  peculiarities,  Ac. 
Although  a  peculiar  name  has  been 
given  to  it,  it  is  in  general  considered  as 
a  branch  of  the  sciences  of  geography  and 
history. 

ETIOL'OGY,  an  account  of  the  causes 
of  anvthing,  particularly  of  diseases. 

ETIQUETTE,  is  the  ceremonial  code 
of  polite  life,  more  voluminous  and  minute 
in  each  portion  of  society  according  to  its 
rank.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  cus- 
tom of  arranging  places  at  processions,  &c. 
bj'  tickets  delivered  beforehand  to  appli- 
cants. The  Byzantine  court  appears  to 
have  carried  the  practicp  of  ceremonial 
observations  to  the  most  inconvenient 
anil  ludicrous  extent.  But  of  modern 
courtly  etiquette,  Philip  the  Good,  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  is  regarded  by  some  as  the 
founder.  His  desire  to  conceal  his  in- 
feriority in  rank,  as  a  great  feudatory 
only,  to  the  great  sovereigns  of  Europe, 
whom  he  equalled  in  power,  induced  him 
to  surround  his  presence  with  a  multi- 
tude of  officers  and  numberless  formali- 
ties. At  no  time,  probably,  was  the 
spirit  of  etiquette  so  predominant  and  so 
tyrannical  as  in  the  court  of  Louis  XIV. ; 
and  the  Memoirs  of  St.  Simon  are  full 
of  the  most  extraordinary  proofs  of  the 
subjugation  of  the  minds  of  men  of  sense, 
wit,  and  even  independent  character  in 
other  respects,  to  its  engrossing  influ- 
ence,— their  pride  in  attaining  any  littla 
point  of  precedence,  and  their  mortifica- 
tion in  failing  of  it.  The  smaller  courts 
of  Germany  caricatured  the  ceremonial 
of  that  of  the  Great  Monarch,  and  carried 
its  strictness  to  an  absurd  extent.  At  the 
present  day  the  ancient  etiquette  of  courts 
is  continually  losing  something  of  its 
strictness. 

ETYMOL'OGY.  a  branch  of  philology, 
which  teaches  the  origin  and  derivation 


220 


CVCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[eva 


of  words,  with  a,  view  to  ascertain  their 
radicnl  or  primary  signification.  In  gram- 
mar, it  comprehends  not  only  the  deriva- 
tion of  words,  but  their  various  inflections 
and  modifications.  One  who  is  well  versed 
in  the  deduction  of  word.s  from  their 
originals,  is  called  an  elyinologist. 

EU'CHAKIST,  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper ;  so  called  because  the 
death  of  our  Redeemer  is  thereby  com- 
memorated with  thankful  remembrance, 
and  bread  and  wine  are  taken  as  emblems 
oi  his  flesh  and  blood. 

EUCHOL'OGY,  a  book  of  prayers; 
synonymous,  in  the  phraseology  of  the 
Koman  Catholic  church,  with  missal  or 
breviary. 

EU'CRASY,  an  agreeable,  well-pro- 
portioned mixture  of  qualities,  by  which 
a  body  is  said  to  be  in  good  order,  and 
disposed  for  a  good  state  of  health. 

EU1IARM02^'IC,  in  music,  producing 
harmony  or  concordant  sounds. 

EU'LOGY,  in  a  general  sense,  an  en- 
comium pronounced  on  any  person  for 
his  meritorious  or  virtuous  qualities  ; 
but,  in  a  more  restricted  meaning,  it  was 
used  in  ecclesiastical  history  to  denote 
any  present  bestowed  on  the  church  after 
having  been  blessed  or  hallowed. 

EU'NOMY,  equal  law,  or  a  well-ad- 
justed constitution  of  government. 

EUPA'TRID^,  in  ancient  history,  the 
nobles  of  Attica,  in  whose  hands  in  early 
times  all  the  power  of  government  was 
vested,  in  consequence  of  which  the  lower 
orders  sunk  into  a  low  state  of  degrada- 
tion, being  particularly  oppressed  by 
their  debts  which  the  pressure  of  their 
circumstances  compelled  them  to  incur, 
and  which,  if  not  paid,  gave  the  creditor 
power  over  the  bodies  and  liberties  of  tlie 
debtor  and  his  family.  These  evils  were 
remedied  by  the  legislation  of  Solon,  who 
reduced  the  interest  of  debts,  and  deprived 
the  creditor  of  his  power  over  the  body 
of  the  debtor,  and  at  the  same  time  threw 
the  judicial  and  much  of  the  legislative 
power  into  the  hands  of  the  peoj)le  at 
large.  The  alterations  in  the  constitution 
of  Athens,  subsequent  to  tho  time  of 
Solon,  by  degrees  de])rived  the  Eupa- 
tridie  of- all  their  political  privileges, 
and  finally  established  an  unmixed  de- 
mocracy. 

EU'PEPSY,  in  medicine,  good  con- 
coction in  tho  stomach;  perfect  digestion. 

EU'PIIEMISM,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
by  which  things  in  themselves  disagree- 
able and  shocking,  arc  expressed  in  terms 
neither  offensive  to  good  manners  nor  re- 
pulsive to  "ears  polite." 


EU  PHONY,  an  easy  and  smooth  enun- 
ciation of  words.  A  grammatical  license, 
whereby  a  letier  that  is  too  harsh  is  con- 
verted into  a  smoother,  contrary  to  tlfe 
ordinary  rules,  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting smoothness  and  elegance  in  the 
pronunciation. 

EU'RITHMY,  in  architecture,  paint- 
ing, and  sculpture,  is  a  certain  majesty, 
elegance,  and  ease  in  the  various  parts 
of  a  body,  arising  from  its  just  propor- 
tions.— In  medicine,  eurithmy  signifies  a 
good  disposition  of  the  pulse. 

EUSTA  TIIIANS,  a  sect  of  Christians, 
the  followers  of  Eustathius,  an  Armenian 
bishop  in  the  fourth  century,  who,  under 
pretence  of  great  purity  and  severity,  in- 
troduced many  irregularities. 

EU'STYLE,  in  architecture,  a  sort  of 
building  in  which  the  columns  are  plaoed 
at  the  most  convenient  distances  from 
each  other,  most  of  the  intercolumnia- 
tions  being  just  two  diameters  and  a 
quarter  of  the  column. 

EUTER'PE,  one 
of  the  muses,  con- 
sidered as  presiding 
over  music,  because 
the  invention  of  the 
ilute  is  ascribed  to 
her.  She  is  usually 
represented  as  a 
virgin  crowned  with 
flowers,  having  a 
flute  in  her  hand,  or 
with  various  instru- 
ments about  her.  As 
her  name  denotes, 
she  is  the  inspirer 
of  pleasure. 

EUTYCIIIANS, 
a  religious  sect  in 
the  fifth  century, 
called  after  one  Eu- 
tyclius,  who  maintained,  among  other 
tilings,  that  the  flesh  of  Christ  differed  in 
its  nature  from  that  of  mankind. 

EUTIIANA'SIA,  or  EUTIIAN'ASY, 
a  gentle,  easy,  hap])y  death 

EVAN'tj  EfjIST,  a  general  name  given 
to  those  who  write  or  preach  the  gospel 
of  Jesus  Christ.  The  word  is  of  (Jreek 
origin,  signifying  one  who  publishes  glad 
tidings,  or  is  tho  messenger  of '  good 
news.  But  it  is  applied  principally 
to  tho  writers  of  tho  four  (iospels,  or 
Erangcllu,  viz.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 
and  John. — The  word  also  denotes  certain 
ministers  in  the  primitive  church,  who 
assisted  the  Apostles  in  diffusing  the 
knowledge  of  the  Oospel,  and  travelled 
about   to   execute   such   commissions   as 


BVlJ 


AND     iHK    FINE    AKTS. 


221 


they  wore    cntrusletl   with,   for    tho   ad- 
Tancoiueiit  of  Christianity. 

EVAN'tJELlSTS,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  on 
the  earliest  sculptures  the  Evangelists 
are  symbolized  by  four  scrolls,  or,  with 
reference  to  tiic  four  streams  of  ParaJiso, 
by  four  rivers  flowing  down  from  a  hill, 
on  which  stands  a  Cross  and  the  Lamb, 
the  MONOGRAM  of  Christ.  They  were  af- 
terwanls  represented  as  the  forms  out  of 
Ezekicl,  vii.  1-10,  viz.,  a  man,  a  lion,  a 
bull,  and  an  eagle,  which  are  mentioned 
as  supporting  the  throne  of  God  (Rev.  iv. 
6-7.)  After  the  fifth  century,  the  By- 
zantine artists,  keeping  strictly  to  bibli- 
cal terms,  represented  the  Evangelists  (at 
first  in  mosaic)  as  miraculous  animals, 
half  men  and  half  bensts;  they  had  wings 
like  the  Cherubim,  and  were  either  in 
the  act  of  writing  or  had  a  scroll  before 
them.  The  human  face  was  given  only 
to  Matthew  or  Mark,  to  which  of  these 
two  was  doubtful,  even  to  the  time  of 
Jerome,  with  whom  originated  the  pres- 
ent appropriation  of  the  attributes  ;  the 
other  three  had  the  heads  of  a  lion,  an 
ox,  and  an  eagle,  with  corresponding 
feet.  This  representation  was  customary 
for  some  time  in  the  Greek  Church.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  middle  ages  the 
Western  Church  began  to  separate  the 
human  figure  from  that  of  the  animal, 
and  to  represent  the  Evangelists  only  in 
the  former  manner,  generally  as  writing, 
and  three  of  them  with  the  animals  by 
their  sides  as  attributes.  The  four  ani- 
mals are  often  represented  with  scrolls, 
anciently  inscribed  with  the  initial  sen- 
tences of  each  Gospel.  In  later  exam- 
ples the  names  of  the  Evangelists  are  in- 
scribed on  the  scrolls.  In  sepulchral 
brasses  the  Evangelistic  symbols  are 
found  variously  arranged,  but  they  are 
most  frequently  placed  so  as  to  follow 
the  same  order.  According  to  St.  Je- 
rome's arrangement  St.  Matthew  had  a 
man  or  angel  by  his  side,  because  his 
Gospel  begins  with  a  genealogy  showing 
the  human  descent  of  Christ.  St.  Mark 
has  a  lion,  the  symbol  of  the  royal  dig- 
nity of  the  Saviour,  and  referring  to  the 
desert  (Mark  i.  13)  in  which  he  was  with 
wild  beasts.  St.  Luke  has  the  ox,  tho 
symbol  of  the  high  priesthood,  because 
histjospel  begins  with  the  history  of  Zach- 
arias  serving  in  the  temple.  St.  John 
has  the  eagle,  the  emblem  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  and  referring  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  LiOgox.  with  which  his  Gospel  com- 
mences. Christ  was  thus  syuibolizeil  by 
the  Evangelists,  as  Man.  King,  High 
Priest,    and   God.       Tho    Eva.vgei,istic 


Symbols  arc  found  variously  employed 
in  Christian  edifices  and  ornaments  of 
every  period  in  the  history  of  Art,  and 
they  are  introduced  in  Christian  design 
un(ier  a  great  variety  of  place  and  cir- 
cumstance, e.  g.  most  appropriately  on 
books  of  the  Holy  Gospels,  enamelled  in 
silver  and  set  on  the  angles  of  tho  covers  ; 
on  crosses,  as  being  the  four  great  wit- 
nesses of  the  doctrine  of  the  Cross.  For 
the  same  reason,  on  the  four  gables  of 
Cruciform  Churches ;  also  in  cross  front- 
als  for  altars ;  at  the  four  corners  of 
monumental  stones  and  brasses  in  testi- 
mony of  the  faith  of  the  deceased  in  the 
Gospel  of  Christ ;  around  images  of  tho 
Majesty,  the  Holy  Trinity,  Agnus  Dei, 
Crucifixion,  Resurrection,  whether  paint- 
ed on  glass,  or  ceilings  and  wall,  or  em- 
broidered on  vestments  or  altar-cloths, 
iis  the  sacred  mysteries  represented  are 
described  in  tho  Holy  Gospels. 

EVA'S  ION,  the  act  of  eluding  or  es- 
caping from  the  pressure  of  an  argument, 
or  from  an  accusation,  charge,  or  inter- 
rogatory. 

EVA'TBS,  a  branch  of  the  Druids,  or 
ancient  Celtic  philosophers.  Strabo  di- 
vides the  British  and  Gaulic  philosophers 
into  three  sects,  Bards,  Evates,  and  Dru- 
ids. He  adds,  that  the  Bards  were  the 
poets  and  musicians ;  tho  Evates,  the 
priests  and  naturalists ;  and  tho  Druids 
were  moralists  as  well  as  naturalists. 

EVE'NING,  or  EVE,  the  precise 
lime  when  evening  begins  is  not  ascer- 
tained by  usage.  In  strictness,  evening 
commences  at  the  setting  of  tho  sun,  and 
continues  during  twilight,  and  (liV/ii  com- 
mences with  total  darkness.  But  it 
sometimes  includes  a  portion  of  the  after- 
noon ;  as  in  the  phrase,  "  the  morning 
and  evening  service  of  the  church  ;"  and 
in  customary  language  it  extends  to  bod- 
time  ;  as  "I  spent  the  evening  with  a 
friend." — Figuratively,  we  use  it  for  the 
decline  of  life,  or  old  ago  ;  as  "  tho  eve- 
7iing  of  life." 

EVIDENCE,  in  its  most  general 
sense,  moans  the  proofs  which  establish, 
or  have  a  tendency  to  establish,  any  facts 
or  conclusions.  It  may  be  divided  into 
three  sorts,  mathematical,  moral,  and 
legal.  The  first  is  employed  in  the  dem- 
onstrations which  belong  to  pure  math- 
ematics; the  second  is  employed  in  the 
general  affairs  of  life,  and  in  those  roa- 
s:)nings  which  are  applied  to  convince  the 
understanding  in  cases  not  admitting  of 
strict  demon.stration  ;  tho  third  is  that 
which  is  employed  in  judicial  tribunals 
for   the    purpose   of  deciding   upon    the 


222 


cvcLnrfc:DiA   ok   literature 


[exc 


rights  and  wrongs  of  litigants.  Accord- 
ing to  our  system  of  jurisprudence  in 
coiunion  law  trials,  it  is  the  peculiar  pro- 
vince of  a  jury  to  decide  all  matters  of 
fact.  The  verdict  of  tlic  jury  is,  however, 
to  be  given,  and  the  trial  is  to  be  had,  in 
the  presence  of  a  judge  or  judges,  who 
preside  at  the  trial,  and  are  bound  to  de- 
cide all  matters  of  law,  arising  in  the 
course  of  the  trial.  Whenever,  therefore, 
a  question  arises,  whether  anything  of- 
fered as  proof  at  such  trial  is  or  is  not 
proper  to  go  before  the  jury  as  evidence, 
that  question  is  to  be  decided  by  the 
court,  and,  unless  permitted  by  the  court, 
it  can  never  legally  come  before  the  con- 
sideration of  the  jury.  Hence,  whatever 
is  so  permitted  to  be  brought  before  the 
jury,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them  to 
decide  any  matter  of  fact  in  dispute  be- 
tween the  parties,  is  in  a  legal  sense,  evi- 
dence, and  is  so  called  in  contra-distinc- 
tion  to  mere  argument  and  comment. 
This  gives  rise  to  a  very  important  dis- 
tinction, at  the  common  law,  as  to  the 
competency  and  the  credibility  of  evi- 
dence. It  is  competent,  when  by  the 
principles  of  law,  it  is  admissible  to  es- 
tablish any  fact,  or  has  any  tendency  to 
prove  it.  It  is  credible,  when,  being  in- 
troduced, it  affords  satisfactory  proof  of 
the  fact.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  evi- 
dence may  be  competent  to  be  produced 
before  a  jury,  when  it  may  nevertl>eless 
not  amount  to  credible  proof,  so  as  to  sat- 
isfy the  minds  of  the  jury;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  such  as,  if  before 
them,  would  satisfy  their  minds  of  the 
truth  of  the  fact,  but  yet,  by  the  rules  of 
law,  it  is  not  admissible.  Whether  there 
is  any  evidence  of  a  fact,  is  a  question  for 
the  court;  whether  it  is  sufflclent,  is  a 
question  for  the  jury. 

E'VIL,  in  philosophy,  Ac.  is  either 
moral  or  natural.  Moral  evil  is  any  de- 
viation of  a  moral  agent  from  the  rules 
of  conduct  prescribed  to  him.  Scuuo 
make  the  essence  of  moral  evil  consist  in 
the  disagreement  of  our  manners  to  the 
divine  will,  whether  known  by  reason  or 
revelation  ;  others,  in  being  contrary  to 
reason  and  truth;  and  others,  in  being 
inconsistent  with  the  nature,  faculties, 
affections,  and  situation  of  mankind. 

EVOCA'TI,  soldiers  among  the  Ro- 
mans, who  having  served  their  full  time 
in  the  army,  went  afterwards  volunteers 
at  the  request  of  some  favorite  general ; 
on  which  account  they  were  called  by  the 
honorable  names  of  hrxcriti  and  Beneji- 
ciaril. 

EV'OCA'TION.  in  P.o.uan  antiquity,  a 


solemn  invitation  or  prayer  to  the  goda 
of  a  besieged  town,  to  forsake  it  and 
come  over  to  the  besiegers. 

EVOH'TIOX,  in  military  tactics,  the 
complicated  movement  of  a  body  of  men 
when  they  change  their  position  by 
countermarching,  wheeling,  &c. 

E'VOV^E,  in  music,  the  vowels  used 
with  the  ending  notes  of  the  ecclesiastical 
tones:  it  is  a  word,  for  brevity's  sake, 
formed  of  the  si.x  vowels  in  the  words 
scBculorum  amen,  which  are  subjoined  to 
the  notes  in  Antiphonaries,  &c.,  to  indi- 
cate that  those  are  the  ending  notes. 

EXAGGERA'TIOX,  in  rhetoric,  akind 
of  hyperbole,  whereby  things  are  aug- 
mented or  amplified,  by  saj'ing  more  than 
the  strict  truth  will  warrant.— In  paint- 
ing, a  method  of  giving  a  representation 
of  tilings  too  strong  for  the  life. 

EXALTA'DOS,  in  Spanish  history,  the 
name  of  the  party  attached  the  liberal 
system  of  politics,  corresponding  to  the 
''  extreme  gauche"  of  the  French,  or 
Whig  radicals,  in  English  politics. 

EXAMIXA'TIOX,  in  its  primary 
sense,  is  a  careful  and  accurate  inspec- 
tion or  inquirj',  in  order  to  discover  the 
real  state  of  anything. — In  judicial  pro- 
ceedings, an  attempt  to  ascertain  truth, 
generally  on  the  oath  of  the  pfirty  ex- 
amined, by  interrogatories. — In  schools, 
an  inquiry  into  the  acquisitions  of  the 
students,  by  questioning  them  in  litera- 
ture and  the  sciences,  or  by  hearing  their 
recitals. 

EXAMINERS,  in  law,  two  officers  in 
the  court  of  Chancery,  who  are  appointed 
on  oath,  to  examine  witnesses  on  either 
side. 

EX'ARCII,  in  antiquity,  an  officer  sent 
by  the  emperors  of  the  East  into  Italy, 
as  prefect  or  governor. — Exarch  also  de- 
notes an  officer  still  subsisting  in  the 
Greek  church,  who  visits  the  provinces, 
in  order  to  see  whethec  the  bishops  and 
clergy  do  their  duty. 

EXAUCTORA'TION,  or  EXAUTIIO- 
RA'TION,  in  Roman  antiquity,  tempo- 
rary dismi.ssion  from  service  :  thus  the  «.T- 
auctori  milites  were  deprived  of  their  pay 
and  arms,  without  being  absolutely  dis- 
charged. 

EXCALCEA'TION,  among  the  He- 
brews, was  a  law,  whereby  a  widow, 
whom  her  husband's  brother  refused  to 
marry,  liad  a  riglit  to  summon  him  to  a 
court  of  justice,  and,  upon  his  refusal, 
might  excalccnte  him,  that  is,  pull  off  one 
of  his  shoes,  and  si)it  in  his  face  ;  both 
of  which  were  considered  actions  of  great 
ignominy. 


EXC] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


EXCA'TlIEDrxA,  a  Latin  phrase; 
originally  applied  to  decisions  remlcrcl 
by  prelates,  chiefly  popes,  from  their  ca- 
thedra or  chair:  i.  e.  in  a  solemn  judi- 
cial manner.  Hence  applied  to  every 
decision  pronounced  by  one  in  the  exercise 
of  his  peculiar  authority  :  a  professor 
in  his  lecture  room,  a  judge  from  the 
bench,  dte. 

EX'CELLEXCY,  a  title  of  honor  for- 
merly given  to  kings  and  emperors,  but 
now  given  to  governors,  ambassadors,  &e. 
who  are  elevated  by  virtue  of  particular 
offices.  The  title  of  e.xcellency  is  in  no 
case  hereditary,  or  transferable  from  one 
member  to  another,  but  always  belongs 
to  the  office,  and  is  only  borne,  on  the 
European  continent,  by  ministers  in  ac- 
tual service,  by  the  highest  court  and 
military  dignitarie.-J,  and  by  ambassadors 
and  plenipotentiaries.  Foreign  minis- 
ters are  addressed  by  the  title  of  your 
excellency,  by  way  of  courtesy,  even  if 
they  have  no  rank  which  entitles  them  to 
this  distinction;  but  charge  cVaffaires 
never  receive  the  title. 

EXCH.A.XGE',  in  commerce,  traffic  by 
permutation,  or  the  act  of  giving  one 
thing  or  comraolity  for  another.  The 
receipt  or  payment  of  money  in  one 
country  for  the  like  sum  in  another,  by 
means  of  bills  of  exchange.  Thus,  A  in 
London,  is  creditor  to  B  in  Xew  York,  to 
the  amount  of  100/.  C  in  London  is 
debtor  to  D  in  New  York,  in  a  like  sum  : 
by  the  operation  of  the  bill  of  exchange, 
the  London  creditor  is  paid  by  the  Lon- 
don debtor,  and  the  Xew  York  ere  litor  is 
paid  by  the  Xew  York  debtor  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, two  debts  are  paid,  though  no 
specie  is  sent  from  London  to  Xew  York, 
or  from  Xew  York  to  London.  '  This  is 
the  principle  of  a  bill  of  exchange;  and 
the  great  convenience  here  represented 
is  the  foundation  of  exchange  itself.  That 
variation  above  and  below  par,  which  is 
called  the  course  of  exchange,  results 
from  the  same  causes  that  act  upon  the 
price  of  commodities  of  every  other  kind. 
If  bills  upon  Xew  York  be  scarce,  that 
is,  if  New  York  is  but  little  indebted 
to  London,  the  London  creditor,  who 
wants  bills  on  Xew  York  to  remit  to  that 
city,  is  obliged  to  purchase  them  dearly; 
then  the  course  of  exchange  is  above  par  : 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  London  owes  less 
to  New  York  than  Xew  York  owes  to 
London,  Xew  York  bills  will  be  propor- 
tionably  plenty,  and  the  exchange  with 
that  city  beloic  par.  Hence,  it  is  a  max- 
im that,  when  the  course  of  exchange 
tises  above  par,  the  balance  of  trade  runs 


against  the  country  where  it  rises.  In 
London,  bills  of  exchange  are  bought  and 
sold  by  brokers,  who  go  round  to  the  prin- 
cipal merchants,  and  discover  whether 
they  are  buyers  or  sellers  of  bills.  A 
few  of  the  brokers  of  most  influence,  after 
ascertaining  the  state  of  the  relative  sup- 
ply of  and  demand  for  bills,  suggest  a 
price  at  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
transactions  of  the  day  are  settled,  with 
such  deviations  as  particulax  bills,  from 
their  being  in  very  high  or  low  credit, 
may  be  subject  to.  In  London  and  other 
great  commercial  cities,  a  class  of  middle- 
men speculate  largely  on  the  rise  and  fall 
of  the  exchange,  buying  bills  when  they 
expect  a  rise,  and  selling  them  when  a 
fall  is  anticipated. — Exchange,  in  arith- 
metic, is  the  finding  what  quantity  of  the 
money  in  one  place  is  equal  to  a  given 
sum  of  another,  according  to  a  certain 
course  of  exchange. — Course  of  exchange 
is  the  current  price  betwixt  two  places, 
whi^h  is  always  fluctuating  and  unset- 
tled.— Arbitration  of  exchange  is  a  cal- 
culation of  the  exchanges  of  different 
places  to  discover  which  is  the  most  prof- 
itable.— Exchange  of  prisoners,  in  war, 
the  act  t)f  giving  up  men  on  both  sides, 
upon  certain  conditions  agreed  to  by  the 
^  contending  parlies. 

j       EXClIAXitE',   (often   contracted  into 
j  Change,)  signifies   a  building   or   other 
;  place  in  considerable  trading  cicies,  where 
'  the  merchants,  agents,  bankers,  brokers, 
and  other  persons  concerned  in  commerce, 
meet    at   certain    times,    to   confer    and 
treat  tog(jther  of  matters  relating  to  ex- 
changes, remittances,   payments,  adven- 
tures,   assurances,    freights,    and    other 
mercantile  negotiations  both  by  sea  and 
:  land. 

i  EXCHEQ'UER,  in  British  jurispru- 
'  denee,  an  ancient  court  of  record,  in  which 
all  causes  concerning  the  revenues  and 
rights  of  the  crown  are  heard  and  deter- 
mined, and  where  the  crown-revenue?, 
are  received.  It  took  this  name  from  the 
cloth  that  covered  the  table  of  the  court, 
which  was  party-colored  or  chequered. 
;  This  court  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
by  William  the  Conqueror. — The  public 
Exchequer  is  unler  the  control  of  the 
lords  of  the  Treasury,  and  of  a  minister 
called  the  chanceC-r  of  the  exchequer. — 
To  institute  a  process  against  a  person 
in  this  court,  is  called  to  exchequer  him. 
EXCHEQTEK-BILL.S,  bills  for  mon- 
ey, or  promissory  notes,  issued  from  the 
exchequer,  under  the  authority  of  govern- 
ment, and  bearing  interest. 

EXCISE',  an  inland  duty,  paid  in  some 


224 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITR;;  \TL  RK 


instp.nces  upon  the  commodity  consumed, 
or  on  the  retail,  which  is  the  last  stage 
before  consumption  ;  but  in  others  this 
duty  is  paid  at  the  manufactories.  The 
excise  was  first  introduced  in  England  by 
the  parliament  which  beheaded  Charles 
I.  and  its  great  founder  was  Mr.  Pjnn  ; 
and  is  now  one  of  the  most  considerable 
branches  of  the  national  revenue.  It 
was  formerly  farmed  out,  but  is  at  pres- 
ent managed  for  the  government  by  com- 
missioners, who  receive  the  whole  pro- 
duct of  the  excise,  and  pay  it  into  the 
exchequer. — The  officer  who  inspects  ex- 
cisable commodities  and  rates  the  duties 
on  them  is  called  an  exciseman. 

EXCLAMA'TION,  emphatical  utter- 
ance ;  or  the  sign  by  which  emphatical 
utterance  is  marlied  :  thus  (!). — In  gram- 
mar, a  word  expressing  some  passion,  as 
wonder,  fear,  &c. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION.  an  ecclesias- 
tical censure,  whereby  a  person  is  ex- 
cluded from  communion  with  the  church, 
and  deprived  of  some  civil  rights.  In 
the  present  state  of  church-government 
in  England,  excommunication  is  seldom 
used  but  as  a  sort  of  writ  of  outlawry  on 
contempt  of  the  bishop's  court,  in  the  sev- 
eral descriptions  of  causes  that  belong  to 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  It  is  published 
in  the  church,  and  if  the  offender  does  not 
submit  in  forty  days,  the  civil  magistrate 
interposes,  and  the  excommunicated  per- 
son is  imprisoned  till  he  submits,  and  ob- 
tains absolution. — The  Roman  Catholics 
use  the  phrase  fulminating  an  excom- 
munication, to  signify  the  solemn  pro- 
nouncing of  an  excommunication  after 
several  admonitions.  Tliis  fulmination 
principally  consists  of  curses,  execrations, 
and  other  ceremonies  ;  and  is  called  ar?a- 
thema — Kxcommunication  amongst  the 
Jews  was  of  three  kinds  or  degrees.  The 
first  was  called  Niddui,  and  was  a  sepa- 
ration for  a  few  days.  The  second  was 
Cherem,  and  was  a  separation  attended 
with  execration  and  malediction ;  the 
third  was  Shamtnafka,  and  was  the  last 
and  greater  excommunication. — Kxcom- 
vianication  amongst  the  (ireeks  and  Ro- 
mans cxclude(l  the  person,  on  whom  it  was 
pronounced,  from  the  sacrifices  au'l  tem- 
ples, nii'l  delivered  him  over  to  the  Fnriefi. 

EXCIJ'i'I^I";,  in  antiquity,  the  watches 
and  guards  kept  in  the  day  by  the  Ro- 
mans, in  distinction  from  vigilite,  which 
wer(^  liefit  at  night. 

EX'E.VT,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
term  employed  in  the  permission  which 
a  bishop  grants  to  a  priest  to  go  out  of 
bis  diocese. 


EXECU'TION,  in  law,  the  completing 
or  finishing  some  act,  as  of  judgment  or 
deed,  and  it  usually  signifies  the  obtain- 
ing possession  of  anything  received  by 
judgment  of  law.  Also,  the  carrying  into 
ctfect  a  sentence  or  judgment  of  eimrt; 
as  the  infliction  of  capital  punishment. — 
Execution,  in  painting,  is  the  term  given 
to  the  peculiar  mode  of  working  for  ef- 
fect— the  manipulation  peculiar  to  each 
individual  artist ;  where  it  predominates 
over  finish,  or  where  execution  exhibits  a 
studied  eccentricity,  it  degenerates  into 
mannerism,  which,  when  it  merely  ex- 
hibits the  manual  dexterity  of  the  artist, 
is  usually  the  exponent  of  mediocrity  :  at 
the  same  time  it  must  be  admittcl,  that 
good  execution  is  always  aimed  at  by  the 
true  artist.  All  qualities  of  execution, 
properly  so  called,  are  influenced  by,  and 
in  a  great  degree  dependent  on,  a  far 
higher  power  than  that  of  more  execution 
— knowledge  of  truth.  For  exactly  in 
proportion  as  an  artist  is  certain  of  his 
end,  will  he  be  swift  and  simple  in  his 
means;  and  as  he  is  accurate  and  deep  in 
his  knowledge,  will  he  be  refined  and  pre- 
cise in  his  touch. 

EXECU'TIONER,  the  officer  who  in- 
flicts capital  punishment  in  pursuance  of 
a  legal  warrant;  the  common  hangman. 

EXECUTIVE,  in  politics,  that  branch 
of  the  government  which  executes  the 
functions  of  governing  the  state.  The 
word  is  used  in  distinction  from  legisla- 
tive uml  judicial.  The  body  that  deliber- 
ates and  enacts  laws,  is  legislative ;  the 
body  that  judges  or  applies  the  laws  to 
particular  cases,  is  judicial;  and  the  body 
that  carries  tlie  laws  into  effeot,  or  super- 
intends the  enforcement  of  them,  is  ex- 
ecutive. In  all  monarchical  states  this 
power  rests  in  the  prince. 

EXECUTOR,  in  law,  a  person  appoint- 
ed by  anotlier's  last  will  and  testament, 
to  have  the  execution  of  the  same  after 
his  decease,  and  the  disposing  of  the  tes- 
tator's goods  and  effects,  according  to  the 
intent  of  the  will. 

EXECUTORY,  in  law,  signifies  that 
which  is  to  take  effect  on  a  future  con- 
tingency; as  an  e.rerutnnj  devise  or  re- 
mainder. 

EXE'T>R.T;,  in  antiquity,  a  general 
name  f'm-  such  buildings  as  were  distinct 
from  the  miiin  body  of  tlie  churches,  and 
yet  witliin  tiio  limits  of  the  consecrated 
ground. 

EXEOESrS,  a  discourse  intended  to 
explain  or  illustrate  a  subject.  The  terra 
is  applied  most  usually  to  the  exposition 
or  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 


KXI 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


225 


This  department  of  biblical  learning  has 
been  most  assiduously  cultivated  in  mod- 
ern times,  especially  by  the  Germans,  as 
the  writings  of  Miehaclis,  Schleusner, 
lloscnmiiller,  Gescnius,  Ac,  amply  testify. 

EXEMPLAR,  a  pattern  or  model ;  the 
ideal  model  which  an  artist  attempts  to 
imitate.  That  which  serves  as  a  model 
for  imitation,  or  as  a  warning  for  others, 
is  termed  exemplary  ;  as,  exeniplaryt  jus- 
tiee  ;  exempla ry  punishment. 

EXEtiUA'TUll,  an  official  recognition 
of  a  person  in  the  character  of  consul  or 
commercial  agent,  authorizing  him  to  ex- 
ercise his  powers. 

EX'ERCISE,  the  exertion  of  the  body, 
for  health,  amusement,  labor,  or  the  at- 
tainment of  any  art.  Exercise  increases 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  attenuates 
and  divides  the  fluids,  and  promotes  a 
regular  perspiration,  as  well  as  a  due  se- 
cretion of  all  the  humors  ;  for  it  acceler- 
ates the  animal  spirits,  and  facilitates 
their  distribution  into  all  the  fibres  of  the 
body,  strengthens  the  parts,  creates  an 
appetite,  and  heli>s  digestion.  Whence 
it  arises,  that  those  who  accustom  them- 
selves to  exercise  are  generally  very  ro- 
bust, and  seldom  subject  to  diseases.  It 
should  never  be  forgotten  by  those  of 
studious  habits,  that  the  delicate  springs 
of  our  frail  machines  lose  their  activity, 
and  the  vessels  become  clogged  with  ob- 
structions, when  we  totally  desist  from 
exercise  ;  from  which  consequences  arise 
which  necessarily  affect  the  brain  ;  a  mere 
studious  life  is  therefore  equally  prejudi- 
cial to  the  body  and  the  mind.  We  may 
further  observe,  that  an  inclination  to 
study  ought  not  to  be  carried  to  the  ex- 
tent of  aversion  to  society  and  motion. 
The  natural  lot  of  man  is  to  live  among 
his  fellows  ;  and  whatever  may  be  his  sit- 
uation in  the  world,  there  are  a  thousand 
occasions  wherein  his  physical  energies 
may  be  rendered  serviceable  to  his  fel- 
low-creatures, as  welL  as  to  himself. 
Many  rational  causes  have  therefore  giv- 
en rise  to  the  practice  of  particular  exer- 
cises ;  and  those  legislators  who  deserve 
to  be  called  the  most  sagacious  and  be- 
nevolent, have  instituted  opportunities 
for  enabling  youth  who  devote  themselves 
to  study,  to  become  expert  also  in  lauda- 
ble exercises. — Mental  exercise  is  the  ex- 
ertion of  the  mind  or  faculties  for  im- 
provement, as  in  the  various  branches  of 
literature,  art,  and  science. — Military 
exercise  consists  in  the  use  of  arms,  in 
marches,  evolutions,  &c. — Naval  exercise 
consists  in  the  management  of  artillery, 
and  in  the  evolutions  of  fleets. 
15 


EXER'GUE,  a  term  used  by  medallists 
to  denote  the  little  space  around  and 
without  the  work  or  figures  of  a  medal 
for  an  inscription,  <fec. 

EXHEllEDATION,  in  the  civil  law, 
a  father's  excluding  a  child  from  inher- 
iting any  part  of  his  estate. 

EXHIB'IT,  any  paper  produced  or  pre- 
sented to  a  court  or  to  auditors,  referees, 
or  arbitrators,  as  a  voucher,  &c.  —  Ih 
chancery,  a  deed  or  writing  produced  in 
court  and  sworn  to,  and  a  certificate  of 
the  oath  endorsed  on  it  by  the  examiner 
or  commissioner. 

EXHIBI'TION,  a  public  display  of 
whatever  is  interesting  either  as  a  mat- 
ter of  art  or  curiosity.  Also,  a  benefac- 
tion settled  for  the  benefit  of  scholars  in 
the  universities,  that  are  not  on  the  foun- 
dation. The  person  receiving  this  is  call- 
ed an  exhibitioner. — Exhibition  was  an- 
ciently an  allowance  for  meat  and  drink, 
such  as  the  religious  appropriators  made 
to  the  poor  depending  vicar. 

EXIIUMA'TION,  the  digging  up  of  a 
dead  body  that  has  been  interred. 

EXIGENT,  in  law,  a  writ  or  part  of 
the  process  of  outlawry.  The  exigent  or 
exigi  facias  requires  the  defendant  to  be 
proclaimed  in  five  courts  successively,  to 
render  himself;  and  if  he  does  not,  he  is 
outlawed. 

EX'ILE,  a  state  of  banishment  or  ex- 
pulsion from  one's  country  by  authority  ; 
or  it  may  be  an  abandonment  of  one's 
country,  for  a  foreign  land,  from  disgust 
or  any  other  motive,  which  is  called  vol- 
untary exile. 

EXIST'ENCE,  the  state  of  being,  or 
having  an  actual  essence.  Mr.  Locke 
says,  that  we  arrive  at  the  knowledge  of 
our  own  existence,  by  intuition ;  of  the 
existence  of  God,  by  demonstration  ;  and 
of  other  things,  by  sensation.  As  for  our 
own  existence,  continues  he,  we  perceive 
it  so  plainly,  that  it  neither  needs,  nor  is 
capable  of,  any  proof.  I  think,  I  reason, 
I  feel  pleasure  and  pain ;  can  any  of 
these  be  more  evident  to  me  than  my 
own  existence  7  If  I  doubt  of  all  other 
things,  that  very  doubt  makes  me  per- 
ceive my  own  existence,  and  will  not  suf- 
fer me  to  doubt.  If  I  know  I  doubt,  I 
have  as  certain  a  perception  of  the  thing 
doubting,  as  of  that  thought  which  I  call 
doubt :  experience  then  convinces  us,  that 
we  have  an  intuitive  knowledge  of  our 
own  existence. 

EX'IT,  a  departure  ;  a  term  used  to 
denote  the  action  of  quitting  the  stage  by 
a  player  after  he  has  performed  his  part. 
Figuratively,  the  act  of  quitting  this  mof' 
tal  existence. 


226" 


CTCLOI'KUIA     OF     I.IIERATL'RE 


[exp 


EXO'DIA,  amoi.gst  the  Romans,  were 
a  sort  of  after-pieces,  performed  by  young 
geQtlem«in  when  the  play  was  concluded. 
They  bore  no  relation  to  the  drama  be- 
fore exhibited  ;  but  were  intended  to  re- 
vive, or  rather  improve  the  Fescennine 
verses,  which  had  fallen  into  disuse.  Pro- 
fessional actors  never  performed  any  part 
in  the  E.rodia. 

EX'ODE,  in  the  Greek  drama,  the  con- 
cluding part  of  a  play,  or  that  part  which 
gomprehends  all  that  occurs  after  the  last 
interlude. 

EXODUS,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  being  the  second  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, or  five  books  of  Moses.  It  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  departure  of  the 
children  of  Israel  from  Egypt ;  from 
which  it  received  its  name. 

EX  OFFI'CIO,  in  law,  the  power  a 
person  has,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  to  do 
certain  acts  without  special  authority. 

EXO'MIS,  in  Grecian  costume,  a  gar- 
ment worn  chiefly  by  the  working  classes, 
without  sleeves,  or  with  only  one  sleeve 
for  the  left  arm,  leaving  the  right  and 
part  of  the  breast  exposed  and  free.  It 
varied  much  in  form,  sometimes  it  was  a 
chiton,  at  others  a  pallium,  serving  the 
purposes  of  each.  In  works  of  Art  it  is 
usually  applied  to  representations  of  the 
Amazons,  and  to  Charon,  Vulcan,  and 
Daedalus.  It  was  also  the  dress  of  old 
men  in  the  comic  plays  of  Aristophanes 
and  others. 

EX'OKCISM,  the  solemn  adjuration  by 
which  those  endowed  with  certain  powers 
were  believed  to  be  able  to  subject  evil 
spirits  to  their  obedience  :  more  partic- 
ularly to  compel  them  to  leave  the  bodies 
of  those  supposed  to  be  subject  to  demon- 
iacal possession.  The  exorcists  form  one 
of  the  minor  orders  in  the  church  of 
Rome. 

EXOR'DIUM,  in  oratory  and  litera- 
ture, the  opening  part  of  an  oration  ; 
which,  according  to  ancient  critics,  should 
be  drawn  either  from  the  subject  itself  or 
from  the  situation  of  the  speaker  ;  pre- 
senting either  brief  remarks  on  the  gen- 
eral character  of  the  topic  on  which  he 
is  about  to  deliver  himself,  or  insinua- 
tions, (according  to  the  advice  of  Cicero,) 
calculated  to  prejudice  the  audience  in 
favor  of  the  speaker,  and  against  his  ad- 
versary. 

EXOTER'IC,  in  rhetoric,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  such  of  Aristotle's  lectures  as 
were  open  to  all  persons.     See  Epotehic. 

EXOT'IC,  an  njipellation  for  the  pro- 
duce of  foreign  countries.  E.xotic  plants 
are  ?uch  as  belong  to  a  soil  and  climate 


entirely  different  from  the  place  T^here 
they  are  raised,  and  therefore  can  be 
preserved  for  the  most  part  only  in  green- 
houses. 

EX-PAR'TE,  in  law,  on  one  side,  as 
ex-purle  statement,  a  partial  statement, 
or  that  which  is  made  on  one  side  onlv. 

EXPATRI  A'TION,  the  forsaking  one's 
own  country,  with  a  renunciation  of  alle- 
giance, and  with  a,  view  of  becoming  a 
permanent  resident  and  citizen  in  anoth- 
er country. 

EXPECT'AXCY,  in  law,  a  state  of 
waiting  or  suspension.  An  estate  in  ex- 
pectancy is  one  which  is  to  take  effect  or 
commence  after  the  determination  of  an- 
other estate. — Estates  of  this  kind  are 
remainders  and  reversions. 

EXPECTAXT,  in  law,  an  epithet  for 
whatever  has  a  relation  to,  or  dependence 
upon  another. 

EXPECTA'TION.  in  the  doctrine  of 
chances,  is  applied  to  any  contingent 
event,  upon  the  happening  of  which  some 
benefit  is  expected. — Expectation  differs 
from  hope  in  this  :  hope  originates  in  de- 
sire, and  may  exist  with  little  or  no 
ground  of  belief  that  the  desired  event 
will  arrive;  whereas  expectation  is  found- 
ed on  some  reasons  which  render  the 
event  probable — Expectation,  of  life,  is 
a  term  used  to  express  the  number  of 
years,  which,  according  to  the  experience 
of  bills  of  mortality,  persons  at  any  age 
mav  be  expected  to  live. 

EXPEDIENT,  a  temporary  means  of 
effecting  an  object,  without  regard  to  ul- 
terior consequences. 

EXPEDl'TION,  the  march  of  an  army, 
or  the  voyage  of  a  fleet,  to  a  distant  place 
for  hostile  purposes  ;  as,  the  expedition 
of  the  English  to  Holland;  the  expedi- 
tion of  the  French  to  Egvpt. 

EXPE'RIEXCE.  the  source  of  knowl- 
edge arising  from  the  faculty  of  memory, 
and  the  power  of  reasoning  by  analogy. 
Thus,  we  learn  the  instability  of  human 
affairs  by  observation  or  by  experience. 

EXPERT MEXT,  an  act  or  operation 
designed  to  discover  some  unknown  truth, 
principle,  or  effect. — In  chemistry,  a  trial 
of  the  results  of  certain  applications  and 
motions  of  natural  bodies,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover something  of  their  laws,  nature, 
&c.  —  Experimental  knowledge  is  tho 
most  valuable,  because  it  is  most  certain, 
and  most  snfelv  to  be  trusted 

EXPERIMENTAL  PHILOSOPHY, 
those  branches  of  science,  the  deductions 
in  which  arc  founded  on  experiment,  as 
contrasted  with  tho  moral,  mathematical, 
and  speculative  branches  of  knowledge 


ext] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


22' 


The  principal  experimental  science  is 
Chemistry  :  but  there  are  many  others, 
as,  Optics,  Pneumatics,  Hydrostatics, 
Electricity,  Mngnetisra,  ic. 

EXPEIUMEX'TL'M  ORU'CIS,  a  lead- 
ing or  decisive  experiment. 

EXPIATION,  a  religious  ceremony, 
by  which  satisfaction  is  made  fur  sins  of 
omission  or  commission,  accidental  or  in- 
tentional. The  chief  mode  of  expiation 
among  the  Jews  and  Pagans  was  by  sac- 
rince. —  "xpialion.  in  a  figurative  sense, 
is  applied  by  divines  to  the  pardon  pro- 
cured to  men's  sins,  by  the  obedience  and 
death  of  Christ. 

EXPOKTA'TIOX,  that  part  of  foreign 
commerce  which  ctmsists  in  sending  out 
goo. Is  for  sale,  and  which  is  therefore  the 
actite  part  of  trade  as  importation,  or 
the  purchasing  of  goods,  is  the  passive. — 
AVc  apply  the  word  exports  to  goods  or 
produce  which  are  sent  abroad  or  usually 
exported. 

EXPOS'ITOR,  one  who  explains  the 
writings  of  others  ;  it  is  applied  particu- 
larly to  those  who  profess  to  expound  the 
Scriptures. 

EX  POST  FACTO,  (literally,  for  some- 
thing done  afterwards,)  as  an  e.v  post, 
facto  law,  a  law  which  operates  upon  a 
subject  not  liable  to  it  at  the  time  the 
law  was  made. 

EXPO.STLLA'TIOX,  in  rhetoric,  a 
wa^m  address  to  a  person,  who  has  done 
another  some  injurj^,  representing  the 
wrong  in  the  strongest  terms,  and  de- 
manding redress. 

EXPRESS',  a  messenger  or  courier 
sent  to  communicate  information  of  an 
important  event,  or  to  deliver  important 
dispatches. 

EXPRES'SION,  in  painting,  the  dis- 
tinct and  natural  exhibition  of  character 
or  of  sentiment  in  the  characters  repre- 
sented. The  term  expression  is  frequent- 
ly confounded  with  that  of  passion,  but 
they  differ  in  this,  that  expression  is  a 
general  term,  implying  a  representation 
of  an  object  agreeably  to  its  nature  and 
character,  and  the  use  or  office  it  is  to 
have  in  the  wnrlc  ;  whereas  passion,  in 
pointing,  denotes  a  motion  of  the  body, 
accompanied  «ith  certain  indications  of 
strong  feelin,';  portrayed  in  the  counte- 
nance ;  so  that  every  passion  is  an  expres- 
sion, but  not  every  expression,  a  passion. 
— Expres3lon,  in  rhetoric,  the  elocution, 
diction,  or  choice  of  words  suited  to  the 
subject  and  sentiment. — In  music,  the 
tone  and  manner  which  give  life  and  re- 
ality to  ideas  and  sentiments. —  Tlieatri- 
tal  expression,  is  a  distinct,  sonorous,  and 


pleasing  pronunciation,  accompanied  with 
action  suited  to  the  sentiment. 

EXPROPRIA'TIOX,  the  surrender  of 
a  claim  to  exclusive  property. 

EXPURGATORY,  serving  to  purify 
from  anything  noxious  or  erroneous ;  as 
the  expurgatory  inde.x  of  the  Roman 
Catholics,  which  directs  the  expunging 
of  passages  of  authors  contrary  to  their 
creed  or  principles. 

EXT.A.NT,  an  epithet  for  anything 
which  still  subsists  or  is  in  being;  as  a 
part  only  of  the  writings  of  Cicero  are 
extant. 

EXTEM'PORE,  without  previous 
study  or  meditation  ;  as  he  writes  or 
speaivs  extempore.  Though  an  adverb,  it 
is  often  unnecessarily  and  improperly 
used  as  an  adjective  ;  as  an  extempore 
sermon,  instead  of  an  exteynporary  or  ex- 
temporaneous sermon,  &c. — To  extempo- 
rize well,  requires  a  ready  mind  well 
furnished  with  knowledge. 

EXTEX'T',  in  law,  is  used  in  a  double 
sense  ;  sometimes  it  signifies  a  writ  or 
command  to  the  sheriff  for  the  valuing 
of  the  lands  or  tenements  of  a  debtor; 
and  sometimes  the  act  of  the  sheriff,  or 
other  commissioner,  upon  this  writ  ;  but 
most  commonly  it  denotes  an  estimate  or 
valuation  of  lands  — E.vtent  in  aid,  a 
seizure  made  by  the  government,  when  a 
public  accountant  becomes  a  defaulter, 
and  prays  for  relief  against  his  credi- 
tors. 

EXTEXUA'TIOX,  the  act  of  repre- 
senting anything  less  faulty  or  criminal 
than  it  is  in  fact ;  it  is  opposed  to  aggra- 
vation. 

EXTIX'GUISHMENT,  in  law,  the  an- 
nihilation of  an  estate,  &c.  by  means  of 
its  being  merged  or  consolidated  with  an- 
other. 

EXTOR'TIOX,  the  unlawful  act  of  any 
person  in  authority,  who,  by  color  of  his 
office,  talies  money  or  any  other  thing 
when  none  is  due.  Whenever  property 
of  any  kind  is  wrested  from  a  person  by 
menace,  duress,  violence,  authority,  or  b^' 
any  illegal  means,  it  is  extortion.  The 
word  e.rtori  has  a  very  wide  signification. 
Conquerors  extort  contribution.?  from  the 
vanquished ;  officers  often  extort  illegal 
fees  ;  confessions  of  guilt  are  extorted  by 
the  rack  ;  promises  which  men  are  un- 
able to  perform  are  sometimes  extorted 
by  duress,  &c. 

EX'TRA,  a  Latin  preposition  denoting 
beyond  or  excess ;  as  extra-icork,  extra- 
pay,  &.C.  It  serves  as  a  prefix  to  numer- 
ous English  word :. 

EX'TRACT,  ir-  literature,  some  .«elcc'. 


228 


Cl't'l.OrEDIA    OF    LITEIiAirKE 


matter  or  sentence  taken  from  a  book. — 
In  law,  a  draught  or  copy  of  a  writing. 

EXTRAJUDl'CIAL,  out  of  the  ordi- 
nary course  of  legal  proceedings. 

EXTRAMUN'DANE,  beyond  the  limit 
of  the  material  world. 

EXTRAORDINA'RII,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquity, a  chosen  body  of  men,  consisting 
of  a,  third  part  of  the  foreign  horse,  and  a 
fifth  of  the  foot,  which  was  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  forces  borrowed  from  the 
confederate  state,  with  great  policy  and 
caution  ;  to  prevent  any  design  that  they 
might  possibly  entertain  against  the  nat- 
ural forces. 

EXTRAVAGAN'ZA,  in  music,  the 
Italian  for  <a  kind  of  composition  remark- 
able for  its  wildness  and  incoherence. — 
Irregular  dramatic  pieces,  generally  of 
the  burlesque  cast,  are  also  sometimes 
called  extravaganzas. 

EXTREME',  the  utmost  point,  or  fur- 
thest degree ;  as  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold ;  the  extremes  of  virtue  and 
vice. — In  logic,  the  extreme  terms  of  a 
syllogism  are  the  predicate  and  subject. 
Thus,  "  Man  is  an  animal :  Henry  is  a 
man,  therefore  Henry  is  an  animal ;"  the 
word  animal  is  the  greatest  extreme, 
Henry  the  less  extreme,  and  man  the 
medium.— In  music,  a  word  employed  in 
describing  those  intervals  in  which  the 
diatonic  distances  are  increased  or  dimin- 
ished by  a  chromatic  semitone. 

EXTREME'  UNCTION,  one  of  the 
seven  sacraments  of  the  Romish  church, 
founded  upon  the  passage  in  the  Epistle 
of  St.  James  in  which  he  says,  "  If  any 
be  sick  among  you,  let  him  call  upon  the 
elders  of  the  church,  and  let  them  pray 
over  him,  anointing  him  with  oil  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord."  The  performance  of 
this  ceremony  is  supposed  to  purify  the 
soul  of  the  dying  person  from  any  sins 
that  he  may  have  committed,  and  which 
have  not  been  previously  expiated  by 
])articipatioh  in  the  other  means  of 
grace. 

EXTREMTTY,  in  its  primary  sense, 
signifies  the  utmost  point  or  border  of  a 
thing.  It  also  denotes  the  highest  or  fur- 
thest degree  ;  as  the  extremity  of  pain  or 
suffering;  or  the  Greeks  have  endured 
oppression  in  its  utmost  extremity. — In 
painting  and  sculpture,  the  extremities 
of  the  body,  are  the  head,  hands,  and 
feet. 

EYE.  the  eye  is  the  most  active  feature 
in  the  countenance,  the  tirst  of  our  organs 
to  awake,  and  the  last  to  cease  motion. 
It  is  indicative  of  the  higher  an<l  holier 
einotions,  of  all  thi-se  feelings  which  dis- 


tinguish man  from  the  brute.  In  tho 
eye  we  look  for  moaning,  sentiment,  and 
reproof;  it  is  the  chief  feature  of  expres- 
sion. A  large  eye  is  not  only  consistent 
with  beauty,  but  essential  to  it.  Homer 
describes  Juno  as  '■  ox-eyed."  Tho  eye 
of  the  gazelle  illustrates  the  Arab's  idea 
of  woman's  beauty,  when  he  compare.s 
the  eye  of  his  beloved  to  that  of  this  ani- 
mal. The  timidity,  gentleness,  and  inno- 
cent fear  in  the  eyes  of  all  the  deer  tribe, 
are  compared  with  the  modesty  of  a 
young  girl.  In  a  well-formed  face  the 
eye  ought  to  be  sunk,  relatively  to  the 
forehead,  but  not  in  reference  to  the  face; 
that  would  impart  a  very  mean  expres- 
sion. It  is  the  strong  shadow  produced 
by  the  projecting  eyebrow  which  gives 
powerful  effect  to  the  eye  in  sculpture. — 
The  word  eye  is  used  in  a  great  variety 
of  senses,  both  literal  and  figurative  — 
Eye,  in  architecture,  is  used  to  signify 
any  round  window,  made  in  a  pediment, 
an  attic,  the  reins  of  a  vault,  &c. — Eye 
of  a  dome,  an  aperture  at  the  top  of  a 
dome,  as  that  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome, 
or  of  St.  Paul's  at  London  ;  it  is  usually 
covered  with  a  lantern. — Eye  of  the  vo- 
lute, is  the  centre  of  the  volute,  or  that 
point  in  which  the  helix,  or  spiral  of 
which  it  is  formed,  commences. 

EY'RIE,  or  EY'RY,  tho  place  where 
birds  of  prey  construct  their  nests. 

EZE'KIEL,  one  of  the  four  principal 
prophets.  Like  them,  he  bears  a  book  ; 
but  his  own  peculiar  attribute  is  a  closed 
gate  with  towers,  which  is  cither  placed 
in  his  hand  or  standing  by  his  side,  and 
which  referring  to  his  vision  of  the  new 
temple,  is  the  type  of  the  heavenly  Jeru- 
salem, mentioned  by  St.  John  in  Revela- 
tion. It  is  one  of  the  oldest  symbols  of 
Christianity,  and  also  alludes  to  the  mys- 
tery of  the  miraculous  conception  ;  for 
we  find  it  together  with  Moses  and  tho 
burning  bush,  Aaron's  rod,  Gideon's  An- 
gel and  Fleece,  on  the  volets  of  a  picture 
of  the  Virgin  by  Van  Eyck,  of  which  only 
a  copy  at  Bruges  is  in  existence.  The 
subjects  usually  chosen  by  the  painter  in 
which  Ezekicl  appears  are — his  Vision 
of  the  Almighty,  and  his  Vision  of  the 
Resurrection  of  the  Dead,  and  in  a  group 
with  the  three  other  great  prophets. 


F. 


F,  the  sixth  letter  of  the  alphabet,  is  a 
labial  articulation,  formed  by  placing  the 
upper  teeth  on  the  under  lip.  and  accom- 
panied with  an  emission  of  breath.     Ilf 


FAcJ 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


22g 


kindreil  letter  is  11,  which  irf  chiefly  dis- 
tinguislicil  from  _/"  by  being  more  vocul. 
The  Roiir.ins  for  some  time  uscil  F  in- 
verted thus.  J,  for  V  consonant,  as  i)I  jl, 
for  DIVI.  Some  have  supposed  that  this 
was  one  of  the  three  letters  invented  by 
Claudius,  but  many  inscriptions  belong- 
ing to  periods  much  anterior  to  the 
time  of  Claudius  exhibit  this  singular  use 
of  this  letter.  F,  as  a  numeral,  with  the 
Romans,  signifieil  40,  with  a  dash  over 
it,  40,000.  On  meilals,  monuments,  Ac, 
F  stands  for  I^abius,  F'urius,  Felix, 
J^austus,  &c. — With  merchants, ./"  signi- 
fies_/b/io  (page.)  /*' often  stands  in  medi- 
cal prescriptions  and  on  documents  for 
Jiat  (let  it  be  made  or  done.)  F  also 
stands  for  follow,  as  F.A.S.  Fraternita- 
tis  Antiquariorum  Sociits,  or  Fellow  of 
the  Antiquarian  Society. — FL  is  the  ab- 
breviation for  Jloriri,  or  guilder;  and  /V. 
for  foanc. — In  music, /"over  a  line  means 
forte  ;  Jf,  molto  forte  ;  and  F  is  the  nomi- 
nal of  the  fourth  note  in  the  natural  dia- 
tonic scale  of  C. 

FA,  in  music,  one  of  the  syllables  in- 
vented by  (xuido  Aretine,  to  mark  the 
fourth  note  of  the  modern  scale,  which 
rises  thus,  iit,  re,  mi,  fa. 

FA'BIAN,  an  epithet  signifying  that 
line  of  military  tactics  which  declines  the 
risking  of  a  battle  in  the  open  field,  but 
seeks  every  opportunity  of  harassing  the 
enemy  by  countermarches,  ambuscades, 
Ac.  It  is  so  called  from  Q.  Fabius  Maxi- 
mus,  the  Roman  general  opposed  to 
Hannibal. 

FA'BLE.  a  fictitious  narration,  or  spe- 
cies of  didactic  allegory,  which  may  be 
described  as  a  method  of  inculcating 
practicable  rules  of  worldly  prudence  or 
wisdom,  by  imaginary  representations 
drawn  from  the  physical  or  external 
worbl.  It  consists,  properly,  of  two  parts: 
symbolical  representation,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  instruction  intended  to  be 
deduced  from  it,  which  latter  is  called  the 
moral  of  the  tale,  and  must  be  apparent 
in  the  fable  itself,  in  order  to  render  it 
poetical.  The  satisfaction  which  wo  de- 
rive from  fables  does  not  lie  wholly  in  the 
pleasure  that  we  receive  from  the  sym- 
bolical representation,  but  it  lies  deeper, 
in  the  feeling  that  the  order  of  nature  is 
the  same  in  the  spiritual  and  material 
world ;  and  the  fabulist,  whose  object  is 
not  merely  to  render  a  truth  perceptible 
by  means  of  a  fictitious  action,  chooses 
his  characters  from  the  brute  creation. — 
Some  fables  are  foumlod  upon  irony ; 
Bomo  are  pathetic;  and  some  even  aspire 
to  the  sublime  ;  but,  generally  speaking, 


a  f.ible  should  possess  unity,  that  the 
whole  tenor  of  it  may  Ije  easily  seen; 
and  dignity,  since  the  subject  has  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  importance. — We  find  that 
fables  have  been  liighly  valued,  not  only 
in  times  of  the  greatest  simplicity,  but 
among  the  most  ])olite  ages  of  the  world. 
Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  is  the  oldest 
that  is  extant,  and  as  beautiful  as  any 
that  have  been  made  since.  Nathan's 
fable  of  the  poor  man  is  next  in  antiqui- 
ty, and  had  so  good  an  effect  as  to  convey 
instruction  to  the  ear  of  a  king.  We  find 
jllsop  in  the  most  distant  ages  of  Greece  ; 
and  in  the  early  days  of  the  Roman  com- 
monwealth, we  read  of  a  mutiny  appeased 
by  the  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  mem- 
bers. To  which  we  may  add  that  although 
fables  had  their  rise  in  the  very  infancy 
of  learning,  they  never  flourished  more 
than  when  learning  vras  at  its  greatest 
height. — Fable  is  also  used  for  the  plot 
of  an  epic  or  dramatic  poem,  and  is,  ac- 
cording to  Aristotle,  the  principal  part, 
and,  as  it  were,  the  soul  of  a  poem.  In 
this  sense  the  fable  is  defined  to  be  a  dis- 
course invented  with  art,  to  form  the 
manners  by  instruction,  disguised  under 
the  allegory  of  an  action. 

FA'BLIAUX,  in  French  literature,  the 
metrical  tales  of  the  Trouveres  or  early 
poets  of  the  Langue  d'Oil,  or  dialect  of 
the  north  of  France  ;  composed,  for  the 
most  part,  in  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies. 

FAB'RIC,  in  general,  denotes  the 
structure  or  construction  of  anything; 
but  particularly  of  buildings,  as  a  church, 
hall,  house,  <fec.  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
texture  of  cloths,  or  stuffs  ;  as,  this  is 
cloth  of  a  beautiful  fabric. 

FABULOUS  AGE,  that  period  in  the 
history  of  every  r\,ation  in  which  super- 
natural events  are  represented  to  have 
happened.  The  fabulous  age  of  Greece 
and  Rome  Is  called  also  the  heroic  age. 

FACADE'  (pron.  fassade',)  in  archi- 
tecture, the  front  or  external  aspect  of 
an  edifice.  As  in  most  edifices  only  one 
side  is  conspicuous,  viz.,  that  which  faces 
the  street,  and  usually  contains  the  prin- 
cipal entrance,  this  has  been  denomina- 
ted, ■par  eminence,  the  facade. 

FACB,  in  anatomy,  the  front  part  of 
the  head,  and  the  seat  of  most  of  the 
senses,  comprising  the  forehead,  the  eyes 
and  eye-lids,  the  nose,  cheeks,  mouth, 
and  chin.  The  human  face  is  called  the 
image  of  the  soul,  as  being  the  place 
whence  the  ideas,  emotions,  ite.  of  the 
soul  are  chiefly  set  to  view.  Nor  can  it 
be  denied  that  the  character  of  each  in- 


230 


CYCLOrEDIA     OF     LnKKATL'KE 


[fac 


dividual  is  often  strongly  marked  by  the 
conformation  of  the  countenance  ;  physi- 
ognomy, therofore.  in  a  certain  degree, 
always  has  existed. — Face,  among  paint- 
ers and  artists,  is  used  to  denote  a  cer- 
tain dimension  of  the  human  body,  adapt- 
ed for  determining  the  proportion  which 
the  several  prnto  should  bear  to  one  an- 
other ;  thm  the  different  parts  of  the 
body  are  sail  to  consist,  in  length,  of  so 
manj'y'aces. — We  also  use  the  w aid  face 
in  speaking  of  the  surface  of  a  thing,  or 
the  side  presented  to  the  vievT  of  a  spec- 
tator;  af,  tlieyace  of  the  earth  ;  ih^face 
of  the  su'i  ;  the  face  of  a  stone,  &c. 

FA'CLTS,  the  name  of  the  little  faces 
or  planes  to  be  found  in  brilliant  and  rose 
diamonds. 

FA'CIAL  LINE  OR  ANGLE,  these 
terms  are  used  in  describing  the  conform- 
ation that  e.\ists  in  the  bones  of  the  face, 
&c,.  and  which  so  strikingly  characterizes 
the  varieties  of  the  human  race.  On  the 
relation  of  the  jaw  to  the  forehead  is 
founded  the  facial  line,  discovered  by  Pe- 
ter Camper.  Suppose  a  straight  line 
drawn  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  from  the 
great  occipital  cavity  across  the  external 
orifice  of  the  ear  to  the  bottom  of  the 
nose.  If  we  draw  another  straight  line 
from  the  bottom  of  the  nose,  or  from  the 
roots  of  the  upper  incisor  teeth  to  the 
forehead,  then  both  lines  Avill  form  an 
angle  which  will  be  more  acute  the  less 
the  shape  of  the  face,  in  brutes,  resem- 
bles that  of  men.  In  apes,  this  angle  is 
only  from  4.5'^  to  60°  ;  in  the  ourang- 
outang.  63"^  ;  in  the  skull  of  a  negro, 
about  70'^  ;  in  a  European,  from  75^  to 
85°.  In  Grecian  works  of  statuary,  this 
angle  amounts  to  90°  :  in  the  statues  of 
Jupiter,  it  is  100°. 

FA'CIES  HIPPOCRAT'ICA,in  medi- 
cine, that  death-like  appearance  which 
consists  in  the  nostrils  being  sharp,  the 
eyes  hollow,  the  temples  low,  the  tips  of 
the  ears  contracted,  the  forehead  dry  and 
■wrinkled,  and  the  complexion  pale  and 
livid.  It  is  so  called  from  Hippocrates, 
by  whom  it  has  been  so  justly  described 
in  his  prognostics. 

FACSIM'ILE,  an  imitation  of  an 
original  in  aU  its  traits  and  peculiarities. 
The  object  of  fac-sirailes  is  various  ;  but 
in  all  cases  their  perfect  accuracy  is  in- 
dispensable. 

FACTION,  in  ancient  history,  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  the  dif'irent  troops  or 
companies  of  combatant:?  in  the  games  of 
the  circus  Of  these  factions  there  were 
four, — the  green,  blue,  red,  and  white  ;  to 
which  two  others  were  said  to  have  been 


added  by  the  emperor  Domitian. — the 
pruple  and  the  yellow.  In  the  time  of 
Justinian  40,000  persons  were  killed  in  a 
contest  between  two  of  these  factions  ;  so 
that  they  were  at  last  suppressed  by  uni- 
versal consent.  The  term  faction  is  ap- 
plied, also^  in  a  more  general  sense,  to  any 
party  in  a  state  which  attempts  without 
adequate  motives  to  disturb  the  public 
repose,  or  to  assail  the  measures  of  gov- 
ernment with  uncompromising  opposi- 
tion. In  the  ancient  Greek  republics, 
faction  was  carried  to  an  extent  unparal- 
leled in  modern  times.  The  middle  ages 
were  distinguished  chiefly  by  two  fac- 
tions, the  Guelts  and  Guibelins.  who  long 
kept  Italy  in  a  state  of  alarm.  In  the 
present  day,  in  England,  the  ierm  faction 
is  bandied  about  between  the  three  great 
parties  of  the  countr}',  the  Whigs,  Tories, 
and  Radicals,  being  applied  indiscrimi- 
nately by  the  adherents  of  one  party  to 
those  of  another. 

FACTOR,  in  commerce,  an  agent  or 
correspondent  residing  in  some  remote 
part,  commissioned  l)y  merchants  to  buy 
or  sell  goods  on  their  account,  to  nego- 
tiate bills  of  exchange,  or  to  transact 
other  business  for  them.  It  is  universal- 
ly held  in  courts  of  law  and  equity,  that 
the  principal  is  held  liable  for  the  acts  of 
his  agent,  provided  that  the  conduct  of 
the  latter  be  conformable  to  the  common 
usage  and  mode  of  dealing  ;  but  an  agent 
cannot  delegate  his  rights  to  another  so 
as  to  bind  the  principal,  unless  expressly 
authorized  to  nominate  a  sub-agent.  Es- 
tablishments for  traile,  in  foreign  parts 
of  the  world,  are  called  facto)-ies. — The 
viord  factor]/  is  now  also  usci  for  a  man- 
ufactory on  an  extensive  scale. 

FACTORAGE,  the  allowance  or  per- 
centage given  to  factors  by  the  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers,  &c.  who  em- 
ploy them  ;  and  which  is  usually  fixed  by 
special  agreement  between  the  merchant 
and  factor. 

FACULTY,  a  term  used  to  denote  the 
powers  or  capacities  of  the  human  mind, 
viz.  understanding,  will,  memory,  imagi- 
nation, Ac. — If  it  bo  a  power  exerted  by 
the  body  alone,  it  is  called  a  corporeal 
or  animal  faculty  ;  if  it  belong  to  the 
mind,  it  is  called  a  rational  faculty.  And 
it  may  further  be  distinguished  into  the 
7ia<Mra/ faculty,  or  that  by  which  the  body 
is  nourished  ;  and  the  vital,  or  that  by 
which  life  is  preserve<l,  ifec. — Pacnlty,  a 
term  applied  to  the  different  members  or 
departments  of  an  university,  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  arts  and  sciences  taught 
there.    In  most  foreign  universities  there 


FAl] 


AND    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


231 


are  four  faculties  ;  of  arts,  including  hu- 
ni;uiity  and  philosophy;  pf  theology  ;  of 
phy.sic  ;  and  of  civil  law.  The  degrees 
in  the  several  faculties  are  those  of  bach- 
elor, master,  and  doctor. — Faculty,  in 
law,  a  privilege  granted  to  a  person,  by 
favor  and  indulgence,  or  doing  that  which, 
by  the  strict  letter  of  the  law,  he  ought 
not  to  do. — Faculty  of  advocates,  a  term 
applied  to  the  college  or  society  of  advo- 
cates in  Scotland,  who  plead  in  all  actions 
before  the  court  of  session,  judiciary  and 
exchequer. 

FAl'ENCE,  or  Imitation  Porcelain, 
a  kind  of  potrcry,  superior  to  the  com- 
mon sort  in  its  glazing,  beauty  of  form, 
and  richness  of  painting.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  town  of  Faenza,  in  Ro- 
inagna,  where  it  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented in  1299.  It  reached  its  highest 
perfection  in  the  16th  century  ;  and  some 
pieces  were  painted  by  the  great  artists 
of  the  period,  which  are  highly  valued  as 
monuments  of  early  art. 

FAIR,  (either  from  the  Latin  fori*  or 
forum,)  a  meeting  held  at  stated  times 
of  the  year  in  particular  places,  for  the 
purposes  of  traffic,  to  which  merchants 
resort  with  their  wares.  Fairs,  in  Chris- 
tian countries,  were  usually  held  on  par- 
ticular festivals  ;  and  are  so  still  in  Eng- 
land, unless  where  they  have  been  fixed 
to  particular  days  in  the  month  by  later 
grants  or  privileges.  By  the  English 
law,  the  king's  authority  only  is  supposed 
to  confer  the  privilege  of  holding  a  fair. 
Fairs  are  considered  free,  unless  toll  is 
due  to  the  owners  by  special  grant,  or  by 
custom  which  supposes  such  grant.  The 
most  important  fairs  now  held  are  proba- 
bly those  of  Germany,  and  particularly 
the  Leipsic  fairs,  where  books  form  so  im- 
portant a  branch  of  its  commerce.  But 
in  no  countr}'  can  they  have  the  im- 
portance they  formerly  had,  because  the 
communication  between  different  parts 
of  a  country  has  become  so  easy,  that 
merchandise  may  now  be  readily  obtain- 
ed direct  from  the  places  where  it  is  pro- 
ducad  or  manufactured. 

FAI'RIES,  imaginary  beings,  who  oc- 
cupied a  distinguished  place  in  the  tra- 
ditional superstitions  of  the  nations  of 
Western  Europe,  and  especially  in  these 
islands.  Their  English  name  is  proba- 
bly derived  from  "  fair,"  or  has  the  same 
etymology  with  that  word  ;  and,  although 
some  similarity  has  been  traced  between 
them  and  the  Peris  of  the  Persians  (pro- 
nounced Feri  by  the  Arabians,)  it  is  not 
probable  that  the  resemblance  of  name 
is  more  than  accidental.     There  is  also  a 


distinction  between  the  fairy  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  Fata  or  prophetic  sibyl  of 
the  Italians,  from  which  last  the  French 
Fee  is  derived;  although  the  French,  in 
their  romantic  mythology,  have  some- 
what mingled  the  characteristics  of  the 
two.  The  British  fairies,  also,  although 
they  have  something  in  common  with  the 
Dwergas  or  Gnomes  of  the  Scandinavian 
mythology,  are  not  identical  with  them  ; 
they  are  in  fact  peculiar  to  people  of 
Celtic  race,  and  the  notions  respecting 
them  prevalent  among  the  Celtic  popula- 
tion in  Scotland,  AViiles,  and  Ireland  tally 
!  to  a  remarkable  degree.  The  popular 
belief,  however,  was  nowhere  invested 
with  so  poetical  a  character  as  in  the 
.  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  where  it  forms  a 
]  main  ingredient  in  the  beautiful  ballad 
poetry  of  the  district.  The  fairies  of  the 
Scottish  and  English  mythology  are 
diminutive  beings,  who  render  themselves 
occasionally  visible  to  men,  especially  in 
!  exposed  places,  on  the  sides  of  hills,  or  in 
the  glades  of  forests,  which  it  is  their 
'  custom  to  frequent.  They  have  also 
I  dealings  with  men,  but  of  an  un^^ertain 
and  unreal  character.  Their  presents 
are  sometimes  valuable  ;  but  generally 
accompanied,  in  that  case,  with  some 
condition  or  peculiarity  which  renders 
them  mischievous  :  more  often  they  are 
unsubstantial,  and  turn  into  dirt  or  ashes 
in  the  hands  of  those  to  whom  they  have 
been  given.  Mortals  have  been  occasion- 
ally transported  into  Fairj'-land,  and 
have  found  that  all  its  apparent  splendor 
was  equally  delusive.  One  of  the  most 
ordinary  employments  of  fairies,  in  vul- 
gar superstition,  is  that  of  stealing  chil- 
dren at  nurse,  and  substituting  their  own 
offspring  in  place  of  them,  which  after  a 
short  time  perish  or  are  carried  away. 
The  popular  belief  in  fairies  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  poetical  amplifica- 
tion in  the  hands  of  so  many  of  the 
greatest  writers,  from  Shakspeare  to 
Scott,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  di.«entangle 
the  embellishments  with  which  it  has 
been  invested  from  the  original  notions 
on  which  they  are  founded.  The  Fata  of 
the  Italians,  who  figures  in  their  romantic 
epics,  and  from  whom  the  French  have 
made  the  Fee  of  their  fairy  tales,  is  quite 
a  different  personage  :  a  female  magician, 
sometimes  benevolent,  and  sometimes  ma- 
levolent, jiarlaking  herself  of  the  super- 
natural character,  and  peculiarly  gifted 
with  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  Such  is  the 
Fata  Morgana,  to  whom  the  celebrated 
optical  delusion  occasionally  produced  in 
the  Straits  of  Messina  was  formerly  at- 


232 


CYCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[fal 


tributed  by  popular  belief. — Fairy  of  the 
mine,  an  imaginary  being  supposed  to 
inhabit  mines,  wandering  about  in  the 
drifts  and  chambers,  always  employed, 
yet  effecting  nothing. — Fairy  ring  or 
circle,  a  phenomenon  frequently  seen  in 
the  fields,  consisting  of  a  round  bare  path 
with  grass  in  the  middle,  formerly  as- 
cribed to  the  dances  of  the  fairies.  It  has 
been  supposed  by  some,  that  these  rings 
are  the  effect  of  lightning ;  but  a  more 
rational  theory  ascribes  them  to  a  kind 
of  fungus  which  grows  in  a  circle  from 
the  centre  outwards,  destroying  the  grass 
as  it  extends,  while  the  interior  of  the 
circle  is  enriched  by  the  decayed  roots  of 
the  fungi. 

FAITH,  in  divinity  and  philosophy, 
the  firm  belief  of  certain  truths  upon  the 
testimony  of  the  person  who  reveals 
them.  The  grounds  of  a  rational  faith 
are,  that  the  things  revealed  be  not  con- 
trary to,  though  they  may  be  above  natu- 
ral reason ;  that  the  revealer  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  things  he  reveals  ; 
that  he  be  above  all  suspicion  of  deceiving 
us.  Where  these  criterions  are  found,  no 
reasonable  person  will  deny  his  assent. 
Whatever  propositions,  therefore,  are  be- 
yond reason,  but  not  contrary  to  it,  are, 
when  revealed,  the  proper  matter  of 
faith. — Justifying,  or  saving  faith,  sig- 
nifies perfect  confidence  in  the  truth  of 
the  Gospel,  which  influences  the  will,  and 
leads  to  an  entire  reliance  on  Christ  for 
salvation. — Public  faith,  is  represented 
on  medals,  sometimes  with  a  basket  of 
fruit  in  one  hand,  and  some  ears  of  corn 
in  the  other  :  and  sometimes  holding  a 
turtle-dove.  But  the  most  usual  symbol 
is  with  her  two  hands  joined  together. — 
Faith,  (Fides)  in  ancient  Art,  is  represent- 
ed as  a  matron  wearing  a  wreath  of  olive 
or  laurel  leaves,  and  carrying  in  her  hand 
ears  of  corn,  or  a  basket  of  fruit.  In 
Christian  Art,  by  a  female  carrying  a 
cup  surmounted  by  a  cross,  emblematical 
•of  the  Eucharist,  "the  Mystery  of  Faith." 

FA'KIR,  or  FA'QUIR,  a  'devotee,  or 
Indian  monk.  The  fakirs  are  a  kind  of 
fanatics  in  the  East  Indies,  who  retire 
from  the  world,  and  give  tliemselves  up 
to  contemplation.  Their  great  aim  is  to 
gain  the  veneration  of  the  world  by  their 
absurd  and  cruel  penances,  outdoing  even 
the  mortifications  and  severities  of  the 
ancient  Christian  anchorets.  Some  of 
them  mangle  their  bodies  with  scourges 
and  knives  ;  others  never  lie  down  ;  and 
others  remain  all  their  lives  in  one  pos- 
ture. There  is  also  another  kind  of  fa- 
kirs, who  do  not  prdctise  such  severities, 


but  make  a  vow  of  poverty,  and  go  from 
village  to  village,  prophesying  and  telling 
fortunes. 

FAL'CON,  a  bird  nearly  allied  to  the 
hawk,  about  the  size  of  a  raven,  and  ca- 
pable of  being  trained  for  sport,  in  which 
it  was  formerly  much  employed.  It  is 
usually  represented  in  coats  of  arms  with 
bells  on  its  legs,  and  also  decorated  with 
a  hood,  virols,  rings,  &c. — Falcon,  the 
attribute  of  St.  Jerome,  and  of  the  holy 
hermit  Otho  of  Ariano;  the  former  has  a 
hooded  falcon  on  his  hand,  while  the  lat- 
ter has  it  sitting  on  his  head. 

FAL'CONET,  a  small  cannon,  or  piece 
of  ordnance. 

FAL'CONRY,  the  art  of  training  all 
kinds  of  hawks,  but  more  especially  the 
larger  sort,  called  the  gentle  falcon,  to 
the  exercise  or  sport  of  hawking.  This 
sport  was  much  practised  in  Europe  and 
Asia  in  the  chivalric  ages,  and  continued 
in  favor  till  the  17th  century;  but  the 
invention  of  fire-anus  gradually  super- 
seded it.  In  France,  England,  and  Ger- 
many, falconry  was  at  one  time  in  such 
high  esteem,  that  during  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.  of  France,  his  grand  falconer 
received  an  annual  revenue  of  4000  li- 
vrcs ;  had  under  him  fifteen  noblemen 
and  fifty  falconers  ;  and  enjoyed  the  priv- 
ilege of  hawking  through  the  whole  king- 
dom at  pleasure.  The  whole  establish- 
ment, which  cost  annually  about  40,000 
livres,  attended  the  king  wherever  he 
went,  and  those  who  were  distinguished 
for  their -skill  in  the  sport  were  loaded 
with  royal  favors.  In  England,  falconry 
was  also  in  high  esteem,  and  there  is  to 
this  day  an  hereditary  grand  falconer 
(the  duke  of  St.  Alban's,)  who,  by  virtue 


fan] 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


233 


of  his  office,  presents  the  king,  or  queen 
regniiiit,  with  a  cast  of  falcons  on  tlie  day 
of  the  coronation.  A  similar  service  is 
perfonuej  by  the  representative  of  the 
Stanley  family  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  The 
origin  of  this  celebrated  sport  has  given 
occasion  to  much  controversy.  It  has 
been  said  that  it  was  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  ;  it  is,  however,  described  by  Cte- 
sias  and  Aristotle  as  practised  in  their 
time  in  India  and  Thrace.  Martial  and 
Apuleius  present  us  with  plain  indica- 
tions of  the  knowledge  of  this  pastime 
among  the  Romans.  In  modern  Europe, 
it  appears  to  have  been  practised  earliest, 
or  at  least  with  most  ardor,  in  Germany : 
the  title  of  the  emperor,  Henry  the  Fow- 
ler (a.d.  920,)  is  said  to  be  derived  from 
an  anecdote  respecting  his  fondness  for  it. 
In  the  r2th  century,  it  was  the  favorite 
sport  of  nobles  and  knights  throughout 
Europe  ;  and  in  that  which  followed  its 
rules  were  reilueed  into  a  system  by  the 
Emperor  Frederic  II.,  (Barbarossa,)  and 
by  Demetrius,  physician  to  the  (jreek 
Emperor  Palreologus.  In  that  court  the 
grand  falconer  was  an  officer  of  distinc- 
tion ;  and  the  title  was  borrowed  from  it 
by  the  western  sovereigns.  According  to 
the  opinion  of  Strutt,  the  sport  was  not 
known  so  early  in  England  as  on  the  Con- 
tinent ;  yet  there  are  traces  of  it  as  early 
as  the  8th  century. 

FALD  STOOL,  a  kind  of  stool  placed 
at  the  south  side  of  the  altar,  at  which 
the  kings  of  England  kneel  at  their  coro- 
nation ;  also  a  folding  stool  or  desk,  pro- 
vided with  <a  cushion,  for  a  person  to  kneel 
on  during  the  performance  of  certain  acts 
of  devotion  ;  also  a  small  desk,  at  which, 
in  cathodrais,  churches,  &c  ,  the  litany  is 
enjoined  to  be  sting  or  said.  It  is  some- 
times called  a  litan]/  stool. 

FAL'LACY,  in  logic  and  rhetoric,  has 
been  defined  "  any  argument,  or  apparent 
argument,  which  professes  to  be  decisive 
of  the  matter  at  issue,  while  in  reality  it 
is  not."  Fallacies  have  been  divided  into 
those  "  in  dictione,"  in  the  words :  and 
'•  extra  dictionem,"  in  the  matter.  The 
latter  of  these  it  is  not  the  province  of 
logic  to  discover  and  refute  ;  they  being, 
strictly,  instances  in  which  the  conclusion 
follows  from  the  premisses,  and  which 
therefore  depend  on  the  unsoundness  of 
these  premisses  themselves,  which  can 
only  be  detected  by  a  knowledge  of  tlie 
subject-matter  of  the  argument.  Logical 
fallacies,  or  fallacies  in  dictione,  are  those 
in  which  the  conclusion  appears  to  follow, 
but  in  reality  does  not,  from  the  prem- 
isses ;  and   which,  consequently,   can    be 


detected  by  one  unlearned  in  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  argument,  but  acquainted 
with  the  rules  of  logic. 

FALSE,  contrary  to  the  truth  or  fact: 
the  word  is  applicable  to  any  subject 
physical  or  moral. — J'^alse,  in  music,  an 
epithet  applied  by  theorists  to  certain 
chords,  because  they  do  not  contain  all 
the  intervals  appertaining  to  those  chords 
in  their  perfect  state.  Those  intonations 
of  the  voice  which  do  not  truly  express 
the  intended  intervals  are  also  called 
fahe,  as  well  as  all  ill-adjusted  combina- 
tions.— False,  an  epithet  used  also  in 
law,  SIS  false  imprisonment,  the  trespass 
of  imprisoning  a  man  without  lawful 
cause. — In  mineralogy,  as,  false  diamond, 
a  diamond  counterfeited  with  glass. — It 
is  iilso  a  word  much  used  in  military  af- 
fairs ;  as,  a  false  alarm,  a  false  attack, 
&c. — Pulse  flower,  in  botany,  a  flower 
AvJiich  does  not  seem  to  produce  any  fruit. 
— false  roof  in  carpentry,  that  part  of 
a  house  which  is  between  the  roof  and 
the  covering. 

FALSET'TO,  in  music,  an  Italian 
term,  denoting  that  species  of  voice  in  ;t 
man,  the  compass  of  which  lies  above  his 
natural  voice,  and  is  produced  by  arti- 
ficial C(mstraint. 

FAMILIAR  SPIRITS,  demons,  or  evil 
spirits,  supposed  to  be  continually  within 
call  and  at  the  service  of  their  masters, 
sometimes  under  an  assumed  shape ; 
sometimes  compelled  by  magical  skill, 
and  sometimes  doing  voluntary  service. 
In  Eastern  stories,  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  the  mention  of  magic  gems, 
rings,  tic,  to  which  are  attached  genii, 
sometimes  good,  sometimes  bad;  but  in 
modern  Christian  Europe  the  notion  of 
familiars  has  always  been  restricted  to 
evil  spirits. 

FANAT'IC,  one  who  indulges  wild  and 
extravagant  notions  of  religion,  and  some- 
times exhibits  strange  motions  and  pos- 
tures, and  vehement  vociferation  in  re- 
ligious worship.  — •  The  ancients  called 
those  /(/na/('ci  who  passed  their  time  in 
temples,  {fana,)  and  being  often  seized 
with  a  kind  of  enthusiasm,  as  if  inspired 
by  the  divinity,  exhibited  wild  and  antic 
gestures.  Prudentius  represents  them  as 
cutting  and  slashing  their  arms  with 
knives :  shaking  the  head  was  also  com- 
mon among  the  fanatici ;  hence  the  word 
was  applied  to  different  religious  sects, 
who,  on  their  first  appearance  amongst 
us,  sought  notoriety  by  the  extravagance 
of  their  actions,  and  by  pretending  to  in- 
spirations. 

FANDAN'GO,  an  old  Spanish  danco, 


234 


CYCLOrEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[fA3 


which  proceeds  generally  from  a  slow 
ami  unifiirm  to  tlie  rao^t  lively  rnotion. 
It  is  sclJoiu  dancm.l  but  at  the  theiitre,' 
and  in  the  parties  of  (he  lower  classes ; 
cor  is  it  even  then  customary  to  dance  it 
with  those  voluptuous  looks  and  attitudes 
which  distinguish  the  true  fandango. 
There  is  another  species  of  fandango, 
called  the  bolero,  the  motions  and  steps 
of  which  are  slow  and  sedate,  but  grow 
rather  more  lively  towards  the  end.  In 
these  dances  the  time  is  beat  by  casta- 
nets. 

FANFARE',  {French,)  a  short,  lively, 
loud,  and  warlike  piece  of  music,  com- 
posed for  trumpets  and  kettle-drums. 
Also,  small,  lively  pieces  performed  on 
hunting-horns,  in  the  chase.  From  its 
meaning  is  derived  fanfciron,  a  boaster, 
a,nA  fanfaronade,  boasting. 

FANTA'SIA,  in  music,  the  name  gen- 
erally given  to  a  species  of  composition, 
supposed  to  be  struck  off  in  the  heat  of 
the  imagination  ;  and  in  which  the  com- 
poser is  allowed  to  give  free  range  to  his 
ideas,  unconfined  by  the  rules  of  the  sci- 
ence. Some  limit  the  term  to  mere  ex- 
temporaneous effusions,  which  are  trans- 
itive and  evanescent :  differing  from  the 
caprido  in  this,  that  though  the  latter  is 
wild,  it  is  the  result  of  premeditation, 
and  becomes  permanent;  whereas  the 
fantasia,  when  finished,  no  longer  ex- 
ists. 

FAXTOCCrNI,  dramatic  representa- 
tions in  which  puppets  are  substituted  in 
the  scene  for  human  performers. 

FARCE,  a  dramatic  piece  or  enter- 
tainment of  low  comic  character.  It  was 
originally  a  droll,  or  petty  show  exhib- 
ited by  mountebanks  and  their  buffoons 
in  the  open  streets,  to  gather  the  people 
together.  It  has,  however,  long  been  re- 
moved from  the  street  to  the  theatre; 
and  instead  of  being  performed  by  merry- 
andrews  to  amuse  the  rabble,  is  acted  by 
comedians,  and  become  the  entertainment 
of  a  polite  audience.  As  the  aim  of  a 
farce  is  to  promote  mirth,  the  dialogue  is 
not  refined,  nor  is  there  any  opportunity 
lost  to  excite  laughter,  however  wild  or 
extravagant  the  plot,  or  however  ridicu- 
lous the  characters.  The  original  term 
seems  to  signify  a  miscellaneous  com- 
pound or  mixture  of  different  things.  In 
modern  languages  it  has  borne  various 
significations.  Certain  songs  which  were 
sung  between  the  prayers  on  the  occa- 
sion of  religious  worship  are  saiil  to  have 
been  denominated  farces  in  Germany, 
during  the  middle  ages;  whence  the  word 
appears   to   have   denoted  sim])ly  an  in- 


terlude of  any  kind.  In  England,  the 
faice  appears  to  have  risen  to  the  dignity 
of  a  regular  theatrical  entertainment 
about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century; 
since  which  time  it  has  formed  one  of  the 
most  popular  exhibitions,  and  is  usually 
performed,  by  way  of  contrast,  after  a 
i  tragedy  at  the  national  theatres.  The 
farce  is  restricted  to  three  acts  as  its  lim- 
it, but  frequently  consists  onlj'  of  two  or 
one.  Of  all  the  pieces  of  this  class  which 
have  successively  amused  English  audi- 
ences, none  have  acquired  a  permanent 
literary  reputation  except  those  of  Foots, 
— performances  in  which  the  license  of 
the  theatre  in  satirizing  living  persons 
was  carried  to  the  utmost  height.  The 
FabultB  Atellancr  of  the  Romans,  which 
appears  to  have  been  short  dramatic  en- 
tertainments of  a  miscellaneous  charac- 
ter, sometimes  pastoral,  sometimes  tragi- 
comic, &c  ,  but  not  so  coarse  in  plan  or 
diction  as  the  Mimes  and  their  Exodia, 
which  were  satirical  dialogues  in  verse 
between  some  set  characters  or  stage- 
buffoons,  appear  to  have  filled  in  some 
respects  the  place  of  the  modern  farce. 
On  the  French  stage  the  vaudeville  an- 
swers to  the  English  farce. 

FAS'CES,  in  Roman  antiquity,  bundles 
of  rods  with  an  axe  in  the  centre  of  each 
bundle,  carried  before  the  consuls  as  a 
badge  of  their  office.  The  use  of  the  fas- 
ces was  introduced  by  the  elder  Tarquin 


as  a  mark  of  sovereign  authority:  in 
after-times  they  were  borne  before  the 
consuls,  but  by  turns  only,  each  having 
his  day.  These  latter  had  twelve  of 
them,  carried  by  so  many  lictors. 

FAS'CIA,  in  architecture,  a  flat  mem- 
ber in  an  entablature  or  elsewhere,  like 


FATj 


AND    THK    FINE    A  UTS. 


235 


a  flat  band  or  broad  fillet.  The  archi- 
trave, when  subdivided  for  instance,  has 
three  bands,  called  f'asciie  ;  of  which  the 
lower  is  called  the  first  fascia,  the  middle 
one  the  second,  and  the  u[)j)er  one  the 
third. — /''(/.■-■«'«,  a  bandage  eniployed  in 
various  ways,  1.  As  a  diadem,  worn  round 
the  head  as  an  emblem  of  royalty,  the 
color  being  white,  that  worn  by  women 
was  purple.  2.  Fastened  round  the  legs, 
especially  of  women,  from  the  ankle  to 
the  knee,  serving  the  purpose  of  leggings, 
as  a  protection  to  the  legs  of  the  wearer, 
a  practice  that  was  adopted  in  Europe 
during  the  middle  ages. 

FASCINATION,  a  kind  of  witchcraft 
or  enchantment,  supposed  to  operate  by 
the  influence  of  the  eye.  A  belief  in  fas- 
cination appears  to  have  been  very  gene- 
rally prevalent  in  most  ages  and  coun- 
tries. It  has  been  till  very  recently,  and 
in  some  remote  districts  is  even  yet,  prev- 
alent among  the  Scotch  Highlanders, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Western  is- 
lands, where  the  fear  of  the  evil  eye  has 
led  to  various  precautions  against  its  in- 
fluence ;  and  in  Turkey,  when  a  child  is 
born,  it  is  immediately  laid  in  the  cradle 
and  loaded  with  amulets,  while  the  most 
absurd  ceremonies  are  used  to  protect  it 
from  the  noxious  fascination  of  some  in- 
visible demon. 

FASII'ION,  a  term  used  to  signify  the 
prevailing  mode  or  taste  in  any  country, 
the  only  recognized  quality  which  it  pos- 
sesses being  mutability.  It  may  .safely 
be  averred  that  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
fluence which  fashion  exercises  in  any 
country  may  its  claim  to  civilization  be 
vindicated,  nothing  being  so  character- 
istic of  a  rude  and  barbarous  state  of 
existence  as  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  cus- 
toms of  antiquity.  Tho  term  Jashion  has 
goncrally  been  considered  as  applicable 
chiefly  to  the  adornment  of  the  person, 
in  conformity  with  the  prevailing  taste 
as  introduced  by  some  individual  of  con- 
sideration in  society  ;  but  it  has  a  much 
wider  signification,  being  applied  to  the 
most  trivial  kind  of  conventional  usages, 
a  disregard  or  ignorance  of  which  is  suf- 
ficient in  the  eyes  of  the  votaries  of  this 
tyrannical  goddess  to  banish  the  offender 
beyond  the  pale  of  civilized  society. 

FAS'TI,  in  ancient  history,  the  records 
of  the  Roman  state,  in  which  all  public 
matters,  military  and  civil,  were  regis- 
tered by  the  high  priest,  according  to  the 
days  on  which  thoy  took  jilace.  The 
Fasti  of  Ovid  is  a  poem  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  lloman  .year,  and  tho  cere- 
monies   attached    to   the   different  days. 


with  their  historical  or  mythological  ori- 
gin. The  first  six  books,  containing  tho 
first  six  months  of  the  year,  beginning 
with  January,  have  come  down  to  us ; 
the  rest  are  lost. 

FASTS,  occasional  abstinence  from 
food,  on  days  appointed  by  public  author- 
ity to  be  observed  in  fasting  and  humili- 
ation. Solemn  fasts  have  been  observed 
in  all  ages  and  nations,  especially  in 
times  of  mourning  and  affliction.  Among 
the  Jews,  besides  their  stated  fast  days, 
they  were  occasionally  enjoined  in  the  time 
of  any  public  calamity.  They  were  ob- 
served upon  the  second  and  fifth  days  of 
the  week,  beginning  an  hour  before  sun- 
set, and  continuing  till  midnight  on  the 
following  day  On  these  occasions  they 
always  wore  sackcloth  next  their  skins, 
rent  their  clothes,  which  were  of  coarse 
white  stuff;  sprinkled  ashes  on  their 
heads  ;  went  barefoot ;  and  neither  wash- 
ed their  hands  nor  anointed  their  bodiei» 
as  usual.  They  thronged  the  temple, 
ra.ade  long  and  mournful  prayers,  and 
had  every  external  appearance  of  humi! 
iation  and  dejection.  In  order  to  com- 
plete their  abstinence,  at  night  they  were 
allowed  to  eat  nothing  but  a  little  bread 
dipped  in  water,  with  some  salt  for  sea- 
toning,  except  they  chose  some  bittei 
herbs  and  pulse.  The  practice  of  fasting 
is  recommended  in  the  New  Testament 
by  the  example  of  the  Apostles  and  early 
Christians,  who  are  frequently  repre.sent- 
ed  as  fasting,  especially  on  solemn  occa- 
sions, such  as  when  Paul  and  Barnabas 
are  sent  forth  by  the  Apostles  to  preach 
to  the  Gentiles.  The  observance  of  sta- 
ted fast  days  prevailed  very  early  and 
universally  in  the  church. 

FA'TALISM,  the  belief  of  an  un- 
changeable destiny,  to  which  everything 
is  subject,  uninfluenced  by  reason,  and 
independent  of  a  controlling  cause  ;  the 
doctrine,  in  short,  which  teaches  that  all 
things  take  place  by  an  inevitable  ne- 
cessity. 

FA'TA  MORGA'NA,  a  singular  aerial 
phenomenon  seen  in  the  straits  of  Messi- 
na. AVhen  the  rising  sun  shines  from 
that  point  whence  its  incident  ray  forms 
an  angle  of  about  45^  on  the  sea  of  Reg- 
gio,  and  the  bright  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  bay  is  not  disturbed  either  by  the 
wind  or  current,  when  the  tiile  is  at  its 
height,  and  the  waters  are  pressed  up  by 
currents  to  a  great  elevation  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  channel,  the  spectator  being 
placed  on  an  eminence,  with  his  back  to 
the  sun  and  his  face  to  the  sea,  the  moun- 
tains of  Messina  rising  like  a  wall  behind 


236 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    UTERATURE 


[fka 


it,  and  forming  the  back-ground  of  the 
picture, — on  a  sudden  there  appears  in 
the  water,  as  in  a  catoptric  theatre,  vari- 
ous multiplied  ol)jects — nuuiberless  series 
of  pilasters,  arches,  castles,  well-deline- 
ated regular  columns,  lofty  towers,  su- 
perb jialaees,  with  balconies  and  windows, 
extended  alleys  of  trees,  delightful  plains, 
with  herds  and  flocks,  armies  of  men  on 
foot,  on  horseback,  and  many  other  things, 
in  their  natural  colors  and  proper  actions, 
passing  rapidly  in  succession  along  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  during  the  whole  of  the 
short  period  of  time  while  the  above- 
mentioned  causes  remain.  All  these  ob- 
jects, which  are  exhibited  in  the  Fata 
]\lorgana,  are  proved  by  the  accurate  ob- 
servations of  the  coast  and  town  of  Keg- 
gio,  to  be  derived  from  objects  on  shore. 
If,  in  addition  to  the  circumstances  be- 
fore described,  the  atmosphere  be  highly 
impregnated  with  vapor,  and  dense  ex- 
halations, not  previously  dispersed  by  the 
action  of  the  wind  and  waves,  or  rarilied 
by  the  sun,  it  then  happens,  that  in  this 
vapor,  as  in  a  curtain  extended  along  the 
channel  to  the  height  of  above  forty 
palms,  and  nearly  down  to  the  sea,  the 
observer  will  behpldtho  scene  of  the  same 
objects  not  only  reflected  from  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  but  likewise  in  the  air,  though 
not  so  distinctly  or  well  defined  as  the 
former  objects  of  the  sea.  Lastly,  if  the 
air  be  slightly  hazy  and  opaque,  and  at 
the  same  time  dewy,  and  adapt e<l  to  form 
the  iris,  then  the  above-mentioned  objects 
will  appear  only  at  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
as  in  the  first  case  ;  but  all  vividly  color- 
ed or  fringed  with  red,  green,  blue,  and 
other  prismatic  colors. 

FATE,  destiny  depending  on  a  supe- 
rior cause  and  uncontrollable.  According 
to  the  Stoics,  every  event  is  iletermined 
by  Fate  ;  and  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
moderns  use  the  word,  it  implies  the  or- 
der or  determination  of  Providence. 

FATES,  in  mythology,  the  three  sister 
goddesses  named  Clotho,  (spinster,)  La- 
chesis,  (allotter,)  and  Atropos,  (unchange- 
able.) whose  office  it  was  to  spin  the  des- 
tinies of  men,  and  break  the  threads  when 
their  appointed  hours  of  death  came. 
They  were  also  called  Parcai  by  the  Lat- 
ins. Tlieir  (Jreek  name  was  Moioui,  i.  e., 
"  the  ilispensers." 

FAUNA'Ll.'V,  three  Roman  festivals 
annually  observed  in  honor  of  the  god 
Fuunus.  The  tir.-t  was  kept  on  the  ides 
of  February,  the  second  on  the  Kith  of 
the  calends  of  JNIarch,  an<l  the  third  on 
the  nones  of  December.  The  sacrifices  on 
iheso  occasions  were  lambs  and  kids.      It 


is  supposed  that  the  Roman  Faunus  was 
the  same  with  the  (Ircek  I'an. 

FAUNS,  rural  deities,  among  the  Ro- 
mans, represented  with  horns  on  their 
heads,  sharp  pointed  ears,  and  the  rest  of 
their  bodies  like  goats.  They  were  tho 
mythological  demi-gods  of  woods  and  for- 


ests, thence  called  sylvan  deities.  The 
figure  is  taken  from  an  antique  statue  in 
the  Florentine  museum,  and  represents  a 
young  faun  as  a  flute-player. 

FAUX  JOUR,  (yKnv.h\)  false  light;  a 
term  used  in  the  Fine  Arts,  signifying  that 
a  picture  is  placed  so  that  the  light  falls 
upon  it  from  a  dillerent  side  from  that 
which  the  i)ainter  has  represented  tho 
light  in  the  picture  as  falling  upon  ob- 
jects, or  that  it  is  covered  with  a  bright 
glare,  so  that  nothing  can  be  properly 
distinguished. 

FAVIS'S^?;,  largo  vaults  underground 
in  the  area  of  the  Roman  capitol,  where 
the  Romans  carefully  lodged  and  deposi- 
ted with  a  degree  of  religious  care  tho 
old  statues,  and  other  sacred  utensils, 
when  they  happened  to  be  broken  ;  such 
a  superstitious  veneration  di'l  they  pay 
to  everything  belonging  to  the  eajjitol. 

FE'.\LTY,  in  feudal  law,  an  oath  ta- 
ken on  the  admittance  of  any  tenant  to 
be  true  to  tho  lord  of  whom  he  held  his 
land.  Under  the  feudal  system  of  ten- 
ures, every  vassal  or  tenant  was  bound  to 
be  true  and  faithful  to  his  lord,  and  to 
defend  him  against  his  enemies:  tho 
tenant  is  called  a  liege  man;  tho  land  a 
liege  fee;   and  the  superior,  a  liege  lord. 

FEASTS,  or  FESTIVALS,  in  a  reli 
gious  sense,  are  aniversary  times  of  feast- 
ing and  thanksgiving,  such  as  Christmas 
Easter,  Ac.  Feasts  were  of  divine  insti- 
tuti(jn  ;  intended  by  the  Deity  to  perpot- 


ikkJ 


A  XI)     IIIR     FINK     ARTS. 


23'< 


uate  among  his  clio.-en  jioopic,  tlic  Jnws, 
the  memory  of  his  mercies  ami  miracles  ; 
as  well  as  to  keep  alive  the  friendship 
betwixt  the  different  tribes  and  families, 
by  bringinj;  them  together  on  solemn  oc- 
casions, and  otrering  up  their  thanksgiv- 
ings in  the  holy  city. — Among  Chris- 
tians, vwvable  ^feasts  are  those  which, 
depending  on  astronomical  calculations, 
do  not  always  return  on  the  same  days 
of  the  year.  Of  these^  the  principal  is 
Easter,  which  fi.xes  all  the  rest,  as  Palin- 
Sunday,  Good  Friday,  Ash- Wednesday, 
Se.xagesiraa,  Ascension-day,  Pentecost, 
and  Trinity  Sunday.  I ju  movable  feasts, 
those  which  are  constantly  celebrated  on 
the  same  day  ;  of  these,  the  principal  are 
Christmas  day,  or  the  Nativity,  the  Cir- 
cumcision, Epiphany,  Candlemas  or  the 
Purification,  Lady-day  or  the  Annuncia- 
tion, All  Saints,  and  All  Souls,  and  the 
days  of  the  several  apostles.  Ttie  four 
quarterly  feasts,  are  Lady-day,  or  the 
annunciation  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  on  the 
'^oth  of  March  ;  the  nativity  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  on  the  24th  of  Juno  ;  the 
feast  of  St.  Michael,  the  archangel,  on 
the  '29th  of  September  ;  and  Christmas,  or 
rather  of  St.  Thomas  the  apostle,  on  the 
21st  of  December. — The  feasts  of  the  an- 
cients were  conducted  with  great  cere- 
mony. The  guests  wore  white  garments, 
decorated  themselves  with  garlands,  and 
often  anointed  the  head,  beard,  and  breast 
with  fragrant  oils.  The  banqueting 
room  was  also  often  adorned  with  gar- 
lands and  roses,  which  were  hung  over 
the  table,  as  the  emblem  of  silence  : 
hence  the  common  phrase,  to  communi- 
cate a  thing  sub  rosa  (under  the  rose.) 
The  luxurious  Romans  drank  out  of  crys- 
tal, amber,  and  the  costly  murra  (a  kind 
of  porcelain  introduced  by  Pompey,) 
as  well  as  onyx,  beryl,  and  elegantly 
wrought  gold,  set  with  precious  stones. 
After  the  meal  was  ended,  flute  players, 
female  singers,  dancers  and  buffoons  of 
all  kinds,  amused  the  guests,  or  the 
guests  themselves  joined  in  various  sports 
and  games. 

FEB'RUARY  in  chronology,  the  sec- 
ond month  of  the  year,  reckoning  from 
January,  first  added  to  the  calendar  of 
Romulus  by  Numa  Pompilius.  Febru- 
ary derived  it.s  name  from  Februa,  a 
feast  held  by  the  Romans  in  this  month, 
in  behalf  of  the  manes  of  the  deceased, 
at  which  ceremony  sacrifices  were  per- 
formed, and  tlie  last  offices  were  paid  to 
the  shades  of  the  defunct.  February  in 
a  common  year  consists  only  of  28  days, 
but  in  the  bissextile  year  it  has  29,  on 


aeoount  of  the  intercalary  day  added  that 
ye;ir. 

FE'CIALE3,  a  college  of  priests  insti- 
tute! at  Rome  by  Numa,  consisting  of 
twenty  persons,  selected  out  of  the  best 
families.  Their  business  was  to  be  ar- 
bitrators of  all  matters  relating  to  war 
and  peace,  and  to  be  the  guardians  of 
the  public  faith. 

FED'EKAL  GOVERNMENT,  such  a 
government  as  consists  of  several  inde- 
pendent provinces  or  states,  united  under 
one  head;  but  the  degree  to  which  such 
states  give  up  their  individual  rights 
may  be  very  different,  although  as  re- 
lates to  general  politics  they  have  one 
common  interest,  and  agree  to  be  gov- 
erned by  one  and  the  same  principle. 
Of  such  kind  is  the  government  of  the 
United   States  of  America. 

FED'ERALIST,  an  appellation  in  the 
United  States,  given  to  those  politicians 
who  wanted  to  strengthen  ihafosdus,  or 
general  government  compact,  in  opposi- 
tion to  others  who  wished  to  enfeeble  it 
by  extending  the  separate  authority  of 
the  several  states.  Hamilton  was  a 
c\n(ii  federalist,  Jefferson  a  leading  anti- 
federalist. 

FEE,  a  reward  or  recompense  for  pro- 
fessional services  ;  as  the  fee's  of  law- 
yers, physicians,  &c.  Public  offices  have 
likewise  their  settled. /ises,  for  the  several 
branches  of  business  transacted  in  them. 

FEE-ESTATE,  in  law,  properly  signi- 
fies an  inheritable  estate  in  band,  held  of 
some  superior  or  lord  ;  and  in  this  sense 
it  is  distinguished  from  allodium,  which 
is  the  absolute  property  in  land.  It  is 
the  theory  of  the  English  law  that  all  the 
lands  of  the  kingdom,  except  the  royal 
domains,  are  held  in  fee,  or  by  a  tenure, 
of  some  superior  lord,  the  absolute  or  al- 
lodial property  being  only  in  the  king,  so 
that  all  the  tenures  are  strictly  feudal. 
The  most  ample  estate  a  person  can  have 
is  that  oi fee-simple  ;  and  such  an  estate 
can  be  had  only  in  property  that  is  in- 
heritable, and  of  a  permanent  nature. — 
Fee-farm,  a  kind  of  tenure  without  hom- 
age, fealty,  or  other  service,  except  that 
mentioned  in  the  feoffment  ;  which  is 
usually  the  full  rent.  The  nature  of  this 
tenure  is,  that  if  the  rent  is  in  arrear  or 
unpaid  for  two  years,  then  the  feoffer  and 
his  heirs  may  have  an  action  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  lands. 

FE"EL'IN(?,  "one  of  the  five  external 
senses,  by  which  wo  obtain  the  ideas  of 
solid,  hard,  soft,  rough,  hot,  cold,  wet, 
dry,  and  other  tangible  qualities.  Thia 
sense  is  the  coarsest,  but  at  the   samv 


238 


CVCLOPEUIA     01''    MIKHATlliK 


[k!:o 


time  it  is  the  surest  of  the  five ;  it  is  be- 
sides the  most  universal.  We  see  and 
hear  with  small  portions  of  our  body; 
but  we  feel  with  all.  Nature  has  be- 
stowed that  general  sensation  wherever 
there  are  nerves,  and  they  are  every- 
where where  there  is  life.  Were  it  other- 
wise, the  j)arts  divested  of  it  might  he 
destroyed  without  our  knowledge.  All 
the  nervous  solids,  while  animated  by 
their  fluids,  have  this  general  sensation; 
but  the  papilhc  in  the  skin,  those  of  the 
nngers  in  particular,  have  it  in  a  more 
exquisite  degree.  Like  every  other  sense, 
feeling  is  capable  of  the  greatest  improve- 
ment ;  thus  we  see  that  persons,  born 
without  arras,  acquire  the  nicest  feeling 
in  their  toes;  and,  in  blind  people,  this 
sense  becomes  so  much  developed,  that 
iLxOividuals  born  blind,  and  acquiring  the 
faculty  of  sight  in  after  life,  for  a  long 
time  depend  rather  on  their  feeling  than 
on  their  sight,  because  they  receive  clear- 
er ideas  through  the  former  sense. 

FEET,  in  Christian  Art,  the  feet  of 
our  Lord,  also  of  angels  and  of  the  apos- 
tles, should  always  be  represented  naked, 
without  shoes  or  sandals. 

FEINT,  in  military  tactics,  a  mock  at- 
tack, made  to  conceal  the  true  one. 

FELI'CITAS,  the  appellation  of  a 
Roman  goddess,  a  Christian  martyr,  and 
a  traditional  empress,  mentioned  in  ro- 
mantic poetry  only. —  I.  F'elicitas,  a  di- 
vine being,  agreeing  with  the  Euda?mo- 
nia  (felicity)  and  the  Eutvchia  (good  for- 
tune) of  the  Greeks,  in  whom  was  per- 
sonified the  idea  of  happiness  arising 
from  blissful  occurrences.  Thus,  Felici- 
tas  (Eutychia)  means  more  than  Fortu- 
na  or  Tyche,  by  which  was  meant  chance 
or  luck.  The  Felicitas  of  tlie  Greeks, 
Eutychia,  is  represented  on  many  earth- 
en vessels  as  announcing  to  the  specta- 
tor the  desired  result  of  the  action  in- 
tended. We  also  meet  with  it  as  illus- 
tr€ative  of  success  in  arms,  and  of  happi- 
ness in  marriage.  On  Koman  coins  she 
:8  represented  with  the  modi  us  on  her 
head,  the  staff  of  Ilermos  in  her  hand, 
and  resting  on  a  cornucopia;  but  her  at- 
tributes differ  according  to  circumstances. 
2.  .St.  Felicitas,  a  Christian  lady  of  Rome, 
who  is  dei)icted  with  a  palm-branch  and 
cross  ;  she  is  the  patroness  of  male  chil- 
dren. She  hid  seven  sons,  who  with  her 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome,  ah.  1(10. 
Felicitas  was  thrown  into  a  (Muldron  of 
boilin!^  oil,  while  her  sons'  heads  were 
cut  off  and  exhibited  before  her.  'A.  The 
em[iress  Felicitas,  a  principal  character 
in  the  romance  of  Count  Octavian  ;  hor 


two  cliiMren,  who,  with  herself,  were  cast 
into  a  forest,  were  nursed  by  a  lioness. 

FEL'J.,OW,  the  member  of  a  college  or 
of  a  corporate  bud^'. — This  word  has  a 
very  wide  and  opposite  meaning ;  for 
though  we  say,  in  speaking  of  a  skilful 
artist,  this  man  has  not  his_/f//oif,  we  al- 
so apply  it  in  the  most  ignoble  sense,  and 
say,  such  a  one  is  a  mean  or  worthless 
JcUow. 

FE'LO  DE  SE,  in  law,  a  person  that, 
being  of  sound  mind,  and  of  the  age  of 
discretion,  wilfully  causes  his  own  death. 

FEL  UNY,  in  law,  generally  includes 
all  capital  crimes  below  treason,  such  as 
murder,  burglary,  &c. ;  and  is  punished 
with  death  or  transportation,  according 
to  the  enormit}'  of  the  offence. 

FELUCCA,  a  light  open  vessel  with  six- 
oars,  much  used  in  the  Mediterranean. 
It  has  this  peculiarity,  that  its  helm  may 
be  used  either  at  the  head  or  the  stern. 

FEME  COVERT,  in  law,  a  married 
woman,  who  is  under  covert  of  her  hus- 
band. By  the  comnjon  law  of  England, 
the  legal  capacity  of  a  woman  to  contract, 
or  sue  and  be  sued,  separately,  ceases  on 
marriage ;  and  her  husband  becomes 
liable  to  her  debts  existing  at  t'hat  time. — 
Feme-sole,  a  single  woman. — Feme-sole 
merchant,  a  woman  who  carries  on  trade 
alone,  or  without  her  husband. 

FEMINA'LIA,  a  kind  of  short  pan- 
taloons or  closely- fitting  breeches,  reach- 
ing a  short  distance  be'ow  the  knees, 
worn  by  the  Roman  soldiers  in  their  ex- 
peditions to  cold  countries  ;  thoy  are  seen 
depicted  on  the  Column  of  Trajan,  and  on 
the  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome. 

FEM'ININE,  in  grammar,  denoting 
the  female  gender. 

FEN'CINt;,  the  art  of  using  skilfully 
a  sword  or  foil  either  in  attack  or  defence. 
In  the  exercise  of  this  art,  foils  or  thin 
swords  are  used,  which,  being  blunted  at 
the  points,  and  bending  readily,  are  ren- 
dered harmless. 

FEN'GITE,  a  kind  of  transparent  ala- 
baster or  7narble,  sometimes  useil  for 
windows  as  in  the  church  of  St.  Miniato 
at  Florence. 

FEODUM,  FEOD,  or  FEUD,  in  feu- 
dal  law,  the  right  which  tJie  vassal  had 
in  land,  i^c  ,  to  use  the  same,  and  take 
the  profits  thereof,  rendering  unto  his 
lord  such  fees,  duties,  and  services,  as 
belongeil  to  military  tenure. 

FEOFFMENT,  "in  law,  is  a  gift  or 
grant  of  any  manors,  messuages,  lands, 
or  tenements  to  another  m  fee,  that  is,  to 
him  and  iiis  heirs  forever,  by  delivery  of 
seisin,  and  possession  of  the  estate  grant- 


AND    rilK    FIXE    AliTS. 


ed.  The  giver  is  called  the  feojfer,  ani.1 
the  person  who  is  thus  invested  is  called 
the  feujree. 

FEUA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival 
observed  among  the  Romans  on  the  21st 
of  Feruary,  or,  aei'<n-ding  to  Ovid,  on  the 
17th,  in  lionor  of  the  manes  of  their  de- 
ceased friends  and  relations.  During  the 
ceremony,  whi'h  consisted  in  maliing 
presents  at  their  graves,  marriages  were 
forbidden,  and  the  temples  of  the  divini- 
ties shut  up  ;  because  they  fancied  that 
during  this  festival,  departed  spirits  suf- 
fered no  pains  in  hell,  but  were  permitted 
to  wander  about  their  graves  and  feast 
upon  tlie  meats  jn-epared  for  them. 

FEKENTA'KIA,  in  ancient  Home,  a 
sort  of  light-armed  soldiers. 

FER'ETORY,  this  term  is  applied  to 
the  bier  or  shrine  containing  the  reliques 
of  saints,  borne  in  processions.  The  type 
of  a  feretory  is  a  coffin,  but  the  form  is 
usually  that  of  a  ridged  chest,  with  a 
roof-like  top,  usually  ornamented  by 
pierced  work,  with  the  sides  and  top  en- 
graved and  enamelled,  and  sometimes 
with  images  in  high  relief.  They  were 
made  of  various  metals.  1.  Of  solid  gold 
and  silver  adorned  with  jewels.  2.  Of 
copper,  gilt  and  enamelled.  3.  Of  wood 
overlaid  with  plates  of  metal,  or  richly 
painted  and  gilt.  4.  Of  ivorj',  or  of  crys- 
tal, mounted  in  metal  and  gilt.  5.  Of 
wood,  covered  with  precious  stuffs  and 
embroidery. 

FE'RIA,  in  the  Romish  breviary,  is 
applied  to  the  several  days  of  the  week  ; 
thus,  Monday  is  theforia  secuncia,  Tues- 
day ihej'eria  tertia,  and  so  on. 

FE'RI.(E,  in  Roman  antiquity,  holi- 
days, or  days  upon  which  they  abstained 
from  business.  The  /trta;  were  of  several 
kinds,  namely,  Peria:  stativcB,  or  stated 
festivals ;  fericB  conceptivce,  or  movable 
feasts ;  feri(e  imperatira:,  or  occasional 
festivals  enjoined  by  the  consuls  or  other 
magistraies  on  some  public  occasion  ;  and 
feritB  denicales,  for  private  occasions. 
There  were  also  the  fericB  Latince,  kept 
by  the  fifty  Latin  towns  on  Mount  Alba- 
nus ;  and  the  ferim  mundinee,  festivals 
kept  for  nine  days  on  the  appearance  of 
any  prodigy. — It  was  a  pollution  of  the 
J'ericB,  accrrding  to  Macrobius,  if  the  rex 
sacroruvi  or  Jlamines  saw  any  work  done 
on  them,  and  therefore  they  ordered  pro- 
clamation to  be  made  by  the  herald,  that 
every  one  might  abstain  from  work  ;  and 
whoever  transgressed  the  order  was  fined. 

I'E  RINE,  an  epithet  for  such  beasts 
as  are  wild  and  savage,  ns  lions,  tigers, 
wolves,  bears,  &c. 


FE'RTO,  in  logic,  a  mode  in  the  first 
figure  of  syllogisms,  consisting  of  a  uni- 
versal negative,  a  particular  atnrmative, 
and  a  jjarticular  negative. — A  similar 
mode  in  the  third  figure  of  syllogisms,  is 
termed  Jerison. 

FER  ULA,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
signifies  a  place  separated  from  the  church, 
wherein  the  audientes  were  kept,  as  not 
being  allowed  to  enter  the  church — Un- 
der the  eastern  empire,  the  ferula  was 
the  emperor's  sceptre,  as  is  seen  on  a 
variety  of  medals  ;  it  consisted  of  a  long 
stem  or  shank,  and  a  flat  square  head. 

FES'CENNINE  VERSES,  so  called 
from  Fescennia,  an  Etrurian  town,  when 
they  first  had  their  origin,  were  rude  ex- 
temporaneous pieces  of  poetry  recited  by 
the  youth  of  Latium  and  Etruria  at  rus- 
tic festivals,  especially  at  harvest  home, 
with  gestures  adapted  to  the  sense.  They 
consisted  principally  of  raillery  and  play- 
ful rustic  abuse;  a  species  of  humor  very 
much  in  vogue  with  the  Grecian  and 
Egyptian  country  people  also.  The  Fos- 
cennine  verses  are  chiefly  remarkable  from 
having  given  rise  to  satire,  the  only  clasn 
of  poetry  of  native  Italian  growth. 

FESTI'NO,  in  logic,  a  mood  of  syllo- 
gisms in  the  second  figure,  in  which  tha 
first  proposition  is  a  universal  negative, 
the  second  a  particular  affirmative,  and 
the  third  a  particular  negative. 

FESTOON',  a  carved  ornament  in  wood, 
stone,  &c.,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  gar- 
land or  wreath,  composed  of  flowers, 
fruits,  leaves,  &c.,  bound  together,  am) 
suspended  by  the  ends.  It  was  employed 
by  the  architects  of  the  middle  ages  fre- 
quently with  much  success  in  their  frieze.i 
of  the  composite  order.  It  is  usefully 
and  aptly  employed  in  decoration.     The 


garland  is  of  greatest  size  in  the  middle, 
and  diminishes  gradually  to  the  points 
of  suspension  from  which  the  ends  gene- 
rally hang  down.  The  festoon  in  archi- 
tecture is  sometimes  composed  of  an  imi- 
tation of  drapery,  similarly  disposed,  and 
frequently  of  an  assemblage  of  musical  in- 
struments, implements  of  war,  or  of  the 
chase  and  the  like,  according  to  the  pur- 
pose to  which  the  building  it  ornaments 
is  appropriated. 

FETICH,  Fetichism,  the  word  fetich 


240 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKKATLRE 


[fed 


is  said  to  be  deriveJ  from  the  Portuguese.  ' 
and  appears  to  iiave  been  brought  into 
usage  from  tiK!  writings  of  some  travel- 
lers on  the  western  coast  of  Africa.  It 
is  now  comprehensively  employed  to  sig- 
nify any  object  of  worship  not  represent- 
ing a  living  (or  rather,  perhaps,  a  hu- 
man) figure;  thus  excluding  idols,  prop- 
erly so  called.  This  perverted  form  of 
religion  prevails  very  e.vtenSively  among 
barbarous  nations,  and  especially  those 
of  the  Xegro  race.  Among  the  latter, 
tribes,  families,  and  individuals  have 
their  respective  fetiches ;  which  are  often 
objects  casually  selected,  or  chosen  under 
the  influence  of  some  occasional  super- 
stition,, as  stones,  weapons,  vessels,  plants, 
&c.,  &e. 

FEUD,  an  inveterate  quarrel  between* 
families  or  parties  in  a  state.  The  word 
is  not  applicable  to  wars  between  differ- 
ent nations,  but  to  intestine  wars  and 
animosities  between  families,  clans,  or 
tribes. 

FEU'DAL  SYSTEM,  a  form  of  gov- 
ernment anciently  subsisting  in  Europe, 
and  which,  about  twelve  centuries  ago, 
was  so  universally  received,  that  Spelrnan 
calls  it  "  the  law  of  nations  in  our  western 
world."  The  origin  of  this  system,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  military  policy  of  the 
Celtic  or  northern  nations,  known  by  the 
names  of  Goths,  Vandals,  Franks,  Huns, 
and  Lombards,  who  overran  Europe  on 
the  declension  of  the  Roman  empire,  and 
brought  it  with  them  from  the  countries 
out  of  which  they  emigrated.  According 
to  the  feudal  scheme,  a  victorious  leader 
allotted  considerable  portions  of  land, 
cMud  feoda,  Jiefs,  m feuds,  to  his  princi- 
pal officers,  who  in  their  turn,  divided 
their  jussessions  among  their  inferiors; 
and  tlie  condition  upon  which  these  re- 
wards were  given,  was  that  of  faithful 
military  service  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
To  this  they  engaged  themselves  by  an 
oath  of  fealty  ;  in  the  event  of  a  breach 
of  which,  either  by  not  performing  the 
service  agreed  upon,  or  by  deserting  their 
lord  in  time  of  battle,  kc.  the  lands  were 
to  return  to  their  original  possessor. 
Kvory  person,  therefore,  who  was  a  feuda- 
tory, i.  e.  who  had  received  lands,  was 
bound  to  do  everything  in  his  power  to 
defend  the  lord  of  his  fee  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  latter  was  no  less  subor- 
dinate to  his  immediate  superior  ;  and  so 
on  up  to  the  prince  himself.  Thus  the 
several  orders  of  vassals  formed  a  system 
of  concentric  circles,  of  which  each  was 
under  the  influence  of  the  ne.\t,  and  all 
moved  around  a  common  centre,  the  king. 


as  the  supreme  feudal  lord.  As  there 
was  a  graduated  scale  from  the  lowest 
vassal  to  the  prince  or  lord  paramount  of 
the  territory',  every  man's  interest  w.is 
involved  in  the  security  of  the  whole ; 
and  every  man  was  a  pledge  of  security 
to  his  neighbor.  In  the  miilst  of  that  dis- 
interestedness of  sentiment  which  belongs 
to  a  ru<le  state  of  society,  the  connection 
of  the  lord  and  his  vassal  was  of  a  salu- 
tary nature  ;  and,  as  is  the  end  of  all 
social  combinations,  each  individual  con- 
tributed to  support  that  strength  by 
which  he  was  protected.  But  besides 
these  feudal  grants,  which  were  held  only 
on  the  terms  of  military  service  above 
mentioned,  there  were  others  called  allo- 
dial, which  were  given  upon  more  en- 
larged principles.  To  these  every  free 
man  had  a  title,  and  could  not  only  claim 
his  territory  as  well  as  the  rest,  but  dis- 
pose of  it  at  his  pleasure.  A  part  of  their 
freedom  consisted  in  liberty  to  go  to  the 
wars ;  for  this,  in  the  times  to  which  we 
are  referring,  was  the  only  way  to  acquire 
any  degree  of  renown.  Only  the  serfs  or 
villeins,  were  destined  to  follow  the  arta 
of  peace.  The  feudal  vassals,  properly 
so  called,  constituted  the  army  ;  while  the 
national  militia  was  composed  of  the 
allodial  proprietors.  It  has,  however, 
often  been  argued,  that  the  bare  theory' 
of  feudal  government,  as  a  permanent  in- 
stitution, however  fair-seeming,  is  hol- 
low; that  the  family  connection  it  sup- 
poses could  be  but  a  source  of  minute, 
domestic  tjranny  ;  and  that  in  their  best 
period,  the  customs  enumerated  must 
have  been  liable  to  the  grossest  abuse. 
In  process  of  time,  the  evil  increased  to 
an  enormous  height ;  and  even  the  polit- 
ical value  of  the  system  decayed.  In  its 
vigor,  it  had  at  least  constituted  a  regu- 
lar, jiowerful,  and  compact  sj'stem  of  gov- 
ernment ;  a  unanimity  had  pervaded  the 
various  departments  of  the  state  ;  and 
while  the  power  was  internally  diffused, 
it  presented  to  foreign  nations  a  united 
and  formidable  front.  As  the  ideas  en- 
gendered by  property  advanced,  and  the 
great  grew  more  avaricious  of  money  than 
of  glory  ;  and  when,  it  ought  perhaps  to 
be  added,  man's  notions  of  right  and 
order  became  more  correct,  nothing  was 
heard  of  but  the  enormities  of  the  power- 
ful, and  the  sufferings  of  the  humbler 
classes  ;  and  the  strength  of  feudal  gov- 
ernujont  decline<l  amidst  a  s])irit  of  dis- 
affection too  universal  to  be  checked — 
Mr.  Ilallani  in  his  work  on  the  Middle 
Ages,  ably  exhibits  a  picture  of  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  the  feudal 


Fic] 


AND    TIIR    FIXE    AKTS. 


241 


evstciii  If,  says  he,  wc  look  at  the  feu- 
dal polit.y  as  a  scheme  of  civil  freedom, 
it.  bears  a  noble  counfcnanee.  To  the 
feudal  law  it  is  owing,  that  the  very 
names  of  right  and  jjrivilege  were  not 
swept  away,  as  in  Asia,  by  the  desolating 
hand  of  power.  The  tyranny  which,  on 
every  favorable  moment,  was  breaking 
through  all  barriers,  would  have  rioted 
without  control,  if.  wiien  the  people  were 
poor  and  disunited,  the  nobility  had  not 
been  brave  and  free.  So  far  as  the  sphere 
of  feudality  extended,  it  diffused  the  spirit 
of  liberty,  and  the  notions  of  private  right. 
The  bulk  of  the  people,  it  is  true,  were 
degraded  by  servitude  ;  but  this  had  no 
connection  with  the  feu<lal  tenures.  As  a 
school  of  moral  discipline,  the  ftudal  in- 
stitutions were  perhaps  most  to  be  valued. 
Society  had  sunk,  for  several  centuries 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, into  a  condition  of  ojjen  depravity; 
where,  if  any  vices  could  be  selected 
as  more  eminently  characteristic  than 
others,  they  were  falsehood,  treacliery, 
and  ingratitude.  In  slowly  purging  off 
the  lec3  of  this  extreme  corruption,  the 
feudal  spirit  e.xerted  its  ameliorating  in- 
fluence. Violation  of  faith  stood  first  in 
the  catalogue  of  crimes  most  repugnant 
to  the  very  essence  of  feudal  tenure,  most 
severely  anvl  promptly  avenged,  most 
branded  by  general  infamy.  The  feudal 
law-books  breathe  throughout  a  spirit  of 
mutual  obligation.  The  feudal  course  of 
jurisdiction  promoted,  what  trial  by  peers 
is  peculiarly  calculated  to  promote,  a 
keener  feeling  and  a  readier  perception 
of  moral  as  well  as  of  legal  distinctions. 
And  as  the  judgment  and  sympathy  of 
mankind  are  seldom  mistaken  in  these 
great  points  of  veracity  and  justice,  e.xcept 
through  the  temporary  success  of  crimes  or 
the  wants  of  a  definite  standard  of  right, 
they  gradually  recovered  themselves, 
when  law  precluded  the  one  and  supplied 
the  other.  In  the  reciprocal  services  of 
lord  and  vassal,  there  was  ample  scope 
for  every  magnanimous  and  disinterested 
energy.  The  heart  of  man  when  placed 
in  circumstances  which  have  a  tendency 
to  e.xcite  them,  will  seldom  he  deficient  in 
such  sentiments.  No  occasions  could  be 
more  favorable,  than  the  protection  of  a 
faithful  supporter,  or  the  defence  of  a 
beneficent  suzerain,  against  such  powerful 
aggression,  as  left  little  prospect  e.xcept  of 
sharing  in  his  ruin.  From  these  feelings, 
engendered  from  the  feudal  relation,  has 
sprung  up  the  peculiar  sentiment  of  per- 
sonal reverence  and  attachment  towards 
a  sovereign,  which  we  denominate  loj- 
16 


alty  ;  alike  distinguishable  from  fhc  stu- 
pid devotion  of  eastern  slaves,  and  from 
the  abstract  respect  with  which  free  citi- 
zens regard  their  chief  magistrate.  Meri 
who  had  been  used  to  swear  fealty,  to 
profess  subjection,  to  follow,  at  liouic  and 
in  the  field,  a  feudal  superior  and  his 
family,  easily  transferred  the  same  alle- 
giance to  the  monarch.  It  was  a  very 
powerful  feeling  which  could  make  the 
bravest  men  put  up  with  slight.s  and  ill- 
treatment  at  the  hands  of  their  sovereign  ; 
or  call  forth  all  the  energies  of  disinter- 
ested e.xertion  for  one  whom  they  never 
saw,  or  in  whose  character  there  was 
nothing  to  esteem.  In  ages  when  the 
rights  of  the  community  were  unfelt, 
this  sentiment  was  one  great  preservative 
of  society  ;  and  though  collateral  or  even 
subservient  to  more  enlarged  principles, 
it  is  still  indispensable  to  the  tranquillity 
and  permanence  of  every  monarchy. 

FEUIL'LANS,  an  order  of  bare-footed 
monks,  who  observe  the  same  rules  with 
the  Benardines. 

FI'AT,  in  law,  a  short  order  or  warrant 
signed  by  a  judge,  for  making  out  and  al- 
lowing certain  processes. — Fiat  justitia 
are  the  words  written  by  the  king  on  his 
warrant  to  bring  a  writ  of  error  in  par- 
liament, &c. 

FIB'ULA,  a  brooch,  buckle,  or  clasp, 
used  for  fastening  together  various  parts 
of  male  and  female  attire,  as  well  as  for 
ornament.  They  were  made  of  ivory, 
gold,  bronze,  precious  stones  set  in  gold, 
and  sometimes  of  silver,  an  1  of  every  va- 
riety of  form,  upon  which  the  most  elab- 
orate ornament  was  frequently  bestowed. 
In  ancient  Art  we  see  the  fibula  employed 
to  pin  together  the  two  parts  of  a  cloak 
or  scarf,  {chlamys,  pallium,  Ac  ,)  so  as 
to  fasten  them  over  the  right  shoulder. 
Sometimes,  but  rarely,  we  see  it  on  the 
breast.  In  female  costume  it  is  seen 
worn  on  both  shoulders,  and  sometimes 
on  the  sleeves,  breast,  and  to  fasten  the 
tunic  when  tucked  up  at  the  knee. 

FICTI'LIA,  Testa,  the  term  applied 
to  all  ancient  pottery,  from  domestic  uten- 
sils to  architectural  ornaments,  coarse  or 
fine,  burnt,  or  only  hardened  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  The  most  plastic  species  of 
clay  for  the  finer  kinds  of  pottery  was 
found  in  Etruria,  and  the  earthen  tablo 
vessels  of  Arretium  maintained  their  su- 
periority even  to  the  time  of  Pliny. 
Among  the  (Jreeks,  the  pottery  of  Athens, 
and  of  the  island  of  Samos,  was  the  most 
famed,  the  finest,  and  of  the  most  care- 
!  fully  washed  earth  ;  it  was  called  Smnian 
;  clay,  and  produced  the  hardest  ware. 


242 


CYCLOl'EUIA    OF    LITKUATLKE 


[fio 


FICTION,  in  law,  a  supposition  that 
a  thing  is  true  without  inquiring  whether 
it  is  or  not,  so  that  it  may  have  the  effect 
of  truth,  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  efiuity. 

FIC'TOR,  a  term  appliel  to  any  artist 
who  works  in  wax,  chiy,  or  other  plastic 
material,  as  contraiiistinguished  from  one 
who  works  in  bronze,  marble,  wood,  ivo- 
r_v,  or  other  solid  substances. 

FIEF,  a  fee  ;  an  estate  held  of  a  su- 
perior on  condition  of  military  service. — 
See  Feuo.al  .System. 

FIELD,  ill  heraldry,  the  whole  surface 
of  the  shield  or  escutcheon. — Pield,  in 
military  tactics,  the  groutidchosen  for  any 
battle. — f^ield,  in  painting,  the  ground  or 
Idank  space  on  which  anything  may  be 
drawn. 

FIELD- MAR'S  HAL,  the  highest  mili- 
tary officer  in  England. — Pield-q/ficer,  a 
military  officer  above  the  rank  of  a  cap- 
tain, as  a  major  or  colonel. — Field-col- 
ors, in  war,  are  small  (lags  of  about  a 
foot  and  a  half  square,  which  are  carried 
along  with  the  quarter-master  general, 
for  marking  out  the  ground  for  the  squad- 
rons and  battalions. — Field-pieces,  small 
cannons,  from  three  to  twelve  pounders, 
carried  along  with  an  army  in  the  field. — 
Field-staff,  a  weapon  carried  by  the  gun- 
ners, about  the  length  of  a  halbert,  with 
a  spear  at  the  end  ;  having  on  e.ich  side 
ears  screwed  on,  like  the  cock  of  a  match- 
lock, where  the  gunners  .screw  in  lighted 
matches,  when  they  are  upon  command  — 
Field-works,  in  fortification,  are  those 
thrown  up  by  an  army  in  besieging  a  for- 
tress,  or  by  the  besieged  to  defend  the 

FI'ERI  FA'CIA.S,  in  law,  a  judicial 
writ  commanding  the  sheriff  to  levy  the 
debt  or  damages  on  tho  goods  of  one 
against  whom  judgment  has  been  had  in 
an  action  of  debt. 

FIFE,  a  small  wooden  musical  wind 
instrument  of  tlie  llute  species  played  by 
holes,  exceedingly  shrill  in  tone,  and  rare- 
ly used  except  in  military  bands. 

FIF'TEEXTH.  nn  ancient  tribute  or 
tax  laid  upon  cities,  boroughs,  ,tc., 
through  all  Englanrl,  an  I  so  termed  be- 
cau.se  it  amounted  to  a  fifteenth  part  of 
what  each  city  or  town  had  been  valued 
at ;  or  it  was  a  fifteenth  of  every  man's 
personal  estate  according  to  a  reasonable 
valuation.  In  dooms  lay-book,  there  are 
certain  rates  mentioned  for  levying  this 
tribute  yearly. 

FIFTH,  in  music,  one  of  the  harmoni- 
cal  intervals  or  coiiciirds.  It  is  the  second 
in  order  of  th';  concorils,  tho  ratio  of  tlie 
Chords  that  atlurd  it  being  as  3  :  2.     It  is 


called  the  fifth,  as  containing  five  terms 
or  sounds  between  its  cctreines  and  four 
degrees  ;  so  that  in  the  natural  scale  of 
music  if  conies  in  the  fifth  place  or  order 
from  the  fundamental.  Tho  ancients 
called  it  diapente,  and  the  Italians  at 
present  call  it  qainta.  The  imperfect, 
defective  or  false  /if t.'i,  called  by  the  an- 
cients semi-diupente,  is  less  than  the  fifth 
by  a  les-ser  semitone. 

"FIFTH  MON'ARCHY-MEX.  a  fanat- 
ical sect,  who  formed  a  principal  support 
of  Cromwell  during  the  Protectorate 
They  considered  his  assumption  of  power 
as  an  earnest  of  the  foundations  of  the 
fifth  monarchy,  which  should  succeed  to 
the  .Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the  Grecian, 
and  the  Roman,  and  in  which  Jesus  Christ 
should  reign  with  the  saints  on  earth  for 
the  space  of  a  thousand  years.  Upon  tho 
restoration  of  the  royal  family,  and  the 
return  of  the  kingdom  to  its  former  prin- 
ciples in  church  and  state,  a  party  of 
these  enthusiasts,  headed  by  a  man  of  the 
name  of  Venner,  made  a  desperate  insur- 
rection in  the  streets  of  London,  which 
was  put  down  with  the  slaughter  of  a 
great  number  of  them. 

FIGURE,  in  physics,  denotes  the  sur 
face  or  terminating  extremities  of  any 
body  ;  and,  considered  as  a  property  of 
body  affecting  our  senses,  is  defined,  a 
quality  which  may  be  perceived  by  two 
of  the  outward  senses — touch  and  sight. — 
Figure,  in  dancing,  denotes  the  Several 
steps  which  the  dancer  makes  in  order 
and  cadence,  considered  as  they  mark  cer- 
tain figures  on  the  tloor. — Figure,  in 
rhetoric,  a  mode  of  speaking  or  writing 
in  which  words  are  tlcllcctod  from  their 
ordinary  signification,  tliereby  expressing 
a  pa.<,sion  with  more  uinpliasis  and  beauty 
tlian  by  the  ordinary  way.  Rhetorical 
figures  are  often  highly  servicealde  sia 
well  as  ornamental,  and  serve  to  awaken 
and  ti.x  attention;  bat  they  are  to  be  used 
with  prudence  and  caution  ;  for  whatever 
is  described  in  a  multitude  of  words,  or  is 
carried  on  to  a  disproportionate  length, 
fails  of  the  end  proposed,  an<l  grows  tire- 
some rather  than  pleasing.  Tho  princi- 
pal figures  of  rhetoric  are  tho  metaphor, 
allegory,  simile,  and  personification; 
which,  with  their  further  divisions  into 
hyperbole,  climax,  antithesis,  &o  ,  willbo 
found  under  their  resiiective  heads. — 
Figure,  in  painting  and  designing,  de- 
notes the  lines  and  colors  which  form  the 
representation  of  any  animal,  but  more 
particularly,  of  a  human  personage.  Thus 
a  painting  is  saiil  to  bo  full  of  figures, 
when  there  are  many  represeutations  of 


fin] 


AM)     TIIK     FINK     ARTS. 


243 


men  ;  and  a  livnilscape  is  said  to  be  with- 
out figures,  when  there  is  notliing  but 
natural  scenery. 

FIL'ACEil,  an  officer  of  the  common 
pleas,  so  called  from  his  filing  the  writs 
on  which  he  miilvcs  out  processes.  There 
are  fourteen  of  these  officers,  who  are  sev- 
erally allotted  to  particular  divisions  and 
counties,  and  make  out  all  ori^^inal  pro- 
cesses, real,  personal,  and   mi.\ed. 

F1LL.\GREE  WORK,  or  FIL'I- 
GK.^XE,  a  delicate  and  elaborate  man- 
ufacture, primarily  executed  in  threads 
of  gold  and  silver,  but  lately  imitated 
with  colored  and  gilt  paper.  In  Suma- 
tra, manufactures  of  tillagree-work  are 
carried  to  very  great  perfection.  In  Chi- 
na also,  where  the  fillagree  is  mostly  of 
silver,  many  beautiful  articles  are  pro- 
duced. 

FIL'LET,  in  architecture,  a  little 
square  member,  ornament,  or  moulding, 
used  in  various  places,  but  generally  as 
a  corona  over  a  great  moulding  — Among 
painters  and  gilders,  a  little  rule  or  line 
of  leaf-gold,  drawn  over  certain  mould- 
ings, or  on  the  edges  of  frames,  panels. 


FIL'LIBEG, 
PHIL'LIBEG 


reaching 


only  to  the  knees,  worn  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland. 

FIM'BRIA,  Fringe,  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  fringes  and  tassels  were 
ornaments  but  little  worn,  except  on  the 
garments  of  females,  by  whom  they  were 
sometimes  attached  to  the  tunic.  The 
extremities  of  the  threads  of  the  warps 


{thrums)  formed  the  usual  fringe.'?,  to 
which  an  ornamental  appearance  was 
given  by  twisting  and  crossing  the  threacls, 
and  the  production  of  a  net-like  form. 
Fringes  were  also  made  of  gold  thread 
and  other  materials,  which  were  attached 
to  the  garments,  &c. 

FI'NAL  CAUSES,  the  purposes  or 
ultimate  ends  in  view.  The  e/ficiciif  cause 
is  that  which  produces  the  event  or  ef- 
fect;  the  /!/!«/  cause  is  that  for  which 
anything  is  done. 

FINALE,  the  concluding  part  of  ,i 
musical  composition.  In  instruniont  il 
pieces,  it  has  mostly  a  character  of  viva- 
city, and  requires  a  quick  movement  and 
lively  performance. 

FINE,  in  law,  a  penalty  or  amends 
made  in  money  for  an  offence ;  also, 
money  paid  for  the  renewal  of  a  lease, 
and  a  conveyance  of  lands  or  tenements, 
in  order  to  cut  otT  all  controversies. 

FINE  ARTS,  a  term  somewhat  in- 
definite in  its  meaning,  but  generally  ap- 
plied to  those  arts  which  depend  on  the 
mind  and  imagination :  opposed  to  the 
mechanical. 

FINESSE',  may  be  defined  simply  as 
a  peculiar  aptitude  of  discovering,  in  any 
business,  the  best  means  of  attaining  the 
object  in  view;  or  as  the  power  of  em- 
bracing in  one  comprehensive  glance  the 
various  interests  of  any  subject,  together 
with  ingenuity  to  devise  and  tact  to  carry 
out  the  plan  best  calculated  to  obtain 
success. 

FINE  STUFF,  in  architecture,  plais- 
ter  used  in  common  ceilings  and  walls 
for  the  reception  of  paper  or  color.  It 
is  composed  of  lime,  slaked  and  sifted 
through  a  fine  sieve,  then  mixed  with  a 
due  quantity  of  hair  and  fine  sand.  A 
mi.xture  of  lime  and  hair,  used  in  the 
first  coat  aild  floating  of  plastering,  is 
called  coarse  stuff. 

FIN'GER  BOARD,  in  music,  the  black 
board  attached  to  the  neck  of  instruments 
of  the  viol  class,  on  which  the  strings  are 
pressed  by  the  fingers  for  the  purpose 
of  ailjusting  their  lengths,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce the  different  sounds. 

FINGERING,  in  music,  the  act  of 
disposing  of  the  fingers  in  a  convenient, 
natural,  and  apt  manner,  in  the  perform- 
ance of  any  instrument,  but  more  espe- 
cially the  organ  and  piano-forte.  Good 
fingering  is  one  of  the  first  things  to 
which  a  judicious  master  attends;  for  to 
a  facility  in  this  branch  of  the  perform- 
er's art  must  a  pupil  louk.  as  the  means 
of  acquiring  a  facile  and  graceful  exe- 
cution, and  the  power  of  giving  passages 


24  1 


f'YCI.OI'EDIA     OF    LITEKATrUE 


with  articulation,  accent,  and  expres- 
sion. 

FIX'IAL,  an  ornament  employed  in 
Gothic  architecture,  as  a  termination  to 
pinnacles,  pediments,  canopies;  it  con- 
sists of  a  bunch  of  foliage,  and  therein 
closely  resembles  the  crocket :  and  some- 
times tinials  are  composed  of  four  or  more 
crockets,  united  together.  Church  spires, 
when  perfect,  are  frequently  terminated 
with  finials. 

FINISH,  the  last  touches  applied  to 
a  picture  or  other  work  of  Art.  It  .al- 
ways constitutes  the  dilference  between 
excellence  and  mediocrity.  Small  pic- 
tures require  the  most  careful  tinisli,  but 
in  larger  works,  too  much  attention  to 
high  finish  detracts  from  the  boldness 
and  vigor  demanded  by  works  on  a  large 

FIN'ISHING  COAT,  in  architecture, 
the  best  coat  of  stucco  work  when  three 
coats  are  used.  When  in  the  third  coat 
fine  stuff  is  used  for  paper,  it  is  called 
setting. 

FIN'TO,  in  music,  a  feint  or  an  at- 
tempt to  do  something  and  not  to  do  it; 
Ascadenza  finto,  when  having  done  every- 
thing proper  for  a  true  character,  instead 
of  falling  on  the  right  final,  a  higher  or 
a  lower  note  is  taken. 

FIRE,  in  former  times,  fire  obtained  a 
place  among  the  elements,  and  was  for  a 
long  time  considered  to  be  a  constituent 
part  in  the  composition  of  all  bodies,  and 
to  require  only  the  concurrence  of  favor- 
able circumstances  to  develop  its  activ- 
ity. Its  all-consuming  energy,  the  sim- 
ilarity of  its  effects  to  those  of  the  sun, 
its  intimate  connection  with  light,  its  ter- 
rible and  yet  beneficent  power, — easily 
e\i)lain  how  it  happened  that,  in  times 
■when  cause  and  effect,  form  and  essence, 
were  not  yet  distinctly  separated,  fire 
became  an  object  of  religious  veneration, 
a  distinguished  element  in  mythology, 
an  expressive  symbol  in  poetry,  and  an 
important  agent  in  the  systems  of  cos- 
mogony. When  natural  philosophy  was 
treated  in  the  schools,  theories  were 
adopted  to  which  little  attention  is  paid 
in  the  present  age,  when  all  science  is 
founded  on  facts  and  observations.  Ca- 
loric, be  it  a  material  agent  or  the  conse- 
quence of  \  ibratory  motion,  is  at  present 
considered  the  cause  of  the  i)honomena 
which  were  foitn(Mly  ascribed  to  fire  ;  and 
though  its  n)>turo  is  as  unknown  to  us  as 
that  of  fire  was  to  tlie  ancients,  the  sub- 
stitution of  one  <if  these  terms  for  the 
other  has  introdn(^ed  a  greater  precision 
of   language,    and   cause   and    effect  are 


no  longer  confounded  under  the  same 
name. — F'ire.Jiame,  the  attribute  of  Si. 
Florian.  the  protector  against  conflagra- 
tion ;  of  the  hermit  Anthony,  because  the 
temi)ter  apj)eared  to  him  from  the  fire ; 
of  Bishop  Basil,  who  saved  a  poor  bo3', 
by  burning  his  compact  with  the  devils; 
of  St.  Bridget  of  Scotland,  over  whose 
head  a  flame  was  seen  from  childhood; 
of  St.  Columba  of  Cordova,  who  saved  an 
angel  from  death  by  fire;  of  St.  Patrick, 
before  whom  fire  sprung  out  of  the  earth, 
upon  his  drawing  a  cross  upon  it  with  his 
staff;  of  the  Dominican,  Peter  Gonzales, 
called  St.  Elmo,  who  enveloped  in  a  man- 
tle, lay  upon  burning  coals,  whence  the 
expression  St.  Klmo^s  fire  ;  and  of  many 
Christian  martj-rs  condemned  to  die  by 
fire. 

FIRE-ARMS,  a  general  designation 
for  all  sorts  of  guns,  fowling-pieces,  blun- 
derbusses, pistols,  Ac,  which  effect  their 
discharge  by  the  combustion  of  gunpow- 
der. 

FIRE,  GREEK,  a  destructive  compo 
sition,  used  in  war  from  the  7th  to  the 
13th  century.  When  the  Arabs  besieged 
Constantinople  in  66R,  the  Greek  archi- 
tect Callinicus  of  llcliopolis,  deserted 
from  the  caliph  to  the  Greeks,  and  took 
with  him  a  composition,  which,  by  its 
wonderful  effects,  struck  terror  into  the 
enemy,  and  forced  them  to  take  to  flight. 
Sometimes  it  was  wrapped  in  flax  attach- 
ed to  arrows  and  javelins,  and  so  thrown 
into  the  fortifications  and  other  buildings 
of  the  enemy,  to  set  them  on  fire.  At 
other  times  it  was  used  in  throwing  stone 
balls  from  iron  or  metallic  tubes  against 
the  enemy.  The  receipt  for  the  compo- 
sition o{  the  Greek  fire  was  long  supposed 
to  1)0  lost  ;  but  the  baron  Von  .Aretin  of 
Munich  his,  it  is  said,  discovered  in  a  Lat- 
in MS.  of  the  13th  century,  in  the  central 
library  in  that  city,  a  dissertation  on  the 
(Jreck  fire,  which  contains  the  receipt. 

FIR'MAMEXT,  in  Scripture,  denotes 
the  great  arcii  or  expanse  over  our  heads, 
in  which  are  ])lnced  th(,'  atmosphere  and 
the  clou<ls,  and  in  which  the  stars  appear 
to  bo  placed,  and  are  reallij  seen. — In  the 
Ptoleinuic  astronomy,  the  firmament  is 
the  eighth  heaven  or  sphere,  with  respect 
to  the  soven  splieres  of  the  i)lancts  which 
it  surrounds.  It  is  supposed  to  have  two 
motions  ;  a  diurnal  motion,  given  to  it  by 
the  priimnn  mohlle,  from  east  to  west 
about  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic;  and 
another  opposite  motion  from  west  to 
east,  which  last  it  finishes,  according  to 
Tyclio,  in  2.'j.412  years;  according  to 
Ptolemy,  in  36,000  ;  and  according  to  Co 


fla] 


AND    HIE    FIXE    ARTS. 


245 


pernicus,  in  25,800 ;  in  which  time  the  fixed 
stars  return  to  the  same  poirifs  in  which 
they  wore  at  the  bcKiiming.  Tl'.is  period 
is  commonly  call.,1  the  Platonic,  or  great 
year. 

FIR'MAX,  in  the  Per,<ian  language, 
signifies  a  command,  and  i.s  the  name 
given  in  Turkey,  Persia,  and  India  to 
mand.ite.s  or  certificat<;.s  of  the  sovereign, 
issued  for  various  purposes.  Those  best 
known  to  Europeans  are  given  to  travel- 
lers, and  serve  as  passports.  The  ferman 
has  placed  at  its  head  in  Turkey  the  ci- 
pher of  the  reigning  sultan,  written  in  a 
complicated  manner,  aiDxed  by  the  chief 
secretary  of  the  .*ign  manual. 

FIRST-FRUITS,  offerings  made  to 
God  by  the  Hebrews,  or  part  of  the  fruit 
of  their  harvest,  as  an  acknowledgment 
of  his  sovereign  dominion.  They  were 
called  first-fruits  because  they  were  of- 
fered in  the  temple  before  any  part  of 
the  crop  was  touched. — First  fruits,  in 
the  church  of  England,  are  the  profits  of 
every  spiritual  benefice  for  the  first  year, 
according  to  the  valuation  in  the  king's 
books. 

FISC,  or  FIS'CrS,  the  tre.asury  of  a 
prince,  or  state.  It  differs  from  the  (sra- 
riuin,  which  was  the  treasury  of  the  pub- 
lic, or  people  :  thus,  when  the  money 
arising  from  the  sale  of  condemned  per- 
son.s'  goods  was  appropriated  for  the  use 
of  the  public,  their  goods  were  said  to  be 
publicari ;  but  when  it  was  destined  for 
the  support  of  the  prince,  they  were 
called  confiscari. 

FIS'CAL,  in  the  civil  law,  something 
relating  to  the  pecuniary  interest  of  the 
prince  or  people.  The  officers  appointed 
for  the  management  of  the  flsc,  were 
called  procuratores  fisci,  and  advocati 
fisci. 

FISH,  a  fish  has  been  employed  as  a 
symbol  of  our  Lord  from  the  earliest 
times,  (it  is  found  depicted  in  the  tombs 
of  the  Roman  catacombs,)  by  whom  St. 
Peter  was  called  a  "  fisher  of  men  ;"  and 
the  faithful  were  sometimes  represented 
by  fish,  with  reference  to  tjie  waters  of 
baptism  in  whi'-h  they  were  born,  and 
fish  were  therefore  frequently  carved  on 
the  baptism'il  fonts.  Fish  are  useil  as 
emblems  of  Chastity  ;  it  is  an  attribute 
of  the  Apostle  Simon.  The  Vesica  Piscis 
is  a  symbolical  figure,  consisting  of  two  in- 
tersecting segments  of  circles,  employ- 
ed also  as  an  emblem  of  the  .Saviour  from 
the  fourth  century.  The  seals  of  abbeys, 
colleges,  and  other  rolizious  establish- 
ments were  all  invariably  u  ude  of  this 
form. 


FITCH,  among  the  brushes  used  in 
painting,  some  are  made  of  the  hair  of 
tiie  sable,  a  kind  of  weasel ;  others  of 
the  badger,  and  of  white  hog's  bristles ; 
but  among  the  best  are  those  of  the  fitch 
or  jxilecat,  which  are  black  in  color,  elas- 
tic and  firm,  though  soft.  They  are  made 
both  flat  and  round,  and  are  used  also  for 
varnishing. 

FL.\(t,  a  general  name  for  colors, 
standards,  bearers,  ensigns,  .fee. —  To 
strike  or  lower  the  flag,  is  to  pull  it  down 
upon  the  cap  in  token  of  respect  or  sub- 
mission.—  To  strike  the  flag  in  an  en- 
gagement, is  the  sign  of  surrendering. — 
To  hang  out  the  uhite  flag,  is  to  ask 
quarter  ;  or  in  some  cases,  it  denotes  that 
the  vessel  has  no  hostile  intention,  but 
comes  to  trade,  &c.  The  red  flag  is  a 
sign  of  defiance  and  battle. —  To  hang  the 
flag  half-mast  high,  is  a  token  or  signal 
of  mourning. 

FLAGEL'LAXTS,  a  sect  of  enthusi- 
asts who  first  appeared  in  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  and  being  then  repress- 
ed, sprang  up  again  with  renewed  vio- 
lence in  the  14th.  Beginning  first  at 
Cremona  in  Italy,  the  contagion  of  the 
example  spread  in  a  few  years  through- 
out Europe  ;  and  every  city  was  infested 
by  multitudes  who  went  naked  from  the 
loins  upward,  and  inflicted  upon  them- 
selves several  daily  flagellations,  with 
the  idea  of  obtaining  thereby  merit  in  the 
eyes  of  God.  They  formed  themselves 
into  a  society,  and  at  first  were  at  least 
innocent  in  their  behavior  ;  but  as  their 
numbers  increased,  they  gave  way  to 
great  excesses,  and  were  eventually  sup- 
pressed by  a  holy  war  proclaimed  against 
them  by  Pope  Clement  VI. 

FLA'GEOLET,  a  wooden  musical  wind 
instrument,  played  with  a  mouthpiece, 
the  holes  and  keys  whereof  are  stopped 
with  the  fingers,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
flute. 

FLAKE  WHITE,  a  white  pigment 
extensively  used  in  oil-painting;  like 
nearly  all  the  other  white  pigments,  it  is 
prepared  from  the  carbonate  of  the  oxid* 
of  lead,  obtained  by  exposing  sheets  of 
lead  to  the  vapor  of  acetic  and  carboniT 
acids.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  form 
in  which  it  appears  in  commerce — that 
of  flakes  or  .scales.  As  a  pigment  it  pos- 
sesses great  body,  and  enters  largely  inta 
numerous  compound  tints. 

FLAMBOYANT,  Flame-like,  a  term 
applied  to  those  contours  of  which  the  in- 
flexions have  a  resemblance  to  those  of 
flame  ;  and  by  antiquaries  of  France  to 
that  style  of  architecture  which  was  con- 


246 


CYCI-OIEUIA    OF    LIIKNATIRE 


[tle 


terajjorary  in  that  country  with  tlie  per- 
pendicular in  England  from  the  flame- 
like  waviiigs  of  its  tracery.  It  i,<  regiird- 
ed  by  some  as  a  vitiated  decorated  rath- 
er than  a  distinct  style  :  in  rich  works, 
the  intricacy  and  redundancy  of  the  or- 
naments are  frequently  truly  surprising. 

FLA'.MEX,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
name  of  an  order  of  priests,  instituted  by 
Romulus  or  Numa ;  authors  not  being 
agreefi  on  this  head.  Originally  there 
were  three  priests  so  called  ;  the  Plamen 
Dialis,  consecrated  to  Jupiter  ;  Flamen 
Martialis,  sacred  to  Mars ;  and  Flamen 
(^uirinalis,  who  superintended  the  rites 
of  Quirinus  or  Romulus. 

FLAMME  LTM,  the  yellow  veil  worn 
on  the  wedding-day  by  Roman  brides.  It 
was  sufficiently  large  to  cover  the  wear- 
er from  head  to  foot.  It  was  removed  ! 
by  the  husband  upon  their  arrival  at 
their  home. 

FLANK,  the  side  of  an  army,  or  a 
battalion  encamped  on  the  right  and 
left. — In  fortification,  that  part  of  a  bas- 
tion which  reaches  from  the  curtain  to 
the  face  ;  or  any  part  of  a  work  that  de- 
fends another  work  along  the  outside  of 
its  parapet. 

FLAT,  in  music,  a  character  of  this 
form  b,  which  depresses  the  note  before 
which  it  is  placed  a  chromatic  semitone. 
Flats  and  sharps  were  originally  contrived 
to  remedy  the  defects  of  musical  instru- 
ments whereon  temperament  was  re- 
quired, the  natural  scale  of  music  being 
limited  to  certain  fi.xed  sounds,  and  ad- 
justed to  an  instrument  in  many  points 
defective  ;  for  we  can  only  proceed  from 
one  note  to  another  by  a  particular  order 
of  degrees.  Hence,  from  one  note  to 
another,  upward.s  or  downwards,  we  can- 
not find  any  interval  at  i)leasure.  To 
supply  or  remedy  this  defect,  musicians 
have  had  recourse  to  a  scale  proceeding 
by  twelve  degrees,  making  therefore  thir- 
teen notes  to  an  octave,  including  the  ex- 
tremes, which,  though  it  does  not  make 
the  instrument  perfect,  leaves  little  room 
for  complaint.  In  instruments  whose 
sounds  are  fixed,  a  sound  or  note  dividing 
it  into  two  unequal  parts,  called  semi- 
tones, is  placed  between  the  extremes  of 
every  tone  of  the  natural  scale;  so  that 
we  have  twelve  semitones  between  thir- 
teen notes  in  the  compass  of  an  octave. 
In  order,  then,  to  keep  the  diatonic  series 
distinct,  the  inveiled  notes  answer  fortiie 
name  of  the  natural  note  next  below,  with 
this  characters,  calb'il  a  sharp  ;  or  the 
name  of  the  natural  note  next  above  it, 
with  this  character  [),  called  a  flat.  Thus 


I)  I,  signifies  a  semitone  below  D  natu- 
ral (h  )  On  keyed  instruments  the  short 
keys  are  the  re]>resentatives  of  these  flats 
and  shari)S.  Tlie  system,  however,  docs 
npt  strictly  produce  what  it  represents  : 
it  is  only  an  approximation. 

FL.\T  FIFTH,  in  music,  an  interval 
of  a  fifth  depressed  by  a  flat,  called  by 
the  ancients  seviidiapcnte. 

FLEECE,  ORDER  OF  THE  GOLDEN, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  among  Eu- 
ropean orders  of  knighthood.  It  was 
founded  by  Philip  III.,  duke  of  Burgun- 
dy, in  1430;  and  as  by  its  foundation  his 
successors  were  declared  to  be  hereditary 
grand  masters,  that  title  passed,  with  the 
Burgundian  inheritance,  to  the  house  of 
Austria ;  thence  after  the  death  of  Charles 
v.,  to  the  Spanish  line  of  that  house  : 
but  when  the  monarchy  of  Spain  passed 
to  the  Bourbons  and  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands to  Austria,  the  archdukes  of  Austria 
claimed  the  grand  mastership ;  and  claims 
are  made  on  it  at  present  both  by  the 
emperor  of  Austria  and  king  of  Spain; 
the  order  is  consequently  conferred  both 
at  Vienna  and  Madrid,  and  is,  in  both 
courts,  the  highest  in  point  of  rank.  As 
its  nominal  object  is  the  protection  of  re- 
ligion, it  is  rareU'  conferred  on  any  Prot- 
estants, with  the  exception,  by  courtesy, 
of  Protestant  sovereigns. 

FLEET,  a  squadron  of  ships  of  war, 
belonging  to  any  jirincc  or  state.  It  also 
denotes  any  number  of  trading  ships, 
employed  in  a  particular  branch  of  com- 
merce. Merchant-fleets  generally  take 
their  denr>mination  from  tiie  )ilace  tliey 
are  bound  to,  as  the  Turkey-fleet,  East- 
India-fleot,  Ac.  These,  in  times  of  peace, 
go  in  fleets  for  their  mutual  aid  and  as- 
sistance :  in  time  of  war,  besides  this  se- 
curity, they  procure  convoys  of  men  of 
war,  either  to  escort  them  to  the  places 
whither  they  are  bound,  or  to  a  certain 
place  or  latitude. — It  is  also  the  name 
of  a  prison  in  London,  where  debtors  are 
confined  ;  and  to  which  persons  are  com- 
mitted by  the  courts  of  chancery  and 
common-pleas. 

FLEM'ISit  SCHOOL,  in  painting,  the 
school  formed  in  Flanders.  The  works 
of  this  school  are  distinguished  by  th^ 
most  perfect  knowledge  of  chiaro-scuro ; 
high  finishing  without  dryne.«s ;  by  an 
admirable  union  of  colors  well  blended 
and  contrasted,  and  by  a  flowing,  luxuri- 
ous ])encil.  Its  defects  arc  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  the  Dutch  school.  The 
Flemish  painters,  like  the  Dutch,  rep- 
resented nature  as  they  found  her,  and 
not  as  she  should  be.     Rubens  and  Van- 


FLo] 


AND    TilK     KINK     ARTS. 


247 


dyke,  (the  glorj-  of  this  school,)  though 
men  of  the  greatest  geiiuij,  were  not  tVee 
from  this  defect,  and  the  former  espe- 
cially. Teniers  w.is  another  groat  mas- 
ter of  the  school  in  question  ;  to  it  also  bc- 
long.s  Siiydors,  Steonvvick,  ^<ef.-,  Schwa- 
nevoldt,  Van  Eyck,  Ac. 

FLESH,  Flesh  Tints,  the  colors  which 
best  reprcient  the  human  boJy,  sometimes 
termed  the  carnations,  but  employed  in 
a  more  extended  sense  than  tliis  latter 
term,  which  better  expresses  the  more 
delicate  portions  of  the  body,  such  as  the 
face,  bosom,  and  hands. 

FLB'TA,  the  title  of  an  ancient  trea- 
tise on  English  law,  attributed  to  the  reign 
of  Edward  I.,  and  named  (according  to 
tradition)  from  its  composition  by  a  judge 
in  the  Fleet  prison. 

FLBUK  DK  LIS,  the  royal  insignia 
of  France.  Its  origin  is  disputed ;  by 
some  it  is  supposed  to  represent  a  lily, 
by  others,  the  iron  head  of  some  weapon. 
It  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  English 
armory. 

FLORA'LIA,  a  feast  kept  by  the  Ro- 
mans in  honor  of  the  goddess  Flora. 
Tliis  feast  began  April  the  23th.  and  con- 
tinued till  the  1st  of  May,  during  which 
time  the  Ludl  Florales  were  celebrated. 

FLOll'ENTlNE  FRESCO,  Fresco 
Secco,  a  kind  of  painting  first  practised 
at  Florence  during  the  flourishing  period 
cf  Italian  Art  for  decorating  walls.  Like 
common  fresco  the  lime  is  used  wet,  but 
in  this  case  it  can  be  moistened  and  kept 
damn  and  fit  for  p;iinting  on. 

FLOR'EXTINE  L.\KE,  a  pigment 
prepared  from  cochineal ;  it  is  now  obso- 
lete ;  the  greater  durability  in  oil-paint- 
ing of  the  lakes  prepared  from  madder 
having  entirely  superseded  those  pre- 
pared from  cochineal. 

FLOR'ENTINE  MOSAIC,  the  term 
applied  to  the  art  of  inlaying  tables  and 
other  plane  surfaces  with  pietra  dura, 
carried  on  principally  at  Florence.  Very 
beautiful  patterns  are  thus  produced  by 
the  combination  of  precious  stonos,  form- 
ing the  most  difficult  branch  of  mosaic  art. 

FLORID  STi'LE,  in  literary  compo- 
sition, that  which  is  too  much  enriched 
with  figures  and  flowers  of  rhetoric. 
Longiiius  uses  the  terms  Jlorid  and  af- 
J'ectcd  style  inilifferently,  and  describes 
them  as  quite  contrary  to  the  true  sub- 
lime.— The^florid  style  of  architecture,  or 
florid  Got/lie,  an  elaborate  kind  of  Gothic 
architecture,  filled  with  points,  ramifica- 
tions, mullion.-;,  &c. — P'lorid,  in  music, 
any  composition  or  performance  of  a  rich 
and  embellished  kind. 


FLOR'IX,  a  coin  of  different  value; 
the  silver  florin  of  Holland  is  worth  about 
Is.  Qd.  jNIost  of  the  gold  florins  are  of  a 
coarse  alloy,  weighing  variously  from 
about  fourteen  to  seventeen  carats. 

FLO  T.V,  a  name  given  by  the  Span- 
iards to  the  ships  that  formerly  sailed 
together,  or  under  convoy,  from  Cadiz 
and  the  other  ports  of  the  peninsula,  au- 
thorized to  trade  directly  with  the  trans- 
atlantic possessions  of  Spain. 

FLOTIL'LA,  literally  a  little  fleet; 
in  which  sense,  however,  it  is  seldom 
used,  being  applied  almost  invariably  to 
a  fleet,  how  large  soever,  composed  of 
small  vessels.  Thus  the  term  flotilla  was 
given  to  the  immense  naval  force  with 
which  Napoleon  meditated  the  invasion 
of  Great  liritain,  and  which  consisted  of 
2365  vessels  of  every  description,  was 
manned  by  about  17,000  sailors,  and  car- 
ried 160,000  soldier^,  and  10,000  horses. 
In  Spain,  the  name  flotilla  is  given  to 
a  number  of  vessels  appointed  to  an- 
nounce to  the  home  government  the  de- 
parture and  nature  of  the  cargo  of  the 
flota  or  mercantile  ships  from  foreign 
ports  on  their  homeward  voyage. 

FLOT'SAM,  in  law,  a  term  for  goods 
lost  by  shipwreck,  but  which  are  floating 
on  the  sea. — There  are  two  other  uncouth 
terms  made  use  of  to  describe  wrecked 
goods,  viz.,  jetsam  and  lagan;  the  for- 
mer, when  the  goods  are  sunk;  and  the 
latter,  when  they  are  sunk,  but  tied  to  a 
cork  or  buoy  to  be  found  again. 

FLOUR'ISII,  in  music,  a  prelude  or 
preparatory  air,  without  any  settled  rule  ; 
also  the  decorative  notes  which  a  singer 
or  instrumental  performer  occasionally 
introduces. — In  military  language,  it  is 
the  sounding  of  trumpets  on  receiving  an 
ofiicer  or  other  person  of  distinction. 

FLOWERS.  Flowers  are  employed 
in  Art  as  attributes.  1st.  Of  mythologi- 
cal persons — Aphrodite,  the  Hours,  and 
Zephyr.  2d.  Among  legendary  person- 
ages— of  St.  Dorothea,  who  is  represented 
with  flowers  and  fruits  by  her  side,  or  in 
a  basket ;  also  with  a  branch  of  roses  in 
her  hand,  or  crowned  with  those  flowers; 
of  St.  Sophronia,  upon  whose  corpse  birds 
and  flowers  are  strewed ;  of  St.  Rosa  de 
Lima,  who  was  named  Rosa  on  account 
of  her  beauty,  and  has  a  rose  with  a 
broken  crown  of  thorns  ;  of  St.  Rosa  of 
Viterbo,  who  hoMs  roses  in  her  hand  or 
in  her  apron  ;  of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hun- 
gary, who  has  roses  in  ler  lap  or  in  a 
basket;  of  St.  Casilda,  who  generally 
wears  a  wreath  of  white  roses  on  her 
head  ;  of  the  holy  pair  Asc^'lus  and  Vic- 


248 


CYCLOl'KUIA    OF    I.I  IKIIATL' KE 


[fon 


toria,  both  crowned  with  roses;  of  St. 
Angelus,  from  whose  mouth  fall  ro.ies 
and  lilies;  and  of  St.  Hugo,  who  holls 
three  flowers  in  his  hand.  For  the  lily, 
the  attribute  of  many  saints. 

FLUTE,  tlie  common  or  English,  a 
musical  wind  instrument,  consisting  of  a 
tnbe  about  eighteen  inches  in  length, 
furnished  with  holes  at  the  side  for  the 
purpose  of  varying  its  sounds  by  stopping 
and  opening  them  with  the  fingers — The 
German  Jlute  is  formed  of  several  joints 
or  pieces  screwed  into  each  other,  with 
holes  at  the  side,  and  the  addition  of 
several  brass  or  silver  keys,  to  temper 
the  tones  to  the  various  flats  and  sharps. 

FLUTES,  or  FLU'TINGS,  in  archi- 
tecture, perpendicular  channels,  or  cavi- 
ties, cut  along  the  shaft  of  a  column  or 
pilaster.  They  are  chiefly  effected  in  the 
Ionic  order,  where  they  had  their  first 
rise  ;  though  they  are  also  used  in  the 
richer  orders,  as  the  Corinthian  and  Com- 
posite, but  seldom  in  the  Doric,  and 
scarcely  ever  in  the  Tuscan.  Each  col- 
umn has  twenty-four  flutes,  and  each 
flute  is  hollowed  in  exactly  a  quadrant 
of  a  circle.  The  Doric,  however,  has  but 
twenty.  Between  tlie  flutes  are  little 
spaces  that^  separate  them,  called  stria, 
or  lists;  though  in  the  Doric,  the  flutes 
are  frequently  made  to  join  to  one  an- 
other, without  any  intermediate  space  at 
all ;  the  list  being  sharpened  ofl"  to  a  thin 
edge,  which  forms  a  part  of  each  flute. 
Fluted  columns  are  sometimes,  though 
improperly,  termed  reeded. 

FLUX'iONS,  a  method  of  calculation 
invented  by  Sir  Isaac  Xewton.  In  this 
branch  of  mathematics,  magnitudes  of 
every  kind  are  supposed  to  l)e  goncratod 
by  motion.  This  science  is  employed  in 
the  investigation  of  curves,  in  finding  the 
contents  of  solids,  and  computing  their 
surfaces;  in  finding  the  centres  of  gravi- 
ties and  oscillation  of  different  bodies ; 
the  attractions  of  bodies  under  different 
forms;  the  direction  of  wind,  which  has 
the  greatest  effect  on  an  engine ;  and  in 
the  solution  of  many  other  interesting 
and  important  jirobiems. 

FLY'ERS,  in  architecture,  stairs  that 
do  not  wind,  but  are  mailc  nf  an  oblong 
square  figure,  an<l  go  straiglit  forward, 
the  second  standing  behind  the  first,  and 
so  on. 

FO,  the  name  given  by  the  Chinese  to 
Budliia,  by  one  of  lliosc  ])lienomena  in 
literature  whereby  ajiixdlations  are  in- 
troduced from  one  limguago  into  others 
with  whi(^h  it  has  little  or  no  affinity. 
Originally  the    name    IJuIdha   was    ex- 


pressed in  the  Chinese  language  with 
suflicient  exactness  by  the  term  Fii-thau, 
l)ronouneed  Foudah  ;  but,  as  is  usual  in 
China  with  proper  names,  the  last  syllable 
was  subsequently  dropped. 

FOIL,  among  jewellers,  a  thin  leaf  of 
metal  placed  under  precious  stones,  to  in- 
crease their  lustre  and  improve  their 
color.  Hence  anything  of  a  different 
color  or  quality,  which  serves  to  ailorn  or 
set  off  another  thing  to  advantage,  is 
termed  a  foil. — In  fencing,  an  elastic 
piece  of  steel,  or  sword  without  a  point, 
to  fence  with  by  way  of  exercise.  The 
foil  usually  has  a  button  or  piece  of  cork 
at  the  end,  covered  with  leather. 

FOLD,  in  painting,  the  doubling  or 
lapping  of  one  piece  of  drapery  over 
another. 

FO'LIAGE,  in  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture, a  group  of  leaves  of  plants  and 
flowers,  so  arranged  as  to  form  archi- 
tectural or  sculptural  ornaments  ;  as  in 
friezes,  panels,  and  also  in  the  capital  of 
the  Corinthian  order. 

FOLIO,  in  account  books,  denotes  a 
page,  or  rather  both  the  right  and  left 
hand  pages,  those  being  expressed  by  the 
same  figure. — Folio,  a  book  of  the  largest 
size,  the  leaves  of  which  are  formed  by 
once  doubling  a  sheet  of  paper. 

FOLK'MOTE,  a  word  used  in  England 
before  the  Xorman  conquest  to  denote  an 
annual  assembly  of  the  people,  answering 
in  some  measure  to  a  modern  parliament. 
Some  authors,  how^ever,  allege  that  the 
folkmote  was  an  inferior  court,  or  com- 
mon council  of  a  city  or  borough. 

FONT,  the  vessel  used  to  contain  tho 
consecrated  water  in  baptism,  usually 
constructed  of  stone  and  lined  with  lead  ; 
and  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  church 
were  always  large  enough  to  allow  of  the 
complete  immersion  of  infants.  The  forms 
of  fonts  have  generally  varied  in  differ- 
ent ages,  and  often  exhibit  exquisite 
richness  both  of  design  and  ornament. 
Fonts  were  required  to  be  covered  ana 
locked  ;  originiilly  these  covers  were  sim- 
ply flat,  movable  lids,  but  they  were 
subsequently  very  highly  ornamented, 
assuming  the  form  of  spires,  and  en- 
riched with  various  decorations  in  the 
fiirni  of  iiinnacles,  buttresses.  Ac. —  Pont 
or  Fount,  a  complete  assortment  of  print- 
ing types  of  one  size,  including  a  due 
proportion  of  all  the  letters,  points,  fig- 
ures, accents,  &c. 

FONTINA'LIA,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
a  religious  feast  celebrated  Oct.  13,  in 
honor  of  the  nymphs  of  wells  and  foun- 
tains.    The  ceremony  consisted  in  throw- 


for] 


AND    THE    FIXE    A  UTS. 


249 


ing  nosegays  into  the  fountains,  and  put- 
ting crowns  of  flowers  upon  the  •veils. 

FOOL,  in  ordinary  language,  signifies 
one  who  is  deficient  in  intellect,  or 
who  pursues  a  course  contrary  to  the  dic- 
tates of  reason.  In  tScripttire,  ♦,ho  word 
fool  is  often  used  for  a  wicked  or  de- 
praved person.  But  in  its  most  legiti- 
mate sense,  the  ierva  fool  means  one  who 
is  destitute  of  reason  ;  either  from  hav- 
ing been  born  an  idiot ;  or  become  idiotic 
from  some  injury  done  to  the  brain. —  T'o 
play  the  fool,  to  act  the  buffoon  :  to  occu- 
py' one's  time  in  absurd  trifling. 

FOOLS,  we  frequently  meet  in  ancient 
churches,  especially  under  the  seats  of 
choir-halls,  representations  of  men  in 
grotesque  costume,  and  in  various  pos- 
tures, with  a  fool's  cap  and  bells.  The 
introduction  of  these  and  other  ludicrous, 
or  even  indecent  images,  in  the  very 
buildings  dedicated  to  the  solomn  wor- 
ship of  God,  has  long  been  a  subject  of 
inquiry  among  the  learned,  arJ  of  sur- 
prise and  scandal  to  the  generality  of 
persons.  The  source  of  many  of  these 
representations  maj'  be  traced  to  the  pa- 
gan orgies  of  the  Saturnalia  and  Luper- 
calia.  It  is  necessary  to  draw  a  great 
distinction  between  the  burlesque  figures, 
and  symbolical  representations  of  the 
vices  and  virtues,  which  are  often  intro- 
duced under  the  guise  of  animals  whose 
nature  correspond*  to  the  passion  or  vir- 
tue represented ,  henoe  human  beings 
maybe  depicted  with  heads  of  beasts  and 
birds,  such  as  foxes,  lions,  or  hawks,  to 
denote  cunning,  courage,  or  rapacity. 
Again,  animals  are  frequently. introduced 
■with  the  same  intention,  and  most  ad- 
mirable moral  lessons  are  imparted  under 
the  same  types  as  have  been  selected  by 
iEsop  and  his  imitators. 

FOOLS,  FEAST  OF,  a  festival  an- 
ciently celebrated  in  almost  every  church 
and  monastery  of  France,  on  New  Years' 
Day,  in  which  every  absurdity  and  even 
indecency  was  practised.  Itwa-!  equiva- 
lent to  the  Saturnalia,  among  the  Pvo- 
mans,  whence  indeed  it  is  said  co  be  de- 
rived. This  festival  received  some  mod- 
ifications in  the  different  districts  where 
it  was  celebrated,  and  acquired  various 
designations  according  to  the  multifarious 
ceremonies  of  which  it  consisted.  Several 
bishops  and  councils  attemptea,  though 
in  vain,  to  abolish  this  festival  ;  but  at 
length  about  the  1.5th  century  it  became 
less  generally  observed,  and  soon  after 
fell  into  almost  total  disuse,  though  its 
characteristic  absurdities  are  still  main- 
tained in  the  Carnival  of  the  present  times. 


FOOT,  in  poetry,  a  certain  number  of 
syllables,  constituting  part  of  a  verse  ;  as*, 
the  iambus,  the  dactyl,  and  the  spondee. 

FOR'AGE,  all  kind  of  provender  for 
cattle,  especially  for  horses  in  time  of  war. 
— A  foraging  parti/,  those  who  are  sent 
out  by  the  general  in  order  to  collect  pro- 
visions either  for  the  horses  or  for  the 
troops. 

FORCE,  in  mechanics,  the  energy  or 
impulse  with  which  one  body  affects  an- 
other, with  reference  to  the  direction  of 
motion,  and  the  centres  of  the  masses.  It 
consists  in  the  transfer  of  the  motion  of 
one  body  to  another. — Physicul  force,  is 
the  force  of  material  bodies. — Moral  force, 
is  the  power  of  acting  on  the  reason  in 
judging  and  determining. — Force,  in  law, 
signifies  any  unlawful  violence  offered  to 
persons  or  property. — A  forcible  entry,  is 
a  violent  and  actual  entry  into  houses,  or 
lands  ;  and  .a  forcible  detainer,  is  a  vio- 
lent withholding  the  possession  of  lands, 
&c.,  so  that  the  person  who  has  a  right  of 
entry  is  hindered  therefrom. — The  word 
_/brce  has  numerous  other  meanings;  as 
strength  or  power  for  war — virtue — eBi- 
cacy — validity — destiny — necessity,  &c. 

FORECLOSE',  in  law,  to  exclude  ot 
bar  the  equity  of  redemption  on  mort- 
gages. &c. 

FORE-SHORT'ENING,  the  art  of  rep- 
resenting objects  on  a  piano  curface  as 
they  appear  to  the  eye,  depending  upon 
a  correct  knowledge  of  form,  perspective, 
and  chiaroscuro.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  studies  in  the  art  of  design,  and 
when  executed  with  skill  constitutes  tho 
excellence  of  the  master.  Michael  An- 
gelo,  Rubens,  and  Correggio,  were  distin- 
guished among  other  rar)  qualities  for 
their  skill  in  fore-shortening.  They  prac- 
tised modelling  for  assistai  cc  in  attaining 
this  art. 

FORE'STALLING,  the  act  of  buying 
or  bargaining  for  any  pronsions  or  mer- 
chandise, before  they  reach  the  market  to 
which  they  were  going,  with  an  intent  to 
sell  the  same  again  at  higher  prices. 

FOR'FEITURE,  in  law,  the  loss  of 
some  right,  privilege,  or  estate,  goods, 
lands,  or  employments,  &c.,  for  neglecting 
to  do  one's  duty,  or  for  some  crime  com- 
mitted. 

FOR'GERY,  in  law,  the  fraudulent 
milking  or  altering  any  deed,  or  writing, 
Ac,  to  the  prejudice  of  another  man's 
right,  particularly  the  counterfeiting  tho 
signature  of  another  with  intent  to'  de- 
fraud. 

FORLORN-IIOPE,  in  military  affairs, 
a  detachment  of  men  appointed  to  lead 


2.50 


CYCLOI'KDIA    OF    LITERA'l  V  KE 


[for 


in  an  !ip?nuU,  to  storm  a  counter.'carp,  en- 
ter a  breach,  or  perforin  any  other  ser- 
vice attended  with  great  and  imminent 
peril. 

FORM,  the  external  nppearanee  of  ob- 
jects ;  the  quality  that  distin;;;uishes  one 
thing  from  another. — Porm,  in  painting, 
signifie.s  e.-ipecially  the  human  body.  The 
study  of  forms,  and  the  changes  they  un- 
dergo by  muscular  contractions,  require 
<m  the  part  of  the  artist  the  utmost  at- 
tention and  assiduity.  The  conscientious 
artist  ought  scrupulously  to  avoid  any 
tendency  to  exaggerate  the  superficial 
forms  of  the  body  :  nothing  is  more  sim- 
ple, more  calm  ;  nothing  shows  a  grander 
breadth  of  design  than  tlie  human  body  ; 
the  muscles  assist  by  their  reunion  in 
the  production  of  general  forms  :  the  spe- 
cial forms  are  scarcely  visible — Form, 
in  physiology,  the  essential  and  distin- 
guishing modification  of  the  matter  of 
which  any  body  is  composed. — Form,  in 
a  moral  sense,  the  manner  of  being  or 
doing  a  thing  according  to  rules  :  thus  we 
say,  a  form  of  government,  a  form  of 
argument,  &c. — Form,  in  law,  the  rules 
established  and  requisite  to  be  observed 
in  legal  proceedings — Form,  in  me- 
chanics, a  kind  of  mould  in  which  any- 
thing is  wrought.  —  Essential  form  is 
that  morle  of  existence  which  constitutes 
a  thing  what  it  is,  and  without  which  it 
could  not  exist. — Form,  in  printing,  pages 
or  columns  of  type,  properly  arranged, 
and  enclosed  and  locked  in  an  iron  frame 
called  a  chase,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
put  to  press.  There  are  two  forms  re- 
quired for  every  sheet,  one  for  each  side  ; 
and  each  form  consists  of  more  or  fewer 
pages,  according  to  the  size  of  the  books. 
— In  schools,  a  rlnsa 

FORM'ALIST,  one  who  observes  the 
outward  forms  and  ceremonies  of  worship, 
'or  appearance'  sake,  without  possessing 
the  life  and  spirit  of  pure  religion. 

FOKiM'ATIVE  ARTS,  those  arts  which, 
independently  of  external  wants  and  aims, 
yet,  on  the  other  hand,  bound  to  the  imi- 
tation of  nature,  represent  life  by  means 
of  the  forms  naturally  connected. 

I'OR'.Ml'LA,  in  mathematics,  ageneral 
theorem  or  literal  expression  for  resolv- 
ing any  part  of  a  problem  — Formula,  in 
theologv,  a  f)rofession  of  faith. 

FORT,  in  the  military  art,  a  small  for- 
tified place,  surrounded  with  a  moat, 
rampart,  and  parapet  ;  or  with  palisades, 
Stockadps,  and  other  means  of  defence. 

FOPiTE,  in  music,  a  direi-tion  to  the 
porformer  to  execute  the  part  loudly  to 
which  the  word  is  affixed.     It  is  indicated 


by  the  single  letter  F.  If  two  F  F's, 
thus,  are  used,  the  part  is  to  bo  played 
or  performed  fortissimo,  very  loud. 

FOKTIFICATION,  the  art  or  science 
of  fortifying  a  place,  or  of  putting  it  in 
such  a  posture  of  defence,  that  every  one 
of  its  parts  defends,  and  is  defended,  by 
some  other  parts,  by  means  of  ramparts, 
parapets,  moats,  and  other  bulwarks;  so 
that  a  small  number  of  men  within  may 
be  able  to  defend  themselves  for  a  consid- 
erable time  against  the  assaults  of  a  nu- 
merous army  without. — Ancient  fortifi- 
cation, at  first  consisted  of  walls  or  de- 
fences made  of  the  trunks  and  large 
branches  of  trees,  mixed  with  earth,  to 
secure  them  against  the  attacks  of  the 
enemy.  This  was  afterwards  altered  to 
stone-walls,  on  which  were  raised  breast- 
works, behind  which  they  made  use  of 
their  darts  ami  arrows  in  security. — Mod- 
ern fortification,  is  that  which  is  flanked 
and  defended  by  bastions  and  out-works, 
the  ramparts  of  wiiich  are  so  solid,  that 
they  cannot  be  beat  down  but  by  the  con- 
tinual fire  of  several  batteries  of  cannon. 
The  principal  works  belonging  to  a  forti- 
fication are,  the  ditch  or  trench  made 
round  each  work ;  the  rampart,  or  eleva- 
tion of  earth,  raised  along  the  faces  of 
any  work,  to  cover  the  inner  part;  the 
parapet,  or  that  part  of  a  ram))art  which 
serves  to  cover  the  troops  planted  there  ; 
the  bastion,  that  part  of  the  inner  en- 
closure of  a  fortification  making  an  angle 
towards  the  field  ;  the  counterscarp,  the 
slope  of  the  ditch  facing  the  body  of  the 
place;  the  covert  way,  the  space  extend- 
ing round  the  counterscarp;  and  the  gla- 
cis, the  part  beyond  the  covert  way,  to 
which  it  serves  as  a  parapet.  In  recent 
times,  however,  fortification  has  under- 
gone important  changes,  and  engineers 
liave  adojjted  different  systems  ;  but  those 
whiL-h  have  acquired  the  greatest  reputa- 
tion in  Europe,  are  the  systems  of  Count 
Pagan,  the  Baron  de  Coehorn,  Von  Schei- 
ter,  and  Marshal  Vauban. 

FORTITUDE,  the  basis  or  source  of 
coolness  and  intrepidity  in  danger,  of  pa- 
tience in  suffering,  of  forbearance  under 
injuries,  and  of  magnanimity  in  all  con- 
ditions of  life.  In  fine,  fortitude  is  the 
virtue  of  a  rational  and  consiilerate  mind, 
founded  on  a  sense  of  h(Uior  and  a  regard 
to  duty.  The  motives  to  fortitude  are 
many  powerful,  and  this  virtue  tends 
much  to  the  happiness  of  the  individual, 
by  giving  composure  and  presence  of 
mind,  and  keeping  the  other  passions  in 
due  subordination. 

F(JRTl 'NA,   in   mythology,  the  god- 


fre] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


251 


dess  who  presuled  over  the  destinies  of 
mankind,  anJ,  generally  speaking,  overall 
the  events  of  life.  She  was  represented 
as  blinil,  with  winged  feet,  and  resting 
on  a  wheel.  The  goddess  was  not  known 
in  the  more  ancient  systems  of  the  Greek 
theogony  :  all  the  guidance  of  human 
affairs,  for  instance,  is  entrusted  by  Ho- 
mer to  destiny  ;  but  in  Italy,  and  chiefly 
at  Rome,  Actium,  and  Prwncste,  her 
worship  was  most  assiduously  cultivated. 

FO'RUM,  in  Rome,  a  public  place 
where  causes  were  judicially  tried,  and 
orations  delivered  to  the  people.  There 
were  six  of  these  forums,  viz.,  the  J?o- 
ma'ium,  Julianum,  Auguslum,  Palladi- 
um, 'rrojanum,  And  Salustii  [mum.  The 
chief  of  these  was  the  Jorum  Jiomiinum, 
called,  b^'  way  of  eminence,  tlie  Jorum. 
In  this  was  an  apartment  called  the  ros- 
tra, where  the  lawyers  pleaded,  and  the 
orators  harangued  the  people,  &c.  Here 
was  also  the  comitium,  or  hall  of  justice, 
with  the  sanctuary  of  Saturn,  the  temple 
of  Castor,  &c  ,  altogether  forming  a  most 
splendid  place-  The  word  forum  was 
also  apfilied  to  a  place  of  traffic,  or  mar- 
ket-place :  of  these  there  were  vast  num- 
bers, as  the./bru/(i  piscarium,  oUtorium, 
&c.  These  were  generally  called  fora 
venalia,  in  distinction  from  the  former, 
which  were  called  /bra  cicilia. — In  the 
law,  forum  signifies  <a  court  of  justice, 
the  place  where  disputed  rights  are  set- 
tled; hence  forum  competens,  a  compe- 
tent jurisdiction  ;  ./brum  incompetevs,  a 
eourt  not  authorized  to  try  the  cause,  &c. 

FOUXDA'TION,  in  architecture,  the 
lower  part  of  a  wall,  on  which  the  insistent 
wall  is  raised,  and  always  of  much  greater 
thickness  than  such  insistent  wall.  A 
practice  has  lately  been  introduced  of 
laying  foundations  (if  not  in  water)  on  a 
bed  of  what  is  called  concrete,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  rough  small  stones  or  large 
gravel  stones  with  sand  and  stone,  lime 
and  water,  with  just  enough  of  the  lime 
to  act  as  a  cementitious  medium,  with 
the  best  effect. 

FOUNDATIOXS,  in  political  econo- 
my, the  generic  name  given  to  institu- 
tions established  and  endowed  by  indi- 
viduals, associations,  or  the  public,  for 
the  promotion  of  what  is  believed  to  be, 
at  the  time  when  the  foundation  is  made. 
Home  useful  or  benevolent  purpose.  In 
most  old-settled  and  rich  countries  there 
are  foundations  for  a  vast  variety  of  ob- 
jects. During  the  Middle  Ages,  it  was 
very  common  to  bequeath  property  for 
the  foundation  of  monastic  institutions 
and  scholastic  establishments.     The  two 


great  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge are  noble  examples  of  the  last 
species  of  foundations;  and  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  grammar  and  free 
schools  in  most  parts  of  England,  and  in- 
deed of  ICurope,  owe  their  origin  to  the 
same  source.  A  great  deal  of  property 
has  also  been  bequeathed  by  benevolent 
individuals  in  this  and  other  countries 
for  the  erection  and  endowment  of  hos- 
pitals, or  foundations  of  various  descrip- 
tions, for  the  relief  and  assistance  of  tiio 
poor ;  and  not  unfrequently  also  prop- 
erty is  api)ropriated,  or  foundation  insti- 
tuted for  the  amusement  and  recreation 
of  the  public. 

FOURTH,  in  music,  one  of  the  har- 
monieal  intervals ;  so  called  because  it 
contains  four  sounds  or  terms  between 
its  extremes,  and  three  intervals ;  or  as 
being  the  fourth  in  order  of  the  natural 
or  diatonic  scale  from  the  fundamental. 

FRANC,  a  French  coin,  worth  twenty 
sols,  or  ten-pence  sterling. 

FRAX'CHISE,  in  a  general  sense,  sig- 
nifies some  privilege  or  exemption  from 
ordinary  jurisdiction.  A  franchise  may 
bo  vested  either  in  bodies  politic,  or  cor 
porations ;  in  borough  towns,  or  in  indi- 
viduals ;  as  the  electoral  franchise.  Cor- 
porate liberties  being  usually  held  by 
charter,  are  all  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  crown,  but  some  lie  in  prescription 
without  the  help  of  anv  charter. 

FRANCIS'CANS,  Friars-Minor,  or 
Gray-Friars,  the  religious  order  of  Saint 
Francis,  by  whom  they  were  founded 
about  the  year  1200. 

FRANKINCENSE,  an  odoriferous, 
dry,  resinous  substance,  procured  from 
the  juniper-tree  in  Turkey  and  the  East 
Indies.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  very 
inflammable,  and  is  used  as  a  perfume. 

FRANKS,  an  appellation  given  by  the 
Turks,  and  other  nations  of  Asia,  to  all 
the  people  of  the  western  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, English,  French,  Italians,  &c. 

FRATER'NITIES,  in  the  middle  ages, 
consisted  of  pious  laymen  who  formed 
societie.i  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the 
sick  and  destitute,  and  performing  other 
Christian  duties, 

FRA'TRAGE,  in  law,  a  partition 
among  brothers  or  co-heirs  coming  to  the 
same  inheritance  or  succession;  also  that 
part  of  the  inheritance  that  comes  to  the 
voungest  brothers. 

FREE'BOOTERS,  a  name  given  to 
some  adventurers  of  all  nations,  but  es- 
pecially of  Franco  and  England,  who 
have  obtained  a  place  in  history  by  the 
courage  and  intrepidity  which  they  dis- 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKUATLKE 


[fre 


played  in  executing  the  most  difficult  en- 
terprises. The  origin  of  their  history  is 
merged  in  obscurity,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  precisely  whence  their  name 
is  derived;  but  the  Jlibustiers  of  the 
French  naval  historians  are  identical 
with  the  buccaneers  of  our  own  language. 
The  South  American  island.s  formed  the 
chief  theatre  of  their  depredations;  and 
such  was  the  relentless  hostility  with 
which  they  visited  the  Spaniards,  that 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  which  embraced  the  most  for- 
midable period  of  the  freebooter's  career, 
their  commercial  operations  in  the  Indian 
seas  were  nearly  destroyed.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  ISth  century,  the  free- 
booters sustained  in  their  expedition  a 
series  of  disasters,  which  sensibly  dimin- 
ished their  numbers ;  and  since  that  pe- 
riod the  designation  has  been  applied  in- 
discriminately to  any  individual  who  re- 
gards "the  universe  as  his  property," 
and  appropriates  to  himself  either  fur- 
tively or  forcibly  the  possessions  of  an- 
other. 

FKEE'irOLD,  that  land  or  tenement 
which  is  held  in  fee-simple,  foe-tail,  or 
for  term  of  life.  It  is  of  two  kinds;  in 
deed  and  in  law.  The  first  is  the  real 
possession  of  such  land  or  tenement;  the 
last  is  the  right  a  man  has  to  such  land 
or  tenement,  before  his  entry  or  seizure. 
More  properly,  a.  freehold  is  an  estate  in 
lands  or  tenements,  in  fee-simple,  or  in 
tail,  for  the  term  of  the  life  of  the  holder, 
or  for  the  life  of  another  person,  in  dower 
or  by  the  courtesy. — F^reehold  is  also 
extended  to  such  offices  as  a  man  holds 
in  fee  or  for  life.  It  is  also  taken  in  op- 
])osition  to  villenago.  In  Scotland,  .a 
freeliuld  is  an  estate  held  of  the  crown 
or  prince.  In  the  I'nited  States,  n  free- 
hold is  an  estate  which  a  man  holds  in 
his  own  right,  subject  to  no  superior  nor 
to  conditions. 

FKEpyilOLDER,  one  who  owns  an  es- 
tate in  fee-simple,  fee-tail,  or  for  life; 
the  possessor  of  a  freehold.  In  Scotland, 
a  freeholder  is  a  person  holding  of  the 
crown  or  prince;  but  the  title  is,  in  modern 
language,  applied  to  such  as,  beft)ro  the 
passing  of  the  reform  act,  were  entitled 
to  elect  or  be  elected  members  of  parlia- 
ment, and  who  must  have  held  lands,  ex- 
tending to  a  forty  shilling  land  of  old 
extent,  or  to  £400  Scots  of  valued  rent. 

FKER'iM.\N,  in  ancient  law.  one  free 
from  servitude,  as  (iistiiiguished  from  a 
vassal  or  bondsman.  In  (Jreat  Britain, 
a  freeman  is  one  who  enjoys  the  freedom 
of  a  city  or  borough. 


FREEMA'SONRY,  a  term  applied  to 
the  organization  of  a  society  calling 
themselves  free  and  accepted  masons,  and 
all  the  mysteries  therewith  connected. 
This  society,  if  we  can  reckon  as  one  a 
number  of  societies,  many  of  which  are 
unconnected  with  each  other,  though  they 
have  the  same  origin,  and  a  great  simi- 
larity in  their  constitution,  extends  over 
almost  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  many 
jiarts  of  America,  and  some  other  parts 
of  the  globe.  According  to  its  own  pecu- 
liar language,  it  is  founded  on  the  prac- 
tise of  social  and  moral  virtue.  I( 
claims  the  character  of  charity,  in  the 
most  extended  sense  ;  and  brotherly  love, 
relief,  and  truth  are  inculcated  in  it 
The  first  societies  of  antiquity  witii  whicV 
./ree  masonry  appears  to  stand  in  histori 
cal  connection,  are  the  corporations  ot 
architects,  which,  with  the  Romans,  ex 
isted  under  the  names  of  Collegia  and 
Corpora,  first  established  in  the  time  of 
Numa.  Our  distinct  historical  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  merely  amounts  to 
this,  that  the  fraternity  of  architects  or 
builders  in  the  middle  ages  extended  over 
all  Catholic  countries,  and  was  especially 
patronized  b}'  the  see  of  Rome.  It  is  to 
this  craft  th.at  we  owe  the  magnificent 
Gothic  edifices  dedicated  to  religion, 
which  contrast  so  strongly  with  the  bar- 
barous efforts  of  those  ages  in  most  other 
departments  of  art.  It  is  said  that  this 
association  was  introduced  into  Scotland 
in  the  13th  century,  and  about  the  same 
time  into  England,  it  being  ascertained 
that  the  Abbey  of  Kilwinning  in  the 
former  country  was  raised  by  this  frater- 
nity; and  it  is  believed  to  have  continued 
to  exist,  although  small  in  number,  in 
these  two  countries  after  it  had  disap- 
peared from  the  Continent.  The  Kilwin- 
ning and  York  lodges  are  respectively  the 
most  ancient  in  either  country.  But  the 
mode  and  period  in  which  the  association 
became  changed  from  a  mere  professi(mal 
fraternity  to  a  society  of  persons  of  all 
descriptions  connected  by  secret  symbols, 
is  unknown.  It  certainly  excited  great 
attention,  and  numbered  individuals  of 
high  rank  as  honorary  members,  as  early 
as  the  15th  century.  The  Scottish  masons 
appointed  St.  Clair  of  Roslin  as  their 
hereditary  grand-master  in  1G30;  and 
the  office  was  resigned  by  his  descendant 
in  1736,  when  the  grand  lodge  of  Scot- 
land was  instituted.  In  17'25,  the  first 
French  lodjjo  was  established ;  in  1730, 
the  first  American;  in  173.5,  the  first 
German.  Pope  Clement  XII.  excommu- 
nicated the  freemasons  in  Spain  and  For- 


fro] 


AND    THE    FINE    A  UTS. 


253 


tugal:  until  recent  events,  their  name 
was  .synonymous  with  that  of  deists  and 
revolutionists.  Kut  the  most  singular 
chapter  in  the  history  of  the  society  re- 
lates to  its  fortunes  in  America;  where 
it  has  given  origin  to  two  iiolitical  par- 
ties. The  story  of  the  abduction  and 
murder  of  William  Jlorgan,  suspected  of 
having  revealed  the  secrets  of  the  frater- 
nity, made  a  great  sensation  in  the  Union, 
an  I  is  not  cleared  up  at  this  day. 

FUEE-THINK'ER,  a  term  applied  to 
those  who  reject  the  ordinary  modes  of 
thinking  in  matters  of  religion.  It  is 
almost  synonymous  with  deist.  Free- 
tliinkin9r,  in  England,  first  appeared  in 
the  form  of  opposition  to  abuses  in  the 
church,  which  were  attacked  in  the  reign 
of  James  II.  and  William  III. 

FK EIGHT,  in  navigation  and  com- 
merce, the  hire  of  a  ship,  or  a  part  there- 
of, for  the  conveyance  and  carriage  of 
goods  from  one  place  to  another ;  or  the 
8um  agreed  on  between  the  owner  and 
the  merchant,  for  the  hire  and  use  of  a 
vessel.  In  a  more  extended  sense,  it 
means  the  burden  of  such  ship. 

FRENCH-HORN',  a  musical  wind  in- 
Btrument  made  of  copper.  It  possesses  a 
range  of  three  octaves,  and  is  capable  of 
producing  tones  of  great  sweetness. 

FRES'CO  PAINT'ING,  a  method  of 
painting  by  incorporating  the  colors  with 
plaster  before  it  is  dry,  by  which  it 
becomes  as  permanent  as  the  wall  it- 
self. This  method  of  painting  is  exe- 
cuted with  mineral  and  earthy  pigments 
upon  a  freshly  laid  stucco  ground  of  lime 
or  gypsum.  Vegetable  pigments  cannot 
be  used  for  fresco-painting  even  when 
mi.xed  with  mineral  pigments  ;  and  of  the 
latter,  only  those  are  available  which 
resist  the  chemical  action  of  the  lime. 
Burnt  pigments  are  the  best  for  this 
style  of  painting;  they  are  generally 
ground  with  clean  water,  and  rendered 
so  thin,  that  they  can  be  worked  with  the 
brush  ;  to  some  are  added  lime,  milk,  etc. 
The  pigments  unite  with  the  lime  or 
gypsum  ground,  and  are  therefore  ex- 
tremely durable;  but  as  this  ground, 
after  standing  a  night,  is  unfit  for  paint- 
ing on,  there  must  be  only  a  sufficient 
quantity  for  one  day  pre|)ared.  Fresco- 
painting  is  therefore  dilhcult,  as  it  can- 
not be  retouched.  This  art,  which  is  era- 
ploj'ed  generally  for  large  pictures  on 
walls  and  ceilings,  was  understood  by  the 
ancients,  but  first  made  of  real  impor- 
tance by  the  Italians  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

FRET,   iu  architecture,    an  ornament 


consisting  of  two  lists  or  small  fillet.? 
variously  interlaced  or  interwoven,  and 
running  at  parallel  distances  equal  lo 
their  breadth — Fret-icurk  is  sometimes 
used  to  (ill  up  and  enrich  flat  empty 
spaces,  but  is  mostly  jiractised  in  roofs, 
which  are  fretted  over  with  plaster-work. 
. — Frets,  in  music,  certain  short  pieces  of 
wire  fixed  on  the  finger-boards  of  guitars, 
Ac.  at  right  angles  to  the  strings,  and 
which,  as  the  strings  are  brought  into 
contact  with  them  by  the  pressure  of  tho 
fingers,  serve  to  vary  and  determine  the 
pitch  of  the  tones.  Formerly,  these  frets 
or  stops  consisted  of  strings  tied  round 
the  neck  of  the  instrument. 

FRIAR,  (from  the  French  frere,  a 
brother,)  a  term  common  to  monks  of  all 
orders  ;  there  being  a  kind  of  fraternity, 
or  brotherhood,  between  the  several  re- 
ligious persons  of  the  same  monastery. 
Friars  are  generally  distinguisheil  into 
four  principal  branches,  viz.,  1.  Minors, 
gray  friars,  or  Franciscans ;  2.  Augus- 
tines;  3.  Dominicans,  or  black  friars; 
4.  White  friars,  or  Carmelites. 

FRI  DAY,  the  sixth  day  of  the  week, 
so  called  from  Frea,  or  Friga,  a  goddess 
worshipped  by  the  Saxons  on  this  day. 

FRIEND'SHIP,  a  noble  and  virtuous 
attachment  between  individuals,  spring- 
ing from  a  pure  source  ;  this  is  true 
friendship.  False  friendship  may  subsist 
between  bad  men,  as  between  thieves — 
a  temporary  attachment  springing  from 
interest,  which  may  change  in  a  moment 
to  enmity  and  raaicor. 

FRIEZE,  in  architecture,  the  member 
in  the  entablature  of  .in  order  between 
the  architrave  and  the  cornice.  It  is  al- 
ways plain  in  the  Tuscan  ;  ornamented 
with  triglyphs  and  sculpture  in  the  Doric; 
in  the  Ionic  it  is  occasionally,  in  modern 
or  Italian  architecture,  swelled  ;  in  which 
case  it  is  called  a  pulvinated  or  cushioned 
frieze  ;  and  in  the  Corinthian  and  Com- 
posite it  is  variously  decorated,  according 
to  tho  taste  of  the  architect. 

FRIG'ATE,  a  ship  of  war,  light  built, 
and  a  good  sailer.  Frigates  have  two 
decks,  and  generally  mount  from  twenty 
to  fortv-four  guns. 

FRIGATOON',  a  Venetian  vessel  built 
with  a  square  stern,  without  any  foremast ; 
it  is  used  in  the  .-Vdriatic. 

FRONDE',  WAR  OF  THE,  that  main- 
tained by  the  malcontent  partisans  of  the 
parliament  in  France,  under  the  regency 
of  Louis  XIV.,  against  the  government  of 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  The  name  of  Frondo 
{sUng)  was  given  to  this  war  in  conse- 
quence of  some  incidents  of  a  street  quar 


254 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[fun 


rel,  which  have  been  differently  repre- 
seated  The  party  opposed  "to  govern- 
ment was  called  that  of  the  Fronde  ;  and 
the  word  Frondeiivs  has  hence  acquired 
in  the  French  language  the  signification 
of  discontented  politicians. 

FRON'TAL,  in  architecture,  a  little 
pediment  or  front-piece  over  a  small  door 
or  window. — Frontal,  the  hangings  or 
ornamental  panel  in  front  of  an  altar, 
were  of  three  kinds :  1st,  of  precious 
metals,  adorned  with  enamels  and  jew- 
els ;  2d,  of  wood,  painted,  gilt,  em- 
bossed, and  often  set  with  crystals  ;  3d, 
of  cloth  of  gold,  velvet,  or  silk  embroider- 
ed, and  occasionally  enriched  with  pearls. 

FRONTIER,  the  border,  confine  or 
extreme  part  of  a  kingdom  or  province, 
bordering  on  another  country.  Frontiers 
were  anciently  called  marches. 

FRONTISPIECE,  in  architecture,  the 
face  or  fore  front  of  a  house  ;  but  more 
usually  applied  to  the  decorated  entrance 
of  a  building. — This  term  is  also  used  for 
the  ornamental  first  page  of  a  book,  be- 
ing, as  the  derivation  imports,  that  part 
which  first  meets  the  eye. 

FRUIT-PAINTING,  may  be  consid- 
ered to  have  originated  with  Zeuxis,  who 
painted  a  bunch  of  grapes  so  naturally 
that  the  birds  came  and  pecked  at  them. 
Since  the  introduction  in  modern  times  of 
pictures  of  still  life,  fruit  and  flower- 
painting  has  become  a  distinct  branch  of 
art.  cultivated  principally  in  the  Nether- 
lands. 

FRUIT-WORK,  this  branch  of  art  at- 
tained some  excellence  in  antiquity,  al- 
though used  only  for  architectural  orna- 
ments. Workers  in  clay  and  bronze  also 
imitated  fruits,  and  in  the  time  of  Mar- 
cus Varro,  there  lived  at  Rome  a  clay- 
modeller  who  imitated  apjilesand  grapes 
80  exactly,  that  at  first  sight  they  were 
not  to  bo  distingui.shod  from  nature. 
Festoons  of  fruit  were  also  carved  in 
stone  for  the  decoration  of  lemiiles.  The 
most  celebrated  specimen  in  bronze  is  a 
colossal  pine-apple,  formerly  on  the  tomb 
of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  but  now  in  the 
groat  I5»unanhe  niche,  at  the  eml  of  the 
garden  of  the  Belvedere  at  Rome.  We 
.find  the  cniiitals  and  friezes  of  buildings 
of  the  middle  ages,  carved  with  grapes, 
and  in  the  age  of  the  Renaissance  wo  meet 
with  festoons  of  fruits,  which  afterwards, 
in  the  age  of  Rococo,  were  emploved  too 
frequently  in  decoration.  At  Florence, 
beautiful  imitations  of  richly  colored 
fruits,  such  as  purple  grapes,  ifec,  wore 
made  in  Pietra  dura,  or  Florentine  Mo- 
saio- 


FU'GITIVE,  in  literature,  short  and 
occasional  compositions  either  in  poetry 
or  prose  ;  written  in  haste  or  .\\.  inter- 
vals, and  c(>nsidered  to  bo  flee.ing  and 
temporary. 

FU'GLEMAN,  or  FLU'GELMAN,  a 
non-commissioned  officer,  appointed  to 
take  his  place  in  front  of  a  regiment  as 
a  guide  to  the  soldiers  in  their  move- 
ments of  the  drill.  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  German  flligel,  a  trlng'. 

FUGUE,  in  music,  a  piece  of  compo- 
sition in  which  the  different  parts  follow 
each  other,  each  repeating  in  order  what 
the  first  had  performed. 

FUNCTION,  any  office,  <luty,  or  em- 
ploj'ment  belonging  to  a  particular  Sta- 
tion or  character  ;  as  the  Junctions  of  a 
judge,  a  bishop,  Ac. — F^iinctlons,  applied 
to  the  actions  of  the  body,  are  divided 
into  vital,  animal  and  natural.  The  vital 
functions  are  those  necessary  to  life,  and 
without  which  the  individual  cannot  sub- 
sist ;  as  the  motion  of  the  heart,  lungs, 
&c.  The  natural  functions  are  such  as 
we  cannot  subsist  any  considerable  time 
without;  as  the  digestion  of  the  aliment, 
and  its  conversion  into  blood.  Under 
animal  functions  are  includi'd  the  senses  of 
touching,  tasting,  &c.,  memory,  judg- 
ment, and  voluntary  motion,  without 
which  an  animal  may  be  said  to  exist, 
though  under  great  i)rivations.  In  short, 
all  i)arts  of  the  body  have  their  own 
functions,  or  actions,  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. Life  consists  in  the  exercise  of 
these  functions,  and  health  in  the  free 
exercise  of  them. 

FUND.3,  a  term  adopted  by  those  who 
speak  of  the  public  revenue  of  nations,  to 
signify  the  several  taxes  ihat  have  been 
laid  upon  commodities,  either  by  way  of 
duties  of  custom,  or  excise,  or  in  any 
other  manner,  to  supply  the  exigencies  of 
the  state,  and  to  pay  interest  for  what 
sums  it  niaj'  have  occasion  to  borrow. — 
The  capital  stock  of  a  banking  institu- 
tion, or  the  joint  stock  of  a  commercial 
or  manufacturing  house,  constitutes  its 
funds:  and  hence  the  word  is  apjilied  to 
the  money  which  an  imlividual  may  pos- 
sess, or  the  means  lie  can  employ  for  car- 
rying on  any  enterprise  or  operation  — 
The  funding  st/slem  commenced  in  Eng- 
land shortly  after  the  Revolution  of 
1688,  and  as  the  sums  were  at  first  bor- 
rowed for  short  periods,  and  partially  re- 
paid, the  first  transaction  which  assumed 
the  charaetor  of  a  permanent  loan  was 
when,  at  the  establishment  of  the  Rank 
of  England,  in  in;):},  it.s  cajjital,  then 
amounting  to  1,200,000/.,  was  advanced 


oabJ 


AND    THE    FINE    AKTS. 


25£ 


to  the  government. — A  sinkin;^  fund  is 
a  sum  of  money  appro])riated  to  the  pay- 
ment of  tlie  public  stock,  or  the  payment 
of  the  public  debt. 

FU'XERAL  GAME.?,  the  celebration 
of  these  games  among  the  (Ireeks,  mostly 
consisted  of  horse-races  ;  the  prizes  were 
of  different  sorts  and  value,  according  to 
the  quality  and  magnificence  of  the  per- 
son that  celebrated  them.  The  garlands, 
given  to  victors  on  this  occasion,  were 
ucuallj'  of  parsley,  which  was  thought  to 
have  some  particular  relation  to  the 
dead.  Among  the  Romans,  the  funeral 
games  consisted  chiefly  of  processions  ; 
but  sometimes  also  of  mortal  comliats  of 
gladiators,  around  the  funeral  pile. 

FU'XERAL  PALLS,  the  palls  in  an- 
cient use,  especially  at  the  funerals  of 
persons  of  distinction,  were  of  the  most 
costly  materials  and  beautifully  orna- 
mented, being  constructed  of  velvet  or 
clota  of  golil,  embroiilercd  with  heraldic 
devices  and  imagery.  The  form  was 
usually  square,  sometimes  with  lappets, 
with  a  cross  extending  the  whole  length 
and  width,  formed  of  a  different  material 
from  the  pall  itself,  and  generally  en- 
riched with  ornaments  or  appropriate 
inscriptions.  The  color  of  the  palls  va- 
ried at  different  periods.  In  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  •  perhaps  earlier, 
black  was  used ;  they  were  frequently 
made  of  red,  purple,  green  and  blue  vel- 
vet, or  cloth  of  gold,  with  reference  to 
the  heraldic  tinctures  that  were  peculiar 
to  the  deceased. 

FU'NERAL  RITES,  ceremonies  ac- 
companying the  interment  or  burial  of 
any  person.  These  rites  differed  among 
the  ancients  according  to  the  different 
genius  and  religion  of  each  country. 
The  ancient  Christians  testified  their  alj- 
horrence  of  the  pagan  custom  of  burning 
the  dead,  and  always  deposited  the 
body  entire  in  the  ground  ;  and  it  was 
usual  to  bestow  the  honor  of  embalming 
upon  the  martyrs,  at.  least,  if  not  upon 
others. 

FU'RIES,  in  mythology,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Erinnyes  and  Eumenides,  were 
the  avenging  deities,  who  punished  gods 
and  men  for  their  transgressions  against 
those  whom  they  were  bound  to  esteem 
and  reverence.  Their  number  was  not 
fixed,  though  sometimes  they  were  con- 
sidered to  be  three  sisters.  The  Atheni- 
ans, who,  according  to  Plutarch,  were 
particularly  addi'-ted  to  this  art  of  eu- 
l-nemism,  called  them  also  the  Tene.rable 
goddesses,  i\\Q\T  true  names  being  consid- 
ered ominous.     Rv  this  name  they  were 


mentioned  in  the  oaths  taken  at  the  Are- 
opagus. 

FUR'LOUGH,  leave  granted  to  a  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier  to  be  ab- 
sent for  a  given  time  from  his  regiment. 

FL'SILEER',  a  soldier  belonging  to 
what  is  termed  the  light  infantry  :  they 
were  formerly  armed  with  a.  fusil ;  but 
they  are  not  now  so  distinguished,  their 
muskets  being  like  the  rest. 

FUS'TIAX,  in  literature,  an  inflated 
style  of  writing,  in  which  high-sounding 
and  bombastic  terms  are  used,  instead  of 
such  as  are  natural,  simple,  and  suited  to 
the  subject. 

FYLFOT,  a  cross  of  peculiar  form,  fre- 
quently introduced  in  decoration  and  em- 
broidery during  the  middle  ages.  It  oc- 
curs on  monumental  brasses  anterior  to 
the  accession  of  Richard  II.,  being  found 
on  the  girdle  of  a  priest  of  the  date  a.d. 
1011.  It  is  considered  to  have  been  in 
use  at  a  very  remote  period  as  a  mystic 
symbol  amongst  religious  devotees  in  In- 
dia and  China,  whence  it  was  introduced 
into  Europe  abou'.  the  sixth  century. 


G. 


G,  the  seventh  letter  in  the  English  al- 
phabet; but  in  the  Greek,  and  all  the 
oriental  languages,  it  occupies  the  third 
place.  It  is  a  mute,  and  cannot  be  sound- 
ed without  the  assistance  of  a  vowel.  It 
has  a  hard  and  a  soft  sound,  as  in  game, 
and  gesture  ;  and  in  many  words,  as  in 
sign,  reign.  &c ,  the  sound  is  not  per- 
ceived. As  a  numeral  it  formerly  stood 
for  400,  and  with  a  dash  over  it.  for  400,- 
000. — G,  in  music,  is  the  nominal  of  the 
fifth  note  in  the  natural  diatonic  scale  of 
C,  and  to  which  Guido  applied  the  mono- 
syllable sol.  It  is  also  one  of  the  names 
of  the  highest  cliff. 

GA'BIOXS,  in  fortification,  baskets 
made  of  osier-twigs,  of  a  cylindrical  form, 
six  feet  high,  and  four  wide  ;  which,  be- 
ing filled  with  earth,  serve  as  a  shelter 
from  the  enemy's  fire. 

GA'BLE,  in  architecture,  the  vertical 
triangular  piece  of  wall  at  the  end  of  the 
roof,  from  the  level  of  the  eaves  to  the 
summit. 

GA'BRIEL,  St.,  one  of  the  three  arch- 
angels, the  ''messenger;"  the  "'  angel  of 
the  annunciation;"  in  pictures  represent- 
ing this  mystery,  he  is  frequently  repre- 
sented in  royal  robes,  bearing  a  sceptro, 
or  a  lily,  and  kneeling.  In  some  ic- 
stances,  he  is  represented  floating  in  tne 
air,  with  his  hands  crossed  over  his  breast 


256 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    LITERATURE 


[GAL 


GADS,  or  Gadlynob,  in  armor,  are 
the  bosses  or 
small  spikes  of 
steel  with  which 
the  knuckles 
were  ar  m  e  il. 
The  gails  of  the 
gauntlets  o  f 
Edward  the 
Black  Prince  are  of  brass,  and  made  in 
the  shape  of  lions  or  leopards. 

GAELIC,  is  the  name  of  that  dialect  in 
the  ancient  Celtic  language,  which  is  spok- 
en in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  It  is  a 
generally  received  opinion,  that  the  Celtic, 
at  the  time  of  the  llo.nan  invasion,  was 
universally  spoken  over  the  west  of  Eu- 
rope ;  for,  although  divided  into  a  variety 
of  dialects,  yet  they  all  show  the  clearest 
proofs  of  a  common  origin.  The  Gaelic, 
which,  from  a  variety  of  causes,  has  re- 
tained much  of  its  original  purity,  is  bold, 
expressive,  and  copious.  It  derives  no 
assistance  from  the  languages  either  of 
Greece  or  Rome,  from  which  it  differs  in 
its  structure  and  formation.  More  than 
two  thirds  of  the  luunes  of  places  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  are  of  Celtic  origin, 
which,  if  other  proofs  were  wanting,  would 
establish  the  fact  of  its  once  having  been 
the  language  of  the  country. — See  Ehse- 
GAIL'LIARDE,  an  ancient  Italian 
dance,  of  a  sjiortive  character  and  lively 
movement.  It  was  sometimes  called  lio- 
manesque,  because  it  was  fsaid  to  have 
come  origina'.ly  from  Rome. 

GAL'AXY  ,  in  astronomy,  the  Via  Lac- 
tea,  or  Milky  Way ;  a  long,  white,  lu- 
minous track,  which  seems  to  encompass 
the  heavens  like  a  girdle  ;  forming  near- 
ly a  great  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere. 
This,  like  every  other  phenomenon  of 
nature,  has  supplied  the  poet  with  many 
a  fantastic,  and  many  a  beautiful  dream. 
The  invention  of  the  telescope  has  con- 
firmed the  conjecture  of  science,  that  it 
consists  in  a  multitude  of  stars,  too  re- 
mote to  be  separately  distinguished  by 
the  naked  eye. 

GALL,  the  gall  of  the  ox  is  used  in 
wator-coliir  painting,  mi.xed  with  the  pig- 
ments to  make  them  flow  freely  upon  pa- 
]K!r  which  has  a  grcasinoss  of  surface. 
To  fit  it  for  this  purpose,  the  gall  is 
Ht  rained  and  ex])Osed  to  a  gentle  heat  un- 
til nearly  solidified;  it  is  then  of  a  dai:k 
olive-i/rown  color,  scarcely  fit  to  mix  with 
the  pure  blue  or  red  pigments.  Colorless 
ox-gall  should  be  prepared  by  boiling  the 
crude  gall  with  animal  liharcoal,  and  fil- 
tering the  li((uid. 

QAL'LEUN,  vessels  of  war  formcrjy 


used  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese. 
In  more  recent  times,  those  vessels  were 
called  galleons,  in  which  the  Spaniard.'? 
transported  treasures  from  their  .Ameri- 
can colonies. 

GAL'LERY,  in  architecture,  a  long, 
narrow  room,  the  width  of  which  is  at 
least  three  times  less  than  its  length  ;  by 
which  proportion  it  is  distinguished  from 
a  saloofi.  Corridors  are  sometimes  also 
called  galleries. —  Gallery,  in  fortifica- 
tion, a  covered  walk  across  a  ditch  in  a 
besieged  town,  made  of  strong  planks  and 
covered  with  earth.  It  was  formerly 
used  for  carrying  a  mine  to  the  foot  of 
the  ramparts. —  Gallery,  {of  a  mine,)  a 
narrow  passage,  or  branch  of  a  mine  car- 
ried on  underground  to  a  work  designed 
to  be  blown  up. —  Gallery,  (in  a  ship,)  a 
balcony,  projecting  from  the  stern  of  a 
ship  of  war,  or  of  a  large  merchantman. — 
Gallery,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  term  applied 
to  a  collection  of  works  in  painting  or 
sculpture.  The  earliest  gallery  of  which 
there  is  any  record  was  that  of  Verres 
It  is  described  by  Cicero,  and  Avas  rich  in 
pictures  as  well  as  sculpture.  In  Eu- 
rope, at  the  present  day.  the  gallery  of 
the  Louvre,  though  much  reduced  in  18l5 
by  the  restoration  of  many  works  of  art 
vphich  conquest  had  enabled  the  French 
to  acquire,  is  the  finest  in  Europe,  if 
taken  as  a  whole.  That  founded  at 
Florence  by  Cosmo  II.  long  enjoyed  the 
first  rank,  but  must  be  now  considered 
secondary  to  the  French  collection.  The 
other  principal  galleries  of  Europe  are 
those  at  Munich,  Dresden,  Berlin,  and, 
though  last  not  least  both  in  size  and 
importance,  that  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome  ; 
which,  however,  is  more  generally  called 
the  Museum  of  the  Vatican. 

(i  AL'LEV,  a  naval  vessel  of  large  size, 
long  and  narrow,  usually  projielled  by 
oars,  with  occasionally  the  addition  of 
sails.  Most  of  the  ships  employed  by  the 
ancients  may  be  termed  galleys,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  banks  of  row- 
ers were  biremes  when  with  two  banks, 
triremes  when  with  three,  and  so  on, 
up  to  as  many  as  forty,  but  those  with 
more  than  four  or  five  banks  must  bo  re- 
garded as  curiosities.  Galleys  wore  in 
use  in  the  Mediterranean  until  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  for  coast  navi- 
gation, the  largest  of  which  were  about 
160  feet  long  and  30  feet  wide,  with  52 
oars.  Among  the  Venetians  there  was  in 
use  a  kind  of  large  galley,  with  a  very 
lofty  poop,  called  gaiiazza.  The  state 
galley  of  the  Doges  was  termed  Buckn- 
TAUR. — The  punishment  of  the  galitys 


oalI 


AND    THE    FIN'E    ARTS. 


257 


i.  e.  the  employinenl  ot' oDnilemneil  crini- 
inals  in  the  toilsome  einplo.yment  of  row- 
ing them,  is  said  to  have  originated  under 
the  Greek  empire  ;  as  well  as  the  name 
TaXeapot^  or  galley  slaves — in  French  ga- 
leriens.  It  was  used  by  all  the  nations 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  In 
France,  under  the  old  jurisprudence,  the 
punishment  of  the  galleys  was  the  se- 
verest after  that  of  death.  About  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  when 
galleys  themselves  began  to  be  disused, 
the  galley  slaves  were  employed  in  hos- 
pitals, public  works,  &c. :  and  the  name 
of  the  punishment  was  changed  by  the 
constituent  assembly  (1793)  to  traraux 
forces,  compulsory  labor,  whence  the 
word  forgat  for  a  criminal  so  condemned. 
Under  the  code  of  the  empire  the  pun- 
ishment was  accompanied  with  forfeiture 
of  property,  infamy,  and  branding.  By 
.an  alteration  of  the  law  effected  in  1832, 
the  brand  was  abolished  ;  and  the  crim- 
inals, who  had  hitherto  been  intermingled 
in  the  three  penal  fortresses  (Toulon, 
Rochefort,  and  Brest,)  were  classified. 
Toulon  was  appropriated  to  those  con- 
demned for  10  years  and  under  ;  Brest, 
to  those  from  10  to  20  ;  llochefort,  to  the 
condemned  for  life. 

tJAL'LI.  the  priests  of  Cybele  were  so 
named  at  Rome  from  the  country  (Gala- 
tia  or  Gallo-Graecia)  in  which  Pessinus, 
the  head-quarters  of  her  worship,  was 
situated :  also  termed  Curetes,  Cory- 
bantes,  and  Ida^i  Dactyli.  Cybele,  the 
mother  of  the  gods,  was  introduced  to 
Rome  from  Asia  oti  the  occasion  of  a  pes- 
tilence by  the  advice  of  the  Sybillinc  ora- 
cles, and  her  worship  became  in  time  one 
pffie  most  popular  in  the  city. 

GAL  LIC.\X,  anything  belonging  to 
France  :  thus  the  term  gallican  church 
denotes  the  churcli  of  France,  or  the  as- 
aombly  of  the  clergy  of  that  kingdom. 

GAL'LICISM,  an  idiom  or  phrase  of 
*,he  French  language,  introduced  in  speak- 
JDij  0'  writing  another  language. 
.17 


GAL'LIOT,  a  small  galley  or 
Dutch  vessel,  carrying  a  main  and 
mizenmast,  and  a  large  gaSF-main- 
siiit;  built  very  slightly,  and  de- 
signed only  for  chase.  It  can  both 
sail  and  row,  and  has  sixteen  or 
^  twenty  oars.  All  the  seamen  on 
board  are  soldiers,  and  each  has  a 
musket  by  him  in  quitting  his 
oar. 

GALLOPADE',  in  the  manege, 
a  sidelong  or  curveting  kind  of 
gallop.  Also  the  term  for  a  spright- 
ly and  active  kind  of  dance. 
GALL-STONE,  a  concretion  found  in 
the  gall-bladder  of  the  ox,  which  is  em- 
ployed as  a  pigment  in  water-color  paint- 
ing. It  yields  a  fine  golden-yellow  color, 
similar  to  Indian  yellow.  It  is  not  per- 
manent. 

GAL'LY,  in  printing,  a  wooden  or 
metal  frame,  into  which  the  compositor 
empties  the  lines  out  of  his  composing- 
stick,  and  in  which  he  ties  up  the  page 
when  it  is  completed. 

GAL' VANISM,  electrical  phenomena, 
in  which  the  electricity  is  developed 
without  the  aid  of  friction,  and  in  which 
a  chemical  action  takes  place  between 
certain  bodies.  It  includes  all  those 
electrical  phenomena  arising  from  the 
chemical  agency  of  certain  metals  with 
different  fluids.  Volta  discovered  the 
means  of  multiplying  those  effects ;  hence 
the  science  has  also  been  called  roltaisin, 
or  voltaic  electricity ;  and,  from  its  action 
on  the  muscles  of  animals  newly  killed, 
animal  electricity.  The  galvanic  battery 
or  pile,  is  an  instrument  of  vast  power, 
ami  admits  of  extensive  application  in 
the  wide  field  of  chemical  research,  and 
accordingly  the  acquisition  of  it  has  led 
to  important  discoveries.  The  electricity 
produced  by  the  galvanic  battery  is  much 
less  intense  than  that  produced  by  an 
ordinary  electrical  machine,  but  it  pos- 
sesses this  great  advantage,  that  its  ac- 
tion may  be  kept  up  for  any  length  of 
time,  in  a  continuous  manner  ;  whereas, 
in  a  highly  charged  electric  battery,  the 
whole  of  the  electric  power  is  expended 
as  soon  as  the  circuit  is  completed.  The 
effects  of  galvanism  maybe  distinguished 
into  the  three  classes  of  physiological, 
chemical,  and  physical.  With  respect  to 
the  physiological  effects,  we  may  refer  to 
the  marvellous  cures  said  to  ha\e  been 
effected  by  currents  of  electricity — to  the 
facts  recorded  of  animals  recently  killed, 
exhibiting  many  of  the  signs  of  life,  so 
long  as  they  are  placed  between  the  poles 
of  the  pile.   Animals  stupefied  by  breath- 


258 


CYCLOl'KDIA     OF    I.IIERATURE 


[eAN 


ing  tbe  fumes  of  charcoal,  may  be  brought 
at  once  to  life  by  placing  them  between 
the  poles  of  the  pile.  Among  the  chemi- 
cal effects  proiluccJ  by  the  galvanic  pile, 
the  decomposition  of  water,  of  oxyiies. 
and  the  alkalies,  are  the  most  remarka- 
ble. Among  the  [ihysical  clfects  we  may 
remark  the  production  of  beat,  light  and 
magnetism.  This  last  effect,  and  the 
mutual  action  which  the  currents  e.vert 
on  each  other,  constitutes  the  science  of 
electro-magnetism.  Galvanism  is  boat, 
light,  electricity,  and  magnetism,  united 
in  combination  or  in  simultaneous  ac- 
tion ;  sometimes  one  and  sometimes  an- 
other of  them  predominating,  and  thus 
producing  more  or  less  all  the  effects  of 
each — usual  means  of  excitement,  con- 
tact of  dissimilar  bodies,  especially  of 
metals  and  fluids. 

GALVANOG'RAPIIY,  Electrogra- 
PHY,  this  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  successful  inventions  of  modern  times, 
as  by  its  means  plastic  objects,  e  g.,  wood, 
stone,  coins,  plaster  casts,  &c.,  and  copper 
plates  for  engravings,  may  be  exactly 
copied  in  copper,  and  bronzed  or  gilt. 
The  invention  is  especially  valuable  for 
copper-plate  engraving,  as  by  its  means 
any  number  of  duplicates  of  the  original 
plate  may  be  obtained.  Galvanography, 
after  many  experiments,  has  produced 
works  of  Art  far  surpassing  the  expecta- 
tions at  first  entertained,  and  the  uses  to 
which  it  may  be  applied  are  multifarious, 
for  since  the  first  galvanic  plate  was  taken, 
it  has  been  used  in  all  branches  of  en- 
graving, having  been  found  to  unite  all 
the  known  methods  of  the  graver  and 
etching  needle,  aqua  tinta,  scraper,  and 
roulette  work,  &c.,  and,  moreover,  is  very 
easy  of  execution. 

GAMBE'SON,  or  AVambeys,  in  armor, 
a  body-covering  stuffed  with  wool  and 
padded  in  parallel  lines  of  needle-work. 

GAM'BOGE,  a  gum-resin  brought  from 
the  East,  which  yields  a  fine  yellow  pig- 
ment, very  useful  in  water-color  paint- 
ing. The  finest  quality  is  the  pipe-gam- 
boge, brought  from  Siam.  It  dissolves 
readily  in  water,  is  very  transparent  and 
glossy  when  dry.'  It  is  indispensable  in 
water  colors,  forming,  with  the  various 
blues,  excellent  compound  greens.  This 
pigment  would  be  useful  in  oil  painting, 
ax  it  resists  for  a  long  time  the  action  of 
strong  light,  provideil  the  resinous  part 
could  be  separated  from  the  other  parts. 

GAME,  all  sorts  of  bird.s  and  beasts 
that  are  object.s  of  the  chase — Game 
lavs.  In  England,  laws  have  been  en- 
acted   to   secure    to    certain    privileged 


classes  the  right  of  hunting  and  shooting 
wild  birds  and  animals,  and  preventing 
their  being  destroyed  or  sold  in  the  mar- 
ket ;  and  it  is  believed  that  nothing  haa 
been  so  fertile  a  source  of  crime,  among 
the  lower  orders,  as  these  cnaetment.i. 

G.-VMES,  in  antiquity,  were  public 
diversions,  or  contests,  exhibited  on  cer- 
tain occasions,  as  spectacles  for  the  grati- 
fication of  the  peoiile.  Such,  among  the 
(ireeks.  were  the  Olympic,  Pythian,  Isth- 
mian, and  Nemtcan  games  ;  and,  among 
the  Romans,  the  Apollinarian,  Circen- 
sian,  Capitoline.  kc.  The  Romans  had 
three  sorts  of  games,  viz.,  sacred,  honc- 
ary,  and  ludicrous.  The  first  were  insti- 
tuted in  honor  of  some  deity  or  hero;  the 
second  were  those  exhibited  by  private 
persons,  to  please  the  people ;  as  the 
combats  of  gladiators,  the  scenic  games, 
and  other  amphitheatrical  sports.  The 
ludicrous  games  were  much  of  the  same 
nature  with  the  games  of  exercise  and 
hazard  among  us;  such  were  the  ludus 
'l''rnj'.tnus,  tesserce,  &e.  By  a  decree  of 
the  Roman  senate,  it  was  enacted  that 
the  public  games  should  be  consecrated, 
and  united  with  the  worship  of  the  gods 
as  a  part  thereof:  whence  it  appears, 
that  feasts,  sacrifices,  and  games,  made 
up  the  greatest  part,  or  rather  the  whole, 
of  the  external  worship  offered  by  the 
Romans  to  their  deities. 

GAMUT,  or  (JAM'MA  UT,  in  music, 
a  scale  whereon  the  musical  notes  are  dis- 
posed in  their  several  orders,  and  marked 
by  the  monosyllables  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol, 
la.  Its  invention  is  attributed  to  Guido 
Aretino,  a  monk  of  Tuscany  ;  it  is  also 
called  the  harnionical  hand,  from  Guido 
having  made  use  of  the  figure  of  the 
hand  to  demonstrate  the  progression  of 
his  sounds. 

GANTLET,  or  GAUNT'LET,  a  large 
kind  of  glove,  made  of  iron,  and  the  fingers 
covered  with  small  plates,  formerly  worn 
by  cavaliers,  armed  at  all  points. —  To 
throw  the  gantlet,  is  a  proverbial  phrase, 
signifying  to  challenge  or  defy  The  ex- 
pression derives  its  origin  from  the  days 
of  chivalry,  when  he  that  challenged  an 
opponent  in  the  lists  threw  down  his  glove, 
and  he  that  accepted  the  challenge  took 
it  up. 

GANT'LOPE.  or  GANT'LET,  in  mili- 
tary affairs,  an  old  punishment  in  which 
the  criminal,  running  between  the  ranks, 
received  a  lash  from  every  man.  A  simi- 
lar punishment  is  used  on  board  of  ships  ; 
but  it  is  seldom  inflicted,  except  for  such 
crimes  as  are  calculated  to  excite  general 
antipathy  among  the  seamen. 


oarJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


269 


GAN'YMEBE,  great-grandson  of  Dar- 
diinus,  who  foumleil  the  city  of  Troy,  son 
of  Xros  and  of  Calliirlioe,  a  daughter  of 
the  Scamandcr.  Jujiiter,  in  the  shape 
of  an  eagle,  carried  liiin  off  from  Mount 
Ida  to  the  seat  of  the  gods,  where  he  dis- 
iharged  the  office  of  cup-bearer  to  the 
iinmortals,  Hebe  having  rendered  her- 
self unworthy  of  this  office.  This  fiction 
has  afforded,  both  to  poets  and  artists,  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  subjects.  Numer- 
ous paintings,  statues,  cameos,  and  in- 
taglios, master-works  of  ancient  Art,  have 
descended  to  us,  upon  which  this  youth, 
scaroely  passed  the  years  of  boyhood,  is 
represented  as  of  great  beautj'.  The  rep- 
resentations of  Ganymede  are  to  be  recog- 
nized by  the  Phrygian  cap,  and  the  eagle, 
which  is  either  standing  beside  him,  or 
carrying  him  in  its  talons  to  Olympus. 

GAOL  DELIVERY,  a  term  in  law 
for  the  clearing  of  a  prison  by  a  judicial 
condemnation  or  acquittal  of  the  prison- 
ers ;  also  a  commission  from  the  king  to 
deliver  or  clear  the  gaols. 

GAUD  DE  BRAS,  in  armor,  the  plate 
attacheil  to  the  cuff  of  the  gantlet  or  the 
coudiere. 

GARDENING,  that  branch  of  cultiva- 
tion which  teaches  us  how  to  dispose 
fruit-trees,  flowers,  and  herbs,  to  the  best 
advantage,  whether  for  profit  or  pleas- 
ure ;  and  directs  us  how  to  prepare  the 
soil  for  sowing  the  different  kinds  of 
seeds,  as  v^cll  as  how  to  treat  the  plants, 
daring  their  various  stages  of  vegetation, 
till  they  repay  our  care  by  the  produce 
they  yield  when  arrived  at  maturity. 
The  art  embraces  the  following  heads  : 
Horticulture,  which  comprehends  the  cul- 
ture of  culinary  vegetables  and  fruits  ; 
floriculture,  which  includes  the  culture  of 
ornamental  and  curious  flowers,  shrubs, 
and  trees ;  aboriculture,  which  implies 
the  culture  of  trees  or  shrubs  used 
for  various  purposes  in  the  arts  and  in 
general  economy  ;  and  landscape  gar- 
dening, or  the  general  disposition  of  the 
scenery  or  landscape  about  a  country 
residence.  Horticulture  includes  the 
culture  of  the  kitchen  garden  and  or- 
chard ;  floriculture,  the  culture  of  flower 
gardens,  botanic  gardens,  shrubberies, 
and  pleasure-grounds  ;  aboriculture,  the 
culture  of  nurseries  for  fruit  and  forest 
trees  and  shrubs ;  and  landscape  garden- 
ing, the  formation  and  management  of 
lawns,  roads,  walks,  lakes,  ponds,  and 
artificial  rivers,  of  rock  work,  and  of 
every  description  of  objects  in  artificial 
scenery  which  come  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  ornamental  or  picturesque. 


GARGOYLE',  this  term  is  derived  from 
the  French  gargouille,  a  dragon  or  mon- 
ster. It  is  applied  to  the  spouts  in  the 
form  of  dragons  that  project  from  the 
roof-gutters  in  ancient  buildings. 

GARLANDS,  of  various  descriptions, 
are  used  in  the  ceremonies,  Ac,  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  1.  Of  flowers,  .suspend- 
ed over  altars,  and  in  churches  on  fes*".7?.l 
days.  2.  Of  roses,  and  other  flowers, 
worn  round  the  heads  of  the  assis^i.nt 
clergy  and  others  in  certain  processions. 
3.  Of  silver,  set  with  jewels,  or  of  natu- 
ral flowers,  and  placed  on  images.  4. 
Of  artificial  flowers  and  other  ornaments 
carried  at  the  funerals  of  virgins. 

GAR'NISHMENT,  in  law,  a  warning 
or  notice  given  to  a  party  to  appear  in 
court  or  give  information  ;  a  technical 
term,  used  only  in  one  or  tvro  instances. 

GAR'RISON,  a  body  of  forces  disposed 
in  a  fortress  to  defend  it  .against  the  ene- 
my, or  to  keep  the  inhabitants  of  the 
town  where  it  is  situated  in  subjection. 
The  term  garrison  is  sometimes  used 
synonj'mously  with  winter  quarters,  viz. 
a  place  where  a  number  of  troops  are  laid 
up  in  the  winter  season  without  keeping 
the  regular  guard. 

GARROTE',  THE,  a  mode  of  capital 
punishment  employed  in  Spain.  The 
criminal  is  seated  on  a  stool  with  his  back 
to  a  stake.  A  tight  collar  is  passed  round 
his  throat,  of  which  the  ends  nearly  meet; 
the  executioner  standing  behind  him, 
twists  them  closer  by  means  of  a  screw  : 
the  death  is  instantaneous. 

GAR'TER,  Order  of  the,  a  military 
order  of  knighthood,  said  to  have  been 
first  instituted  by  Richard  I.  at  the  siege 
of  Acre,  where  he  caused  twenty-si.x 
knights,  who  firmly  stood  by  him,  to 
wear  thongs  of  blue  leather  about  their 
legs.  It  is  also  understood  to  have  been 
perfected  by  Edward  III.,  and  to  have 
received  some  alterations,  which  were 
afterwards  laid  aside,  from  Edward  VI. ; 
but  the  number  of  knights  remained  as 
at  first  established,  till  the  year  1786, 
when  it  was  increased  to  thirty-two. 
This  order  is  never  conferred  but  upon 
persons  of  the  highest  rank.  The  habit 
and  ensigns  of  this  order  are  the  garter, 
m.antle,  cap  and  collar  The  badge  of 
the  order  is  the  image  of  Saint  George, 
called  the  George;  and  the  motto  is 
Honi  soit  qui  vial  y  pense,  or  "  Evil  to 
him  that  evil  thinks  hereof."  A  vulgar 
story  (says  Hume)  prevails,  but  it  is  not 
supporte<lby  any  ancient  authority,  that, 
at  a  court  ball,  Edward  the  Third's  mis- 
tress, commonly  supposed  to  be  the  Count- 


260 


CYCLOrEDIA    OF    LIIEKATURE 


[gem 


ess  of  Salisbury,  dropped  her  garter ; 
and  the  king,  taking  it  up,  observed 
Bome  of  tlie  courtiers  to  smile,  as  if  they 
thought  he  had  not  obtained  this  favor 
by  accident ;  upon  whieh  he  called  out 
Honi  soil  qui  mtil  y  pense. 

GAS'TKU.MAXCV,  a  kind  of  divina- 
tion practised  among  the  ancients  by 
means  of  ivords  issuing  or  seeming  to 
issue  from  the  bell^'.  This  terra  is  ap- 
plied also  to  a  species  of  divination  per- 
formed by  means  of  glasses  or  other  round 
transparent  vessels,  in  the  centre  of  which 
certain  figures  appear  by  magic  art. 

GASTKON'OMY,  the  science  of  eating 
and  drinking.  The  gastronomy  of  the 
Romans  was  the  most  gross  and  luxu- 
rious, as  that  of  the  French  is  the  most 
refined  and  delicate,  combined  with  the 
rules  of  health  and  social  merriment. 

GAUZE,  a  very  thin,  slight,  trans- 
parent kind  of  stuff,  woven  sometimes 
of  silk,  and  sometimes  only  of  thread; 
and  frequently  with  Howers  of  silver  or 
gold  on  a  silk  ground.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  in  Gaza,  a  city  of  Palestine. 

GAV'EL-KIXD,  a  tenure  in  England, 
by  which  land  descended  from  the  father 
to  all  his  sons  in  equal  portions,  and  the 
land  of  a  brother,  dying  without  issue, 
descended  equally  to  his  brothers.  This 
si>ccies  of  tenure  prevailed  in  England 
before  the  Norman  conquest,  in  many 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  perhaps  in  the 
whole  realm;  but  particularly  in  Kent, 
where  it  still  e.vists. 

GA'VOT,  in  music,  an  air  for  a  dance, 
which  has  two  strains  ;  the  first  having 
usually  four  or  eight  bars,  and  the  second 
eight  or  twelve  more,  each  of  which  are 
played  twice  over.     It  is  of  a  brisk  nature. 

GAZETTE',  a  periodical  paper,  pub- 
lished at  short  intervals,  containing  arti- 
cles of  general  intelligence.  In  Europe 
such  sheets  were  generally  termed  AI<;r- 
curies  in  the  first  times  of  their  inven- 
tion, and  appeared  only  occasionally  ;  the 
earliest  were  published  daring  the  gen- 
eral apprehensions  from  the  presence  of 
the  Spanish  armada,  but  some  doubt  has 
been  lately  thrown  on  the  authenticity 
of  the  s|iecitn('ns  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum.  Tiie  first  gazette  produced  in 
France  (under  that  title)  was  in  1631  : 
the  first  in  England  in  1665,  when  the 
court  resided  at  O.vford  on  account  of  the 
plague  in  Lonilon.  From  that  period  the 
Gazette  has  regularly  ajjpeared  twice  a 
week,  containing  such  notifications  as  are 
either  published  by  the  court  or  the  gov- 
ernment, or  such  as  are  authoritatively 
required  by  law  in  private  transactions 


j  The  name  Gazette  is  said  to  be  derived 
]  from  Gazetta,  a  small  Venetian  coin, 
being  the  price  that  w.is  paid  for  one  of 
the  Hying  sheets  of  commercial  and  mili- 
tary information  (notizie  scritte,)  which 
were  first  published  by  that  republic  iu 
1563. 

GAZETTEER',  a  topographical  work, 
alphabetically  arranged,  containing  a 
brief  description  of  empires,  kingdoms, 
cities,  towns,  and  rivers.  It  may  either 
incluile  the  whole  world,  or  be  limited  to 
a  particular  country.  The  first  work  of 
this  kind,  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
is  that  of  Stephen  of  Byzantium,  who 
lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. 

GAZONS',  in  fortification,  pieces  of 
fresh  earth,  covered  with  grass,  and  cut 
in  form  of  a  wedge,  to  line  the  outsides 
of  works  made  of  earth,  as  ramparts, 
parapets,  Ac. 

(iElIEX'XA,  a  term  in  .'Scripture, 
adopted  from  the  usage  of  the  Jews  to 
signify  hell  or  the  place  of  eternal  pun- 
ishment. The  word  is  a  slight  corruption 
of  Gehinnon,  or  the  Valley  of  llinnora  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  wherein, 
at  a  place  named  Tophet,  it  was  recorded 
that  certain  idolatrous  Jews  hail  sacri- 
ficed to  Moloch.  The  sewers  of  the  city 
were  emptied  into  this  hollow,  and  per- 
petual fires  were  kept  up  to  consume  the 
noxi(uis  matter,  and  prevent  pestilential 
effluvia.  Hence,  it  is  said,  the  name  of 
the  place  came  to  be  used  metaphorically 
in  the  sense  above  described.  From  this 
word  seems  to  be  derived  the  old  French 
gehenne,  torture ;  and  from  thence  the 
common  word  gene,  constraint. 

(JELCSCOPY,  a  kind  of  divination 
drawn  from  laughter  ;  or  a  method  of 
knowing  the  qualities  and  character  of  a 
person,  acquired  from  the  consideration 
of  his  laughter. 

GE.MAR'A,  the  second  part  of  the  Tal- 
mud or  coinmentarv  on  the  Jewish  laws. 

GE.MOXI.E  SCA'L.E,  in  R.uuan  anti- 
quity, a  place  for  executing  criminals, 
situated  on  the  Avcntine  mount,  or  tenth 
region  of  the  city. 

tiEMS,  the  name  given  to  precious 
stones  in  general,  but  more  especially  to 
such  as  by  their  color,  brilliancy,  polish, 
purity,  and  rarity,  are  sought  after  as  ob- 
jects of  decoration.  Gems  of  the  most  valu- 
able kinds  form  the  i)rincipal  part  of  the 
crown  jewels  of  sovereign  princes,  and  are 
esteeineil  not  merely  for  their  beauty,  but 
as  comprising  the  greatest  value  in  the 
smallest  bulk.  Gems  are  remarkable  for 
their  hardness  and  internal  lustre.     Un- 


obn] 


AND    Tfl.'C     FrXIC     AltTS. 


201 


der  this  name  are  eomprehenile'l  the  ilia- 
mond,  ruby,  sappliiru,  hyuuinth,  hciyl, 
garnet,  emerali,  topaz,  cluysolite,  &c. 
To  these  have  been  a<Med  ruck  crystali!, 
the  finer  flints  of  pebbles,  the  cat's  eye, 
the  oculus  miindi,  the  chalcedony,  tlie 
moon-stones,  the  onyx,  the  cornelian,  the 
sardonyx,  agate,  <tc.  Of  most  of  these 
species  there  are  some  of  an  inferior  class 
and  beaut}' ;  these  are  commonly  called 
hy  jeweUors  occidental  stones.  They  are 
mostly  the  produce  of  Europe,  and  found 
in  mines  or  stone  quarries ;  and  are  so 
named  in  opposition  to  those  of  a  higher 
class,  which  are  always  accounted  ori- 
ental^ and  supposed  to  be  only  produced 
in  the  east. —  Gem-engracing,  or  gem- 
sculpture,  called  also  lithoglyptics,  is  the 
art  of  representing  designs  upon  precious 
stones,  either  in  raised  work,  as  cameos, 
or  by  figures  cut  below  the  surface,  as 
■intaglios.  This  art  is  of  great  antiquity, 
and  was  probably  practised  by  the  Baby- 
lonians. Some  think  the  art  originated 
in  India;  but  wherever  it  originated,  we 
have  ample  evidence  that  among  the 
Greeks  and  Komans  it  was  in  high  es- 
teem. The  merit  of  cameos  and  intag- 
lios depends  on  their  ermlition,  as  it  is 
termed,  or  the  goodness  of  the  workman- 
ship, and  the  beauty  of  their  polish.  The 
antique  Greek  gems  are  the  most  highly 
prized;  and,  next  to  them,  the  Koman 
ones  of  the  times  of  the  higher  empire. — 
Artificial  gems.  In  order  to  approxi- 
mate as  near  as  possible  to  the  brilliancj' 
and  refractive  power  of  native  gems,  a 
basis,  called  a  paste,  is  made  from  the 
finest  flint  glass,  composed  of  selected 
materials,  combined  in  different  propor- 
tions, according  to  the  preference  of  the 
manufacturer.  This  is  mixed  with  me- 
tallic oxydes  capable  of  producing  the 
desired  color. — The  imitation  of  antique 
gems  consists  in  a  method  of  taking  the 
impressions  and  figures  of  antique  gems, 
with  their  engravings,  in  glass,  of  the 
color  of  the  original  gems.  Great  care 
is  necessary  in  the  operation,  to  take  the 
impression  of  the  gem  in  a  very  fine 
earth,  and  to  press  down  upon  this  a 
piece  of  proper  glass,  softened  or  half 
melted  at  the  fire,  so  that  the  figures  of 
the  impression  made  in  the  earth  may  be 
nicely  and  perfectly  expressed  upon  the 
glass. 

GEXDARMES;  or  GEXS  D'ARMES, 
in  the.  history  of  France,  an  appellation 
given  to  a  select  body  of  troops,  who 
were  destined  to  watch  over  the  interior 
public  safet}',  and  consequently  much 
employed  by  the  police.     They  were  so 


called  on  account  of  their  succeeding  the 
ancient  gendarmes,  who  were  completely 
clothed  in  armor,  and  commanded  by 
captain-lieutenants,  the  king  and  the 
princes  of  the  blood  being  their  captains. 
At  the  revolution  this  body  was  broken 
up,  and  the  name  was  given  to  a  corps 
which  was  employed  in  the  protection  of 
the  streets.  August  IGth,  1830,  a  royal 
ordinance  abolished  the  gens  (Tarmes. 
and  established  a  new  body  called  the 
viunicipal  guard  of  Paris,  to  consist  of 
1443  men,  under  the  direction  of  tho 
prefect  of  police. 

GEN'DER.  in  grammar,  a  distinction 
in  nouns  to  mark  the  sexes  ;  genders  aro 
either  masculine,  for  the  male  sex;  fem- 
inine, for  the  female  sex;  or  neuter,  for 
those  which  are  of  neither  sex.  Tho 
English  language  has  very  few  termimi- 
tions  by  which  the  genders  are  distin- 
guished, such  as  count  and  countess,  but 
generally  supplies  distinct  words  ;  as  boij, 
girl;  whereas,  in  the  Latin  and  French, 
the  terminations  alwajs  mark  the  dis- 
tinction, as  bonus  equus,  a  good  horse; 
bona  equa,  a  good  mare  ;  un  bon  citoyen 
a  good  citizen;  une  bonne  citoyenne,  a 
good  female  citizen. 

GENEAL'OGY,  a  history  of  the  de- 
scent of  a  person  or  family  from  a  series 
of  ancestors.  In  various  chapters  and 
military  orders,  it  is  required  that  tho 
candidates  produce  their  genealogy,  to 
show  that  they  are  noble  by  so  many 
descents. — The  Jews  were  anxious  to  pre- 
serve their  genealogies  entire  and  unin- 
terrupted ;  and  this  care  on  their  part 
afi'ords  an  argument  of  considerable  im- 
portance with  respect  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  those  prophecies  that  pertain 
to  the  Messiah :  accordingly,  in  their 
sacred  writings,  we  find  genealogies  car- 
ried on  for  above  3500  years. 

GEN'ERAL,  in  the  army,  is,  next  to 
field  marshal,  the  highest  military  title 
adopted  by  the  European  states.  Like 
most  military  designations,  it  owes  its 
origin  to  the  French,  who,  about  the 
miildle  of  the  15th  century,  conferred  the 
title  of  lieutenant-general  on  the  indi- 
vidual to  whom  the  monarch  (by  virtue 
of  his  birth  the  commander  or  general  of 
the  national  forces)  intrusted  the  super- 
intendence of  the  army.  The  title  of 
general  is  conferred  either  on  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  of  a  nation, 
or  on  the  commander  of  an  army  or 
grand  division  ;  it  is  also  given  to  the  ofii- 
cers  next  in  rank  to  the  general,  who,  be- 
sides performing  functions  peculiar  to 
their  own  offices,  frequently  act  as  the  sub 


2G2 


CYCLOl'EDIA     OF    I.ITKRATUKE 


[CJES 


Btitutes  of  their  superior,  with  the  (le^ig- 
nation  of  lieutenant-genernl  ani  in:ijnr- 
geiRT.il. — A  particular  beat  of  Jriiiu 
which  in  the  morning  gives  notice  to  the 
infantry  to  be  in  readiness  to  inarch,  is 
also  callc'l  the  e^eneral. 

GENERALIS'SIMO,  a  title  conferred, 
especially  by  the  French,  on  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  an  array  consisting  of 
two  or  more  grand  divisions,  each  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  general.  Ac- 
cording to  Balzac,  this  dignity  was  first 
assumed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  on  the 
occasion  of  his  leading  the  French  array 
into  Italy  ;  but  the  term  does  not  appear 
to  have  found  favor  among  the  other 
European  states. 

GENERALIZATION,  in  logic,  has 
been  defined  as  the  act  of  comprehending 
under  a  common  name  several  objects 
agreeing  in  some  point  which  we  ab.stract 
from  each  of  them  and  which  that  cotu- 
mon  term  serves  to  indicate. — E.x.  Coper- 
nicus generalized  the  celestial  motions, 
by  merely  referring  them  to  the  moon's 
motion.  Newton  generalized  them  still 
more,  by  referring  this  last  to  the  motion 
of  a  stone  through  the  air. 

GEN  ERAL  IS'SUE,  in  law,  that  plea 
which  denies  at  once  the  whole  declara- 
tion or  indictment,  without  offering  any 
special  matter  by  which  to  evade  it. 
This  is  the  ordinary  plea  upon  which 
most  causes  are  tried,  and  is  now  almost 
invariably  used  in  all  criminal  cases.  It 
puts  everything  in  issue,  that  is  denies 
everything,  and  requires  the  party  to 
prove  all  that  he  has  stated  In  many 
cases,  for  the  protection  of  justices,  con- 
stables, excise  officers,  Ac  ,  they  are  al- 
lowed to  plead  the  general  issue,  and 
give  the  si)ccial  matter  for  their  justifi- 
cation, under  the  act,  in  evidence. 

GENERATOR,  in  music,  the  principal 
sound  or  sounds  by  which  others  are  pro- 
duced. Thus  the  lowest  C  for  the  treble 
of  the  pianoforte,  besides  its  octave,  will 
strike  an  attentive  ear  with  its  twelfth 
above,  or  G  in  alt.,  and  with  its  seven- 
teenth above,  or  E  in  alt.  Hence  C  is 
called  their  generator,  the  G  and  E  its 
products  or  harmonics. 

GEN'ER'IC,  or  (JENER'ICAL.  an  ep- 
ithet pertaining  to  a  genus  or  kind.  It  is 
a  word  used  to  signify  all  species  of 
natural  fiodies,  which  agree  in  certain 
essential  and  peculiar  chanicters,  and 
♦  herofore  all  of  the  same  family  or  kind  ;  so 
that  the  word  used  as  the  frene'-ir  na)no, 
equally  expresses  every  one  of  them, 
and  some  other  words  expressive  of  the 
peculiar  qualities  of  figures  of  each  are 


added,  in  order  to  denote  them  singly, 
and  make  up  what  is  called  the  s/ieci/ic 
name.  Thus  the  word  rosa,  or  rose,  is 
the  generic  name  of  the  whole  series  of 
flowers  of  that  kind,  which  are  distin- 
guished by  the  specific  names  of  the  red 
rose,  the  white  rose,  the  raoss  rose,  &c. 
Thus  also  we  see  Ca7iis  is  the  generic 
name  of  animals  of  the  dog  kind  ;  felis. 
of  the  cat  kind ;  Cervus,  of  the  deer 
kind,  &c. 

GEN'E.SIS,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  first  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, or  five  books  of  Moses.  The 
(ireeks  gave  it  the  name  of  Genesis, 
from  its  beginning  with  the  history  of 
the  creation  of  the  world.  It  includes 
the  history  of  2369  years,  and  besides 
the  history  of  the  creation,  contains  ap 
account  of  the  original  innocence  au'l  'all 
of  man  ;  the  propagation  of  mankind  ; 
the  general  defection  and  corruption  of 
the  world;  the  deluge;  the  restoration 
and  re-peopling  of  the  earth  ;  and  the 
history  of  the  first  patriarchs  down  to 
the  death  of  Joseph. 

tJENETH'LI  AC,  an  ode  or  other  short 
poem  composed  in  honor  of  the  birth  of 
an  individual. 

GENII,  called  by  the  Eastern  nations 
Genu  or  Gien,  are  a  race  of  beings  cre- 
ated iVora  fire,  occupying  an  intermedi- 
ate place  between  man  and  angels,  and 
endowed  with  a  corporeal  form,  which 
they  are  capable  of  raetamorphosing  at 
pleasure.  They  are  said  to  have  inliab- 
ited  this  earth  many  ages  before  the  cre- 
ation of  man,  and  to  have  been  at  last 
driven  thence  for  rebellious  conduct 
against  Allah.  Their  present  place  of 
abode  is  Ginnistan,  the  Persian  Ely- 
sium; but  they  are  represented  as  still 
interesting  themselves  deeply  in  the  af- 
fairs of  this  earth,  over  which  tliey  exer- 
cise considerable  influence.  Every  one 
is  aware  of  the  important  part  which  the 
genii  perform  in  the  interesting  stories  of 
the  East  ;  and  indeed  a  more  correct  idea 
maybe  formed  of  their  origin,  character- 
istics, and  history,  from  a  perusal  of  the 
Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,  than 
can  be  conveyed  by  the  most  elaborate 
dissertation. 

(iENITIVE  CASE,  the  second  case 
in  l>atin  and  Greek  nouns,  which  denote 
po.-isession  :  it  is  marked  in  English  by  3 
with  an  apostrojihe,  tiius  ('s). 

GE'XirS,  an  aptitude  for  a  jiarticular 
jiursuit.  founded  on  some  stimulus  in 
youth,  by  which  the  mind  and  faculties 
are  directed  to  excnllenco.  It  combines 
opposite  intellectual  qualities;  the  decjt- 


OKN 


ANIJ    illK    FINE    ARTS. 


2G3 


est  penetration  with  tlic  liveliest  fancy; 
the  greatest  quickness  with  the  most  in- 
defatigable (iiiigence.  To  whiit  is  old  it 
gives  a  new  form;  or  it  invents  new; 
and  its  own  productions  are  altogether 
original.  We  estimate  it  higher  than 
talent,  in  the  common  acceptaiion  of  that 
term,  which  in  the  capacity  for  originat- 
ing in  extent  and  energy  is  inferior  to 
genius.  Whore  ordinary  powers  advance 
by  slow  degrees,  genius  soars  on  rapid 
wings.  Cut  genius  does  not  assume  its 
distinctive  character  in  every  e.xercise  of 
its  powers.  A  gifted  poet,  for  instance, 
is  not  necessarily  an  ingenious  philoso- 
pher, nor  does  the  statesman's  genius  in- 
clude that  of  the  soldier.  We  distinguish 
this  genius,  therefore,  into  various  kinds, 
as  poetical,  musical,  mathematical,  mil- 
itary, &c.  ;  thus,  for  example,  Milton 
possessed  a  genius  for  poetry,  Mozart  for 
music,  Newton  for  mathematics,  &c.  Yet, 
although  the  union  of  great  excellence  in 
different  walks  of  art  and  science  is  but 
rarely  found  in  one  man,  some,  like 
Michael  Angelo,  who  was  equally  cele- 
brated as  a  statuar}',  architect,  and  pain- 
ter, are  found  possessing  genius  of  a  most 
comprehensive  character. — By  the  an- 
cients the  word  genius  was  used  to  ex- 
press a  supposed  invisible  spirit  which 
directs  a  course  of  events.  According  to 
the  belief  of  the  Romans,  every  person 
had  his  own  genius,  that  is,  a  spiritual 
being,  which  introduced  him  into  life, 
accompanied  him  during  the  course  of  it, 
and  again  conducted  him  out  of  it  at  the 
close  of  his  career.  This  belief  was  no 
doubt  a  consequence  of  their  idea  of  a 
divine  spirit  pervading  the  whole  physi- 
cal world  ;  and  was  probably  a  personi- 
fication of  the  particular  structure  or  bent 
of  mind  which  a  man  receives  from  na- 
ture. The  guardian  spirit  of  a  person  (a 
purely  Italian  idea,  which  in  modern 
language  has  been  wrongfully  transferred 
to  Grecian  Art,)  is  generally  represented 
as  a  veiled  figure  in  a  toga,  holding  a 
patera  and  cornucopia,  or  as  a  beautiful 
youth,  nude  or  nearly  so,  with  the  wings 
of  a  bird  on  his  shoulders.  The  guardian 
spirits  of  the  female  sex,  junones,  are 
represented  as  young  maidens  with  the 
wings  of  a  butterfly  or  a  moth,  and  drap- 
ed. The  Romans  also  gave  a  genius  to 
edifices,  towns,  armies,  and  kingdoms. 
The  Roman  genius  of  a  jjlace  was  de- 
picted as  a  serpent  devouring  fruits,  which 
lay  before  it  ;  there  are,  however,  many 
exceptions  to  these  rules.  The  modern 
world  comprises  under  the  term  genii, 
the  angels  or  messengers  of  heaven,  and 


those  emblematic.il  figures,  which,  as  ev- 
er}'thing  was  personified  in  ancient  Art, 
are  regarded  as  the  deification  of  ideas. 
The  most  common  idea  of  Christian  genii 
are  the  patron  angel  of  childhood  and 
of  youth,  the  angel  of  baptism,  those  of 
poverty  and  mercy,  of  religion  and  vir- 
tue, and  the  genii  of  the  three  Christian 
graces,  faith,  hope,  and  charity.  In  jn^d- 
ern  times  we  find  the  genii  of  c/untries 
often  personified  :  the  greatest  work  of 
this  kind  is  the  genius  of  Bavaria,  a 
bronze  female  statue  of  colossal  size  by 
Schwanthaler,  ^recently  completed  and 
placed  in  front  of  the  Walhalla,  near 
Munich.  Modern  representations  of  river 
gods  are  only  to  be  regarded  as  genii 
when  they  are  executed  in  the  romantic 
and  not  in  the  antique  style. 

GENS,  in  ancient  history,  a  clan  or 
sect,  forming  a  subdivision  of  the  Roman 
people  next  in  order  to  the  curia  or  tribe. 
The  members  and  houses  composing  one 
of  these  clans  were  not  necessarily  united 
by  ties  of  blood,  but  were  originally 
brought  together  by  a  political  distribu- 
tion of  the  citizens,  and  bound  by  reli- 
gious rites,  and  a  common  name,  derived 
probably  from  some  ancient  hero. 

GENTILES,  a  name  given  by  the 
Jews  to  all  who  were  not  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel.  Among  Christians,  it  is 
the  name  of  all  heathens  who  did  not  em- 
brace the  Christian  faith. 

GENTLEMAN,  in  the  modern  lan- 
guages of  western  Europe,  we  generally 
find  a  word  to  signify  a  person  distin- 
guished by  his  standing  from  the  laboring 
classes,  gentiluonio,  gentilhomme,  hidal- 
go, &c.  In  the  German  language,  the 
term  which  most  nearly  expresses  the 
same  idea,  is  gebildet,  which  includes  not 
only  gentlemanly  manners,  but  also  a 
cultivated  mind.  The  English  law-books 
say,  that,  under  the  denomination  oi  gen- 
tlemen, are  comprised  all  above  yeomen; 
so  that  noblemen  are  truly  cxWad  gentle- 
men;  and  further,  that  a  gentleman,  in 
England,  is  generally  defined  to  be  one, 
who,  without  any  title,  bears  a  coat  of 
arms,  or  whose  ancestors  have  been  free- 
men :  the  coat  determines  whether  he  i» 
or  is  not  descended  from  others  of  tha 
same  name.  In  the  highest  sense,  tha 
term  gentleman  signifies  a  man  who  not 
only  does  what  is  just  and  right,  but 
whose  conduct  is  guided  by  a  true  prin- 
ciple of  honor,  which  springs  from  that 
self-respect  and  intellectual  refinement 
which  manifest  themselves  in  easy  and 
free,  vet  delicate  manners. 

GENRE-PAINT'liSTG,  pictures  of  lifa 


204 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKUATriiE 


[gen 


and  manners.  Umler  tliis  title  arc  com- 
prised the  grave  episodes  of  life,  which 
are  to  history  what  a  single  scene  is  to  a 
drama,  or  a  Ij'ric  to  an  epic  poem.  Also 
comic  scenes  of  every  kind  ;  a  comic  sub- 
ject is  seldom  placed  in  the  highest  catn- 
gorj'  of  art,  because  it  is  the  nature  of 
comedy  to  overstep  the  strict  line  of  beau- 
ty and  to  become  caricature.  The  prin- 
cipal genre  pictures  consist  of  scenes  of 
every-day  life,  and  may  bo  classified. 
Those  of  the  Netherlands  are  the  best, 
and  deserve  to  live  ;  though  far  from  the 
ideal  of  art,  they  show  a  skilful  execution 
and  lead  to  higher  thoughts.  Another 
kind  are  the  low  attempts  at  coloring 
called  costume  or  portrait  genre  pictures, 
■which  are  merely  studies.  In  taking  for 
its  subject  the  events  of  daily  life,  genre- 
painting  (unless  the  subject  is  eminently 
suited  to  the  idea)  avoids  religious  themes 
as  high  and  lasting,  as  well  as  historical 
subjects,  which,  though  transitory,  ought 
never  to  appear  so.  A  view  of  an  open 
house,  into  which  the  sun  is  shining,  a 
peasant  lighting  his  pipe, — all  the  j)ass- 
ing  events  of  life,  its  characters  and  nims, 
offer  fitting  subjects  for  genre-painting. 
Pure  nature,  true  humanity,  national 
character,  as  revealed  by  domestic  man- 
ners, lie,  form  the  circle  of  true  genre- 
painting,  the  boundary  being  more  clear- 
ly defined  than  is  the  case  in  historical  or 
religious  art.  The  distinction  between 
history  and  genre-painting  cannot  be  too 
clearly  drawn.  Transitions  from  one  to 
the  other  are  admissible,  and  such  pic- 
tures belong  to  the  happiest  productions 
of  art ;  and  there  are  also  circumstances 
under  which  the  advantages  of  both  styles 
may  be  uniteil.  We  meet  with  speci- 
mens of  genre-painting  among  the  an- 
cients. As  the  character  of  ancient  wor- 
ship changed,  a  freer  space  was  offered  to 
Art,  which,  by  degrees,  overstepped  the 
ideal  circle  of  the  mythic-normal,  with- 
drew the  mystic  veil  with  which  the  Saga 
covered  everything,  and  revealingnature, 
assumed  an  individual  character  from 
■which  a  genre-like  style  of  art  arose  tend- 
ing towards  the  mythic.  This  style  was, 
however,  very  ditTerent  from  what  we  now 
call  genre-painting,  which  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  plastic  character  pervad- 
ing art.  Still  we  see  by  the  mural  paint- 
ings at  llorculaneum  and  Pompeii,  that 
in  later  Roman  art  there  were  colored 
pictures  of  the  genre  kind.  These  were 
certainly  imjierfect  attempts,  but  they 
prove,  nevertheless,  that  mere  manual 
artists  turned  to  domestic  painting.  The 
introduction  of  a  new  religion,  in  the  ser- 


vice of  which  art  was  enrolled,  delayed 
the  progress  of  life-painting  for  more  than 
a  thousand  years,  but  when  that  which 
was  unnatural  in  Christian  Art  gave  place 
to  a  free  (iermanic  spirit,  genre-jiainting 
arose  refreshed.  This  spirit  inclining  to- 
wards the  poetrj-  of  real  life  emploj'cd 
genre-painting  for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
but  so  many  pleasing  effects  were  devel- 
oped, that  religion  was  soon  neglected  and 
cast  aside.  The  carpenter's  workshop  be- 
came popular,  although  it  was  not  that  of 
Joseph;  the  landscape  was  beautiful,  even 
without  the  procession  of  the  three  kings  ; 
and  the  nosegay  riveted  the  eye,  although 
not  plaeeil  in  the  oratorv  of  the  Virgin. 

GEXRE-SCULP'TUKE,  we  have  evi- 
dences of  this  branch  of  Art  having  been 
attempted  by  the  ancients.  After  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  religion, 
and  consequently  Art,  underwent  a  great 
change  ;  there  was  more  room  for  indi- 
viduality, and  a  style  of  art  was  devel- 
oped which  corresponded  to  the  wants  of 
the  age,  and  which  produced  many  work.s 
of  a  genre  character.  We  know  t!iat 
genre-painting  was  very  popular  during 
the  last  ages  of  Grecian  art,  from  the  de- 
scriptions extant  of  the  kitchen— scenes, 
Ac,  painted  by  Pyreicos,  who  finished 
these  little  pictures  so  exquisitely  that 
the}'  fetched  a  much  higher  price  than 
large  paintings  by  other  artists.  There 
are  several  specimens  of  genre-sculpture 
extant,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is 
the  Venus  Callipygos,  in  the  Jluscum  at 
Naples.  We  find  this  stylo  very  often 
emjiloyed  in  Etruscan  art,  of  which  wo 
have  some  specimens  in  the  c(dlection  of 
bronzes  in  London,  viz,  a  circular  vase, 
the  handle  of  which  is  formed  by  the  fig- 
ures of  two  struggling  gladiators,  a  han- 
dle formed  by  two  jugglers,  also  a  rare 
bronze,  formed  of  an  Etruscan  slave, 
kneeling,  whose  physiognomy  betrays  his 
descent ;  he  is  employed  in  cleaning  a 
shoe,  and  holds  a  sponge  in  one  hand. 
We  meet  with  genre-sculjtturo  among  the 
biblical  and  legemlary  subjects  in  the 
middle  ages  ;  and  it  was  carried  on  in  the 
Germanic  period,  though  only  in  small 
works,  and  those  of  a  secular  nature,  viz  , 
ivory  carvings,  and  illuminations  in  books. 
Many  critics  affect  to  treat  such  works 
slightingly,  but  whoever  looks  at  them 
with  an  unprejudiced  eye,  will  be  do- 
lighteil  at  the  union  of  nature  with  gran- 
deur of  conee]ition,  and  will  reasonably 
expect  to  see  such  subjects  chosen  for  the 
highest  efforts  of  the  artist. 

GE'NUS,  in  natural  history,  a  subdi- 
vision  of  any  class  or  order   of  things, 


OEO] 


AND    THE    KINK    AllTS. 


205 


whether  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  min- 
eral kingdinus.  All  the  species  of  a  ge- 
nus agree  in  certain  characteristics. — In 
iiuisic,  a  distribution  of  the  tctracliurd,  or 
the  four  principal  sounds,  according  to 
their  quality. 

GEOGRAPHY,  properly,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth  or  terrestrial  globe, 
particularly  of  the  divisions  of  its  surface, 
natural  and  artilicial,  and  of  the  position 
of  the  several  countries,  kingdoms,  states, 
cities,  <te.  As  a  science,  geography  in- 
cludes the  doctrine  or  knowledge  of  the 
astronomical  circles  or  divisi(jns  of  the 
sphere,  by  which  the  relative  position 
of  places  on  the  globe  may  be  ascertain- 
ed ;  and  usually  treatises  of  geography 
contain  some  account  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth,  of  their  government,  man- 
ners, Ac,  and  an  account  of  the  princi- 
pal animals,  plants,  and  minerals. —  Gen- 
eral or  universal  geop^raphy,  the  science 
which  conveys  a  knowledge  of  the  earth, 
both  as  a  distinct  and  independent  body  in 
the  universe,  and  as  connected  with  a  sys- 
tem of  heavenly  bodies. —  Mathematical 
geography,  that  branch  of  the  general 
science  which  is  derived  from  the  applica- 
tion of  mathematical  truths  to  the  figure 
of  the  earth,  and  which  teaches  us  to  de- 
termine the  relative  position  of  places, 
their  longitudes  and  latitudes,  the  diifer- 
ent  lines  and  circles  imagined  to  be  drawn 
upon  the  earth's  surface,  their  measure, 
distance,  &c. — Physical  geography,  that 
branch  which  gives  a  description  of  tlie 
principal  features  of  the  earth's  surface 
the  various  climates  and  temperature, 
showing  how  these,  together  with  other 
causes,  affect  the  condition  of  the  humnn 
race,  and  also  a  general  account  of  the 
animals  and  productions  of  the  globe. — 
Political  geography,  that  branch  which 
considers  the  earth  as  the  abode  of  ra- 
tional beings,  according  to  their  diffusion 
over  the  globe,  and  their  social. relations 
as  they  are  divided  into  larger  or  smaller 
societies. — Sacred  or  biblical  geography, 
the  geography  of  Palestine,  and  other 
oriental  nations  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
having  for  its  object  the  illustration  of 
sacred  history. 

GEOL'OGY,  the  doctrine  or  science  of 
the  structure  of  the  earth  or  terraqueous 
globe,  and  of  the  substances  which  com- 
pore  it ;  or  the  science  of  the  compound 
minerals  or  aggregate  substances  which 
compose  the  earth,  the  relations  which 
the  several  constituent  masses  bear  to 
each  other,  their  formation,  structure, 
position,  and  direction.  It  also  investi- 
gates the  successive  changes  that  have 


taken  place  in  the  organic  and  inorganic 
kingdoms  of  nature ;  it  inquires  into  the 
causes  of  these  changes,  and  the  influ- 
ence which  they  have  exerted  in  modify- 
ing the  surface  and  e.\ternal  structure 
of  our  planet.  It  is  a  science  founded  on 
exact  observation  and  careful  inducticn, 
and  is  intimately  connected  with  all  the 
physical  sciences.  The  geologist,  in  order 
that  he  may  conduct  his  investigations 
with  success,  ought  to  be  well  versed  in 
chemistry,  mineralogy,  zoolog3',  botany, 
comparative  anatomy;  in  short,  every 
branch  of  science  relating  to  organic  and 
inorganic  nature  Within  the  memory 
of  the  present  generation  the  science 
of  geology  has  made  immense  progress. 
Aided  not  only  by  the  higher  branches 
of  physics,  but  bj'  recent  discoveries  in 
mineralogy  and  chemistry,  in  botany, 
zoology,  and  comparative  anatomy,  it  has 
extracted  from  the  archives  of  the  inte- 
rior of  the  earth,  records  of  former  condi- 
tions of  our  planet,  and  deciphered  docu-, 
ments  which  were  a  sealed  book  to  our 
ancestors.  It  extends  its  researches  into 
regions  more  vast  and  remote  than  come 
within  the  scope  of  any  other  physical 
.science  except  astronomy,  of  which  it 
has  emphatically  been  termed  the  sister 
science. 

GE'OMANCY,  a  kind  of  divination  by 
means  of  figures  or  lines,  formed  by  little 
dots  or  points,  either  on  the  earth  or  on 
paper,  and  representing  the  four  ele- 
ments, the  cardinal  points,  the  planetary 
bodies,  &c.  This  pretended  science  was 
flourishing  in  the  days  of  Chaucer,  and 
was  deeply  cultivated  by  Dryden  at  the 
time  of  his  rifaccimcnto  of  the  Knight's 
Tale.  Cattan,  who  wrote  a  book  on 
geomancy  in  the  sixteenth  century,  ab- 
surdly enough  observes,  that  it  is  "  no 
art  of  inchaunting,  as  some  may  suppose 
it  to  be,  or  of  divination,  which  is  made 
by  diabolicke  invocation ;  but  it  is  a  part 
of  natural  raagicke,  called  of  many  worthy 
men  the  daughter  of  astrologie,  and  the 
aljbreviation  thereof." 

GEOM'ETRY,  originally  and  properly, 
the  art  of  measuring  the  earth,  or  any 
distances  or  dimensions  on  it.  But  gc- 
onietr}'  now  denotes  the  science  of  mag- 
nitude in  general,  comprehending  the 
doctrines  and  relations  of  whatever  is 
susceptible  of  augmentation  and  diminu- 
tion ;  as  the  mensuration  of  lines,  sur- 
faces, solids,  velocity,  weight,  &c.,  with 
their  various  relations.  Geometry  is  the 
most  general  and  important  of  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  ;  it  is  founded  upon  a  few 
axioms  or  self-evident  truths,  and  every 


2GG 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATI- RK 


LOEB 


proposition  which  it  lays  down,  whether 
it  be  theorem  or  problem,  is  subjected  to 
the  most  accurate  and  rigid  demonstra- 
tion. Its  usefulness  extends  to  almost 
every  art  and  science.  Astronom.y,  navi- 
gation, surveying,  arcl'.itec-ture,  Inrtifica- 
tion.  engineering,  perspective,  drawing, 
optics,  mechanics,  &c.,  all  depend  upon 
it.-  '■'eomefnj  has  been  distinguished 
!:it>.  .Iicoretical  or  speculative  and  practi- 
rul.  The  former  treats  of  the  various 
properties  and  relations  of  niiignitudcs, 
witli  demonstrations  of  theorems,  Ac.  ; 
and  the  latter  relates  to  the  performance 
of  certain  geometrical  operations,  such  as 
the  construction  of  ligures.  the  drawing 
of  lines  in  certain  positions,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  geometrical  principles  to  the 
various  measurements  in  the  ordinary 
concerns  of  life. —  Tluorctlral  ireomctry 
is  again  divided  into  elementary  or  com- 
mon geometry,  and  the  higher  geometry  ; 
the  former  being  employed  in  the  con- 
'sideration  of  lines,  superficies,  angles, 
planes,  figures,  and  solids;  and  the  lat- 
ter, in  the  consideration  of  tlie  higher 
order  of  curve  lines  and  problems. 

GEOPON'ICA,  the  name  of  a  Greek 
compilation  of  precepts  on  rural  economy, 
extracted  from  ancient  writers.  The  name 
of  the  compiler  is  unknown;  but  the  au- 
thorities which  he  quotes  are  numerous 
and  <leservedly  celebrated. 

(lEUl'ON'ICS,  the  art  or  science  of 
cultivating  the  earth. 

GE'ORAM.'V,  an  instrument  or  machine 
which  exhibits  a  very  complete  view  of 
the  earth,  invented  in  Paris.  It  is  a  hol- 
low sphere  of  forty  feet  diamater,  formed 
by  thirty-six  bars  of  iron  representing 
the  parallels  and  meridians,  and  covered 
with  a  bluish  cloth,  intended  to  represent 
seaa  and  lakes.  The  land,  mountains, 
and  rivers  arc  pa-inted  on  paper  and 
pasted  on  this  cover. 

GEOlUiE,  St.,  a  saint  or  hero  whose 
name  is  famous  throughout  all  the  East, 
and  by  which  several  orders,  both  mili- 
tary and  religious,  have  been  distin- 
guished. St.  George  is  usually  repre- 
eented  on  horseback,  in  full  armor,  with 
a  formidable  dragon  writhing  at  his 
feet.  His  sanctity  is  established  in  the 
Latin  as  well  as  the  (J  reek  church  ;  and 
England  ami  Portugal  have  chosen  him 
for  their  patron  saint.  According  to  an- 
cient legends,  this  renowned  saint  was  a 
))rince  of  Cappiulocia ;  whose  greatest 
achievement  was  the  conquest  of  an  enor- 
mous dragon,  by  which  ho  olTccted  the 
deliverance  of  Aja,  the  daughter  of  a 
king.     The  legend  belongs  to  the  ago  of 


the  crusades.  The  ancient  Christian  em- 
perors bore  the  knight  upon  their  stand- 
ards. To  these  sacred  banners  the  cru- 
saders attributed  a  miraculous  power, 
and  were  sure  of  conquest  wiiilo  they 
floated  above  their  heads.  JMany,  how- 
ever, deny  his  very  existence  ;  and  reduce 
his  ethgy  to  a  mere  sj'mbol  of  victory 
gained  by  the  crusaders  over  the  Mussul- 
man nation.  The  legend  of  his  life  is  one 
of  the  most  familiar  and  popular  of  the 
Christian  mj-thology.  lie  is  usually  rep- 
resented as  a  knight  clothed  in  armor, 
mounted  on  horseback,  and  combating 
with  a  dragon.  The  variations  are  so 
slight,  that  the  subject  can  be  easily  rec- 
ognized. As  patron  saint,  he  stands  in 
armor,  holding  a  lance,  sometimes  with  a 
banner  with  a  red  cross,  and  a  palm 
branch.  Sometime.?  the  lance  is  broken 
and  the  dragon  dead  at  his  feet. 

GEOR'(iiCS,  a  poetical  composition 
treating  of  husbandry,  after  the  manner 
of  Virgil's  poems  on  rural  subjects,  which 
are  called  Georgics. 

GER'MAN  SCHOOL,  in  painting.  In 
this  school  we  find  an  attention  to  indi- 
vidual nature,  as  usually  seen,  without 
attempt  at  selection,  or  notion  of  ideal 
beauty.  The  German  painters  seem  to 
have  set  a  particular  value  on  high  fin- 
ishing, rather  than  on  a  good  arrange- 
ment and  disposition  of  the  subject. 
Their  coloring  is  far  better  than  their 
drawing,  but  their  draperies  are  gen- 
erally in  bad  taste.  Though  among  the 
painters  of  this  school  some  are  free 
from  the  application  of  these  observa- 
tions, they  are  not  sufiicient  in  number  to 
change  the  general  jmlgment  that  must  be 
passed  upon  it.  AVohlgemuth,  Holbein, 
and  Albert  Durer  are  the  heads  of  it. 
These  observations  do  not  apply  to  a 
school  which  seems  now  rising  in  Ger- 
many, and  which,  with  such  leaders  as 
Ketsch  and  others,  seems  likely  to  put  the 
school  of  painting  there  on  a  level  with 
its  highly  splendid  intellectual  powers 
in  all  other  branches  of  the  arts  and 
sciences. 

GEROCO'MIA,  that  part  of  medicine 
which  prescribes  a  regimen  for  old  ago. 

GER'RA,  in  antiquity,»a  sort  of  square 
shield,  used  first  by  the  Persians  and  af- 
terwards by  the  Greeks. 

(tERTND,  in  grammar,  a  verbal  noun 
of  the  neuter  gender,  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  a  participle,  declinable  only  in 
the  singular  number,  through  all  the 
cases  except  the  vocative ;  as,  nom. 
amandiun.  gen.  amandi,  dat.  amundo, 
accus.  amaiidum,  abl  amando. 


giaJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


261 


GERU'SIA,  in  ancient  history,  the 
nenato  of  Sparta.  The  niiml)er  of  this 
council  was  tliirty,  inelmliii'j:;  the  two 
kings  ;  and  the  qualifications  of  its  mem- 
bers were,  pure  Spartan  blooil,  and  an 
age  not  below  sixty  years.  The  election 
was  ])erformed  in  a  primitive  manner  by 
acclamation,  the  candidates  being  brought 
forth  one  by  one  before  the  people.  Jle 
who  was  greeted  with  the  loudest  ap- 
plause was  held  to  receive  the  highest 
honor  next  the  throne.  The  functions 
of  the  gernsia  were  partly  deliberative, 
partly  judicial,  and  partly  executive. 
It  prepared  measures  which  were  to  be 
laid  before  the  popular  assembly  ;  it 
exercised  a  criminal  jurisdiction,  with 
power  of  capital  punishment ;  and  also 
wielded  a  kind  of  censorial  authority  for 
the  correction  of  abuses. 

GES'TURB,  any  action  or  posture  in- 
tended to  express  an  idea  or  passion, 
or  to  enforce  an  argument  or  opinion  : 
hence  propriety  of  gesture  is  of  the  first 
importance  to  an  orator. — The  interpre- 
tation of  the  proper  significance  of  ges- 
ture is  very  important  for  the  umler- 
standing  of  works  of  art.  Much  of  this 
is  common  to  humanity,  and  seems  to  us 
necessary;  on  the  other  haml  there  are 
also  qualities  of  a  positive  nature,  that 
is  deriveil.  from  the  particular  views  and 
customs  of  the  nation.  Here  there  is  very 
much  imleed  to  be  learned  and  guessed  at, 
OS  well  by  the  artist  in  studying  life,  as 
by  the  scientific  in  works  of  art. 

"GEY'SERS,  the  celebrated  spouting 
fountains  of  boiling  water  in  Iceland. 
The  Geysers  are  situated  about  30  miles 
from  the  volcano  Ilecla,  in  plains  full  of 
hot  springs  nnd  steaming  fissures.  Their 
jets  are  intermittent,  and  the  height  to 
which  they  rise  appears  to  vary  much  at 
different  times. 

GHAUTS,  a  tertn  applied  originally 
to  the  narrow  and  difficult  passes  in  the 
mountains  of  Central  Hindostan,  but 
which  has  been  gradually  extended  to 
the  mountains  themselves.  They  consist 
of  two  great  chains  extending  along  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  the  Deccan,  par- 
allel to  each  other,  or  rather  diverging, 
ami  leaving  between  them  and  the  sea 
only  a  plain  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  in 
breadth. 

(tIIOST,  the  soul  or  spirit  separate 
from  the  body.  The  ancients  supposed 
every  inan  to  be  possessed  of  three  differ- 
ent ghosts,  which,  after  the  dissolution  of 
the  human  body,  were  difTerently  dis- 
posed of.  These  they  distinguished  by 
the  names  of  Manes,  Spirifus,   Umbra. 


The  Manes,  they  fancied,  went  down 
into  the  infernal  regions  ;  the  Sji^'ritiis 
ascended  to  the  skies,  and  the  Umbra 
hovered  about  the  tomb,  as  being  unwil- 
ling to  quit  its  old  connections. —  To  give 
lip  the  ghost,  a  phrase  frequently  used  in 
Scripture  for — to  yield  up  the  breath,  or 
expire. 

GHOST,  HOLY,  the  third  persvn  in 
the  Holy  Trinity  ;  but  according  to  some 
theologians,  a  biblical  metaphor,  to  des- 
ignate the  divine  influence.  All  Chris- 
tians who  subscribe  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  Athanasian  creed,  believe  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  have  proceeded  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son  ;  yet  the  Son  and  the  Holy 
Ghost  are  both  eternal,  since  they  are 
eo-cternal  with  the  Father.  The  Greek 
church  maintains  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
proceeds  from  the  Father  only  ;  and  this 
difference  is  one  of  the  main  points  of 
distinction  between  that  church  and  the 
Roman  Catholic. — A  military  order  in 
France  vmder  the  old  regime,  which  was 
abolished  by  the  revolution,  but  revived 
by  the  Bourbons. 

"GI'ANTS,  history,  both  sacred  and 
profane,  makes  mention  of  giants,  or 
people  of  extraordinary  stature.  Na- 
tions, as  well  as  individuals,  in  their  in- 
fancy, love  the  miraculous ;  and  any 
event  which  deviates  from  the  common 
course  of  things,  immediately  becomes  a 
wonder  on  which  poetry  eagerly  seizes  ; 
hence  the  Cyclops  and  Lfestrygons  of  the 
ancients,  and  the  ogres  of  romance.  In- 
stances, however,  are  by  no  means  want- 
ing of  uncommonly  large  persons,  hardly 
needing  the  exaggeration  of  a  lively  im- 
agination to  make  them  objects  of  won- 
der. The  giants  spoken  of  in  Scripture 
might  be  men  of  extraordinary  stature  ; 
but  not  so  much  above  the  ordinary  meas- 
ure as  they  have  fancied,  who  describe 
them  as  three  or  four  times  larger  than 
men  are  at  present.  And  when  we  find 
the  Israelites  describing  themselves  as 
appearing  like  grasshojipers  before  the 
Anakites,  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  uni- 
versal practice  among  the  nations  of  the 
East  to  express  their  astonishment  in  the 
most  extravagant  style  of  hyperbole.  The 
giants  of  Greek  mythology  are  believed 
by  some  to  represent  the  struggle  of  the 
elements  of  nature  against  the  gods,  that 
is,  against  the  onler  of  creation.  They 
were  said  to  hurl  mountains  and  forests 
against  Olympus,  disdaining  the  light- 
nings of  Jupiter,  kc.  Giants,  indeed, 
make  a  very  considerable  figure  in  the 
fabulous  hisrory  of  every  nation  ;  but,  like 
ghosts  and  fairies,  they  have  always  van- 


208 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[qiv 


ished  at  the  approach  of  science  and  civili  ■ 
zation.  The  fossil  bones  which  gave  cur- 
rency to  the  belief  of  their  existence,  have, 
upon  minute  inquiry,  been  found  gener- 
ally to  belon<;  to  elephants,  whales,  &c. 

(;rANT\s'  CALSEWAY,  a  vast  as- 
semblage of  basaltic  crystallized  rocks,  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Ireland.  This  mag- 
niticent  production  of  nature  extends  two 
miles  in  length  along  the  coast  of  Antrim, 
and  probably  runs  under  the  sea  as  far  as 
the  coast  of  Scotland,  since  something  of 
the  same  kind  is  met  with  there,  and 
known  by  the  name  of  Fingal's  Cave. 
It  consists  of  many  hundred  thousands 
of  columns  of  a  black  kind  of  rock,  hard 
as  marble,  of  about  twenty  feet  in  height, 
and  a  peniagonal  or  five-sided  figure. 

GIAOUR,  a  word  literally  signifying 
dog  in  the  Turkish  language  ;  and  com- 
monly applied  by  the  Turks  to  designate 
the  adherents  of  all  religions  except  the 
Mohammedan,  but  more  particularly 
Christians. 

(ilB'ELINES.  or  GHIB'ELINES,  a 
faction  in  Italy,  in  the  13th  century,  who 
were  the  opponents  of  another  faction, 
called  the  Guelfs  [which  see.] 

GIL'BERTlis'E,  one  of  a  religious  or- 
der, so  named  from  Gilbert,  lord  of  Sem- 
pringham  in  Lincolnshire. 

GIL'DA  MERCATO'llIA,  in  law,  mer- 
cantile meetings,  assemblies,  or  corporate 
bodies. 

GILDING,  the  art  of  covering  any- 
thing with  gold,  either  in  a  foliated  or 
liquid  state.  The  beauty  of  gold  has  in- 
duced many  attempts  to  imitate  its  ap- 
pearance, and  hence  several  method.',  of 
gilding  have  been  invented.  The  art  of 
gilding,  at  the  present  day,  is  performed 
either  upon  metals  or  upon  wood,  leather, 
])arclnnent,  or  paper  ;  and  there  aretiiree 
di.-itinct  methods  in  general  practice; 
namely,  irasli,  or  iraler  gilditig,  in  which 
the  gold  is  spread,  whilst  reduced  to  a 
fluid  state,  by  solution  in  mercury  ;  leaf 
gilding,  either  burnished  or  in  oil,  per- 
formed by  cementing  thin  leaves  of  gold 
upon  the"  work,  either  by  size  or  by  oil  ; 
and  j<tpunner's  gilding,  in  which  gold 
dust  or  powder  is  used  instead  of  leaves. 
(}old  is  also  applied  to  glass,  porcelain, 
and  other  vitriticd  substances,  of  which 
the  surfaces,  being  very  smooth,  are 
capable  of  perfect  contact  with  the  gold 
leaves. 

(5  ILE.S,  St  ,  the  Hermit,  Saint  Gilles, 
(/•v.,)  Sant.  Egi'Jio,  (Jtai)  This  saint 
lias  obtained  gr?;-:  popularity  both  in 
Eiiglanil  and  Scoiiand,  as  well  as  in 
France.     Ho  is  usually  represented  as  an 


old  man  with  a  flowing  white  beard, 
naked,  or  clothed  in  white,  (the  color  of 
the  habit  of  the  Benedictines,)  and  ao 
compauied  by  a  hind  wounded  by  an  ar- 
row. 

GIM'BAL,  a  bra.ss  ring  by  which  » 
sea  compass  is  suspended  in  its  box,  by 
means  of  which  the  card  is  kept  in  a  hor- 
izontal position,  notwithstanding  the  roll- 
ing of  the  ship. 

(UP'SIES.  or  GYP'SIES,  a  wandering 
tribe,  or  race  of  vagabonds,  spread  over 
the  greatr^r  part  of  Europe,  and  some 
parts  of  Asia  and  Africa;  strolling  about 
and  subsisting  mostly  by  theft,  low  games, 
and  fortune-telling.  The  name  is  sup- 
posed to  be  corrupted  from  Egyptian,  as 
they  were  formerly  thought  to  liaveconie 
from  Egypt ;  but  it  is  now  believed  they 
arp  of  Indian  origin,  and  that  they  be- 
longed to  the  race  of  the  Sindes,  an  In- 
dian caste,  which  was  dispersed,  in  1400, 
by  the  expeilitions  of  Timour.  Their 
language  is  the  same  throughout  Europe 
with  but  little  variation,  and  even  now 
resembles  the  dialect  of  llinilostan.  The 
late  Bishop  Heber  relates  in  his  Narra- 
tive of  a  Journey  through  the  I'pper 
Provinces  of  India,  that  he  met  with  a 
camp  of  gypsies  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges,  who  spoke  the  Hindoo  language 
as  their  mother  tongue  ;  and  he  further 
observes,  that  he  found  the  same  people 
in  Persia  and  Russia.  (Jypsics  are  re- 
markable for  the  yellow  brown,  or  rather 
olive  color  of  their  skin  ;  the  jet  black 
of  their  hair  and  eyes ;  the  extreme 
whiteness  of  their  teeth  ;  and  for  the 
symmetry  of  their  limbs,  which  distin- 
guishes even  the  men,  whose  general  ap- 
pearance, however,  is  repulsive  and  shy. 
Though  some  occasionally  follow  a  trade 
or  honest  calling,  they  rarely  settle  per- 
manently anywhere.  Wherever  the  cli- 
mate is  mild  enough,  they  are  found  in 
forests  and  deserts,  in  companies.  They 
seldom  have  tents,  but  seek  shelter  from 
the  cold  of  winter  in  grottoes  and  caves, 
or  they  bail  1  huts,  sunk  some  leet  in  the 
eaith,  andcovere  1  with  sods  laid  on  poles. 
They  are  fond  of  insiruinental  music, 
which  they  cliiclly  ))ractise  by  the  ear, 
and  their  lively  motions  arc  remarkable 
in  their  own  peculiar  dances.  The  youth- 
ful gypsies  traverse  the  country,  the  men 
obtaining  their  living  by  gymna.^tic  feats, 
tricks,  kv  ,  while  the  wouirn  invariably 
practise  fortune-telling  and  chiromancy. 
They  are  not  nice  in  their  food,  but  eat 
all  kinds  cf  flesh;  even  that  of  animals 
which  have  died  a  natural  death.  Brandy 
is  their  favorite  beverage ;  tobacco  theil 


gi.a] 


AND     IIIE    FINK    AlllS. 


269 


greatest  luxury  ;  both  men  and  women 
cheiv  and  smoke  it  with  avidity,  and  are 
ready  to  make  threat  sacritice.s  for  the 
sake  of  .satisfying  this  inclination.  As 
for  religion  the^'  have  no  settled  notions 
or  jjriiK-iple.s  :  among.st  tiie  Turks  they 
are  iMohaininedans  ;  in  Christian  coun- 
tries, if  tlicy  make  any  religious  profes- 
sion at  all,  they  follow  the  forms  of  Chris- 
tianit}',  without,  however,  caring  for  in- 
i^truction,  or  having  any  interest  in  the 
spirit  of  religion.  They  marry  with  none 
but  their  own  race,  but  their  marriages 
are  formed  in  the  rudest  manner,  and 
when  a  gypsy  becomes  tired  of  his  wife, 
he  will  turn  her  off  without  ceremony. 

(ilR'DER,  in  architecture,  a  principal 
beam  in  a  floor  for  sujjporting  the  bind- 
ing or  other  joists,  whereby  their  bearing 
or  length  is  lessened.  Perhaps  so  called, 
because  the  ends  of  the  joists  are  inclosed 
by  it. 

GIR'DLE,  a  belt  or  band  of  leather  or 
some  other  substance  used  in  girding  up 
the  loins.  The  girdle  was  in  use  among 
the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  for 
various  purposes  more  or  less  important. 
By  the  Hebrews  it  was  worn  chiefly  upon 
a  journey,  and  sometimes  as  a  mark  of 
humiliation  and  sorrow;  and  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  used  as  a  mil- 
itary ornament.  To  deprive  a  soldier  of 
his  girdle  was  the  deepest  mark  of  igno- 
miny with  which  he  could  be  branded  ; 
and  even  among  the  civilians,  who  al- 
ways wore  a  girdle  over  the  tunic  to  ren- 
der their  motions  unembarrassed,  the 
want  of  this  appendage  was  considered 
strongly  presumptive  of  idle  and  dissolute 
propensities.  Zoncim  solvere  virgineain 
was  a  well-known  phrase  appropriated  to 
the  marriage  ceremony.  To  Venus  was 
attributed  by  the  poets  the  possession  of 
a  particular  kind  of  girdle,  called  cestus, 
which  was  said  to  have  the  power  of  in- 
spiring love. 

GIRONDE',  THE,  in  French  history, 
a  celebrated  political  party  during  the 
revolution ;  its  members  were  termed 
Girondists  or  Girondins.  The  name  was 
derived  from  that  of  the  department  La 
Gironde,  (in  wliieh  Burdeau.>c  is  situated.) 
which  sent  to  the  legislative  assembly  of 
1791,  among  its  representatives,  three 
men  of  eloquence  and  talent,  (Gaudet, 
Genscmne,  Vergniaud.)  who  were  among 
the  chief  leaders  of  the  party.  lis  prin- 
ciples were  republican.  During  tlie  con- 
tinuance of  that  assembly  the  (Jirondists 
formed  a  powerful,  but  not  always  con- 
sistent party.  Out  of  these  Louis  XVI. 
chose  his  republican  ministers  in  the  bo- 


ginning  of  1792.  But  after  the  massacres 
of  September  in  that  year  the  party  in 
general  withdrew  from  all  connection  with 
the  Jacobins,  and  appro.ximatcd  towards 
the  Constitutionalists.  In  the  Conven- 
ti(m  the  Girondi^ts  at  flrst  commanded  a 
majority,  but  on  the  king's  trial  they 
were  much  divided  ;  and,  being  pressed 
by  the  violence  of  the  sections  of  Paris, 
they  were  at  length  expelled  from  the  as- 
sembly :  thirty  lOur  of  them  were  out« 
lawed,  anil  f.iia'',y  twenty-two  of  their 
leaders  gulilo'lned  (7th  and  31st  October, 
1793,)  whi'ja  few  escaped,  and  others 
put  aa  c.id  '.o  themselves.  Perhaps  the 
most  c  .ie''«at-.,d  member  of  the  Girondo 
party  v.ts  ^  lady,  Madame  Roland,  the 
wif  J  '.t'  '.no  minister  of  that  name,  who 
w  »f  eTjc-.iei'.  when  the  party  fell. 

j'.R' jl'l^TTE,  (French,  weathercock.) 
3  *■  ;r  a  'pr'.ied  to  numerous  public  char- 
Zf  X"  cf  m  it'rance,  who,  during  the  revolu- 
t'.'n.T'^  ^■'A,  turned  with  every  political 
I  .''ere.  To  mark  these,  a  Dictionnaire 
c'j*  Girnattes  was  published,  containing 
t  jeir  names,  &c.,  with  a  number  of  weath- 
ercocks  against  each,  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  changes  in  the  individual's  po- 
1  tical  creed. 

GIVEN,  a  term  much  used  by  mathe- 
maticians, to  denote  something  supposed 
to  be  known.  Thus,  if  a  magnitude  be 
known,  it  is  said  to  be  a  given  magnitude, 
if  the  ratio  between  two  quantities  be 
known,  these  quantities  are  said  to  have 
a,giren  ratio,  &c.,  Ac. 

GLA'CIERS,  immense  masses  or  fields 
of  ice  which  accumulate  in  the  valleys  be- 
tween high  mountains,  from  the  melting 
of  the  snow  at  their  top,  and  which,  ow- 
ing to  their  elevation,  generally  remain 
solid.  The  ice  of  the  glaciers  is  entirely 
different  from  that  of  the  sea  and  river 
water.  It  is  not  formed  in  layers,  but 
consists  of  little  grains  of  congealed  snow  ; 
and  hence,  though  perfectly  clear,  and 
often  smooth  on  the  surface,  it  is  not 
transparent.  As  glaciers,  in  some  posi- 
tions, and  in  hot  summers,  decrease,  they 
often  also  increase  for  a  number  of  years 
so  as  to  render  a  valley  uninhabitable. 
Their  increase  is  caused  partly  by  alter- 
nate thawing  and  freezing;  their  de- 
crease, by  the  mountain  rivers,  which  of- 
ten flow  under  them,  and  thus  form  an 
arch  of  ice  over  the  torrent.  In  the  Ty- 
rol, Switzerland,  Piedmont,  ami  Savoy, 
tlie  glaciers  are  so  numerous  that  they 
have  been  calculated  to  form  altogether 
a  superficial  extent  of  1481  square  miles. 

GLA'CIS,  in  fortification,  a  mass  of 
earth  serving  as  a  parapet  to  the  covered 


270 


CVCLOl'KDIA     OF     LnKKATLIlK 


[glb 


way,  having   an   easy  slope  or  tleclivity 
towards  the  ch:inipaign  or  field. 

GLA'DIATORS,  in  antiquity,  combat- 
ants who  fought  at  the  public  games  in 
Komc,  for  the  entertaiinuent  of  the  spec- 
tators. They  were  at  first  prisoners, 
slaves,  or  condemned  criminals  ;  but  af- 
terwards freemen  fought  in  the  arena, 
either  for  hire,  or  from  choice.  The 
games  were  commenced  by  a  praliisio,  in 
which  they  fought  with  weapons  of  wood, 
till,  upon  a  signal,  they  assumed  their 
arms,  and  began  in  earnest  to  fight  in 
pairs.     In  case  the  vanquished  was  not 


killed  in  the  combat,  his  fate  was  decided 
by  the  people.  If  they  wished  to  save 
the  life  of  the  vanquished  gladiator,  they 
signified  the  same  by  clenching  the  fin- 
gers of  both  hands  between  each  other, 
and  holding  the  thumbs  upright,  close  to- 
gether ;  the  contrary  was  signified  by 
bending  back  their  tliumbs.  The  first  of 
these  signals  was  called  polliccm  premere, 
the  second  pollicem  rertere.  The  victors 
were  honored  with  a  palm  branch,  a  sum 
of  money,  or  other  marks  of  the  people's 
favor;  and  they  were  not  unfrequentiy 
released  from  further  service,  and  re- 
ce-ived  as  a  badge  of  freedom,  the  7-udis, 
or  wooden  sword.  The  cut  represents  the 
celebrated  statue  of  the  Dying  (Jladiator. 
GLASS  PAINTING,  in  painting,  the 
method  of  staining  glass  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  produce  the  effect  of  represent- 
ing all  the  subjects  whereof  the  art  is 
susceptible.  A  French  painter  of  Mar- 
seilles is  said  to  have  been  tlie  first  who 
instructed  the  Itali;ins  in  this  art,  during 
the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.  It  was,  how- 
ever, practised  to  a  considerable  extent  l)y 
Lucas  of  liCyden,  nnd  Albert  Durer.  The 
art  of  glass-painting  is  practised  un<lor 
three  sj'stems,  which  may  be  distinguish- 
ed as  the  mosaic  me/hod;  the  enamel 
method;  and  a  method  conipounded  of 
these  two,  or  the  vionair-enantr!  mctliod. 
There  is  j'et  nnotlier  mode  of  ornament- 
ing glass,  which  consists  in  ajiplying  pig- 
ments mixed  witli  copal  varnish,  liut 
this  is  of  a  perishable  nature,  and  should 
not  bo  regarded  as  true  glass- painting, 


which  is  only  perfected  by  the  aid  of  fire, 
and  is  as  durable  as  the  glass  itself 
Most  true  glass-paintings  are  formed  by. 
combining  the  two  processes  of  enamel- 
ling and  stain;;;;;,  since,  alth<nigh  it  would 
not  be  possible  to  execute  a  gla.«s-jiaint- 
ing  by  staining  the  glass  merely,  yet  it 
can  be  entirely  foruied  of  painted  glass 
By  the  mosaic  method,  each  color  of  the 
design  must  be  represented  by  a  separate 
piece  of  glass,  except  yellow,  brown,  and 
black;  these  colors  are  applied  upon  white 
glass,  and  for  shadows.  In  the  enamel 
method,  colored  glass  is  not  used,  the 
picture  being  painted  upon  wliite-glass 
with  enamel  fragments.  Tiie  'mosaic- 
enamel  method  consists  of  a  combination 
of  the  two  other  processes;  white  and 
colored  glass,  as  well  as  every  variety  of 
enamel  color,  being  employed  In  it. 

GLAU  CUS,  in  Grecian  mythology,  the 
name  of  a  marine  deity,  the  son,  accord- 
ing to  some  of  the  genealogists,  of  Nep- 
tune and  one  of  the  Naiads  ;  according  t« 
others,  of  Poly  bins  and  Alcyone.  He 
enjoyed  the  power  of  prophecy. 

GLAZING,  is  that  part  of  the  prac- 
tice of  oil-painting  which  consists  in  the 
application  of  an  extremely  thin  layer 
of  color  over  another,  for  the  purpose  of 
modifying  its  tone.  The  jiigments  em- 
ployed are  generally  transparent,  al- 
though, in  some  instances,  such  as  in  the 
representation  of  clouds,  dust,  smoke,  Ac  , 
opaque  pigments  are  admissible  when 
mixed  in  minute  quantities  with  a  large 
proportion  of  oil.  ]5y  glazing,  the  painter 
can  produce  certain  effects,  such  ns  trans- 
parency and  mellowness,  impossible  with 
the  aid  of  solid  pigments  alone,  the  in- 
tention being  to  give  a  natural  and 
agreeable  harmony  and  mellowness  to 
the  execution  of  a  picture  such  as  would 
be  produced  by  a  colored  varnish.  The 
color  employed  in  glazing  should  be  of  a 
darker  tint  than  the  solid  pigment  over 
which  it  is  laid.  Glazing  forniod  a  very 
important  part  in  the  practice  of  the 
Venetian  school,  and  in  those  derived 
from  it.  Those  who  paint  alia  prima 
Clin  produce  the  desired  effect  without 
glazing. 

GLEAN'ING,  the  practice  of  collect 
ing  corn  left  in  a  harvest  field  after  the 
harvest  has  been  carried,  which  appears 
by  the  Mosaic  law  to  hnve  been  allowed 
to  the  poor.  The  right  of  the  poor  to 
glcnn  is,  however,  not  admitted  in  the 
English  common  law. 

GLEBE,  in  law,  church  hind;  uanally 
taken  for  th;it  which  is  annexed  to  a  par- 
ish churcli  of  ('iiinuioii  riglit. 


QXO] 


AM)     11  IK     FINK     A  ins. 


271 


G-LEE,  in  music,  a  cfJinposition  for 
voices  in  three  or  more  parts.  The  sub- 
jects of  the  words  are  various,  being  gay, 
grave,  amatory,  jiithetic,  or  b.icchana- 
liau.  It  may  i;oiislst  of  only  one  move- 
meat,  but  usually  has  more. 

GLEE-.M.VX,  itinerant  minstrels  vrere 
so  calle  I  by  the  Sn.xons:  their  appella- 
tion is  translated  joeulatores  by  the  Latin 
writers  of  the  middle  ages.  The  name 
appears  to  have  been  supplanted  by  the 
Norman  minstrel,  shortly  after  the  con- 
quest. 

G-LOBE,  in  practical  methcmatics,  an 
artificial  spiierical  body,  on  the  conve.x 
surface  of  which  are  represented  the 
countries,  seas,  <fee.  of  our  earth  ;  or  the 
face  of  the  heavens,  with  the  several  cir- 
cles which  are  conceived  upon  them. 
That  with  the  parts  of  the  earth  deline- 
ated upon  its  surface,  is  called  the  terres- 
trial globe;  and  that  with  the  constella- 
tions, (tc.  the  celestial  globe.  Their  prin- 
cipal use,  besides  serving  as  maps  to 
distinguish  the  earth's  surface,  and  the 
situation  of  the  fi.xed  stars,  is  to  illustrate 
and  explain  the  phenomena  arising  from 
the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth.  They 
are  consequently  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  geogra- 
phy and  astronomy. 

GLOBULAR  CiLlRT,  a  name  given 
to  the  representation  of  the  surface,  or 
of  some  part  of  the  surface  of  the  terres- 
trial globe  upon  a  plane,  wherein  the 
parallels  of  latitude  are  circles,  nearly 
concentric,  the  meridian  curves  bending 
towards  the  poles,  and  the  rhumb-lines 
are  also  curves. 

GLOB'ULE,  a  small  particle  of  matter 
of  a  spherical  form  ;  a  word  particularly 
appliei  to  the  red  particles  of  bloo  I, 
which  swim  in  a  transparent  serum,  and 
may  be  discovered  by  the  microscope. 

GLO'llY,  in  painting  and  sculpture,  a 
circle,  either  plain  or  radiated,  surround- 
ing the  heads  of  saints,  &e.,  and  espe- 
cially of  our  Saviour.  The  term  glory  is 
used  in  the  sacred  writings  in  various 
.•senses,  all  of  which,  however,  may  be 
easily  deduce  1  from  the  original  me;\ning 
ot'  its  Hebrew  equivalent,  which  signifies 
weight.  Thus  t,'ie  glory  of  God  means 
all  those  attributes  and  qualities  which 
give  him  weight  in  our  eyes,  or  inspire 
us  with  reverence. 

GLO.SS,  in  the  rhetoric  of  Aristotle, 
this  word  is  used  in  the  sense  of  a  foreign, 
obsolete,  or  otherwise  strange  idiom  ; 
which,  judiciously  employed,  he  reckons 
among  the  ornaments  of  style.  From 
the  sense  of  ■' something  requiring  inter- 


pretation" the  W;)rd  came  to  mean  the 
interpretation  itself  ;  strictly,  of  a  single 
word  or  phrase.  In  the  twelfth  century, 
the  comments  or  annotations  of  learned 
jurists  on  passages  in  the  te.xt  of  the 
Roman  law  were  denominated  glosses  ; 
when  these  extended  to  a  running  com- 
mentary, they  were  termed  an  appara- 
tus. The  glosses  were  collected  by  Ac- 
cursius  in  the  13th  century,  and  from 
that  period  they  formed  for  a  long  time 
a  body  of  authority  re«koned  equal  or 
even  superior  to  the  te.xt  itself. 

GLOS'SARY,  a  dictionary  of  difiScult 
words  and  phrases  in  any  language  or 
writer  ;  sometimes  used  for  a  dictionary 
of  words  in  general. 

GLOVE.S,  well-known  articles  of  dress 
used  for  covering  the  hands.  The  prac- 
tice of  covering  the  hands  with  gloves  has 
prevailed  among  almost  all  *>•«  nations 
of  the  earth  from  time  immen^orial,  and 
is  common  at  onee  to  the  rude  Tartar, 
who  seeks  by  their  means  to  protect 
himself  from  cold,  and  to  the  refined 
European,  with  whom  their  use  is  an 
emblem  of  luxury.  In  the  middle  ages, 
gloves  constituted  a  costly  article  of 
dress,  being  often  highly  decorated  with 
embroidery  and  richly  adorned  with 
precious  stones.  In  the  age  of  chivalry 
it  was  usual  for  the  soldiers  who  had 
gained  the  favor  of  a  lady  to  wear  her 
glove  in  his  helmet  ;  and,  as  is  well 
known,  the  throwing  of  a  glove  was  the 
most  usual  mode  of  challenging  to  duel. 
This  latter  practice  prevailed  so  early  as 
the  year  124fS. 

GLYCO'XI  AX,  or  GLYCON'IC,  a  kind 
of  verse  in  Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  con- 
sisting of  three  feet,  a  spondee,  a  chori- 
amb, and  a  pyrrhic. 

GLY'PII,  in  sculpture  and  architecture, 
any  ch.annel  or  cavity  intended  as  an  or- 
nament. 

GLYPTOG'RAPIIY',  a  description  of 
the 'art  of  engraving  on  precious  stones. 

GLYPTOTIIE'CA,  a  building  or  room 
for  the  preservation  of  works  of  sculp- 
ture ;  a  word  adopted  by  the  Germans,  aa 
in  the  instance  of  the  celebrated  Glypto- 
thek  at  Munich. 

GXU.ME.S,  spirits  with  which  the  imagi- 
nation of  certain  philosophers  has  people* 
the  interior  parts  of  the  earth,  and  v- 
whose  care  mines,  quarries,  ka.  are  .as- 
signed. 

'GXO'MTC  P0ET.=:.  Greek  poets,  whos. 
remains  chiefly  consist  of  short  senten- 
tious precepts  and  reflections,  are  so 
termed  in  classical  bibliography.  The 
principal  writers   ot  this   description,  of 


272 


CVCLOI'EDIA     OF    LI  rXK  A  If  HE 


[col 


whom  a  few  fragments  are  extant,  are 
Theognis  and  Solon,  who  lived  in  the  Cth 
century  before  the  Christian  era.  With 
them  Tyrtaeus  and  Simonides  are  joined 
by  Brunck  in  his  edition,  although  these 
writers  have  little  of  a  gnomic  character. 
The  metre  of  these  poets  is  elegiac. 

GXOS'TICS,  a  sect  of  philosophers  that 
arose  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity, 
who  pretended  they  were  the  only  men 
who  had  a  true  knowledge  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  They  formed  for  them- 
selves a  system  of  theology,  agreeable  to 
the  philosophy  of  Pythagoras  and  Plato, 
and  fancied  they  discovered  deeper  mys- 
teiies  in  the  Scriptures  than  were  per- 
ceived by  those  whom  they  considered  as 
simple  and  ignorant.  They  held  that  all 
natures,  intelligible,  intellectual,  and  ma- 
terial, are  derived  by  successive  emana- 
tions from  the  Deity.  In  process  of 
time,  the  name  designated  sectarians  of 
various  descriptions,  but  who  all  agreed 
in  certain  opinions;  :ind  the  tenet  which 
seems  most  particularly  to  distinguish  the 
Gnostic  name,  was  the  e.xistence  of  two 
first  principles,  or  deities,  the  one  the 
author  of  good,  and  the  other  of  evil. 

GOBELINS,  or  Hotel-Royal  DE  Go- 
HELiNs,  a  celebrated  academy  for  tapes- 
try-drawing, and  manufactory  of  tapes- 
try, erected  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Marcel, 
at  Paris,  by  Louis  XIV.  in  thej'ear  1666. 
The  place  was  previously  famous  on  ac- 
count of  the  dyeing  manufactory  estab- 
lished there  by  Giles  .and  John  (Jobelins, 
in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  These  eminent 
dyers  discovered  a  method  of  producing 
a  beautiful  si^arlct,  which  has  ever  since 
been  known  by  their  name;  and  so  ex- 
tensive has  been  their  fame,  that  not  only 
the  color,  but  the  house  in  which  their 
business  was  carried  on,  and  the  river 
they  made  use  of,  are  called  srnhelin.'t. 

GOD,  the  appellation  which  we  give  to 
the  Creator  and  Sovereign  of  the  uni- 
verse ;  the  Supremo  Being. — Tlic  words 
god  and  L'oddrss  are  also  tiie  appellatives 
common  to  th'!  heathen  deities;  which 
they  divided  into  dii  mrtjoruni  gcntidin, 
and  dii  niiiiorntit  i;'cnlinni;  that  is,  into 
the  superior  and  iul'erior  gods.  Anotiier 
division  was  taken  from  their  place  of 
residence  ;  thus  there  were  celestial,  ter- 
restrial, infernal,  marine,  and  sylvan 
gods.  They  were  also  ilividcd  into  ani- 
mal and  natural  gods:  the  animal  gods 
were  mortals,  who  had  been  raised  to  di- 
vinity by  ignorance  and  superstition  ;  and 
the  natural  gods,  the  parts  of  nature, 
Buch  as  the  stars,  the  clement.-*,  mountains, 
rivers,  Ac.     There  were  also  deities,  who 


were  supposed  to  preside  ot  jr  particular 
persons  :  some  had  the  care  of  women  in 
child-birth ;  others,  the  earj  of  children 
and  young  persons  ;  and  others  were  tho 
deities  (if  marriage.  Each  action,  virtue, 
and  prcjfession  had  also  its  jiarticular 
god :  the  shepherds  had  their  Pan  ;  the 
gardeners,  their  Flora  ;  the  learned,  their 
Mercury  and  Minerva;  and  the  poets, 
their  Apollo  and  the  !Muscs. 

(;0D  FATHER,  and  GOD'MOTIIER, 
the  man  and  woman  who  are  sponsors  for 
a  child  at  baptism  ;  who  promise  to  an- 
swer for  his  future  conduct,  and  solemnly 
promise  that  he  shall  follow  a  life  of  piety 
and  virtue,  by  this  moans  laying  them- 
selves under  an  indisjiensable  obligation 
to  instruct  the  child  and  watch  over  his 
conduct.  This  practice  is  of  great  an- 
tiquity in  the  Christian  church,  and  was 
probably  instituted  to  prevent  children 
being  brought  up  in  idolatry,  in  caso 
their  parents  died  before  they  arrived  at 
years  of  discretion. 

GOLD,  this  metal,  which  in  purity  and 
firmness  surpasses  all  others,  isemploycil 
both  in  the  plastic  arts,  and  to  a  limited 
extent  in  painting.  The  most  varied  and 
beautiful  ol>jects  extant  are  the  vessels 
used  in  religious  services;  and  as  it  was 
most  properly  employed  in  the  sacred 
vessels  and  sanctuary  of  the  Old  Temple, 
so  the  chalices  and  tabernacles  of  tho 
Catholic  church,  and  the  shrines  of  tho 
saints  have  been  moulded  of  this  precious 
metal;  and  in  ecclesiastical  ornament,  of 
all  kinds,  with  its  multiplied  fibres,  and 
mingled  with  silk  and  purple,  it  enriches 
the  sacerdotal  vestments  and  the  hang- 
ings of  the  altar,  (told  signifies  purity, 
dignity,  wisdom,  and  glory,  and  it  is  used 
in  painting  for  the  Nimbi  which  surround 
the  heads  of  the  saints,  and  it  frequently 
forms  the  ground  on  which  sacred  sub- 
jects arc  painted,  tho  better  to  express 
the  majesty  of  the  mystery  depicted.  It 
is  a  [iropcr  emblem  of  brightness  and 
glory. 

GOLDEN-FLEECE,  in  the  mytho- 
logical fables  of  tho  ancients,  signified  tiio 
skin  or  lleecc  of  the  ram  nixm  which 
Phryxus  and  llella  are  siqiposcd  to  have 
swum  over  the  sea  to  Colcliis  ;  which  be- 
ing sacrificed  to  Jupiter,  its  fleece  was 
hung  upon  a  tree  in  the  grove  of  Mars, 
guarded  by  two  bra/cn-hoofed  bulls,  and 
a  monstrous  dragon  that  never  slept  ;  but 
was  at  last  taken  and  carried  oH' by  Jason 
and  the  Argonauts. 

GOLDEN  NUM'BER,  in  chronology. 
is  that  number  which  imlicates  the  year 
of  tho  lunar  cycle,  for  any  given  time.    It 


OOT 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


273 


was  called  the  Golden  Number,  because 
in  the  ancient  calendar  it  was  written  in 
letters  of  gold,  on  account  of  its  great  use- 
fulness in  ecclesiastical  coniputatious,  es- 
pecially in  fixing  the  time  of  Easter.  It 
was  likewise  called  the  I'rinie,  because  it 
pointed  out  the  first  day  of  tlie  new  moon, 
primum  lunce.  To  find  the  Golden  Num- 
oer  add  1  to  the  year  of  our  Lord,  divide 
the  sum  by  19,  and  the  remainder  is  the 
Golden  Number,  the  ciuotient  at  the  same 
time  expressing  the  number  of  cycles 
which  liavc  revolved  from  tlie  beginning 
of  the  year  preceding  the  birth  of  Christ. 
G()N'D')LA,  the  name  given  to  the 
pleasure  boats  used  at  Venice,  where  the 
numerous  cannls  with  which  it  is  inter- 
sected generally  render  it  necessary  to 
substitute  boats  for  carriages.  The  gon- 
dola is  from  25  to  30  feet  long,  and  five 


feet  wide  in  the  centre,  in  which  a  sort  of 
cabin  is  constructed  for  passengers.  They 
are  sharj^-pointed  both  at  the  prow  and 
stern,  and  are  rowed  by  two  men  called 
i/ondolien.  The  cabins  are  always  fur- 
nished with  black  curtains,  which  give  a 
sombre  appearance  to  the  gondola  at  a 
distance. 

GOOD  FEI'DAY,  the  name  given  in 
England  to  the  anniversary  of  our  Sa- 
viour's crucifixion.  The  French  and  most 
other  European  nations  substitute  the 
epithet  Jwl^  for  good.  From  the  first 
dawn  of  Christianity,  Good  Friday  has 
been  regarded  as  a  solemn  festival  by  the 
great  body  of  the  Christian  world. 

GOOD-"WILL,  in  law,  the  custom  of 
any  trade  or  business.  A  contract  to 
transfer  it  is,  in  general,  good  at  law. 
though  not  usually  enforced  in  equity.  In 
what  cases  the  good-will  of  n  partnership 
can  be  claimed  as  property  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  a  deceased  partner  appears 
loubtful. 

GOR'DIAN  KNOT,  in  antiquity,  a 
'inot  made  in  the  harness  of  the  chariot 

18 


of  Gordius,  king  of  Phrygia,  so  very  in- 
tricate, that  there  was  no  finding  where 
it  began  or  ended.  An  oracle  had  de- 
clared that  he  who  should  untie  this  knot 
should  be  master  of  Asia.  Alexander 
having  undertaken  it,  and  fearing  that 
his  inability  to  untie  it  should  prove  an 
ill  augury,  cut  it  asunder  with  his  sword, 
and  thus  either  accomplished  or  eluded 
the  oracle.  Hence,  in  modern  language, 
to  cut  the  Gordian  knot  is  to  remove  a 
difficulty  by  bold  or  unusual  means. 

GORGE,  in  architecture,  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  capitals,  ly- 
ing between  the  astragal,  above  the  shaft 
of  the  column  and  the  annulets.— In  for- 
tification, tlie  entrance  of  a  bastion,  rav- 
elin, or  other  outwork. 

GOR'GKT,  in  plate-armor,  the  piece 
covering  the  neck  at- 
tached to  the  helmet. 
The  old  covering  for 
the  neck  was  called 
camail,  made  of  leath- 
er or  cloth,  and  at- 
tached to  the  liood  ;  on  this  plates  of  steel 
were  riveted  ;  and  thus  the  gorget  was 
formed,  about  the  time  of  I^dward  II. 
The  name  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  Lombardv. 

GORGONEI'A,  in  architecture,  carv- 
ings of  masks  imitating  the  Gorgon  or 
Medusa's  head. 

GOR'GONS,  in  mythology,  three  sister 
deities,  fabled  by  the  Greeks  to  dwell 
near  the  Western  Ocean.  Their  heads, 
which  -were  twined  with  serpents  instead 
of  hair,  had  the  power  of  turning  all  who 
beheld  them  to  stone  ;  of  which  property 
Perseus  made  use  after  he  had,  by  the 
help  of  Minerva,  cut  off  the  head  of 
Medusa. 

GOS'PEL,  is  used  to  signify  the  whole 
system  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
more  particularly,  as  the  term  literally 
implies  the  good  news  of  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah.  The  word  was  also  origi- 
nally applied  to  the  books  wliich  con- 
tained an  account  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
many  of  which  were  in  circulation  in 
the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era; 
though  only  four,  those  of  Matthew, 
Mark,  Luke  and  John,  were  considered 
canonical  by  the  fathers. 

GOTHIC,  pertaining  to  the  Goths; 
as  Gothic  customs  ;  Gothic  barbarity. 
In  architecture,  a  term  at  first  applied 
opprobriously  to  the  architecture  ot  the 
middle  ages,  but  now  in  general  use  aa 
its  distinctive  appellation.  By  some  the 
term  Gothic  is  considered  to  include  the 
Romanesque,  Saxon,  and   Norman  stj'les 


2:t 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATLKE 


[gr.» 


which  have  oircular  arches,  but  it  is  only 
appropriately  applied  to  the  styles  which 
are  distinguishL-d  b\-  the  pointed  arch. 
Gothic  architecture  so  restricted  has 
been  divided  into  liircc  distinct  pcriols  : 
the  first  period  is  n;iined  the  Early  Eng- 
lish, it  prevaile.l  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury ;  the  second  period  or  style,  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  is  named  the  decora- 
ted stj'le  ;  and  the  third  period  is  called 
the  perpendicular  style.  The  chief  char- 
acteristics of  Gothic  architecture  are  : — 
the  predominance  of  the  arch  and  the 
subserviency  and  subordination  of  all  the 
other  parts  to  this  chief  feature  ;  tlie 
tendency  of  the  whole  composition  to 
vertical  lines;  the  absence  of  the  column 
and  entablature  of  clas.-.ic  architecture, 
of  square  edges  and  rectangular  surfaces, 
and  the  substitution  of  clustered  shafts, 
contrasted  surfaees,  and  members  multi- 
plied in  rich  variety.  The  Gothic  style 
is  that  best  adapted  for  ecclesiastical 
edifices. 

GOV'ERNMEXT,  that  form  of  funda- 
mental rules  and  principles  by  which  a 
nation  or  state  is  governed.  If  this 
power  be  vested  in  the  hands  of  one,  it  is 
a  monarch]/  ;  if  in  the  hand-;  of  the  nobil- 
ity, an  aristocrat!/ ;  and  if  in  the  hands 
of  i!ie  people,  or  those  chosen  by  them,  a 
democracy. — The  e.vecutire  government 
is  the  power  of  adminL-itering  public 
affairs;  ihe  leg islatlre  sorernment.  that 
of  making  the  laws. —  Gorernmenl  is  also 
a  post  or  ofiice  which  gives  <a  person  the 
power  or  right  to  govern  or  rule  over  a 
place,  a  city,  or  province,  either  su- 
premely or  by  deputation.  Thus,  the 
government  of  Ireland  is  vested  in  the 
lord-lieutenant. —  Government,  in  gram- 
mar, the  influence  of  a  word  in  regard  to 
construction,  as  when  establishoil  usage 
requires  that  one  word  should  cause 
another  to  be  in  a  particular  case  or 
mood. 

GRACE,  in  objects  of  taste,  a  certain 
species  of  beauty,  which  appears  to  con- 
sist in  the  union  of  elegance  and  dig- 
nity.— In  theologv,  the  free  unmerited 
love  and  favor  r)f  Goil ;  or  the  divine 
influence  in  restraining  from  sin. — Days 
of  grace,  in  commercial  law,  three  davs 
allowed  for  the  payment  of  a  bill  after  it 
has  become  due.— The  word  grace  \f  also 
used  in  speaking  of  or  to  a  ilnke  or 
duchess,  as  your  (Jrace,  his  or  her  Grace. 
—  The  Graces,  among  the  heathen  world, 
were  female  beauties  deified  :  they  were 
three  in  number;  Aglaia,  Thalia,  and 
Euphrosyno,  the  constant  attendants  of 
V'onus. — In    music,    graces    are    turns, 


trills,  and  shakes,  introduced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  embellishment. 

GRADATION,  in  general,  the  as- 
cending step  by  step,  or  proceeding  in  a 
regular  and  uniform  manner.  It  ah( 
means  a  degree  in  any  order  or  series. 
Thus  we  saj',  there  is  a  gradation  in  the 
scale  of  being;  or  we  observe  a  grada- 
tion in  the  progress  of  society  from  a 
rude  state  to  civilized  life. —  Gradation,  m 
logic,  is  an  argumentation,  consisting  of 
four  or  more  propositions,  so  disposed,  as 
that  the  attribute  of  the  first  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  second;  and  the  attribute  of 
the  second,  the  subject  of  the  third;  and 
so  on,  till  the  last  attribute  come  to  be 
predicated  of  the  subject  of  the  first  prop- 
osition. 

GRAD'UATE.  one  who  has  obtained  a 
degree  at  a  university,  or  from  some 
profes.sional  incorporated  society,  after  a 
due  course  of  study,  and  suitable  exami- 
nation. 

GR.4M'MAR,  the  art  which  analyzes 
and  classes  the  words  in  a  language,  which 
details  its  peculiarities,  and  furnishes 
rules,  recognized  by  the  best  authorities, 
for  its  construction.  General  grammar 
teaches  the  principles  which  are  common 
to  all  languages;  and  the  grammar  of 
any  particular  language  teaches  the  prin- 
ciples peculiar  to  that  language. 

GR.\XD,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  quality 
by  which  the  highest  degree  of  majesty 
and  dignity  is  imparted  to  a  work  of  art. 
Its  source  is  in  form  frecil  from  ordinary 
and  common  bounds,  and  to  be  iluly  felt 
requires  an  investigation  of  the  different 
qualities  by  which  great  and  e.vtraordi- 
nary  objects  produce  imjjression  on  the 
mind. 

GRANDEE',  the  highest  title  of  Span- 
ish nobility.  The  collective  body  of  tho 
higher  nobility  in  Spain  is  termed  ta 
grandcza.  They  were  originally  the 
same  with  the  ricos  hombrcs.  (irandees 
bear  ilifferent  titles — duke,  marquis,  &o. ; 
but  there  is  noes.':ential  difiereni.-e  of  rank 
between  these  titles  :  all  are  equal  amo»g 
themselves  Grandeeshipsdpscend  through 
females,  and  thus  become  accumulated  in 
families. 

GRAN'DEini,  in  a  general  sense, 
greatness;  that  quality  or  combination 
of  qualities  in  an  object,  which  elevates 
or  expands  the  mind,  and  o.vcites  pleas- 
r--able  emotions  in  him  who  views  or 
contemplates  it.  Thus  tho  extent  and 
uniformity  of  surface  in  the  ocean  consti- 
tute grandeur ;  as  do  the  extent,  the 
elevation,  and  the  ?oncave  appea  ranee  or 
rault  of  tho  sky.     So  we  speak  of  tho 


OHEJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


r. 


grandeur  of  a  large  and  well-propor- 
tioned edifice,  of  an  extensive  range  of 
lofty  mountains,  of  a  large  cataract,  of  a 
pyramid,  <tc. 

GRAND  JU'RY,  a  jurj'  whose  duty  is 
to  examine  into  the  grounds  of  accusa- 
tion against  offenilers,  and  if  they  seo 
just  cause,  then  to  find  bills  of  indictment 
against  them  to  be  presented  to  the 
court. 

GRANT,  in  law,  a  gift  in  writing  of 
«uch  things  as  cannot  conveniently  be 
passed  or  verbally  conveyed. 

GRAPE'-SIIOT,  in  artillery,  a  com- 
bination of  small  shot  put  into  a  thick 
canvass  bag,  and  corded  so  as  to  form  a 
kind  of  cvlinder. 

GRAVER,  called  also  BURIN,  the 
sharp  tool,  whose  extremity  is  a  trian- 
gular form,  for  cutting  the  lines  of  an  en- 
graving on  the  copper. — See  Engrav- 
ing. 

GRAVITA'TION,  the  force  by  which 
bodies  are  pressed  or  drawn,  or  by  which 
they  tend  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth 
or  other  centre,  or  the  ctTect  of  that  force. 
Thus  the  falling  of  a  body  to  the  earth  is 
ascribed  to  gravitation.  The  attraction 
of  gravitation  exists  between  bodies  in 
the  mass,  and  acts  at  sensible  distances. 
It  is  thus  distinguished  from  chemical 
and  cohesive  attractions  which  unite  the 
particles  of  bodies  together,  and  act  at 
insensible  distances,  or  distances  too  small 
to  be  measured. —  'Verrestrial  gravita- 
tion, that  which  respects  the  earth,  or  by 
which  bodies  descend,  or  tend  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  All  bodies,  when 
unsupported,  fall  by  gravitation  towards 
the  earth,  in  straight  lines  tending  to  its 
centre. —  General  or  universal  gravita- 
tion, that  by  which  all  the  planets  tend 
towards  one  another,  and,  indeed,  by 
which  all  the  bodies  and  particles  of  mat- 
ter in  the  universe  tend  towards  one  an- 
other. The  theory  of  universal  gravita- 
tion was  established  by  Newton.  Jle 
proved  that  the  moon  gravitates  to- 
wards the  earth,  and  the  earth  towards 
the  moon,  all  the  secondaries  to  their 
primaries  ;  and  these  to  their  seconda- 
ries; also  the  primaries  to  the  sun,  and 
the  sun  to  the  primaries.  It  is  also  highly 
probable,  that  the  bodies  of  the  solar 
system,  and  those  of  other  systems,  grav- 
itate mutually  towar<'.;  each  other.  The 
terms  gravitation  and  gravity  are  gene- 
rally used  sj-nonyniously. 

GRAY,  is  compounded  of  black  and 
white  in  various  proportions,  or  of  the 
three  primary  colors,  red,  blue,  and  yel- 
low; according  to  the  predominance  of 


either  of  these,  there  are  produced  blue 
grays,  purple  grays,  green  grays ;  but 
when  the  red  or  yellow  predominate,  there 
are  produced  the  various  hues  of  brown. 

GUAZIO'.SO,  in  music,  an  instruction 
to  the  performer  that  the  music  ti<  which 
this  word  is  affixed  is  to  be  executed  ele- 
gantly and  gracefully. 

(tKEAVE,  a  piece  of  armor  defend- 
ing the  shin.  Tiie  greave  was  !L.4)iece  of 
steel  hollowed  to  fit  the  fivnt  of  the  leg, 
and  fastened  with  straps  behind.  The 
greave  common  among  the  (JrceUs  was 
used  in  some  instances  by  the  Roman 
soldiery,  but  only  on  one  leg,  the  other 
being  covered  with  the  buckler.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  discontinued  in  the 
armies  of  the  Greek  empire,  under  the 
emperor  Maurice,  (about  the  end  of  the 
6th  century,)  and  again  brought  into  use 
in  those  armies  of  the  middle  ages,  about 
1320.  They  were  also  called  Jrt»i6s,  bcin- 
bergs,  &(i.  They  were  originally  ot 
leather,  quilted  linen,  &c.  The  clavon» 
were  a  species  of  greaves  made  of  cloth. 

GREEK  CHURCH,  that  portion  or 
Christians  who  conform,  in  their  cree«, 
usages,  and  church  government,  to  th«» 
views  of  Christianity  introduced  into  thw 
former  Greek  empire,  and  perfected,  sincn 
the  fifth  century,  under  the  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  ana 
Jerusalem.  Like  the  Roman  Catholic, 
this  church  recognizes  two  sources  of  doc- 
trine, the  bible  and  tradition,  under  whica 
last  it  comprehends  not  only  those  clo«- 
trines  which  were  orally  delivered  by  ttio 
apostles,  but  also  tho>e  which  have  been 
approved  of  by  the  fathers  of  the  GreeK 
church.  It  is  the  only  church  which 
holds  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from 
the  Father  only,  thus  differing  from  the 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches,  which 
agree  in  deriving  the  Holy  Ghost  from 
tl;c  Father  and  the  Son.  Like  the  Cath- 
olic church,  it  has  seven  sacraments — bap- 
tism, chrism,  the  eucharist  preceded  by 
confession,  penance,  ordination,  marriage, 
and  supreme  unction  ;  but  it  is  peculiar 
in  holding  that  full  purification  from 
original  sin  in  baptism  requires  an  im- 
mersion three  times  of  the  whole  body  in 
water,  whether  infants  or  adults  are  to 
be  baptized,  and  in  joining  chrism  (con- 
firmation) with  it  as  the  completion  of 
baptism.  It  rejects  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory, has  nothing  to  do  with  predesti- 
nation, works  of  supererogation,  indul- 
gences, and  dispensations  ;  and  it  recog- 
nizes neither  the  pope  nor  any  one  else 
as  the  visible  vicar  of  Christ  on  earth. 
In  the  invocation  of  the  saints,  in  their 


27G 


CVCLOI-LDIA     OF    LITEKAllUK 


[oRa 


fasts,  relics,  Ac,  they  are  as  zealous  as 
the  Romanists ;  it  may  be  said,  indeed, 
that  the  services  of  the  Greek  churell 
ponsist  almost  entirely  of  outward  forms. 
This  is  the  religion  of  Russia  ;  the  eccle- 
siastical establishment  of  which  consists 
in  u,  holy  synod,  four  metropolitans, 
eleven  archbishops,  nineteen  bishops, 
12,500  parish  churches,  and  425  convents' 
fifty-eight  of  which  are  connected  with 
monastic  schools  for  the  education  of  the 
clergy.  The  Greek  church,  under  the 
Turkish  dominion,  remained,  as  far  as 
was  possible  under  such  circumstances, 
faithful  to  the  original  constitution. 
The  patriarch  of  Constantinople  exercises 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  over 
the  Greeks  in  the  whole  Turkish  empire  ; 
but  they  labor  under  many  disabilities, 
among  which  is  a  heavy  poll-tax,  under 
the  name  of  "exemption  from  behead- 
ing." 

GREEK  FIRE,  a  combustible  compo- 
sition invented  by  the  Greeks  in  the  mid- 
dle ages,  during  their  wars  with  the 
Arabs  and  Turks.  It  consists  of  naphtha, 
bitumen,  sulphur,  gum,  &c. 

GREEK  LAN'GUAGE,  the  language 
of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Greece,  the 
Pelasgi,  was  already  extinct  in  the  time 
of  Herodotus,  wlm  asserts  that  it  was  dif- 
ferent from  the  Hellenic,  and  adds,  that 
it  is  probable  the  Hellenes  have  retained 
their  original  language.  From  the  great 
number  of  Hellenic  tribes  of  the  same 
race,  it  was  to  bo  expected  that  there 
would  be  ditrerent  dialects,  the  knowledge 
ef  which  is  the  more  necessary  for  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  the  Greek  language, 
since  the  writers  of  this  nation  have  trans- 
mitted the  peculiarities  of  the  different 
dialects  in  the  use  of  single  letters,  words, 
terminations,  and  expressions,  and  that 
not  merely  to  characterize  more  particu- 
larly an  individual  represented  as  speak- 
ing but  even  when  they  speak  in  their 
own  person.  It  is  customary  to  distin- 
guish three  leading  dialects,  according  to 
the  three  leading  branches  of  the  Greeks, 
the  iEolic,  the  Doric,  and  (he  Ionic,  to 
which  was  afterwards  addeii  the  mixed 
Attic  dialect.  At  what  time  this  language 
first  began  to  be  expressed  in  writing,  has 
long  been  a  subject  of  doubt.  Accord- 
ing to  the  general  opinion,  Cadmus,  the 
Phajnician,  introduced  the  alphabet  into 
Greece.  His  alphabet  ccmsisted  of  but 
sixteen  letters  ;  four  are  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  I'alamedes  in  the  Trojan  war, 
and  four  more  by  ,'>inionidcs  of  Ceos.  As 
the  Jonians  first  adopted  tlicxo  letters, 
and  the   AtUeuians  received  them  from 


them,  the  alphabet  with  twentv-four  let 
teis  is  called  the  loiuc.     Those'who  haVa 
most  carefully  studied  the    subject,   be- 
lieve that  the  use  of  the  alphabet  became 
common  in  Greece  about  550  vearsbeforo 
Christ,  and   about   as  long  after  Ilomei". 
In  Homer's  time,  all  knowledge,  religion, 
and    laws    were    preserved    by    memory 
alone,   and  for  that   reason  were   put  iii 
verse,  till  prose  was  introduced  with   the 
art  of  writing.     The  Greek  language,  as 
preserved  in  the  writings  of  the  celebrated 
authors  of  antiquity,   as  Homer,  llesiod, 
Demosthenes,  Aristotle,  Plato,  Xenophon, 
&o.,  has  a  great  variety  of  terms  and  ex- 
pressions, suitable  to  the   genius  and  oc- 
casions  of  a  polite  and  learned  people, 
who  had  a  taste  for  arts  and  sciences.  In 
it,  proper  names  are  significative  ;  which 
is  the  reason  that  the  modern  Innguages 
borrow  so  many  terms  from  it.    When  any 
new  invention,  instrument,  machine,  or  the 
like,  is  discovered,  recourse  is  generally 
had  to  the  Greek  for  a  name  to  it ;  the  facil- 
ity wherewith  words  are  there  compound- 
ed, affording  such  as  will  be  expressive  of 
its  use  ;  such  are  barometer,  hygrometer, 
microscope,   telescope,   thermometer,  &c'. 
But  of  all  sciences  medicine  most  abounds 
with  such  terms;  as,  diaphoretic,  diagno- 
sis, diarrhoea,   hemorrhage.  hvdroph<7bia, 
phthisis,  atrophy,  &c.— Modern  Greek,  or 
Romaic.     The  Greek  langu.age  seems  to 
have  preserved  its  purity  longer  than  any 
other  known  to  us  ;  and   even   long  after 
its  purity  was  lost,  the  echo  of  this  beau- 
tiful  tongue  served   to  keep  alive  some- 
thing of  the  spirit  of  ancient  Greece.     All 
the  supports  of  this  majestic  and  refined 
dialect  seemed  to  fail,  when  the  Greeks' 
were  ensl.aved  by  the  fall  of  Constantino- 
ple, (a.d.  1543.)     All  the  cultivated  class- 
es who  still  retained  the  pure  Greek,  the 
language  of  the  Byzantine  princes,  either 
perished  in  the  conflict,  or  took  to  fli<rht 
or  courted  the   favor  of  their  rude  C(m- 
querors  by  adopting  their  dialect.     In  the 
lower  classes  only  did  the  common  Greek 
survive  the  vulga-r  dialect  of  the  po.'.ishcd 
clas.ses.     But  the  (Jreek  spirit,  not  yet  ex- 
tinguished by  all  the  adversities   the    na- 
tion had  undergone,  finally  revived   with 
increasing  vigor,  and  even  the   love   of 
song  kept  alive  some  sparks  of  patriotic 
sentiment.     From   the  beginning  of  (he 
present  century,  external   circumstances 
have  greatly  favored  the  progress  of  edu- 
cation ill  Greece  ;  soliooLs    have   boon  es- 
tablished; and  the  language  it.«elf,  which 
in  its  degradation    was   not   destitute    of 
inelody  and  (ioxibility,  gained  encrgv  and 
vivacity  from  the  efforts  of  several    pa- 


GRO] 


AND    TIIK     FINK     A IITS. 


triotic  indiviiluals,  who  endeavored  to 
briri!^  it.  nearer  the  ancient  classic  dialect. 

GREEN,  a  secondary  color,  compound- 
ed of  the  primaries  hlue  and  yellow:  if 
the  blue  predominates,  tlie  cjnipound  is 
a  blue-green  ;  it"  the  yellow  predomi- 
nates, it  is  a  j'ellow-grcen  ;  or  a  icarrn 
green. —  Green,  in  blazonry,  sinople,  sig- 
nified love,  joy,  and  abundance.  Among 
the  Greeks  green  s3Mnbolize<l  victory,  and 
among  the  Moors  it  had  the  same  signifi- 
cation :  it  also  designated  hope,  joy, 
youth,  and  spring,  (the  youth  of  the 
jear,)  which  gives  tho  hope  of  harvest. 

GREEN'-CLOTII,  in  British  polity,  a 
board  or  court  of  justice  held  in  the  count- 
ing-house or  the  British  monarch's  house- 
hold, and  composed  of  the  lord-steward 
and  inferior  officers.  To  this  court  is 
committed  the  charge  and  supervision  of 
the  royal  household  in  matters  of  justice 
and  government,  with  power  to  correct 
all  ofi'cnders,  and  to  maintain  the  peace 
of  the  verge,  or  jurisdiction  of  the  court- 
royal,  which  extends  every  way  two 
hundred  yards  from  the  gate  of  the  pal- 
ace. Without  a  warrant  first  obtained 
from  this  court,  no  servant  of  the  house- 
hold can  be  arrested  for  debt. — It  takes 
its  name  from  a  green-cloth  spread  over 
ths  board  at  which  it  is  held. 

GREEN  PIGMENTS,  are  derived 
chiefly  from  the  mineral  world,  and  owe 
their  color  to  the  presence  of  copper. 
Among  the  most  valuable  to  the  painter 
are  malachite  or  mountain  green,  terra 
verde,  Veronese  green,  native  carbonate 
of  copper,  cobalt  green,  and  chrome 
green.  The  only  vegetable  green  is  sap 
green,  which  is  employed  occasionally  in 
water-color  painting. 

GREEN-ROOM,  in  the  theatre,  the 
name  given  to  the  actors'  retiring  room  ; 
so  called,  in  all  probability,  from  its  be- 
ing origin;illy  painted  or  otherwise  orna- 
mented v.ith  green. 

GREGO  lUAN,  the  Gregorian  year,  in 
chronology,  is  a  correction  of  the  Julian 
year.  In  the  latter,  every  secular  or 
hundredth  year  is  bisse.xtile  :  in  the  for- 
mer j'ear  every  one  in  four.  This  reforma- 
tion, which  was  made  by  pope  Gregory 
XIII.,  A.D.  1582.  is  also  called  the  .Veic- 
style. 

GRENADE',  a  hollow  shell  or  globe 
of  iron,  filled  with  combustibles,  and 
thrown  out  of  a  howitzer.  There  is  also 
a  smaller  kind,  thrown  by  hand,  which 
are  called  hand-grenades  These  were 
originally  used  by  soldiers,  who,  from 
long  service  and  distinguished  bravery, 
were  selected  for  the  ssnicc  ;  and  hence 


the  nainc'of  grenadiers,  who  now  form 
the  first  company  of  a  battalion. 

GRIF'FIN,  a  fabulous  animal  of  an- 
tiquity represented  with  tho  body  and 
feet  of  a  lion,  the  head  of  an  e;iglu  or  vul- 
ture, and  as  being  furnished  with  wings 
and  claws.  The  griffin  is  one  of  those  ima- 
ginary creatures  to  which  the  ancients 
were  soconfcsse/)l y  partial,  but  it  belongs 
more  to  the  romantic  than  tho  classical 
mj-thology.  It  plays  a  prominent  part 
in  the  fairy  tale^s  and  romances  of  the 
middle  ages ;  and,  like  the  dragon  which 
was  fabled  to  guard  the  golden  apples  of 
the  Ilesperides,  its  chiof  <Iuties  cousi.^ted 
in  watching  over  hidden  trea,sures,  and  in 
guarding  captive  princesses,  or  the  cas- 
tles in  which  they  were  confined.  The 
griffin  is  at  once  the  symbol  of  strength 
and  swiftness,  courage,  prudence,  and 
vigilance — qualities  which  its  form  is 
well  calculated  to  represent ;  and  hence 
it  has  been  adopted  into  the  language  of 
heraldrj',  where  it  constitute.fi  a  promi- 
nent feature  in  the  armorial  bearings  of 
many  princely  and  noble  families. 

GRIMACE',  in  painting  and  sculpture, 
an  unnatural  distortion  of  the  counten- 
nance,  from  habit,  affectation,  or  inso- 
lence. 

GRISA'ILLE,  in  gray;  a  style  of  paint- 
ing employed  to  represent  solid  bodies  in 
relief,  such  as  friezes,  mouldings,  orna- 
ments of  cornices,  bas-reliefs,  &c.,  by 
means  of  gray  tints.  The  objects  repre- 
sented are  supposed  to  be  white  ;  the 
shadows  which  they  project,  and  the 
lights,  from  those  most  vividly  reflected, 
to  the  least,  are  properly  depicted  bj'  the 
various  gray  tints  produced  by  the  mix- 
ture of  white  with  black  pigments,  or 
sometimes  by  brown.  Many  painters 
make  the  frotte,  or  first  sketch  of  their 
pictures  in  a  brown  tint,  to  which  the  term 
en  grisaille  is  sometimes  misapplied. 

GROAT,  a  silver  coin,  first  struck  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  before  whosG 
time  the  English  had  no  silver  coin  lar- 
ger than  a  penny.  It  has  since  been 
used  as  a  money  of  account  equal  to  four- 
pence. 

GROINED  CEILING,  or  GROINED 
ROOF,  a  ceiling  formed  by  three  or  more 
intersecting  vaults,  every  two  of  wliich 
form  a  groin  at  the  intersection,  t^nd  all 
the  groins  meet  in  a  common  poipt  called 
the  apex  or  summit.  The  curvpi^  surface 
between  two  adjacent  groins  ia  tsrmed  tho 
seetroid.  Groined  roof?  v:z  crtnmon  to 
classic  and  medieval  ar  h'\'-a<viro,  bi?t  it 
is  in  the  latter  style  tha'  th,*j  ure  seen  in 
their  greatest  perfection     Jj.'itiis  style,  by 


278 


CYCLOrEDIA     OF     LI ;  KKAl  I' l;F- 


(.  r  A 


increasing  the  number  of  intersecting 
vaults,  varying  their  plans,  and  covering 
their  surface  with  ribs  and  veins,  great 
variety  and  richness  were  obtained,  and 
at  length  the  utmost  limit  of  complexity 
was  reached  in  the  fan  groin  tracery 
vaulting. 

GROTESQUE',  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  term 
applied  to  capricious  ornaments,  which  as 
a  whole  have  no  type  in  nature  ;  consist- 
ing of  figures,  animals,  leaves,  flowers, 
fruits,  and  the  like,  all  connected  togeth- 
er.—  Grotesque^  in  architecture,  artificial 
grotto-work  decorated  with  rock-work, 
shells,  &c. 

GROT'TO,  the  name  given  to  subter- 
raneous natural  e.\cavations  formed  in 
the  heart  of  mountains  or  other  places. 
Many  of  these  cavities  are  famed  for  the 
mephitic  exhalations  that  issue  from  them, 
and  to  this  class  belong.?  more  especially 
the  Grotto  del  Cane,  near  Naples  ;  but 
there  are  others  not  less  celebrated  for 
their  beauty  and  grandeur,  of  which  the 
grottoes  of  Antiparos  and  Fingal,  are 
well-known  examples.  In  picturesque 
gardening,  the  term  is  ajiplied  to  an  arti- 
ficial or  ornamental  cave  or  low  building 
intended  to  represent  a  natural  grotto. 
The  best  specimen  of  this  kind  i.s  the  grot- 
to attached  to  the  Colosseum,  which  may 
bo  considered  a  model  for  all  similar  de- 
ligns. 

GROUND,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  p  word  of 
various  application.  In  paintina,  it  is  the 
first  layer  of  color  on  which  the  f.gures  or 
other  objects  are  paintcii ;  of  sculpture,  it 
is  the  surface  from  which,  in  rclievi,  the 
figures  rise,  and  in  architecture,  it  is  used 
to  denote  the  face  of  the  scenery  or  coun- 
try round  a  building. 

GROUP,  in  painting,  an  assemblage  of 
objects,  whose  I'jhted  parts  form  a  mass 


of  light,  and  their  shaded  pirts  a  mass  of 
shadow  :  the  word  is  also  used  to  denote 
any  adjoining  assemblage  of  figures,  ani- 
mals, fruits,  flowers,  &a  In  speaking 
also  of  objects  of  different  sorts,  it  is  usual 
to  say  thiit  one  object  groups  with  an- 
other. Lights  in  groups  should,  as  well 
as  shadows,  be  connected  together,  or  the 


necessary  repose  will  be  wanting.  In 
sculpture,  the  word  group  is  applied  to  a 
design  in  which  there  are  two  or  more 
figures.  Tn  music.  i?''"OH;)  signifies  anum- 
ber  of  notes  linked  together  at  the  stems. 

(tUAR'AXTOR,  oii^e  who  engages  to 
sec  that  the  stipulations  of  another  are 
performed  :  also  one  who  engages  to  se- 
cure another  in  anv  right   or  possession. 

GUAR'ANTY,  or  GUARANTEE',  an 
undertaking  or  engagement  by  a  third 
party,  that  the  stipulations  of  a  treaty, 
or  the  engagement  or  promise  of  another 
shall  be  performed. 

GUARD,  the  duty  of  guarding  or  de 
fending  any  post  or  person  from  an  attack 
or  surprise.  Also,  the  soldiers,  who  do 
this  duty. —  Gnnrd,  in  fencing,  a  posture 
or  .action  projicr  to  defend  tlie  body. — 
Van-guard,  in  military  affairs,  a  body 
of  troops,  either  horse  or  foot,  that 
march  before  an  army  or  division,  to 
prevent  surprise  or  ijive  notice  of  danger. 
—  Rear-iTunrd,  a  body  of  troops  that 
march  in  tlie  rear  for  a  like  purpose. — 
Liife-guards,  a  body  of  select  troops, 
whose  especial  duty  is  to  defend  tho 
person  of  a  prince  or  chief  officer. 

GUARIV1.\N,  in  law.  a  person  ap- 
pointed by  will,  or  otherwise,  to  superin- 
tend tlie  educatiim  and  property  of  a 
minor,  to  whom  the  guardian  is  bound  to 
account,  after  the  chiiil  is  of  age,  under 
responsibility  for  the  just  performance  of 
the  trust. 


oui] 


AND    THE     FINE    AHTS. 


279 


GUAIlDS,  in  a  particular  sense,  the 
troops  ttiat  are  designed  to  guard  tlie 
royal  person  and  palace;  and  which  con- 
sist both  of  horse  and  foot.  In  Britain, 
the  household  troops  or  guards  consist  of 
the  life-guards,  the  royal  regiment  of 
horse-guards,  and  three  regiments  of 
fi)0t -guards. —  Yeoynen  of  the  Guairls,  a 
band  of  body-guards  instituted  by  Henry 
VII [.  in  the  year  154.5.  Their  dress  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  time  of  their  foun- 
der. One  hundred  are  by  rotation  on 
duty,  and  there  are  seventy  more,  out 
01  w'honi  the  place  of  any  of  the  hundred 
who  die  is  supplied. — National  Guards,  a 
military  body  which  has  acquired  histor- 
ical importance  in  the  politics  of  France, 
originated  with  the  revolution,  but  un- 
derwent many  changes  both  during  Na- 
poleon's sway  and  under  the  restored 
Bourbons.  It  was  abolished  in  April, 
1827,  for  having  demanded  the  removal 
of  Villele's  ministry;  but  was  revived 
at  Paris  during  the  popular  commotion 
in  July,  1830,  which  ended  in  seating 
Louis  Philippe  on  the  throne. —  Guard- 
ship,  a  vessel  of  war  appointed  to  super- 
intend the  marine  affairs  of  a  harbor  or 
river,  to  see  that  the  ships  not  in  com- 
mission have  their  proper  watch-word 
kept  duly,  by  sending  her  guard-boats 
round  them  every  night;  and  to  receive 
seamen  who  are  impressed  in  time  of 
war. 

GUE'BRES,  a  Persian  sect,  who  still 
worship  fire  as  an  emanation  or  emblem 
of  ths  Deitv. 

GUELFS,  or  GUELPIIS,  the  name  of 
a  family,  composing  a  faction  formerly 
in  Itah%  whose  contests  with  a  rival 
faction,  called  the  Ghibelines,  was  the 
cause  of  much  misery  and  bloodshed. — 
The  wars  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibelines 
became  the  struggle  between  the  spiritual 
and  secular  power.  The  popes,  who  en- 
deavored to  reduce  the  German  emperors 
to  acknowledge  their  supremacy, and  the 
cities  of  Italy,  struggling  for  independ- 
ence, and  deliverance  from  the  oppressive 
yoke  of  these  same  emperors,  formed  the 
party  of  the  Guelfs.  Those  who  favored 
the  emperors  were  called  Ghibelines. — A 
branch  of  the  Guelf  family  was  in  the 
ilth  century  transplanted  from  Italy  to 
Germany,  where  it  became  the  ruling 
race  >,'f  several  countries  ;  and  the  mem- 
ory of  this  ancient  name  has  lately  been 
revived  by  the  institution  of  the  Hano- 
verian Guelfic  order. 

GUERRIL'LA,  the  plan  of  harassing 
the  French  armies  by  the  constant  at- 
tacks of  independent  bands,  acting  in  a 


mountainous  country,  was  adopted  in 
the  north  of  Spain  during  the  Peninsular 
war.  It  wiis  first  reduced  into  a  kind  of 
sj'stem  in  1810.  Tlie  bands  which  con- 
ducted this  desultory  warfare  were  called 
Partidas  :  the  name  of  Guerrilla  is,  by  a 
misapplication  of  the  term,  frequently 
applied  to  them. 

GUIDE,  in  music,  the  leading  part  in 
a  canon  or  fugue. 

GUILD,  a  company,  fraternity,  or  cor- 
poration, associated  for  some  commercial 
purpose  ;  of  which  every  member  was 
to  pay  something  toward  the  common 
charge.  The  ancient  guilds  were  li- 
censed by  the  king,  and  gove/ned  by 
laws  and  orders  of  their  own. 

GUILD'HALL,  the  chief  hall  of  the 
city  of  London,  for  holding  courts,  and 
for  the  meeting  of  the  lord-mayor  and 
commonalty,  in  order  to  make  laws  and 
ordinances  for  the  welfare  and  regulation 
oftheeit}'. —  Guild-rents  are  rents  paid  to 
the  crown  by  any  guild  or  fraternity  :  or 
those  that  formerly  belonged  to  religious 
bouses,  and  came  to  the  crown  at  the 
general  dissolution  of  monasteries. 

GUIL'LOCHE.  in  architecture,  an  or- 
nament composed  of  curved  fillets,  which, 
by  repetition,  form  a  continued  series. 

GUILLOTINE',  the  name  given  to 
the  instrument  of  capital  punishment 
used  in  France  ;  so  called  from  Joseph 
Ignace  Guillotin,  by  whom  it  was  intro- 
duced into  that  country.  This  person 
was  born  at  Saintes,  and,  established  as 
a  physician  at  Paris,  obtained  a  certain 
celebrity  in  the  early  period  of  the  Rev- 
olution by  the  strong  part  which  he  took 
in  favor  of  the  rights  of  the  Tiers-Etat. 
He  was  elected  in  consequence  a  deputy 
to  the  National  Assembly.  When  that 
body  was  occupied  in  its  long  discussions 
relative  to  the  reform  of  the  penal  code 
(in  1790)  Guillotin  proposed  the  adoption 
of  decapitation — up  to  that  time  used 
only  for  nobles — as  the  only  method  of 
capital  punishment.  From  sentiments 
of  humanity  he  recommended  the  em- 
ployment of  a  machine  which  had  beer, 
long  known  in  Italy  under  the  name  of 
"  mannaja,"  and  in  other  countries  also  ; 
for  something  much  resembling  it  had  been 
used  in  Scotland  and  in  England  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  borough  of  Halifa.x. 
The  Assembly  applauded  the  idea,  and 
the  machine  was  adopted,  to  which  the 
Parisians  have  given  the  name  of  "Guil- 
lotine," of  which  Guillotin  is  most  erro- 
neously supposed  to  have  been  the  inven 
tor.  It  consists  of  two  upright  pieces  of 
wood  fixed   in    a    horizontal   frame ;    » 


280 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    LITERATURE 


[gct 


sharp  blade  of  steel  moves  up  and  down 
by  means  of  a  pulley  in  grooves  in  the  two 
uprights  ;  the  eilge  is  oblique  instead  of 
horizontal  in  shape,  which  gives  it  the 
meehanical  power  of  tiie  wedge.  The 
criminal  is  laid  on  his  face,  his  neck  im- 
mediately under  the  blade,  which  severs 
it  at  a  blow  from  his  body.  It  is  equally 
a  vulgar  error  that  Guillotin  perished  by 
the  instrument  which  bears  his  name,  lie 
was  imprisoned  during  the  lleign  of 
Terror,  but  released  at  the  revolution  wf 
July,  1794;  and  died  in  1814,  after 
founding  the  association  termed  the  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine. 

GUIN'EA,  an  English  gold  coin,  first 
coined  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and 
till  lately  current  for  '21s.  It  was  so 
called  because  it  was  made  from  the  gold 
that  was  brought  from  Guinea,  on  the 
coast  of  Africa. 

GUITAR',  <a  musical  stringed  instru- 
ment, rather  larger  than  a  violin,  and 
plaj'ed  with  the  fingers.  It  is  much  used 
in  Spain  and  Italy,  more  especially  in 
the  former  country,  where  there  are  few, 
even  of  the  laboriaig  class,  who  do  not 
solace  themselves  with  its  practice. 

GUN,  a  fire-ann,  or  weapon  of  offence, 
which  forcibly  discharges  a  ball,  shot,  or 
other  offensive  matter,  through  a  cylin- 
drioal  barrel,  by  means  of  gunpowder. 
The  larger  sjiccies  of  guns  are  called 
cannon;  and  the  smaller  kinds  are  called 
muskets,  carbines,  fowling-pieces,  &c.  The 
gun  is  supposed  to  have  been  used  in 
Asia  at  a  very  early  date  ;  but  it  was 
not  invented  in  Europe  before  the  14th 
century.  Roger  Bacon,  about  the  year 
1280,  suggested  the  possibility  of  apply- 
ing the  preparation  since  called  gun- 
powder to  the  purposes  of  war ;  but  the 
idea  of  blowing  a  Ijody  to  a  distance  by 
its  power  was  produced  by  its  accident- 
ally doing  so,  in  the  laboratory  of  Bar- 
tholomew Schwartz,  a  German  monk. 
Guns  were  originally  made  of  iron  bars, 
soldered  together,  and  strengthened  with 
iron  hoops,  an  e.xamjilc  of  which  is  still 
preserved  in  I  he  Tower  of  London. 

GUN'NP^RY,  the  science  of  using  ar- 
tillery against  an  enemy  judiciously,  and 
to  the  greatest  effect.  Besides  an  accurate 
acquaintance  with  the  managementof  ord- 
nance of  all  kinds,  the  range  and  force  of 
every  kind,  the  charge  and  direct  ion  neces- 
sary for  different  distances,  their  materi- 
als, the  fabrication  and  effect  of  gun])ow- 
der,  &c. ;  the  artillerist  must  be  able  to  in- 
struct his  men  in  their  several  exercises, 
anil  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all  tiic 
tactics  necessary  in  the  art  of  attack  and 


defence;  he  must  bo  practically  skilled 
in  throwing  up  batteries  and  other  field- 
works  :  he  mast  understand  mathematics, 
(particularly  the  doctrine  of  curves,  to 
calculate  the  path  of  the  balls  ;)  and  have 
some  knowledge  of  mechanics. 

GUX'P0\V13eR,  a  composition  of  nitre, 
sulphur,  and  charcoal,  mixed  and  redu- 
ced to  fine  powder,  and  usually  granu- 
lated. It  is  in  the  highest  degree  com- 
bustible, and,  by  means  of  its  elastic  force, 
e.xplodes  with  great  intensitj'.  The  dis- 
coverer of  this  compound,  and  the  person 
who  first  thought  of  applying  it  to  the 
purposes  of  war,  are  unknown.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  it  was  used  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  From  certain  ar- 
chives quoted  by  Wiegleb,  it  appears 
that  cannons  were  employed  in  Germany 
before  the  j'car  K^72.  Xo  traces  of  it 
can  be  found  in  any  European  author 
previously  to  the  thirteenth  century;  but 
it  seems  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chi- 
nese long  before  that  period.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  cannons  were  used 
in  the  battle  of  Cressy,  which  was  fought 
in  1346.  They  seem  even  to  have  been 
used  three  j'ears  earlier,  at  the  siege  of 
Algesiras;  but  before  this  time  they  must 
have  been  known  in  Germany,  as  there 
is  a  piece  of  ordnance  at  Amberg,  on 
which  is  inscribed  the  year  1303.  Roger 
Bacon,  who  died  in  1292,  knew  the  prop- 
erties of  guni)owder;  but  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  he  was  acquainted  with  its  ap- 
plication to  fire-arms. 

(JUNTO WDER  PLOT,  in  English  his- 
tory, the  celebrated  conspiracy  of  certain 
disappointed  Roman  Catholics  to  destroy 
the  king,  James  I.,  and  the  two  Houses 
of  Parliament,  by  gunpowder,  which  was 
detected  on  the  4th  of  November,  1605. 

GUSTO,  that  which  excites  pleasant 
sensations  in  the  palate  or  tongue.  Fig- 
uratively this  word  is  used  for  intellect- 
ual taste. 

GUT'TURALS,  letters  pronounced  by 
a  peculiar  cfi'ort  of  the  throat.  There 
are  no  gutturals  proiierly  so  called  in  the 
English  language,  although  the  guttural 
sound  may  often  be  heard  in  some  pro- 
vincial pronunciations  of  the  letter  r.  Nor 
arc  there  in  the  pure  French  or  Italian, 
although  they  are  frequent  in  the  dia- 
lects :  c.  ir.  the  letter  c  hanl  (as  in  cusa) 
has  in  the  Tuscan  a  strong  gutt  ural  sound. 
In  the  Siianish  language  alone,  of  those 
dcriveilfrom  the  Latin,  gutturals  are  com- 
mon. In  (icrman.  the  guttural  cli  is  large- 
ly used.  In  the  Celtic  language,  i,''/t  andcA 
are  also  soundtMl  with  much  variety  of 
guttural  intonation. 


Hi 


AM)     IIIK     KINK     A  UTS. 


281 


GYMNA'SIAKCH,  an  Athenian  ofricor 
who  had  the  char)j;e  of  providing  the  oil 
and  other  neces.<iiries  for  the  gymnasia. 
This  was  one  of  the  otlices  at  Athens,  the 
expenses  of  whicli  were  defrayed  from 
the  private  pocliet  of  the  individual  on 
whom  they  devolved,  and  who  received 
no  salary  from  the  state. 

GrYMNA'SIUM,  originally  a  space 
measured  out  and  covered  with  sand  for 
the  exercise  of  athletic  games.  After- 
wards, among  the  classical  Greeks,  the 
gymnasia  became  spacious  buildings  or 
institutions  for  the  luental  as  well  as  cor- 
poreal instruction  of  youth.  They  were 
first  built  at  Laeedremon,  whence  they 
spread  through  tlie  rest  of  Greece,  Ac, 
into  Italy.  They  did  not  consist  of  sin- 
gle edifices,  but  comprised  several  build- 
ings and  porticoes,  used  for  study  and 
discourse,  for  baths,  anointing  rooms,  pa- 
laestras  in  which  the  e.xercises  took  place, 
and  for  other  purposes.  Two  of  the 
Athenian  gymnasia,  viz.,  the  Lyceum  and 
Academy,  were  rendered  famous  by  be- 
ing the  scenes  of  the  lectures  of  Aristotle 
and  Plato  respectively.  The  term  gym- 
nasium has  descended  to  modern  times. 
In  Germany  the  higher  schools,  intended 
to  give  immediate  preparation  for  the 
universities,  are  termed  gymnasia.  In 
Prussia  the  scholars  undergo  examina- 
tion on  leaving  them  :  their  compositions 
at  tkis  examination  arc  sent  to  the  min- 
ister of  instruction  and  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs ;  and  they  receive  testimonials  of 
fitness.  No.  1,  2,  or  3,  according  to  their 
degree  of  proficiency.  Persons  who  have 
fitted  themselves  for  the  universities  with- 
out passing  through  the  gymnasia  are 
examined  by  a  committee  appointed  by 
government,  which  sits  half-yearly  for 
the  purpose. 

GYiMN.'iS  TICS,  under  this  name  were 
comprised  by  the  ancients  all  those  games 
and  exercises  whicli  were  performed  with 
the  body  partly  naked ;  such  as  wrest- 
ling, boxing,  running,  throwing  the  quoit, 
playing  at  ball,  Ac  They  were  tirst  in- 
stituted at  Lacedajmon,  where  they  were 
not  confined  to  men,  but  were  also  con- 
sidered a  necessary  jKirt  of  the  education 
of  females.  In  the  rest  of  Greece,  where 
they  subsequently  spread,  they  were  also 
held  of  tlie  highest  importance,  and  as 
such  were  conducted  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  government,  and  entered 
conspicuously  into  the  political  schemes 
of  the  philosophers.  In  this  respect  the 
Greeks  offered  a  remarkable  contrast  to 
their  Asiatic  neighbcu's,  among  whom  it 
was  considered  a  great  disgrace  even  for 


a  man  to  be  seen  naked.  At  Home  gym- 
niistics  were  principally  exercised  by  the 
mercenary  athletes. 

GYMNOS'OPIILSTS,  a  sect  of  Indian 
philosophers  who  lived  naked  in  the 
woods,  whence  they  derived  their  name, 
and  submitted  to  other  strange  austeri- 
ties. They  believed  in  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  and  its  migration  into  several 
bodies.  They  enjoyed  great  reputation 
for  astronomical  and  physical  science. 
There  was  likewise  an  African  sect  of 
philosophers  bearing  the  same  name,  who 
are  said  to  have  lived  in  ^Ethiopia,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Nile,  whose  habits  dif- 
fered from  those  of  the  Indian  sect,  in- 
asmuch as  they  lived  as  anchorites,  while 
the  latter  congregated  in  societies. 

GYMNO'TUS,  the  name  of  an  eel,  re- 
markable for  its  power  of  affecting  the 
nervous  system,  in  the  mann^ir  of  elec- 
tricity. This  animal  and  the  torpedo,  on 
dissection,  appear  to  have  au  arrange- 
ment of  muscular  plates  not  unlike  a 
galvanic  trough,  and  well  adapted  to  pro- 
duce the  effect. 

GYNiECE'UM,  among  the  ancients  the 
apartment  of  the  women,  a  separate  room 
in  the  inner  part  of  the  house,  where  they 
employed  themselves  in  spinning,  weav- 
ing and  needle-work. 

GYNjECONOMI,  certain  magistrates 
amongst  the  Athenians,  who  had  an  eye 
upon  the  conduct  of  the  women,  and  pun- 
ished such  as  forsook  the  line  of  propri- 
ety and  modesty.  A  list  of  such  as  had 
been  fined  was  put  up  by  them  upon  a 
palm-tree  in  the  Ceramicus.  The gijncB- 
conomi  were  ten  in  number,  and  ditiercd 
from  the  gijncecocosmi ;  for  the  former 
were  inspectors  of  manners,  the  latter  of 

GYN'ARCIIY  or  GYN.ECOCRACY, 
government  by  a  woman:  or  a  state 
where  women  are  legally  capable  of  the 
supreme  command.  Of  this  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Spain  are  familiar  examples. 

GYU'OMANCY,  a  kind  of  divination 
performed  by  walking  round  in  a  circle 
or  ring. 

IT. 

IT,  the  eighth  letter  and  sixth  conso- 
nant of  the  English  alphabet.  It  is  not 
strictly  a  vowel,  nor  an  articulation  ;  but 
the  mark  of  a  stronger  breathing  than 
that  which  precedes  the  utterance  of  any 
other  letter.  It  is  pronounced  with  a 
Strang  expiration  of  the  breath  between 
tUo  lips,  closing,  as  it  were,  hy  a  gentle 


282 


Cl'CLOPKDIA    OF    LirKRATVRK 


[hai 


motion  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the  upper,  an  1 
the  tongue  nearly  approaching  the  palate. 
II  is  sometimes  mute,  as  \n  honor,  honest  ; 
also  when  iiniteil  with  rr,  as  in  riirlU.Jlgkt, 
brought.  In  which,  irhiit,  and  some  other 
words  where  it  follows  u",  it  is  sounded 
before  it,  kicich  hirat,  &e.  H,  among  the 
Greeks,  as  a  numeral,  signified  8  ;  in  the 
Latin  of  the  middle  ages,  200,  and  with  a 
dash  over  it,  200,000. — In  music,  h  is  the 
seventh  degree  in  the  diatonic  scale,  and 
the  twelfth  in  the  chromatic. 

HA'BEAS-COll'PUS,  in  law,  a  writ 
for  delivering  a  person  from  false  im- 
prisoninent,  or  for  removing  a  person 
from  one  court  to  another.  By  the  ac- 
tion of  this  writ,  of  which  there  are  sev- 
eral kinds,  adapted  to  different  occasions, 
relief  from  all  unjust  imprisonment  may 
be  obtained,  causes  removed  from  one 
cot.rt  to  another  for  the  promotion  of 
justice,  and  prosecutors  compelled  to 
bring  the  prosecuted  to  open  trial,  in- 
stead of  prolonging  his  imprisonment. 
Thus  it  not  only  protects  the  citizen  froiu 
unlawful  imprisonment  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  civil  officers  of  the  government,  but 
also  against  groundless  arrests  at  the  suit 
or  instigation  of  individuals.  The  right 
is,  however,  liable  to  be  suspended  ;  it 
being  sometimes  necessary  to  clothe  the 
e.xecutive  with  an  extraordinary  power, 
as  the  Romans  were  in  the  habit  of  choos- 
ing a  dictator  in  emergencies,  when  the 
public  was  in  danger. 

IIABEN'DUM,  in  law,  a  word  of  form 
ip  a  deed  or  conveyance,  which  must  con- 
sist of  two  parts,  viz.  the  premises  and 
habendum,  (to  have  and  to  hold.) 

HABEll'GEON,  a  coat  of  mail  former- 
ly worn  to  defend  the  neck  and  breast.  It 
was  formed  of  little  iron  rings  united, 
and  descended  from  the  neck  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  body. 

IIAB'IT,  in  philosophy,  an  aptitude  or 
disposition  either  of  mind  or  body,  ac- 
([uired  by  a  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  act  :  thus  virtue  is  called  a  habit 
of  the  mind  ;  strength,  a  habit  of  the 
body.  All  natural  habits,  whether  of 
body  or  mind,  are  no  other  than  the  body 
and  mind  themselves  considered  as  either 
acting  or  sulTering  ;  or  they  are  modes  of 
the  body  or  mind  wherein  either  perse- 
veres till  effaced  by  some  contrary  mode. 
— Habit,  in  luedicine,  denotes  the  settled 
constitution  of  thoboly;  or  a  particular 
state  formed  by  nature,  or  induced  by 
extraneous  circumstances. 

IIA'DES,  in  classical  mythology,  the 
abode  of  the  dead.  Accordinglo  llesiod 
the  mortals  of  the  brazen  age  were  the 


first  who  descended  to  Hades.  Hades 
was  also  an  appellation  of  the  god  Pluto  ; 
in  which  sense  ahme,  it  is  said,  Hesiod 
uses  it.  The  word  occurs  frequently  in 
the  .Septuagint,  ami  in  the  Greek  New 
Testament,  and  almost  invariably  signi 
fies  the  state  of  the  dead  in  general,  with- 
out regard  to  the  virtuous  or  vicious  char- 
acters of  JLie  persons,  their  happiness  or 
misery. 

H.ADJ,  the  Mohammedan  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca  and  Medina;  whence  Hadji,  a 
pilgrim,  or  one  who  has  performed  this 
pilgrimage  ;  Hedjaz,  the  Holy  Land, 
where  these  cities  are  situated.  By  far 
the  most  authentic;  desc  iption  of  it  is  that 
of  Burkharilt,  who  performed  it  in  the 
guise  of  a  Mohammedan,  in  1814.  It  is 
fixed  to  a  particular  lunar  month,  and 
consequently  takes  place  in  every  season 
of  the  year.  It  was  a  custom  long  ante- 
rior to  the  establishment  of  Islamism, 
when  the  famous  "  black  stone"  of  the 
Caaba  at  Jlecca  was  an  object  of  idola- 
trous veneration.  Every  year  a  black 
silk  stuff  is  now  sent  by  the  sultan  to  cov- 
er the  Caaba.  There  are  usually  five  or 
six  caravans ;  from  Svria,  Egj'jit,  Bar- 
hary,  the  East,  and  the  North.  In  1814, 
the  number  of  pilgrims  was  about  70,000, 
and  this  was  considered  small.  The  pil- 
grims go  through  several  ceremonies  at 
Mecca,  of  which  the  principal  arc  the 
tovaf,  or  procession  round  the  Caaba,  and 
drinking  of  the  well  of  Zoinzen  ;  they  then 
proceed  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Ararat ; 
and  lastly  to  Medina,  the  place  of  the 
prophet's  burial. 

HAGIOG'RAPHY,  sacred  writings. 
The  Jews  divide  the  books  of  the  Scrip- 
tures into  three  parts  ;  the  Law,  whioh  is 
contained  in  the  first  five  books  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  the  Pro])hets,  or  Nevim  ; 
and  the  Cetuvim,  or  irritinss,  by  way  of 
eminence.  The  latter  class  is  called  by 
the  (ireeks  Hagiographa,  comprehending 
the  books  of  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Dan- 
iel, Ezra,  Neheiuiah,  Ruth,  Esther,  Chron- 
icles, Canticles,  Lamentations,  anil  Ecele- 
siastes. 

HAIL,  the  small  masses  of  ice  or  fro- 
zen vapor,  falling  from  the  clouds  in  show- 
ers or  storms.  These  masses  consist  of 
little  spherules  united,  but  not  all  of  the 
same  consistence  ;  some  being  as  hard 
and  solid  as  perfect  ice;  others  soft,  like 
frozen  snow.  Hailstones  assume  various 
figures  ;  some  are  round,  others  angular, 
others  pyramidical,  others  Hat,  and  some- 
times they  are  stellated  with  six  radii, 
like  crystals  of  snow.  Hail  occurs  chief- 
ly in  spring  and  summer,  and  is  always 


hal] 


AND    THE    FINE    AUTS. 


283 


accompauied  with  electrical  phenomena, 
and  not  unfrequently  with  thunder.  It 
usually  precedes  storms  of  rain,  sometimes 
accompanies  them  ;  tiut  never,  or  very 
rarely,  follows  them,  especially  if  the  rain 
is  of  any  duration.  The  time  of  its  con- 
tinuance i.s  always  very  short,  geiuirally 
only  a  few  minutes.  Tiie  usual  size  of 
hailstones  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  but  they  are  frequently  of 
much  bn-ger  dimensions,  sometimes  even 
3  and  4  inches  in  diameter.  Hail-stornis 
are  very  destructive  to  crops,  particularly 
in  hot  climates.  The  phenomena  attend- 
ing the  formation  and  fall  of  hail  are  not 
well  understood  ;  but  it  is  supposed  that 
the  cold  necessary  for  its  formation  is  pro- 
duced by  the  wind  ;  and  tL  it  when  hail- 
stones are  formed  they  are  also  carried 
along  through  the  atmosphere  by  cur- 
rents of  wind,  in  a  direction  very  oblique 
to  the  horizon,  by  which  means  they  may 
be  kept  suspended  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  to  acquire  the  dimensions  they  pos- 
sess, by  con;;ualing  the  particles  of  humid 
vapor  with  which  they  successively  come 
in  contact.  The  electricity  with  which 
hail  is  always  accompanied,  is  only  the 
effect  of  the  passage  of  the  particles  of 
water  from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state. 
llail-rods,  upon  the  same  principle  as 
lightning-rods,  have  been  erected  in  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland,  with  the  view  of 
subtracting  the  superabumlant  electrici- 
ty from  the  clouds,  and  preventing  the 
formation  of  hail ;  but  they  have  not  been 
attended  with  the  success  which  was  ex- 
pected. 

HAIR,  in  physiology,  slender,  oblong, 
and  flexible  filaments,  growing  out  of  the 
pores  of  animals,  and  serving  most  of 
them  as  a  covering.  It  consists  of  the 
bulb,  situated  under  the  skin,  which  is  a 
nervous  vesicle,  and  a  trunk  which  per- 
forates the  skin  and  cuticle,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  a  peculiar  vagina  or  sheath. 
The  color  of  human  hair  depends  on  the 
medullary  juice  ;  but  there  are  also 
general  differences  of  it,  peculiar  in  some 
degree  to  the  climates.  In  the  hottest 
countries  it  is  very  black  ;  in  the  colder 
it  is  yellowish,  brown,  or  inclining  to  red  ; 
b'lt  in  all  places  it  grows  gray  or  white 
with  age.  In  quadrupeds  it  is  of  the 
most  vacious  conformation,  from  the 
finest  wool  to  the  bristles  of  a  hog.  The 
principal  constituent  parts  of  h;iir  are 
animal  matter,  oil,  silex,  sulphur,  car- 
bonate of  lime,  Ac.  Among  the  ancients, 
from  the  earliest  times,  the  hair  of  the 
I'.ead  was  an  object  of  especial  care  and 
attention.     Among  the  (> reeks,  it  at  first 


was  worn  long  by  adults  ;  boys,  especially 
those  of  Sparta,  until  the  a,'^e  of  puberty, 
wore  their  hair  cropped  closa.  At  a  later 
period,  it  was  customary  for  men  to  wear 
their  hair  cut  short.  The  Athenian  cus- 
tom was  the  opposite  of  the  Spartan  ;  the 
hair  was  worn  long  in  childhood,  and  cut 
upon  arriving  at  manhood.  The  cutting 
of  the  hair  was  an  act  of  solemnity,  and 
performed  with  many  ceremonies.  The 
Roman  youth,  before  the  age  of  puberty, 
wore  their  hair  in  ringlets  upon  their 
shoulders  ;  but  about  the  time  of  putting 
on  the  toga  virilis,  they  cut  it  short ; 
such  of  tliem,  at  least,  as  wished  to  dis- 
tinguish themselves  from  the  maccaro- 
nis  and  effeminate  coxcombs.  The  hair 
thus  cut  off  was  consecrated  to  Apollo, 
who  is  always  represented  with  flowing 
hair,  or  to  some  other  god,  under  whose 
protection  they  supposed  themselves  to 
be  more  immediately  placed.  In  works 
of  Art,  the  Ephehl  (youth  who  had  at- 
tained the  age  of  18,)  and  the  Athlet/r 
are  always  represented  with  short  hair. 
Among  the  females,  it  was  the  custom  to 
confine  the  hair  with  a  band,  or  with  net- 
work, sometimes  richly  ornamented  with 
gold  and  other  metals,  examples  of  which 
are  seen  in  the  paintings  found  at  Pom- 
peii. In  other  representations  we  find 
the  hair  inclosed  in  a  kind  of  bag,  made 
of  various  textile  materials.  The  color 
which  was  most  prized  was  blonde,  al- 
though black  was  the  most  common. 
In  times  of  mourning  the  hair  was  cut 
short. 

HAIR  PEN'CILS,  in  painting,  are 
composed  of  very  fine  hairs,  as  of  the 
minever,  the  marten,  the  badger,  the 
polecat,  &.e.,  which  are  mounted  in  a 
quill  when  they  are  small  or  of  moilerate 
size,  but  when  larger  than  a  quill  they 
are  mounted  in  white-iron  tubes.  The 
most  essential  quality  of  a  good  pen- 
cil is  to  form  a  fine  point,  so  that  all 
the  hairs  may  be  united  when  they  are 
moistened  by  drawing  them  through  the 
lips. 

HAIR'S  BREADTH,  a  measure  of 
length,  equal  to  the  forty-eighth  part  of 
an  inch. 

HAL'BERD,  or  HAL'BERT,  an  an- 
cient military  weapon,  intended  for  both 
cutting  and  thrusting,  formerly  carried 
by  sergeants  of  foot  and  artillery.  It 
was  a  kind  of  combination  of  a  spear  and 
a  battle-axe,  with  a  variously  formed 
head,  and  a  shaft  about  six  feet  long.  It 
is  now  rarely  to  be  seen  in  use,  e.xcept  in 
Scotland  in  the  hands  of  town-ofEcera 
(counterparts    of    English   javelin-men) 


284 


CYCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITEHAi  LUE 


1.  Halbert,  time  of  Henry  VIII  2  iln  .  willi  fleiir 
de  lis,  Hen-y  VII.  3.  Doiibleaxcd  halbert,  Charles 
I.  4.  Halbert,  Charles  II.    5  do.,  William  111. 

when  attending  the  magistrates  of  a  bor- 
ough. 

llAL'CYON  DAYS,  a  name  given  by 
the  ancients  to  the  seven  days  that  pre- 
cede and  follow  the  winter  solstice,  from 
the  circumstance  of  the  halcyon  or  nlce- 
do  selecting  that  period  for  incubation. 
While  this  process  was  going  on,  the 
weather  was  generally  remarkable  for 
its  calmness ;  and  hence  the  expression 
has  passed  into  a  proverb,  signifying 
days  of  peace  and  tranquillity. 

HALL,  in  architecture,  a  large  room 
at  the  entrance  of  a  house  or  palace.  In 
the  houses  of  ministers  of  state,  magis- 
trates, Ac,  it  is  the  place  where  they 
give  audience  and  despatch  basine.«s.  In 
magnificent  edifices  where  the  liall  is  very 
large  and  lofty,  and  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  edifice,  it  is  called  a  saloon.  An 
edifice,  in  which  courts  of  justice  are  held; 
as  M''estminster  Ifall,  which  was  origin- 
ally a  royal  palace  ;  the  kings  of  England 
formerly  holding  their  parliaments  and 
courts  of  judicature  in  their  own  dwell- 
ings, as  is  still  the  practice  in  Spnin. 
It  is  perhaps  a  term  improperly  applied, 
as  now,  to  the  entrance  of  a  (hvcUing- 
housc,  tlKUigh  not,  so  to  a  servants'  hall. 
AtO.vfordan  unendowed  college  is  styled 
A  linll;  but  at  Cambridge  the  term  is 
used  indiscriminately  I'or  college,  whether 
endowed  or  not. 

IIALLELI'T.^IT,  a  word  signifying 
j)raise  the  Ijord,  or  praise  yc  Jchorah. 
It  is  met  with  in  the  beginning  of  some 
P8alm.s,  and  the  end  of  others.  It  is  a 
word  of  such  liquid  fluency  and  harmo- 


\  nious  softness,  that  it  is  retained  in  oni 
hymns  withont  translation.  In  conform- 
ity with  the  (Jerman  and  other  continen- 
tal languages  in  nhich  J  has  the  sound  of 
y,  we  often  see  it  written  IInllclujuli ;  but 
to  pronounce  the  word  with  the  English 
sound  of  j  destroys  its  beauty  and  it 
ought  never  to  be  so  written. 

IIALLUCIXA  TIOX,  in  medicine,  er- 
roneous imagination.  Hallucinations  of 
the  senses  arise  from  some  defect  in  the 
organs  of  sense,  or  from  some  unusual 
circumstances  attending  the  object ;  and 
they  are  sometimes  symptoms  of  general 
disease,  as  in  fevers.  Maniacal  halluci- 
natiuns  arise  from  some  imaginary  or 
mistaken  idea. 

HALO,  a  circle  appearing  round  the 
body  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars,  but  more 
especiallj'  about  the  body  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  called  also  corona,  or  c-  wn.  Ha- 
loes are  sometimes  I'hite  and  sometimes 
colored.  Sometimes  one  only  appears, 
and  sometimes  several  concentric  circles 
appear  at  the  same  time.  Haloes  are 
at  times  accompanied  with  other  phenom- 
ena, Such  as  parhelia,  or  mock -suns  ;  par- 
selcncs,  or  mock-moons  ;  anthclia,  or  glo- 
ries. All  these  appearances  are  occasion- 
ed by  the  refraction,  reflection,  or  inflec- 
tion of  light  falling  upon,  or  passing  near 
thick  vapor  floating  in  the  atmosphere. 
HAM.VDIIY'ADS,  certain  nymphs  or 
inferior  deities  supposed  by  the  tJreek 
and  Koman  poets  to  preside  over  woods 
and  forests,  and,  as  their  name  implied, 
to  live  and  die  with  the  particular  trees 
to  which  they  were  attached. 

H  A  N  I),  in  anatomy,  an  important 
member  of  the  human  body,  which,  from 
the  facilities  it  affords  in  all  operations, 
and  accuracy  in  ascertaining  the  magni- 
tude, <te.  of  e.\traneous  objects,  is  justly 
considered  as  contributing  very  essen- 
tially to  all  that  is  either  ingenious  or 
scientific  in  the  human  character. — In 
Christian  Art  a  hand  is  the  indication  of 
a  holy  person  or  thing,  and  frequently 
occurs  in  pictures  representing  martyr- 
doms, as  extended  from  a  cloud  over  a 
saint.  A  hand  in  the  act  of  benediction 
is  frequently  met  with  in  early  Christian 
Art,  and  generally  represents  the  Al- 
mighty Father.  Previous  to  the  twelfth 
century,  the  Supreme  was  always  repre- 
sented by  a  hand  e.xtended  from  a  cloud, 
sometimes  open,  with  rays  proceeding 
from  tlie  fingers,  but  generally  in  the 
act  of  benediction,  viz.,  with  two  fingers 
raised  and  the  rest  open.  The  hands  of 
our  Saviour  pierced,  were  fre()ucsit!y  rep- 
resented in  sculpture. 


iiak] 


AND    in;-:   kink   aiits. 


HAND'LINn.  in  painting,  maniigc- 
nient  of  the  pencil  l)y  toiicli.  lliiinlliiig 
RhoulJ  be  bold,  with  tVeeJoui,  tiimness, 
and  spirit. 

IIANSEAT'JC,  p9rt:uning  to  the 
Ilanse  towns,  or  to  their  confederiicy- 
The  llanse  towns  in  Gerniiiny  were  cer- 
tain commercial  cities  which  associated 
for  the  protection  of  commerce  as  early 
as  the  12th  century.  To  this  confederacy 
acceded  certain  commercial  cities  in  Hol- 
land, England,  France,  Spain,  and  Italy, 
until  they  amounted  to  seventy-two, 
■which  for  centuries  commanded  the  re- 
spect and  defied  the  power  of  kings.  From 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  the  power 
of  the  confederacy,  though  still  very  for- 
midable, began  to  decline.  This,  however, 
v/as  not  owing  to  any  misconduct  on  the 
part  of  its  leaders,  but  to  the  progress  of 
that  improvement  it  had  done  so  much  to 
promote.  The  civilization,  which  had 
been  at  first  confined  to  the  cities,  gradu- 
ally extended  over  the  contiguous  coun- 
try ;  and  feudal  anarchy  was  everywhere 
superseded  by  a  system  of  subordination 
And  the  progress  of  the  Arts.  At  present 
it  only  consists  of  the  cities  of  Ham- 
burgh, Lubeck,  and  Bremen  ;  and  they, 
indeed,  possess  merely  the  shadow  of 
Iheir  former  state. 

IIAP'PINESS,  the  agreeable  sensa- 
tions which  spring  from  the  enjoyment 
of  good.  It  consists  in  the  possession  not 
only  of  the  goods  of  the  body,  as  health, 
strength,  Ac,  fci'.t  also  of  the  more  refined 
goods  of  the  mind,  as  knowledge,  memory, 
taste,  and  especially  the  moral  virtues, 
magnanimity,  fortitude,  benevolence,  &o. 
That  state  is  mostly  to  be  sought  after, 
in  which  the  fewest  competitions  and  dis- 
appointments can  happen,  which  least  of 
all  impairs  any  sense  of  pleasure,  and 
opens  an  unexpected  source  of  the  most 
refined  and  lasting  enjoyments.  That 
state  vfhich  is  attended  with  all  those  ad- 
vantages, is  a  state  or  course  of  virtue  : 
therefore,  a  state  of  virtue,  in  which  the 
moral  goods  of  the  mind  are  attained,  is 
the  happiest  state  ;  and  he  only  can  be 
esteemed  really  and  permanently  happy, 
who  enjoys  peace  of  mind  in  the  favor 
of  the  Almighty. 

HARANOUE',  a  popular  oration,  gen- 
erally implying  loudness  or  declamation  ; 
and  not  a  deliberate  and  argumcntiitive 
address  or  discourse. 

IIAR'BOR,  a  port,  haven,  or  inlet  of 
the  sea,  in  which  ships  can  moor,  and  be 
sheltered  from  the  fury  of  winds  and  a 
heavy  sea. 

HARD'WAKE,  instruments  and  uten- 


sils of  every  kind  manufactured  from 
nictais,  comprising  iron,  brass,  steel,  and 
copper  articles  of  all  descriptions.  Bir- 
mingham and  ShcflRold  are  the  ])rincipal 
seats  of  the  British  hardware  manufac- 
tures ;  and  from  these  immense  C)uanti- 
ties  of  knives,  razors,  scissors,  firo-iirnis, 
gilt  and  ^jlated  goods,  &c.  are  supplied  to 
an  extent  almost  incredible.  The  total 
aggregate  value  of  the  iron  and  other 
hardware  manufactures  of  England  and 
Scotland  may  be  estimated  at  not  less 
than  17,500,000/.  a  year;  affording  direct 
employment,  in  the  various  departments 
of  thU  trade,  for  at  least  360,000  persons. 

HA'REM,  the  apartments  in  which 
Mussulman  princes  confine  their  women, 
who  are  prohibited  from  the  society  of 
others.  They  are  waited  on  by  female 
slaves,  and  guarded  by  black  eunuchs  • 
the  head  of  the  latter  is  called  Klzlar- 
aga.  There  are  two  kizlar-agas,  one  of 
the  old,  the  other  of  the  new  palace,  each 
of  which  has  its  harem.  The  one  is  occu- 
pied by  the  women  of  former  sultans,  and 
those  who  have  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  the  reigning  prince  ;  the  other  by  such 
as  still  enjoy  his  favor.  The  lady  who 
first  presents  him  with  a  male  heir,  is 
styled  the  sultajia,  by  way  of  eminence. 
She  must  then  retire  into  the  old  palace  ; 
but  if  her  son  ascends  the  throne,  she  re- 
turns to  the  new  palace,  and  has  the  title 
of  sultana  valide.  She  is  the  only  woman 
who  is  allowed  to  appear  without  a  veil ; 
none  of  the  others,  even  when  sick,  are 
permitted  to  lay  aside  the  veil,  in  the 
presence  of  any  one  except  the  sultan. 
When  visited  by  the  physician,  their  bed 
is  covered  with  a  thick  counterpane,  and 
the  pulse  felt  through  gauze.  The  life 
of  the  ladies  of  the  imperial  harem  is 
spent  in  bathing,  dressing,  walking  in  the 
garden,  witnessing  the  voluptuous  dances 
performed  by  their  slaves,  Ac.  The 
women  of  other  Turks  enjoy  the  society 
of  their  friends  at  the  baths,  or  at  each 
other's  houses,  appear  in  public  accom- 
panied by  slaves  and  eunuchs,  and  enjoy 
a  degree  of  liberty  which  increases  as 
they  descend  in  rank.  But  those  of  the 
sultan  have  none  of  these  privileges.  It 
is,  of  course,  only  the  richer  Moslems 
who  can  maintain  harems  :  the  poorer 
classes  have  generally  but  one  wife. 

IIAR'LEQriN,  the  inincipal  charac- 
ter in  pantomime,  clad  in  a  party-colored 
dress,  with  a  half-mask,  and  who  is  per- 
petually dancing,  leaping,  or  performing 
tricks  with  his  wonder-working  wand. 
This  character  was  first  introduced  into 
Italian  comedy,  where  he  united  extrav- 


28(1 


CYC'LOI-KDIA     OK     I.I  !KUA  TU  FiE 


[UAK 


agaut  bufToonrej'  iviUi  great  corporeal 
agilitv. 

IIAIIMATTAN,  the  name  given  to  a 
prevailing  wind  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
which  is  of  a  peculiarly  dry  and  parching 
character. 

IIAllMON'rCA,  or  ARMON'ICA,  a 
musical  instrument,  in  which  the  sound 
is  produced  from  glasses,  blown  as  near 
as  possible  in  the  form  of  hemispheres, 
having  each  an  open  neck  or  socket  in 
the  middle.  The  diameter  of  the  largest 
glass  is  nine  inches,  and  that  of  the  small- 
est three  inches.  Between  these  J  here 
are  twenty-three  different  sizes,  dicering 
from  each  other  a  qur.rter  of  an  inch  in 
diame'.er.  The  largest  glass  in  the  in- 
strument is  G,  including  three  complete 
octaves  ;  and  they  are  distinguished  by 
painting  the  apparent  parts  of  the  glass- 
es within  side,  every  semitone  white, 
and  the  other  notes  of  the  octave  with 
the  seven  prismatic  colors  ;  so  that  glass- 
es of  the  same  color,  (the  white  e.veept- 
fcd,)  are  always  octiives  to  each  other. 
The  methoil  of  e.'Ctraeting  exquisite  tones, 
by  rubbing  the  finger  on  the  brim  of 
drinking-glasses,  filled  with  water  in  dif- 
ferent proportions,  was  an  old  discovery; 
but  it  remained  for  Dr.  Franklin  to  c  in- 
struct the  harmonica.  "  The  advantages 
of  this  instrument,"  says  Dr.  Franklin, 
'•  are,  that  its  tones  are  incomparably 
sweet  beyond  any  other ;  that  they  may 
be  swelled  and  softened  at  pleasure,  by 
stronger  or  weaker  pressures  of  the  fin- 
ger, and  continued  to  any  length ;  and 
th.at  the  instrument,  once  well  tuned, 
never  again  wants  tuning."  Its  disad- 
vantages are,  the  difficulty  of  adjusting 
the  tones  by  grinding  ;  the  e.vtreme  skil- 
fulness  necessary  in  the  player  ;  and  the 
impracticability  of  perforuiing  upon  it 
many  of  the  ordinary  operations  of  the 
musical  art ;  for  however  much  it  e.vcels 
all  others  in  the  delicacy  and  duration  of 
its  tone,-!,  yet  it  is  confined  t )  tho.^e  of  a 
soft  and  plaintive  character,  and  to  slow 
snlonin  inovcinenfs. 

I1.\R.M(>X'ICS,  that  branch  of  music 
which  considers  the  differences  and  pro- 
]'ortions  of  sound.  This  science  was  by 
the  ancients  divided  into  seven  parts  ; 
\\'i  cf  f  )und.s,  of  intervals,  of  system,  of 
the  genera,  of  the  tones  or  modes,  of  mu- 
tation, and  of  nicloj)a'ia. 

HARMON  IC  TRIAD,  in  music,  the 
ehonl  of  a  note  consisting  of  a  third  and 
perfect  fifth,  or,  in  other  words,  tlic  com- 
mon chord. 

HAR'.MONY,  in  music,  the  aajreeablc 
result  or  union  of  several  musical  sounds 


heard  at  one  and  the  same  <-ime.  \atu- 
ral  harmonij  coi>sists  of  tlic  harmonic 
triad  or  common  chord — Artifirial  har- 
vionij  is  a  mi.xture  of  concords  and  dis- 
cords.—  Pifrured  harmony  is  that  in 
which,  for  the  purpose  of  melody,  one  or 
more  of  the  parts  of  a  composition  move., 
during  the  continuance  of  a  chord,  through 
certain  notes  which  do  not  form  anv  of 
the  constituent  parts  of  that  chord. — Har- 
monij. as  applied  to  nature,  the  neces- 
sary reciprocal  accordance  of  causes  and 
effects,  by  which  the  existence  of  one 
thing  is  dependent  on  that  of  another. — 
In  matters  of  literature,  we  use  the  wora 
harmonij  for  a  certain  agreement  between 
the  several  parts  of  the  discourse.  In 
architecture,  harmony  denotes  an  agr'se- 
able  relation  between  the  parts  of  a 
building.  In  painting,  it  signifies  the 
union  or  connection  between  the  figures, 
with  respect  to  the  subject  of  the  piece  ; 
and  also  denotes  the  union  or  agjreeablo 
mixture  of  different  colors — Harmony 
of  the  spheres,  a  favorite  hypothesis  of 
Pyth.agoras  and  many  other  ancient  phi- 
losophers, according  to  which,  celestial 
music,  imperceptible  by  the  ears  of  mor- 
tals, was  supposed  to  bo  produced  by  the 
sweetly  tune  J  motions  of  the  stars  and 
planets.  This  harmony  they  attributed 
to  the  various  proportionate  impressions 
of  the  heavenly  globes  upon  one  another, 
acting  at  proper  intervals. 

IIAR.MOXY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES, 
GOSPELS,  itc,  the  correspondence  of  the 
several  writers  of  dift'orent  parts  of  the 
Scriptures  in  their  respective  narratives, 
or  statements  of  doctrine.  The  earliest 
Iliirmony  of  the  Gospels  was  composed 
by  Tatian,  in  the  second  century,  with 
the  title  Diatessaron. 

HARMONY  PRE-ESTAE'LTSIIED, 
a  hypothesis  invented  by  Leibnitz,  to  ex- 
plain the  correspondence  between  the 
course  of  our  sensations  and  the  series  of 
changes  actually  going  on  in  the  universe, 
of  which,  according  to  that  philosopher 
and  many  others,  we  have  no  direct 
knowledge.  This  hypothesis  is  connected, 
in  the  Leibnitzian  system,  with  the  doc- 
trine of  monads, — certain  spiritual  pow- 
ers or  substances,  one  of  which  constitutoa 
the  principle  of  vitality  and  conscious- 
ness in  every  living  being.  Each  of 
those,  is,  in  il-^  degree,  a  mirror,  in  which 
the  changes  going  on  in  the  universe  are 
rpfiected  with  greater  or  less  fidelity. 
Rut  between  simple  substances,  such  a.? 
spirit  and  matter,  soul  and  body,  no  real 
rociproc;il  action  can  take  place.  The 
Author  of  the  universe  has  cons«q'jeit'y 


hat] 


AN'l)     I'lIK    FINK     AIM'S. 


287 


60  ordained  that  the  series  of  changes 
going  on  in  any  particular  conscious  mo- 
nad, corresponds  precisely  to  those  of  the 
nion.ids  in  contiguity  to  which  it  is  placed. 
Hence  arises  our  belief  that  mind  is  act- 
ed on  by  maUer,  and  vice  versa;  a  be- 
lief which  leads  to  no  practical  errors  in 
virtue. 

IIARMOS'TES,  in  ancient  history,  a 
Spartan  magistrate,  called  also  sometimes 
soj'hronistcs,  who  was  appointed  to  super- 
intend a  conquered  state.  Other  Greek 
st;ites  wliieh  made  conquests  afterwards 
burrowoil  the  name. 

HARP,  a  musical  stringed  instrument, 
of  a-triangular  figure.  It  stands  erect, 
and,  when  used,  is  jilaced  at  the  feet  of 
the  performer,  who  produces  its  tones  by 
the  action  of  tlie  thumb  and  fingers  of 
both  hands  on  the  strings.  Its  origin  is 
very  variouslj'  ascribed  ;  but  whatever  it 
may  have  been,  its  invention  is  mani- 
festlj'  very  ancient  ;  for  it  appears  to 
have  been  in  use  (under  various  forms) 
with  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  The  Anglo-Sa.vons  excel- 
led in  playing  on  the  harp.  The  Irish, 
Scots,  and  Welsh  also  made  much  use  of 
this  instrument  ;  and  with  the  Anglo- 
Normans  it  was  equally  popular.  By 
the  Welsh  laws,  a  harp  was  one  of  the 
things  that  were  necessary  to  character- 
ize a  freeman  or  gentleman  ;  and  none 
could  pretend  to  this  rank,  who  had  not 
a  ha'p,  and  was  not  able  to  play  upon  it. 
By  the  same  laws,  to  prevent  slaves  from 
pretending  to  be  gentlemen,  it  was  ex- 
pressly forbidden  to  teach,  or  to  permit, 
them  to  play  upon  the  harp  ;  and  none 
but  the  king,  the  king's  musicians,  and 
gentlemen,  were  allowed  to  liave  harps  in 
their  possession.  The  modern  harp  forms 
one  of  the  most  elegant  objects  to  the 
eye,  while  it  pro  luee-s  some  of  the  most 
agreeable  effects  to  the  ear,  of  any  in- 
strument in  use.  There  are  generally 
35  strings,  but  sometimes  the  number  is 
extended  to  43  :  and  the  compass  usually 
extends  from  double  A  of  the  bass  clef, 
to  double  G  in  the  G  clef 

H/VR'PIE.S.  in  mythology,  three  rapa- 
cious winged  monsters,  supposed  to  be 
the  goddesses  of  storms,  and  called  Aello, 
Ocypete,  and  Celreno.  They  are  so  differ- 
ently described  by  the  poets,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  sav  nnything  definite  concern- 
ing them.  Hesiod  represents  them  as 
young  virgins,  of  great  beauty;  Vossius 
supposes  them  to  be  three  winds;  but 
both  poets  and  artists  appear  gener- 
ully  to  vie  with  each  other  in  depicting 
them  under  the  most  hideous  forms. 


HARPOON',  an  iron  instrument,  form- 
ed at  one  end  like  a  barbed  arrow,  and 
having  a  rope  at  the  other,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spearing  the  whale.  As  soon  as 
the  boat  has  been  rowed  within  a  compe- 
tent distance  of  the  whale,  the  harpooner 
launches  his  instrument  ;  and  the  fish 
being  wounded,  immediately  descends  un- 
der the  ice  with  amazing  rapidity,  carrj-- 
ing  the  harpoon  along  with  him,  and  a 
considerable  length  of  the  line,  which  is 
purposely  lot  down,  to  give  him  room  to 
dive.  Being  soon  exhausted  with  the  fa- 
tigue and  loss  of  blood,  he  re-ascends,  in 
order"\o  breathe,  where  he  presently  ex- 
pires, and  floats  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water. — Harpoon  gun,  an  instrument 
for  discharging  harpoons  at  whales  in 
preference  to  tiie  common  method  of  the 
hand.  It  consists  of  a  kind  of  swivel, 
having  a  barrel  of  wrought  iron,  about 
two  feet  long,  and  is  furnished  with  two 
locks,  which  act  simultaneously,  for  the 
f.urpose  of  diminishing  the  liability  of 
the  gun  missing  fire. 

HARPSICHORD,  a  musical  instru- 
ment with  strings  of  v.ire,  played  on  by 
means  of  keys,  the  striking  of  which 
moves  certain  little  jacks,  which  also 
move  a  double  row  of  chords  or  strings, 
stretched  over  four  bridges  on  the  table 
of  the  instrument.  Since  the  invention 
of  that  superior  instrument,  the  grand 
piano-forte,  the  use  of  the  harpsichord  is 
greatlv  diminished. 

HAR'USPICE,  in  Roman  history,  a 
person  who  pretended  to  foretell  future 
events  by  inspecting  the  entrails  of  beasts 
sacrificed,  or  w.atching  the  circumstances 
attending  their  slaughter,  or  their  man- 
ner of  burning  and  the  ascent  of  the 
smoke. 

HAR'VEST  MOON,  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  those  moons  which,  in  the  au- 
tumnal months,  rise  on  successive  nights, 
soon  after  sunset,  owing  to  the  oblique 
ascension  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac, 
through  which  the  moon  is  then  passing. 

HASTA'TI.  among  the  Romans,  were 
soldiers  armed  with  spears,  who  were  al- 
ways drawn  up  in  the  first  line  of  battle. 
These  were  picked  out  the  next  in  age  to 
the  velites.  At  last  they  laid  aside  the 
spear,  but  still  retained  their  name. 

HATCH'WAY,  in  ships,  a  .square  or 
oblong  opening  in  the  deck,  affording  a 
pass.Tire  from  one  deck  to  another,  or  into 
the  hold  or  lower  apirtmeiits. 

HAT'TI-SHERIFF,  in  Turki.-^h  polity, 
an  order  which  conies  immediately  from 
the  Grand  Siguier,  who  subscribes  it  usu- 
ally with  these  words: — ''Let  my  order 


288 


CVCI.OrEDIA    OF     LITEKAllRK 


[heu 


be  executed  according  to  ii,-;  form  and  im- 
port."    Tlie.se  words  are  generally  clgcd 
witb  gold,  or  otherwise  ornamented  ;  ami 
n  order  given  in  this  way  is  irrevocable. 
HAUBERK,  in  armor,  a  tunic  of  ring- 
ed mail,  with   wide 
sleeves    reaching   a 
little  below  the  el- 
bow, and  descending 
below    the     knees ; 
being  cut  up  before 
and  behind  a  little 
way,  for  convenience 
in  riding,  it  had  the 
appearance   of  ter- 
minating   in    short 
trowsers.       It    was 
introduced     in    the 
twelfth  century,  and 
is  supposed  to  have 
been       introduced 
from      Germany. — 
Hauberk  is  the  name  given   to  this  vest- 
ment by  the   Normans,  signifying  a  pro- 
*ection  for  the  throat,  Viut  the  term  could 
ly  have  been  appropriate  when  the  ca- 
■■chin  or  cowl  formed  a  component  part 
.t. 

HAUT'BOY,  a  musical  wind  instru- 
ment, shaped  somewhat  like  the  flute,  but 
spreading  and  widening  at  .the  bottom, 
and  soun<led  through  a  reed. 

HAVERSACK,  a  kind  of  bag  of  strong 
coarse  linen,  to  carry  bread  and  provis- 
ions on  a  march. 

HEALTH,  that  condition  of  the  body, 
in  which  all  the  vital,  natural,  and  ani- 
mal functions,  are  performed  easily  and 
perfectly,  and  unattended  with  pain.  The 
most  perfect  state  of  health  is  generally 
connected  with  a  certain  conformation  and 
structure  of  the  bodily  organs,  and  well 
marked  by  certain  external  signs.  To 
preserve  health,  it  is  necessary  to  be  tem- 
perate in  food,  exercise,  and  sleep  ;  to 
pay  strict  attention  to  bodily  c-leanliness  ; 
to  abstain  from  spirituous  liquors,  and  to 
guard  against  excess  of  all  kinds.  The 
(IreeKs  and  Romans  deified  health,  rep- 
resenting it  under  the  figure  of  a  woman, 
whom  they  supposed  to  bo  the  daughter 
of  vEsculapius.  Wo  find  the  name  of  the 
goddess  .Salus,  or  Health,  on  many  med- 
»ls  of  the  Roman  emperors,  with  differ- 
ent inscriptions,  as  Sa/u.i  publica,  Salus 
eipublicrr,  Siihts  A'lLTiiyli,  &c. 
HEAVEN,  litcrallv  the  sky,  or  azure 
vault  which  spreads  above  us  like  a  hol- 
low hemisphere,  and  nppears  to  rest  on 
the  limits  of  the  horizon.  Modern  as- 
tronomy has  taught  u?,  that  this  blue 
vault  is,  in  fnct,  the  immeasurable  space 


in  which  our  earth,  the  sun,  and  .ill  the 
planets,  revolve.  In  raetaji^horical  lan- 
guage, this  s])ace  is  called  the  abdde  of 
the  Deity,  nnd  the  seat  of  the  souls  of  the 
just  in  the  life  to  come.  In  these  latter 
senses,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  empy- 
rean, from  the  splendor  by  which  it  is 
characterized.  It  is  also  sometimes  called 
the  firmament.  The  word  which,  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Oenesis.  is  translated  Jir- 
marnent,  was  corru])ted,  it  is  said,  by  the 
Septuagint  translators,  and  should  be 
rendered  expanse  or  extension.  St.  Paul 
speaks  of  the  third  hearen  ;  and  the  ori- 
entals always  describe  seven  heavens,  or 
more.  The  foundation  of  the  doctrine  of 
several  heavens  was  this  :  the  ancien' 
philosophers  assumed  there  were  as  many 
different  heavens  as  they  saw  bodies  in 
motion  ;  they  considered  them  solid,  al- 
though transparent,  and  sunposed  the 
blue  space  extended  over  our  heads  firm 
as  a  sapphire.  They  could  not  conceive 
that  otherwise  they  could  sustain  those 
bodies  ;  and  they  deemed  them  splicrical, 
as  the  most  proper  form  for  nrntion. 
Thus,  there  were  seven  heavens  for  the 
seven  planets,  and  an  eighth  for  the  fixed 
stars.  Ptolemy  discountenanced  this  sys- 
tem. He  said,  the  deities  (by  which  name 
he  calls  the  stars,  for  they  were  adored  in 
his  time,)  moved  in  an  ethereal  fluid.  It 
was,  however,  by  very  shnv  degrees  that 
men  became  acquainted  with  the  true  sci- 
ence which  instructs  us  in  the  laws  of  ce- 
lestial motion,  and  the  magnitudes,  dis- 
tances, &c.,  of  those  effulgent  orbs  which 
deck  the  vast  expanse.  The  heavens, 
then,  to  follow  the. path  of  the  Newtonian 
or  true  system,  are  filled  wiih  a  fluid 
much  finer  .and  thinner  than  this  air,  and 
extending  beyond  all  limits  of  which  we 
have  any  conception.  There  being  noth- 
ing visible  to  us  in  the  remote  part  of  the 
heavens,  we  can  only  consider  them  as 
the  places  of  the  stars.  AVe  shall  ha-ve  a 
vast  idea  of  this  space  if  we  consider  that 
the  largest  of  the  fixed  stars,  which  are 
probably  the  nearest  to  us,  are  at  a  dis- 
tance too  great  for  the  expression  of  all 
that  we  can  conceive  from  figures,  and 
for  all  means  of  admeasurenirnt.  The 
sun,  which  in  that  little  space  of  the  heav- 
ens that  makes  the  system  of  which  our 
world  is  a  part,  is  in  reality  nothing 
more  than  a  fixed  star. 

HEBDOiM  ADARV,  a  member  of  a 
chapter  or  convent,  whoso  duty  it  is  to  of- 
ficiate in  the  choir,  rehearse  the  anthems 
ami  prayers,  and  perform  other  services, 
which,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  are 
performed  by  the  superiors. 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


289 


HEBDOM'ARY,  a  solemnity  of  the 
'ancient  (!  reeks,  in  which  the  Athenians 
sung  hymns  in  honor  of  ApoHo,  ami  car- 
ried in  their  hands  hianciies  of  hvurel. 
It  was  observed  on  the  seventh  day  ol" 
every  lunar  month;  hence  the  name. 

HE  DK,  in  Grecian  inythohigy,  was 
the  goildess  of  youth,  whose  office  it  was 
to  hand  round  the  nectar  at  the  banquets 
of  the  gods,  yiie  was  the  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Juno. 

IIE'BKALSM,  an  idiom  or  manner  of 
speaking  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage. 

HEBREW,  the  language  spoken  by 
the  Jews,  and  which  aj)pears  to  be  the 
most  ancient  of  all  the  languages  in  the 
v/orld.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  the  only  pieces  to  be  found,  in  all  an- 
tiquity, written  in  pure  Hebrew;  and  the 
language  of  many  of  these  is  extremely 
sublime.  But  Hebrew  literature,  inde- 
pendently of  its  containing  the  records 
of  a  divine  revelation,  possesses  a  pecu- 
liar scientific  interest.  It  surpasses  in 
antiquity,  general  credibility,  originality, 
poetic  strength,  and  religious  importance, 
that  of  any  other  nation  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  contains  most  remarkable 
memorials  and  trustworthy  materials  for 
the  history  of  the  human  race,  and  its 
mental  development. — The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  a  canonical  book  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  Hebrews,  to  whom  this 
epistle  was  addressed,  were  the  believing 
Jews  of  Palestine,  and  its  design  was  to 
convince  them  of  the  insufficiency  and 
abolishment  of  the  ceremonial  and  ritual 
law/  In  order  to  which  the  apostle  un- 
dertakes to  show,  first,  the  superior  ex- 
cellency of  Christ's  person  above  that 
of  Moses ;  secondly,  the  superiority  of 
Christ's  priesthood  above  the  Levitical ; 
and  thirdly,  the  mere  figurative  nature, 
and  utter  insuiRciency,  of  the  legal  cere- 
monies and  sacrifices. 

HECATE,  in  mythology,  a  Grecian 
goddess,  daughter  of  the  Titan  Perses 
and  Asteria.  She  presided  over  popular 
assemblies,  war,  the  administration  of 
justice,  and  the  rearing  of  children. 
There  is  a  good  deal  of  obscurity  attached 
to  this  goddess,  who  is  often  confounded 
with  Artemis  or  Diana,  and  Proserpine; 
whence  she  is  sometimes  considered  the 
patroness  of  magic  and  the  infernal  re- 
gions. She  was  called  the  triple  goddess, 
and  was  supposed  to  wander  along  the 
earth  at  night.  Statues  were  set  up  to 
her  in  market-places,  and  especially  at 
cross  roads. 

HECATE'SIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
19 


a  public  entertainment  given  by  the 
Athenians  every  now  moon,  in  honor  of 
Hecate. 

HECATOMB,  amongst  the  Greck.s, 
was  a  sacrifice  consisting  of  a  hundred 
oxen  offered  upon  some  very  extraordi- 
nary occasion. — Hecatomb,  in  its  most 
general  sense,  signifies  no  more  than  a 
sacrifice  of  a  hundred  animals;  but  the 
ox  being  the  chief  of  animals  use<l  in  sac- 
rifice, gave  derivation  to  the  word. 

HEGI'RA,  the  epoch  of  the  flight  of 
Mahomet  from  Mecca,  July  10,  G'i2, 
whence  Eastern  nations  date  the  year  of 
3.54  da3'S ;  which  is  found  by  subtracting 
622  from  our  year,  and  then  multiplying 
by  36.5  52,  and  dividing  by  354. 

HEI'GHTEX,  in  painting,  a  verb  sig- 
nifying to  make  prominent  by  means  of 
touches  of  light  or  brilliant  colors,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  shadows. 

HEIR,  in  law,  the  person  who  succeeds 
another  by  descent  to  lands,  tenements, 
and  hereditaments,  being  an  estate  of  in- 
heritance, or  an  estate  in  fee ;  because 
nothing  passes  by  right  of  inheritance  but 
in  fee.  We  give  the  title  to  a  person  who 
is  to  inherit  after  the  death  of  an  ances- 
tor, and  during  his  life,  as  well  as  to  the 
person  who  has  actually  come  into  pos- 
session.— Heir-apparent,  is  a  person  so 
called  in  the  lifetime  of  his  ancestor,  at 
whose  death  he  is  heir  at  law. — Heir- 
presumptive,  one  who,  if  the  ancestor 
should  die  immediately,  would,  in  the 
present  circumstances  of  things,  be  his 
heir  ;  but  whose  right  of  inheritance  may 
be  defeated  by  the  contingency  of  some 
nearer  heir  being  born. 

HEIR'-LOOM,  any  furniture  or  per- 
sonal chattel,  which  by  law  descends  to 
the  heir  with  the  house  or  freehold. 

HELIX,  HELICES,  in  architecture, 
the  curling  stalks  or  volutes  under  tha 
flowers  in  each  face  of  the  abacus  of  the 
Corinthian  capital. 

HELLENIC,  the  name  given  to  the 
common  dialect  which  prevailed  very 
generally  among  the  Greek  writers  after 
the  time  of  Alexanrler.  It  was  formed 
with  very  slight  variations,  from  the  pure 
Attic  of  the  age  preceding  its  introduc- 
tion. 

HELLENIS'TIC,  the  name  given  to 
that  dialect  of  the  Grecian  language  that 
was  used  by  the  Jewish  writers.  Its  pe- 
culiarities consisted  in  the  introduction 
of  foreign  words  very  little  disguised,  but 
more  especially  of  oriental  metaphors  and 
idioms  ;  but  not  at  all  in  the  inflexions 
of  words,  which  were  the  same  as  in  the 
Hellenic.     In  this  dialect,  it  is  said,  the 


290 


CVCLOPEDIA     OF    I.ITERATI   liK 


[hf.m 


Septuairint    was    written,    and    also   the  ' 
books  of  the  Now  Testament ;  and  that 
it  was  thus  denominated  to  sliow  that  it 
was    Greek    tilled    with    Hebraisms    and 
Syriacisins. 

HELLENISTS,  the  name  by  which 
the  Jews  who  from  their  foreign  birth  or 
travel  used  the  (Jreck  (llellenie)  hm- 
guage,  are  distinjjuished  in  the  Acts  of 
Apostles.  The  word  is  derived,  accord-  ^ 
ing  to  a  oonimon  method  of  formation 
in  the  Greek  language,  from  the  verb 
£>Aijn's£u,  to  Hellcnizc,  or  adopt  the  man- 
ners of  a  Greek.  There  were  great  num- 
bers of  Jews  scattered  throughout  the 
Koman  empire  at  this  period,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  Asiatic  and  East  African 
provinces,  where  the  Greek  was  the  cur- 
rent language;  and  as  they  were  in  the 
habit  of  making  frequent  journeys  to  and 
from  Jerusalem,  they  heard  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Apostles,  and  became  effica- 
cious instruments  in  i-onveying  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  word  throughout  all  himls. 
From  their  long  sojourn  in  foreign  coun- 
tries they  were  distinguished  from  the 
Hebraists,  or  native  Jews,  by  the  greater 
liberality  of  their  views  with  respect  to 
the  nature  of  the  promises  of  the  Old 
Testament.  It  appears  from  Acts,  vi.  I, 
that  these  Jews  retained  the  distinctive 
name  of  Hellenists  after  their  conversion 
to  Christianity,  and  that  there  continued 
to  subsist  some  jealousy  between  them 
and  the  native  Christians. 

HEL'JIET,  defensive  armor  for  the 
head  :  a  word  of  Scandinavian  derivation. 
The  armor  of  the  ancients,  which  partic- 
ularly guarded  the  head,  was  known  by 
the  general  denominations  of  head-piece, 
casque,  ami  helmet.  Helmets  were  an- 
ciently formed  of  various  materials,  but 
chiefly  of  skins  of  beasts,  brass,  and  iron. 
An  open  helmet  covers  only  the  head, 
ears,  and  neck,  leaving  the  face  unguard- 
ed. Some  ojjcn  helmets  have  a  bar  or 
bars  froui  the  forehead  to  the  chin,  to 
guard  against  the  transverse  cut  of  a 
broad-sword  ;  but  it  affords  little  defence 
against  the  point  of  a  lance  or  sword.  A 
close  helmet  entirely  covers  the  head, 
face,  and  neck  ;  having  on  the  front  per- 
forations for  the  admission  of  air,  and 
slits  through  which  the  wearer  may  see 
the  objects  around  him  ;  this  part,  which 
is  style  1  the  visor,  (from  the  French  word 
viscr,  to  take  aim,)  lifts  up  by  means  of  a 
pivot  ovcreach  ear.  Sonic  helmets  have  a 
bever,  (from  bm'i'iir,  drinker,  or  from  the 
Italian  beterc,  to  drink,)  which,  when 
closed,  covers  the  njouth  and  chin,  and 
either  lifts  up  Vy  revolving  on  the  same 


pivots  as  the  visor,  or  lets  down  by  meana 
of  two  or  more  pivots  on  each  side  nea? 
the  jaws.  The  use  of  the  bever  wa.s  to 
enable  the  wearer  to  eat  and  drink  more 
commodiou:-ly  than  could  be  done  in  a 
helmet  with  a  visor  only.  The  helmets 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  mostly 


open,  not  unlike  skull-caps,  as  formerly 
worn  by  modern  dragoons.  Montfaucon 
says  he  never  saw  an  ancient  helmet  with 
a  visor  to  raise  or  let  down,  although  he 
is  of  opinion  that  they  had  those  contri- 
vances. It  seems  as  if  the  Romans,  at 
least  those  of  v.hich  Pompey's  army  was 
composed  at  Pharsalia,  had  open  hel- 
mets, as  Cfesar  directed  his  soldiers  to 
strike  them  in  the  face,  which  order,  had 
their  faces  been  covered,  ho  would  not 
have  given. 

HELOTS,  in  ancient  history,  the 
slaves  of  the  Spartans,  who  consisted 
originally  of  the  Achiiean  inhabitants  of 
Laconia,  who  were  subdued  by  force  of 
arms  by  the  Dorian  invaders.  The  name 
was  derived  from  Helos,  a  town  of  Laco- 
nia, of  which  the  inhabitants  were  thus 
reduced  to  servitude  ;  but  to  this  class 
were  afterwards  added  the  Messenians, 
who  still  clung  to  their  native  soil  after 
its  subjugation  by  the  Spartans.  They 
were  employed  either  as  domestic  slavefs, 
cultivators  of  the  land,  or  in  the  public 
works;  and  though  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  treated  ordinarily  with 
much  severity,  yet  the  recollection  of 
their  former  state  urged  them  frequently 
to  revolt,  while  their  numbers  rendered 
them  so  formidable  to  their  masters  as  to 
drive  the  latter  to  schemes  of  the  most 
.abominable  treachery  for  their  repres- 
sion. 

HELVET'IC,  an  epithet  designating 
what  pertains  to  the  Helretii,  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Switzerland,  or  to  the 
modern  states  and  inhabitants  of  the  Al 
pine  regions  ;  as  the  Helvetic  confede- 
racy, (fee. 

HEMT,  a  Greek  word  used  in  the  com 
position  of  several  terms  borrowed  from 
that  language.  It  signifies  half,  tlie  same 
assewi,  and  dcml:  thus,  jiemiplef^ia  is  a 
palsy  of  one  half  o(  the  body  ;  hemistich, 
half  a,  verse  ;  hemicijcle,  a  s«mt-circle 


HERJ 


AND     IIIK     FINE     AIITS. 


291 


HEMISTICH,  in  poetry,  denotes  half 
a  verse,  or  a  verse  not  completed.  In 
reading  common  English  verse,  a  short 
pause  is  required  at  the  end  of  each 
hemistich. 

HENDECASYL'LABLE.?,  in  poetical 
composition,  a  verse  of  eleven  syllables. 
Among  the  ancients  it  was  particularly 
used  by  Catullus,  and  is  well  adapted  for 
elegiint  trifles. 

HEP'TACnOKD,  in  ancient  poetry, 
verses  sung  or  played  on  seven  chords  or 
ditTerent  notes  ;  in  which  sense  the  word 
was  applied  to  the  lyre  when  it  had  but 
seven  strings. 

HEPTARCHY,  a  government  exer- 
cised by  seven  persons  ;  or,  a  nation  di- 
vided into  seven  governments. — Saxon 
heptarchy,  the  seven  kingdoms  existing 
in  England,  between  the  fifth  and  ninth 
centuries.  These  kingdoms  were  sever- 
ally named,  I.Kent ;  2.  Sussex  ;  3.  Wes- 
sex ;  4.  Essex;  5.  Northumberland;  6. 
East  Angleland ;  7.  Mereia.  The  hep- 
tarchy was  formed  by  degrees  ;  but  it 
may  be  said  to  have  commenced  in  449, 
when  Hengist  arrived  on  the  island.  In 
827  Egbert  was  enabled,  by  a  combina- 
tion of  circumstances,  to  assume  the  title 
of  King  of  England ;  but,  in  reality, 
three  of  the  kingdoms,  Northumberland, 
East  Angleland,  and  Jlercia,  were  still 
governed  by  their  own  kings,  though 
those  kings  were  his  vassals  and  tributa- 
ries. The  kingdoms  he  actually  govern- 
ed were  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  and  Essex. 

HEKACLI'D-E,  the  return  of  the  He- 
raclidie  into  Peloponnesus,  in  chronolo- 
gy, constituted  the  beginning  of  profane 
history;  all  the  time  preceding  that 
period  being  accounted  fabulous.  This 
return  happened  in  the  j'ear  of  the  world 
2682,  a  hundred  years  after  they  were 
expelled,  and  eighty  after  the  destruction 
of  Trov. 

HERALD,  the  title  of  an  officer  in  Eng- 
land whose  duty  it  anciently  was  to  declare 
war,  to  challenge  in  battle  and  combat,  to 
proclaim  peacQ,  and  to  execute  martial 
messages;  but  who  is,  at  present,  to  conduct 
royal  processions,  the  creations  of  noliility, 
and  the  ceremonies  of  knighthood ;  to 
publish  declarations  of  war,  not  to  the 
enemy,  but  at  home  ;  to  proclaim  peace ; 
to  record  and  blazon  armorial  bearings  ; 
and  to  regulate  abuses  in  arms,  under  the 
authority  of  the  earl  marshal,  by  whom 
he  is  created.  The  heralds  wore  formed 
into  a  college  by  Ricliard  the  Third.  The 
three  chief  heralds  are  called  kings  at 
arms,  the  principal  of  wliich  is  Garter  ; 
the  next  is  called  Clarencieux,  and  the 


third  Norroy ;  these  two  last  are  called 
provincial  heralds.  Besides  these  there 
are  six  other  inferior  heralds,  viz.,  York, 
Lancaster,  Somerset,  Richmond,  Chester, 
and  Windsor;  to  which,  on  the  accession 
of  king  George  I.  to  the  crown,  a  new 
herald  was  added,  styled  Hanover  her- 
ald ;  and  another  styled  Gloucester  king 
at  arms. — Heralds,  amongst  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  were  held  in  great 
estimation,  and  looked  upon  as  sacred. 
Those  of  Greece  carried  in  their  hands  a 
rod  of  laurel,  round  which  two  serpents, 
without  crests,  were  twisted  as  emblems 
of  peace. 

IIER'ALDRY,  is  the  art,  practice,  or 
science  of  recording  genealogies,  and  bla- 
zoning arms  or  ensigns  armorial ;  or  it  is 
the  science  of  conventional  distinctions 
impressed  on  shields,  banners,  and  other 
military  accoutrements.  It  also  teaches 
whatever  relates  to  the  marshalling  of 
cavalcades,  processions,  and  other  public 
ceremonies. — Heraldry  has  been  divided 
into  personal  and  national.  The  first  of 
these  divisions  treats  of  bearings  belong- 
ing to  individuals,  either  in  their  own  or 
in  hereditary  right.  The  second  treats 
of  distinctive  emblems  adopted  by  civil 
communities. 

H  E  R  B  A  '  R  I  A,  collections  of  dried 
plants,  such  as  the  old  botanists  called 
horti  sicci,  or  dry  gardens.  They  are 
formed  by  gluing  to  sheets  of  paper 
branches  and  other  parts  of  plants  pressed 
flat,  and  dried  in  the  sun  or  otherwise. 
If  well  prepared,  they  are  as  useful  to 
the  botanist  as  plants  alive  ;  but  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  have  some  practical  skill  to  bo 
able  to  employ  them  advantageously. 
The  largest  public  herbaria  are  those  of 
the  Museum  at  Paris ;  the  Imperial  col- 
lection of  Vienna;  the  Royal  of  Berlin: 
and  that  of  the  British  Museum,  formerly 
Sir  Joseph  Bank's.  Nothing  certain  is 
known  of  the  extent  of  these  collections, 
but  they  probably  contain,  in  some  cases, 
as  many  as  60,000  species.  The  herbari- 
um is  an  unattractive  part  of  public  mu- 
seums ;  but  a  very  important  one  for  nu- 
merous purposes  of  science,  both  practical 
and  speculative. 

HERCULA'NEUM,  an  ancient  city  of 
Naples,  overwhelmed  by  an  eruption  of 
Mount  Vesuvius  in  the  reign  of  Titus;  it 
was  discovered  in  the  year  1689,  since 
which  time  many  manuscrij)ts,  paintings, 
statues,  and  other  relies  of  antiquity, 
have  been  discovered.  From  the  excava- 
tions that  have  been  made  from  time  to 
time,  the  ancient  streets  and  buildings 
have  been,  as  it  were,  again  thrown  open. 


292 


C'VCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITEliATL'RE 


and  the  domestic  affairs  of  tho  ancients 
revealed  to  the  eyes  of  niodeni  archa-olo- 
gists.  Since  1823  new  excavations  have 
taken  place,  and  a  splendid  private  house 
has  been  discovered,  with  a  suite  of  cham- 
bers, and  a  court  in  the  centre.  There  is 
a  separate  part  of  the  mansion  allotted 
to  females,  a  garden  surrounded  by  ar- 
cades and  columns,  and  also  a  grand  sa- 
loon, which  probably  served  for  the  meet- 
ing of  the  whole  family.  Another  house, 
also  discovered,  was  very  remarkable, 
from  tho  quantity  and  nature  of  the  pro- 
visions in  it,  none  of  which  had  been  dis- 
turbed for  eighteen  centuries,  for  the 
duors  remained  fastened,  in  the  same  state 
as  they  were  at  the  period  of  the  catas- 
trophe which  buried  llerculaneum.  The 
family  which  occupied  this  mansion  was, 
in  all  likelihood,  when  the  disaster  took 
place,  laying  in  provisions  for  the  winter. 
The  provisions  found  in  the  store-rooms 
consist  of  dates,  chestnuts,  large  walnuts, 
dried  figs,  almonds,  prunes,  corn,  oil, 
pease,  lentils,  pies,  ami  hams.  The  in- 
ternal arrangement  of  the  house,  the  m:in- 
ler  in  which  it  was  ornamenteii,  all,  in 
''act,  announced  that  it  had  belonged  to  a 
Tcry  rich  family  and  to  admirers  of  the 
Arts  ;  for  there  were  discovered  many  pic- 
.ures,  representing  Polyphemus  and  Ga- 
latea; Hercules  and  the  three  llesperides, 
Cupid  and  a  Bacchante,  Mercury  and 
lo,  Perseus  killing  Medusa,  and  others. 
There  were  also  in  the  same  house,  vases, 
articles  in  glass,  bronze  and  terra  eotta, 
as  well  as  medallions  in  silver,  represent- 
ing in  relief  Apollo  an  1  Diana. 

IIERCU'LEAN,  an  epithet  expressive 
of  the  great  labor  necessary  to  execute 
any  task  ;  such  as  it  would  require  tiie 
strength  or  courage  of  Jlereulcs  to  en- 
counter or  accomplish. 

IIEII'CULE.S,  in  mythology,  one  of  tlio 
most  celebrated  ])ersonage.s  of  antiquity, 
believed  to  be  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Alcmaena,  the  daughter  of  Electryon,  king 
of  Myccnic.  The  history  au'l  wondeiful 
exploits  of  this  hero  are  so  well  kmnvn, 
that  it  would  be  supcrlluous  to  dwell  up- 
on them  here.  There  is,  ])orhaps,  no  sub- 
ject connected  with  antiquity  to  the  right 
comprehension  of  which  such  formidable 
Uilliculties  are  presented ;  and  hence  the 
numerous  attempts  that  have  been  made 
to  separate  truth  from  fiction  in  the  his- 
tory of  Hercules,  by  divesting  it  of  tho 
mythological  traditions  with  which  it  had 
l)een  encumbered  by  all  the  writers  of 
antiquity.  In  some  shape  or  another,  all 
the  profane  nations  of  antiquity  seem  to 
Lave  possessed  a  divinitj*  to  whom  thoy 


attributed  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
bodily  strength,  combined  with  indomita- 
ble perseverance  and  moral  energy  in  pros- 
ecuting anil  overcoming  dillicult  aehievc- 
ments.  The  reader  will  at  once  recog- 
nize, as  belonging  to  this  class,  the  Baal 
of  the  Syrians,  the  Mulkarth  of  I'hcenicia, 
and  the  llama  of  ilindostau;  who,  like 
the  Grecian  Hercules,  outstripping  in 
bodily  and  intellectual  endowments  tho 
great  mass  of  the  i)eople  of  the  rude  era 
in  which  they  lived,  achieved"  a  multi- 
plicity of  deeds  which  were  looked  upon 
as  altogether  miraculous,  and  which  pro- 
cured for  their  authors  empire  and  do- 
minion during  their  lives,  and  after  death 
a  place  among  the  gods. 

HEREDIT'AMENTS,  in  law,  lands, 
tenements,  and  whatever  immovable 
things  a  person  may  have  to  himself  and 
his  heirs,  by  way  of  inheritance ;  and 
which,  if  not  otherwise  bequeathed,  de- 
scend to  him  who  is  next  heir,  and  not  to 
the  executor,  as  chattels  do. 

HEREDITARY,  an  appellation  given 
to  whatever  belongs  to  a  family  by  right 
of  succession,  from  heir  to  heir.  Some 
monarchies  are  hereditary,  and  others 
elective;  and  some  hereditary  monarchies 
descend  only  to  the  heirs  male,  as  in 
France  ;  but  others,  to  the  next  of  blood, 
as  in  Spain,  England,  &.c. — Hereditary 
is  also  applied  to  offices  and  posts  of  honor 
annexed  to  certain  families ;  thus  in 
England  the  office  of  earl-marshal  is  he- 
reditary in  the  family  of  Howard.  It  is 
also  figuratively  applied  to  good  or  ill 
qualities,  supposed  to  bo  transmitted  from 
a  parent  to  a  child;  as,  hereditary  bra- 
vecy,  hereditary  pride. 

HEll'ESV,  a  fundamental  error  in  re- 
ligion, or  an  error  of  opinion  respecting 
some  fund  iniental  doctrine  of  religion. 
But  in  countries  where  there  is  an  estab- 
lished church,  an  opinion  is  deemed  lier- 
c.sy,  when  it  differs  from  that  of  the 
church.  The  Scriptures  being  the  stand- 
ard of  faith,  any  opinion  that  is  repugnant 
to  its  doctrines,  is  heresij ;  but  as  men 
differ  in  thi!  interpretation  of  Scripture, 
an  opinion  deemed  heretical  by  one  budy 
of  Christians,  may  be  deemed  orthodox 
by  another.  In  Scripture  and  primitive 
usage,  hcresij  meant  merely  sect,  party, 
or  tho  doctrines  of  a  sect,  as  we  now  uso 
dei'.omiiHiliuii  or  jiersiiasion,  implying 
no  reproach. 

HER'E'l'OCH,  among  the  ancient  Sax- 
ons, signilied  the  leader  or  commander 
of  an  army,  or  tho  commander  of  tho 
militia  in  a  country  or  district. 

IIER'IOT,  in  law,  the  fine  paid  to  the 


HKxJ 


AND    TIIK     KINE     AKTS. 


20c 


lord  of  the  nifinor,  by  copyholJers,  on  the 
death  of  the  tenant. 

JIEll'ISSON,  in  fortification,  a  beam 
pr  bar  ariucd  with  iron  spikes  pointing 
cutwanLs,  and  turning  on  a  pivot ;  used 
to  bh)clv  up  a  passage. 

HER.MENEU'TICS,  the  art  of  finding 
the  meaning  of  an  author's  words  and 
phrases,  and  of  exphiining  it  to  otliers. 
The  word  is  seldom  used  except  in  refer- 
ence to  theohigical  subjects. 

HERMETIC  ART,  the  imaginary  art 
or  science  of  alchemy ;  so  termed  from 
Hermes  Trismegistus,  a  personage  of 
questionable  reality,  looked  up  to  by  the 
alchemists  as  the  founder  of  the  art. 
h>ome  spurious  works  bearing  his  name 
are  still  extant. 

IIER'MITS,  orER'EMITES,  persons 
who,  in  the  early  ages  of  Ciiristianity, 
secluded  themselves  from  the  world  for 
devotional  purposes,  betaking  themselves 
to  solitary  and  desert  places  (tpruidi,) 
whence  their  name.  In  the  first  five  cen- 
turies of  our  era  this  class  of  persons  was 
extremely  numerous  ;  nor  have  individ- 
uals been  wanting  in  latter  ages  who 
have  undergone  the  same  privations  with 
the  same  mistaken  views,  and  have  ac- 
quired great  reputation  for  sanctity  in 
consequence. 

HE  RO,  in  pagan  mythology,  an  illus- 
trious mortal,  but  supposed  by  the  popu- 
lace to  partake  of  immortality,  and  after 
his  death  to  be  placed  among  the  gods.— 
Hero  is  also  used  in  a  more  extensive 
sense  for  a  great,  illustrious,  and  extra- 
ordinary personage  ;  particularly  one 
eminent  for  valor,  courage,  intrepidity, 
and  other  military  virtues. — Hero,  in  a 
poem  or  romance,  is  the  principal  per- 
sonage, or  the  one  who  has  the  principal 
share  in  the  actions  related;  as  Achilles 
in  the  Iliad,  Ulysses  in  the  Odyssey,  &c. 
— Heroic  verse,  hexameter  verse,  so 
called  because  it  is  used  by  poets  in  their 
heroic  poems. — Heroic  age,  that  age  or 
period  of  the  world  wherein  the  heroes, 
or  demigods,  are  supposed  to  have  lived. 
The  heroic  age  coincides  with  the  fabu- 
lous age. 

IIERRN'IIUT,  an  establishment  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  comprising,  it  is  said,  at 
present  120  houses,  and  1500  inhabitants, 
which  was  founded  by  a  few  Moravians 
about  the  year  1722,  under  the  patronage 
of  Count  Zin7,enilorf.  The  principles  of 
the  society  thus  formed  are  seclusion 
from  the  woild,  the  enjoyment  of  a  con- 
templative life,  and  the  possession  of  all 
goods  ■./!  common.  Its  members  are 
bound  together,  under  the  title  of  Mora- 


vian Brethren,  by  strict  laws  and  observ- 
ances. Accusations  have  been  thrown 
out  against  them  of  their  indulging,  in 
their  retirement,  in  many  licentious 
practices;  but  it  is  certain  that  their  in- 
dustry supplies  many  of  the  markets  of 
(Jermany  with  various  useful  and  orna- 
mental articles  of  handiwork  ;  that  their 
zeal  has  prompted  them  to  establish  affi- 
liated societies  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  America;  and  that  in  religious  mat- 
ters they  are  neither  extravagant  them- 
selves, nor  intolerant  of  others. 

IIER'TIIA,  (sometimes  written  Aertha, 
Aortha,  and  Eorthe.)  In  German  my- 
thology, the  name  generally  assigned  in 
modern  times  to  the  chief  divinity  of  the 
ancient  German  .and  Scandinavian  na- 
tions. iShe  was  worshipped  under  a  va- 
riety of  names,  of  which  the  chief  were 
exactly  analogous  to  those  of  Terra,  Rhea, 
Cybele,  and  Ops,  among  the  Greeks  .and 
Romans.  Long  before  the  Christian  era. 
the  knowledge  of  Hertha  appeared  to 
have  been  extended  over  .a  great  portion 
of  northern  Europe.  Tacitus  speaks  of 
the  wonderful  unanimity  Avhich  tribes 
that  h.ad  no  other  feature  in  common  dis- 
played in  worshipping  this  goddess,  whom 
he  designates  Ilerthus,  or  Mother  Earth. 
ller  chief  sanctuary  was  situated,  accord- 
ing to  the  same  authority,  in  a  sacred 
grove  in  an  island  of  the  ocean,  in  insula 
oceani,  which,  by  some  writers,  has  been 
supposed  to  be  Riga,  and  by  others  Zet- 
land or  Heligoliind ;  but  no  modern  re- 
searches have  been  able  accurately  to  fix 
its  locality. 

nE.SPER'IDES,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  daughters  of  Night,  or  the  grand- 
daughters of  Hesperus  the  brother  of  At- 
las, three  or  seven  in  number,  possessors 
of  the  fabulous  garden  of  golden  fruit 
watched  over  by  an  enchanted  dragon  at 
the  western  extremities  of  the  earth. 
Such  at  least  is  the  most  ordinary  form 
of  the  fable,  but  it  is  very  variously  rep- 
resented. 

HET'EROCLITE.  in  grammar,  a  word 
which  is  irregular  or  anom.alous,  either 
in  declension  or  conjugation,  or  which 
deviates  from  the  ordinary  forms  of  in- 
flection in  words  of  a  like  kind. 

IIEX'ACHORD,  in  music,  <a  progres- 
sion of  six  notes,  to  which  Guide  attached 
the  syllables  at,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la.  The 
hexachord  is  also  called  a  sixth  ;  and  is 
twofold,  greater  and  less.  The  former  is 
composed  of  two  greater,  two  less  tones, 
and  one  greater  semitone,  making  fivo 
interv.als;  the  latter  of  two  greater  tones, 
one  lesser  and  two  greater  semitones. 


!94 


CVC.'.Ol'EDIA    OK    LITKRATLUE 


[hio 


HEXAM'ETER,  in  ancient  poetry,  a 
verse  consisting  o*"  six  feet,  the  tirst  four 
of  which  luiiy  be  either  dactyls  or  spon- 
dees, the  fifth  must  regularly  he  a  dactyl, 
and  the  sixth  always  a  spondee.  Ilex-  j 
anictcr  verse  was  employed  on  almost 
every  topic  to  which  poetry  can  be  ap- 
plied. In  modern  times  several  poets  of 
France,  England,  and  Germany  have  at- 
tcnji>ted  to  introduce  this  measure  into 
the  language  of  their  respective  coun- 
tries. The  few  specimens  we  have  seen 
of  it  in  French  appeared  to  us  wholly  un- 
successful. The  little  countenance  given 
to  the  attempts  made  by  Dr.  8outhey 
and  others  to  introduce  it  into  English 
literature,  is  conclusive,  we  think,  against 
its  ever  being  generally  adopted  in  that 
country  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  cultivated  in  Germany  with  great 
success,  as  the  Hermann  and  Dorothea 
of  Goethe,  and  many  other  examples  that 
might  be  cited,  abundantly  prove.  One 
of  the  most  successful  specimens  of  mod- 
ern hexameter  is  the  admirable  poem  of 
Evangeline,  by  our  countryman,  Long- 
fellow. 

IIEX'APLE,  the  combination  of  six 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  by  Origen, 
is  so  called  :  viz.,  the  Septuagint,  Aquila, 
Theodotian,  Symmachus,  one  found  at 
Jericho,  and  another  at  Nicopolis. 

HEX'ASTYLE,  in  architecture,  that 
species  of  temple  or  other  building  hav- 
ing six  columns  in  front. 

UIA'TUS,  a  word  which  has  pas.sed 
into  several  modern  languages.  In  dip- 
lomatics and  bibliography,  it  signifies  a 
deficiency  in  the  text  of  an  author,  as 
from  a  passage  erased,  worn  out,  &c.  In 
grammar  and  prosody,  it  properly  signi- 
fies the  occurrence  of  a  final  vowel,  fol- 
lowed immediately  by  the  initial  vowel 
of  another  word,  without  the  supjiression 
of  either  by  an  apostrophe.  This,  in 
Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  was  only  admis- 
sible in  certain  excepted  cases  ;  as  whore, 
in  Greek,  a  final  long  vowel  is  succeeded 
by  an  initial  short  vowel,  and  becomes 
sometimes  short  by  position  :  or  in  Latin, 
where  the  ccBsura  gave  an  additional 
force  to  the  first  vowel,  as  in  the  cele- 
brated line, 

"Ter  sunt  conall  iinpouero  Pcli6  Ossam."' 

which  affords  an  instance  of  both,  the 
first  hiatus  being  occa^sioncd  by  the  caes- 
ura; the  second,  an  imitation  of  the 
Greek  jtrosody.  In  Frciu-li  the  hiatus  is 
carefully  avoideil  :  in  English  less  so, 
althougti  by  the  more  accurate  |  )ets  still 
regarded  as  a  blemish,  except  in-  some 


instances  where  a  long  vowel  is  followed 
by  a  short  one.  The  worst  species  of 
hiatus  is  where  the  same  vowel  sound 
is  repeated. 

HIERARCHY,  a  term  literally  signi- 
fying/io/y  o-orer)(/ncn<,  and  applied  some- 
times to  the  supposed  ])olit}',  or  social 
constitution,  among  angels.  Also,  eccle- 
siastical government,  or  the  subordina- 
tion of  rank  among  the  diflferent  orders 
of  clergy. 

HIEKOGLYPH'ICS,  in  antiquity, 
mystical  characters  or  symbols  used  in 
writings  and  inscriptions,  particularly  by 
the  Egj'ptians,  as  signs  of  sacred,  divine, 
or  supernatural  things.  The  hierogl  yph- 
ics  were  figures  of  animals,  parts  of  the 
human  body,  Ac,  containing  a  meaning 
which  was  intelligible  only  to  the  priests, 
and  those  who  were  initiated  in  their 
mysteries.  In  a  general  sense,  a  hiero- 
glyphic is  any  symbol  or  figure  which 
may  serve  to  represent  an  object  and 
convey  a  meaning. 

HIEROGRAM'MATISTS,  in  ai.ti- 
quity,  priests  amongst  the  Egyptian?  who 
presided  over  learning  and  religion.  Their 
duty  was  to  take  care  of  the  hieroglyph- 
ics, and  expound  religious  mysteries  and 
opinions.  They  were  also  skilled  in  div- 
ination, and  were  honored  with  many 
exemptions  from  civil  duties  and  taxes. 

IIIEKOM'ANCY,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
a  species  of  divination,  which  predicted 
future  events  by  observing  the  appear 
ances  of  the  various  things  oflTered  in  sac- 
rifice. 

IIIEROM'NEMON,  in  ancient  Greece, 
a  magistrate  who  presided  over  the  sa- 
cred rites  and  solemnities. 

HIEKON'ICES,  in  antiquity,  a  con- 
queror atthe  Olympic,  Pythian,  Isthmian, 
and  Nemean  games. 

HIEROPHAN'TES,  in  Grecian  anti- 
quity, the  priests  and  priestesses  who 
were  appointed  by  the  state  to  have  the 
supervisal  of  sacred  rites,  and  to  take 
care  of  the  sacrifices. 

HIEROPH'YLAX,  an  officer  in  the 
Greek  church,  who  was  guardian  or  keeper 
of  the  holy  utensils,  vestments,  &c.,  an- 
swering to  our  sacristan  or  vestry-keepcr. 

IIKjH'NESS,  a  title  of  honor  given  to 
princes.  The  kings  of  England  ))eforo 
James  I.  were  not  saluted  wilii  the  title 
of  "  majesty,"  but  that  of  highness  only. 
At  present  the  children  of  crowned  heads 
are  gencrallj'  styled  royal  highness. 
Those  of  the  emperors  of  Austria  and 
Russia  are  stvled  imperial  hiu;hnest!. 

HIGH-PRIEST,  the  head  of  the  Jew- 
ish priesthood.     Moses  conferred  this  dig- 


his] 


AM)     IIIK     KINK     AUIS, 


295 


nity  upon  his  orotncr  in  whose  family  it 
descemled  without  interruption.  After 
Jiie  subjugation  of  the  Jews  by  the  Seleu- 
ciJu!,  the  Ptolemies,  anil  the  Rouians.  it 
was  often  arbitrarily  conforrcd  by  the 
foreign  masters.  The  importance  of  this 
oflicer  is  indicated  by  the  splemlor  and 
costliness  of  liis  garment,  which  was 
among  the  most  beautiful  works  of  an- 
cient art. 

HILA'RIA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  cel- 
ebrated by  the  Romans  on  the  8th  of  the 
calends  of  April,  in  honor  of  the  god  Pan. 

HINDOOS',  the  primitive  inhabitants 
of  the  East  Indies  ;  a  people  distinguish- 
ed for  their  humanity,  gentleness,  indus- 
try', and  knowledge  of  the  polite  arts, 
at  a  time  when  most  of  their  Asiatic 
neighbors  were  yet  only  in  the  first  stages 
of  civilization,  when  the  Greeks  lay  in 
obscurity,  and  the  nations  of  Europe 
were  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  They  have 
preserved  their  national  character  from 
the  most  distant  ages,  even  under  the  do- 
minion of  foreigners,  and  have  retained 
to  the  present  day  their  language,  their  ' 
written  characters,  their  government,' 
religion,  manners,  customs,  and  habits 
of  life.  They  possess  greit  natural  tal- 
ents, but  are  at  present  deprived  of  op- 
portunities for  their  development,  though 
they  are  still  largely  engaged  in  manu- 
factures and  commerce.  In  earlier  times, 
before  they  were  oppressed  by  a  foreign 
j'oke,  they  had  reached  a  higher  degree 
of  civilization,  and  their  country  h;isbeon 
considered  as  the  cradle  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  They  are  divided  into  four  dis- 
linct  classes,  or  castes,  which,  to  the  great 
disadvantage  of  cultivation,  are  essen- 
tially and  perpetually  separate  from  each 
other,  so  that  no  transition  from  one  to 
another  is  possible.  But  the  most  e.xtra- 
ordinary  custom  of  the  Hindoos  is  the 
burning  of  widows  at  the  funeral  of  their 
husbands. 

HIPPOCEN'TAUR,  in  ancient'fablo,  a 
supposed  monster,  half  man  and  half  horse. 
The  hippocentaur  differed  from  the  ctii- 
taur  in  this,  that  the  latter  roiie  on  an 
ox,  and  the  former  on  a  horse,  as  the 
name  imports. 

HIP  POCHEXE,  a  celebrated  fountain 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Helicon,  supposed  to 
have  been  produced  by  the  horse  Pegasus 
having  struck  his  foot  against  the  moun- 
tain. It  was  regarded  in  antiquity  with 
peculiar  veneration,  as  it  was  believeil  to 
bo  a  favorite  haunt  of  the  iluses,  and  was 
consequently  looked  upon  as  one  of  the 
chief  sources  whence  the  poets  drew  their 
inspiration. 


HIP'PODROME,  in  antiquity,  a  course 
for  chariot  and  horse  races.  There  are  in 
England  some  vestiges  of  similar  courses, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  that  near 
Stonehenge.  This  hippodrome  occupies  a 
tract  of  ground  e.vtending  about  two  hun- 
dreil  druidical  cubits,  or  three  hundred 
and  fifty  feet,  in  breadth,  and  si.x  thou- 
sand druidical  cubits,  or  more  than  arnilo 
and  three  quarters,  in  length.  It  runs 
directly  cast  and  west,  and  is  completely 
inclosed  with  a  bank  of  earth.  The  goal 
and  career  are  at  the  east  end.  The  goal 
is  a  high  bank  of  earth,  raised  with  a 
slope  inwards,  on  which  the  judges  are 
supposed  to  have  sat.  There  is  one  about 
half  a  mile  to  the  southward  of  Leicester  ; 
another  near  Dorchester  ;  and  a  third  on 
the  banks  of  the  Lowther,  near  Penrith 
in  Cumberland.  But  these  must  have 
been  humble  imitations  indeed  of  the 
splendid  structures  erected  in  ancient 
times,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  description 
of  the  one  at  Olyrapias,  as  given  by  Pau- 
sanias,  or  of  that  which  was  finished  by 
Constantine,  and  which  still  fills  the  trav- 
eller who  visits  the  Turkish  capital  with 
astonishment.  It  is  surrounded  by  two 
ranges  of  columns,  extending  farther  than 
the  eye  can  reach,  raised  one  above  the 
other,  and  resting  on  a  broad  foundation, 
and  is  adorned  by  an  immense  quantity 
of  statues,  in  marble,  porphyry,  and 
bronze. 

HISTORICAL  PAINTING,  in  paint- 
ing, th.at  department  of  the  art  which 
comprehends  all  representations  whereof 
history  furnishes  the  subject.  But  under 
this  head  are  generally  included  subjects 
from  fabulous  history,  and  those  founded 
on  allegory. 

IIISTORIOG'RAPHER,  a  professed 
historian,  or  writer  of  histories.  It  has 
been  a  common,  although  not  uniform 
practice  in  European  courts,  to  confer  the 
place  of  public  historiographer  on  some 
learned  man  as  a  mark  of  royal  favor. 
Voltaire  had  at  one  period  the  title  of 
Royal  Historiographer  of  France. 

HIS'TORY,  an  account  of  facts,  particu- 
larly of  facts  respecting  nations  or  states  ; 
a  narration  of  events  in  the  order  in  which 
they  happened,  with  their  causes  and  ef- 
fects. History  differs  from  annals.  An- 
nals relate  simply  the  facts  and  events  of 
each  year,  in  strict  chronological  order, 
without  any  observations  of  the  annalist. 
History  regards  less  strictly  the  arrange- 
ment of  events  under  each  year,  and  ad- 
mits the  observations  of  the  writer.  Thia 
distinction,  however,  is  not  always  re- 
garded with  strictness.     History  is  of  dif- 


!9G 


CYCI.OPKUIA     OF     UTEilATURE 


IIOL 


ferent  kinds,  or  treats  of  different  sub- 
jects ;  as,  a  history  of  government,  or  ])■>- 
litical  history;  history  of  the  Christian 
church,  or  ecclesiastical  history  ;  history 
of  the  affairs  of  nations,  empires,  kins;- 
doms,  and  states,  their  rise,  progress,  and 
decline,  or  civil  history  ;  history  of  relig- 
ion as  contained  in  the  bible,  or  sacroil  his- 
tory.— Profane  history  is  another  name 
far  civil  history,  as  distinguished  from  sa- 
cred history ;  history  of  war  ami  con- 
quests, or  military  history  ;  history  of 
law  ;  history  of  commerce  ;  history  of  the 
crusades  ;  history  of  literature,  history  of 
soience,  Ac.  In  these  and  similar  e.vain- 
ples,  history  is  written  narrative  or  rela- 
tion. The  divisions  of  history  in  relation 
to  periods  of  time  have  been  reckoned 
three.  1.  Ancient  history,  which  includes 
the  Jewish  history,  and  that  of  the  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  and  reaches  down  to 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire, 
A.D.  476.  2.  History  of  the  middle  ages, 
which  begins  with  476,  and  comes  down 
to  the  discovery  of  America  in  149'2,  or 
to  the  reformation.  3.  Modern  history, 
from  either  of  these  er,as  to  our  own  times. 
—  Classical  hislori/,  properly  so  called,  is 
the  history  of  the  national  affairs  and 
conquests  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. — 
The  uses  of  history  are  as  varied  as  they 
arc  important.  To  become  acquainted 
with  the  characters  of  men,  the  marks, 
.sources,  and  effects  of  their  p.assions  and 
prejudices,  the  power  and  changes  of  their 
customs,  ami  the  like,  is  an  essential  .and 
necessary  stop  to  prudence  ;  and  all  this 
knowledge  is  considerably  improved  by 
history,  whicli  teaches  ns  to  make  other 
men's  exi)erience  our  own,  to  jirofit  by  it, 
and  to  learn  wisdom  from  their  misfor- 
tunes. Persons  who  reail  history  merely 
for  amusement,  or,  having  in  view  some 
particular  branch  of  Ic.irning.  attend  only 
to  curtain  branches  of  liistory,  are  not 
confined  to  that  order  and  connection 
which  is  absolutely  requisite  for  obtain- 
ing a  jiroper  knowledge  of  history;  the 
most  regular,  as  well  as  successful  way 
of  stiiilying  which,  is  to  begin  with  an 
epitome  of  universal  history,  and  after- 
wards apply  to  the  history  of  jjarticular 
nations  an  I  commonwealths;  for  the 
study  of  piirlicubir  histories  is  only  ex- 
tending tlie  knowledge  "f  pirticular  parts 
of  universal  history  Unless  this  bo  our 
plan,  we  shall  only  till  tin;  memory  with 
some  events  ;  which  may  be  doiw!  with- 
out a|i]ilying  to  history,  or  pri'ti'mling  to 
the  knowledge  of  it. 

IIISTIUON'K;   .art,  thit  of  acting  in 
dramatic  representation     llislrio,  in  an- 


cient Rome,  signified  an  actor  or  come- 
dian ;  but  more  esi;ecially  a  pantomimist, 
whoso  talents  were  exerted  in  gesticula- 
tions and  dancing. 

IIOCKDAY.  or  IIOKE'DAY,  a  day 
of  feasting  and  mirth,  formerly  held  in 
England  the  second  Tuesd.ay  after  Eas- 
ter, to  commemorate  the  destruction  of 
the  Danes  in  the  time  of  Ethelred. 

1I0'LIXE.?.S,  a  title  of  quality  given 
to  the  pope,  who  is  styled,  "  your  holi- 
ness." or,  "holy  father:"'  in  Latin,  sanc- 
lissime,  or  beatissime  pater. 

IIOL'OCAUST,  aburnt  offering  or  sac- 
rifice, wholly  consumed  by  fire  :  of  this 
kinil  was  the  daily  sacrifice  in  the  Jewish 
church.  This  was  done  by  way  of  ac- 
knowledgment, that  the  person  offering, 
ami  all  that  belonged  to  him,  were  the 
effects  of  the  divine  bounty.  The  pagan 
nations,  who  also  offered  holocausts,  ]irob- 
ably  considered  them  in  the  same  light. 

liOLOaRAPTI,  a  deed  or  testament 
wholly  written  by  the  hand  of  the  testa- 
tor. 

HO'LY  ALLI'ANCE,  THE,  a  league 
finrmed  between  certain  of  the  principal 
sovereigns  of  Europe,  after  the  defeat  of 
Napoleon  at  Waterloo ;  on  the  proposal, 
it  is  said,  of  the  Emperor  Alexander. 
It  arose  from  the  religions  enthusiasm 
which  was  prevalent  at  that  period  of 
deliverance  from  French  domination, 
and  with  which  the  Russian  emperor  was 
just  then  considerably  imbued.  The  act 
of  this  alliance  is  said  to  have  been  sent 
in  his  handwriting  to  the  emperor  of 
Austria  and  king  of  Prussia,  and  signed 
by  them.  It  is  not  supposed  that  the 
original  terms  of  the  league  were  other 
than  indefinite;  for  the  maintenance  of 
justice,  religion,  »S:c.,  in  the  name  of  the 
(lospol.  But  it  w.as  subsequently  con- 
nected with  the  determination  of  those 
monarchs  to  support,  in  conjunction  with 
England  and  France,  existing  govern- 
ments tflronghout  Europe,  by  the  Docl.a- 
ration  of  November,  1819:  afterwarils 
the  congresses  of  Troppau,  Laybach,  and 
Verona  established  the  character  of  the 
alliance ;  to  which  the  war  of  France 
against  Spain,  in  1823.  gave  additional 
illustration.  Since  the  secession  of  Eng- 
l;tnd  and  Frnnce,  the  alli:inee  can  scarcely 
be  siiid  to  hii.ve  anv  active  existence. 

HOLY  ROOD, "or  HOLY  CROSS,  a 
festival  kept  on  the  14th  of  September, 
to  commemorate  the  exaltation  of  the 
Holy  Cross.  It  is  from  this  circumstance 
that  the  royal  palace  in  Elinburgh  has 
derived  its  appellation. 

HOLY  TIIUKSD.VY,  or  .VSCEXSION 


II  om] 


AND    THE     FINK     ARTS. 


297 


DAY,  in  the  Romish  calendar,  the  39th 
day  after  Easter  Sunday.  A  festival  in 
coinmcinoration  of  Christ's  ascension. 

^0'LY-^VATEil,  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  (ireek  churches,  water  which  has 
been  con.secrated  by  prayers,  e.\orcisms, 
and  other  ceremonies,  to  sprinkle  the 
faithful  and  things  used  for  the  cliurch. 
It  is  contained  in  a  particular  kind  of 
vases,  at  tiie  doors  of  churches,  and  also 
within  them  at  certain  places,  from  which 
the  Catholics  sprinkle  themselves  before 
prayer.  The  Protestants  renounce  the 
use  of  holy-water  probably  from  a  fear 
that  it  would  be  considered,  like  amulets 
or  relics,  as  something  efficacious  in  it- 
self, without  the  repentance  commanded 
by  the  church. 

IIO'LY-WEEK,  the  week  before  Eas- 
ter, in  which  the  passion  of  our  Saviour  is 
commemorated. 

H0'M.^OMERI'A,  the  name  given  to 
the  physical  theory  of  Anaxagoras,  a 
Grecian  philosopher  of  Clazomenas,  who 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Ac- 
cording to  this  hypothesis,  every  material 
substance  is  made  up  of  infinitely  small 
parts  similar  to  itself.  Hence  the  growth 
and  nourishment  of  animals  and  vegeta- 
bles was  accounted  for,  by  supposing  the 
alimentary  substance  to  be  analyzed  into 
its  various  component  parts  correspond- 
ing to  the  parts  of  the  substance  nourish- 
ed. For  instance,  corn  was  supposed  to 
contain  particles  of  blood,  bone,  flesh, 
skin,  Ac,  which  by  the  process  of  diges- 
tion were  separated  from  each  other,  and 
added  to  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
animal  body.  This  theory  bears  some 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  monads  of 
Leibnitz  in  modern  times. 

HOM'AGE,  in  law,  the  oath  of  submis- 
sion and  loyalty,  which  the  tenant,  under 
the  feudal  system,  used  to  take  to  his  lord 
when  first  admitted  to  his  land. 

HOMER'IC,  pertaining  to  Homer,  the 
great  poet  of  Greece,  or  to  his  poetry. 

HOM'ICIDE,  in  law,  the  killing  of  one 
human  being  by  another.  It  is  of  three 
\i\n(is,  justifiable,  excusable,  or  felonious  ; 
juitifiable,  when  it  proceeds  from  una- 
voidable necessity,  without  an  intention 
to  kill,  and  without  negligence  ;  excusa- 
ble, when  it  happens  from  misadventure, 
or  in  self-defence  ;  felonious,  when  it  pro- 
ceeds from  malice,  or  is  done  in  the  pros- 
ecution of  some  unlawful  act,  or  in  a  sud- 
den passion.  Homicide  committed  with 
premeditated  malice,  is  murder.  Sui- 
cide also,  or  self-murder,  is  felonious 
homicide. — The  lines  of  distinction  be- 
tween felonious  and  excus.ible  or  justifia- 


ble homicide,  and  between  manslaughter 
and  murder,  arc,  in  many  cases,  difiicult 
to  define  with  precision.  Cut,  in  genernl, 
the  accused  has  the  advantage  of  any  un- 
certainty or  obscurity  that  may  hangoNir 
his  case,  since  the  presumptions  of  law 
are  usually  in  his  favor. 

IIOM'ILY,  a  sermon  or  discourse  upon 
some  point  of  religion,  delivered  in  a 
plain  manner,  so  as  to  be  easily  under- 
stood by  the  common  people.  In  the 
primitive  church,  homily  rather  meant  a 
conference  or  conversation  by  way  of  ques- 
tion and  answer,  which  made  part  of  the 
office  of  a  bishop,  till  the  fifth  century, 
when  the  learned  priests  were  allowed  to 
preach,  catechize,  <&c.,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  bishops  used  to  do.  There  are 
still  extant  several  fine  homilies,  com- 
posed by  the  ancient  fathers. — Ilomiletic 
or  pastoral  theology,  a  branch  of  practical 
theology,  which  teaches  the  manner  in 
which  ministers  of  the  gospel  should  adapt 
their  discourses  to  the  capacities  of  their 
hearers,  and  pursue  the  best  methods  of 
instructing  tlieni  by  their  doctrines  and 
examples. 

HOMCEOP'ATHY,  a  mode  of  treating 
diseases,  which  consists  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  a  medicine  which  is  capable  of 
exciting  in  healthy  persons  symptoms 
closely  similar  to  those  of  the  disease 
which  it  is  desired  to  cure. 

HOMOGE'NEOUS,  or  HOMOGE'NE- 
AL,  an  appellation  given  to  things,  the 
elements  of  which  are  of  similar  na- 
ture and  properties. —  Homogeneous  light, 
that  whereof  the  rays  are  all  of  one  color 
and  degree  of  refrangibility,  without  any 
mixture  of  others. 

HOMO'NYMS,  words  which  agree  in 
sound,  but  differ  in  signification  ;  as  the 
substantive  "bear"  and  the  verb  "'bear." 

HOMOOU'SIANS,  and  IIOMOIOU'- 
SIANS,  names  by  which  the  Orthodox 
and  Arian  parties  were  distinguished  in 
the  great  controversy  upon  the  nature  of 
Christ  in  the  fourth  century  ;  the  former 
word  signifying  that  the  nature  of  the 
Father  and  Son  is  the  same,  the  latter 
that  they  are  similar.  Ilomoousian  (Gr. 
uftoovmoi)  is  derived  from  oiwi,  the  same, 
and  i>i'<T'a,  being  ;  Ilomoiousian  (biioiovcios) 
from  oii'i'iii,  similar,  and  omia. 

IIOMOPIIO'NOUS,  in  music,  of  the 
same  pitch,  or  unisonal.  Two  or  more 
sounds  are  said  to  be  homophonous  when 
thev  are  exactly  of  the  same  pitch. 

IIOMOPII'ONY  homophonous  words 
or  syllables,  in  language,  are  words  or 
syllables  having  the  same  sound,  although 
expressed  in  writing  by  various  combina- 


298 


CVCLOI'KUIA    OV    LITKUATL'RE 


[HON 


tions  of  Ictturs.  Languages  which  abound 
in  homophonies  are,  1.  Sonic  Oriental 
monosyllal)ic  tongues,  namely,  the  Chi- 
nese and  its  kindred  dialects,  in  which 
very  few  sounds  comprise  the  whole  vo- 
cabulary, and  tlie  same  sound  is  expressed 
by  a  variety  of  ideographic  characters,  (in 
Chinese  there  are  only  400  such  sounds, 
multiplied  by  the  distinctions  of  tone  and 
accent  to  1600  or  2000;)  and,  2.  Some 
European  tongues  in  whicii,  according  to 
the  genius  of  the  dialect,  the  syllables  of 
the  original  languages  from  which  the 
words  are  chiefly  derived  have  been  con- 
tracted in  speaking,  and  part  of  their 
sounds  dropped,  while  the  greater  part  of 
the  letters  is  retained.  Thus  in  English, 
and  still  more  in  French,  which  is  pecu- 
liarly a  dialect  of  Latin  abounding  in  con- 
tractions, homophonies  are  numerous,  (in 
the  latter  tongue  the  number  of  syllables 
differently  spelt,  all  having  nearly  the 
sound  of  our  broad  A,  amounts  to  more 
than  a  hundred ;)  while  in  Italian,  in 
which  the  original  proportions  of  the  llo- 
man  language  are  preserved,  they  are 
scarcely  to  be  found  at  all. 

HONG,  the  Chinese  name  for  the  for- 
eign factories  situ.ited  at  Canton.  The 
hong  merchants  are  those  persons  who  are 
alone  legally  permitted  to  trade  with  for- 
eigners. They  are  ten  in  number,  and 
are  always  held  responsible  by  the  gov- 
ernment for  paying  all  duties,  whether  on 
imports  or  exports  in  foreign  vessels.  No 
foreign  ship  that  enters  the  Chinese  ports 
can  commence  unloading  until  she  has 
obtained  a  hong  merchant  as  security  for 
the  duties. 

IION'OK,  a  testimony  of  esteem  or 
submission,  expressed  by  words,  actions, 
and  an  exterior  behavior  by  which  we 
make  known  the  veneration  and  respect 
we  entertain  for  any  one,  on  account  of 
his  dignity  or  merit.  The  word  honor  is 
also  used  in  general  for  the  esteem  duo 
to  virtue,  glory,  and  reputation.  It 
moreover  means,  that  dignified  respect 
for  character,  which  springs  from  princi- 
ple or  moral  rectitude,  and  which  is  a 
distinguishing  trait  in  the  character  of 
good  men.  It  is  also  used  for  virtue  and 
probity  themselves,  and  for  an  exactness 
in  performing  whatever  we  have  promis- 
ed: and  in  this  last  sense  we  use  the 
terir.,  a  vian  of  honor.  I!ut  honor  is  more 
particularly  ajiplied  to  two  different  kin<ls 
of  virtue,  bravery  in  men,  ami  eli;is(ity 
in  women.  Virtue  and  honor  were  deified 
among  the  (jrecks  and  Romans,  and  had 
a  joint  temple  consecrated  to  them  at 
Rome;  but  afterwards  they  had  separate 


temples,  which  were  so  placed,  that  no 
one  could  enter  the  temple  of  Honor, 
without  pitssing  through  that  of  Virtue; 
by  which  the  Romans  were  continually 
put  in  mind,  that  virtue  is  the  only  direct 
path  to  true  glory.  The  first  temple  to 
honor  was  erected  by  iScipio  Africanus, 
and  another  afterwards  was  built  by 
Claudius  Marcellus.  We  find  a  pers"!?!- 
fication  of  this  quality  on  several  medals 
of  Galba  and  of  Vitellius.  She  is  repre- 
sented half  naked,  holding  in  one  hand  a 
spear,  and  in  the  other  a  cornucopia  : 
upon  others,  a  long  robe  envelops  the 
figure,  and  the  spear  is  exchanged  for  an 
olive  branch. — Honor,  in  law,  a  superior 
seignory,  to  which  other  lordships  and 
manors  owe  suit  and  service,  and  which, 
itself,  holds  of  the  king  only — Honors  of 
icar,  honorable  terms  granted  to  a  van- 
quished enemy,  when  he  is  permitted  to 
march  out  of  a  town  with  all  the  insignia 
of  military  honors. — Lairs  of  honoi , 
among  persons  of  fashion,  signify  certain 
rules  by  which  their  social  intercourse  is 
regulated,  and  which  are  founded  on  a 
rcgoj'd  to  reputation.  These  laws  re- 
quire a  punctilious  attention  to  decorum 
in  external  deportment,  but  often  lead  to 
the  most  flagrant  violations  of  moral 
duty. —  Court  of  honor,  an  ancient  court 
of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  having 
power  to  redress  injuries  of  honor,  and  to 
hold  pleas  respecting  matters  of  arms  and 
deeds  of  war. — Maids  of  honor,  ladies  in 
the  service  of  European  queens,  whose 
business  it  is  to  attend  the  queen  when 
she  appears  in  public.  In  England,  they 
are  six  in  number,  with  a  salary  of  £300 
each. 

HON'OKABLE,  a  title  prefixed  to  the 
Christian  names  of  the  younger  sons  of 
earls,  and  to  those  of  all  the  children, 
both  sons  and  daughters,  of  viscounts  and 
barons.  It  is  also  conferred  on  persons 
filling  certain  offices  of  trust  and  dignity 
such  as  the  maids  of  honor  of  the  queen 
and  queen  dowager  ;  and  collectively  on 
certain  public  bodies  or  institutions,  as 
the  House  of  Commons,  the  Congress  of 
the  Tnited  States,  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, Ac,  Ac.  The  title  of  rii^ht  honor- 
able is  given  to  all  peers  and  peeresses 
of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  to  the  eldest 
sons  and  all  the  daughters  of  peers  above 
the  rank  of  vis.-ount  ;  to  all  |irivy  coun- 
sellors; and  to  some  civic  functionaries, 
as  the  lord  mayors  of  London  and  Dub- 
lin, the  lord  provosts  of  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow,  itc. 

IIONORA'RII'M,  a  term  used  almo.st 
synonymously  with  fee,   and  applied  at 


30r] 


AND    THE    FINE    AliTS. 


290 


present  chiefly  to  the  fees  tendered  to 
professors  in  universities,  and  to  medical 
or  other  professional  gentlemen  for  their 
services.  It  was  originally  appiicd  solely 
to  the  salaries  of  the  great  oflicers  of  state, 
whose  services  it  was  considered,  by  a 
perhaps  pardonable  euphemism,  were  re- 
numerated  only,  as  it  were,  honoris  causa ; 
a  shade  of  meaning  which  is  still  percep- 
tible in  the  present  use  of  the  term. 

HOX'ORS.  Greece,  in  the  heroic  times, 
rendered  to  all  her  great  generals  and 
captains  some  liberal  reward  as  a  proof 
of  the  public  approbation  and  respect. 
This  was  sometimes  offered  in  the  shape 
of  z  ,"ase  of  gold,  or  of  a  silver  tripod,  or 
somo  other  valuable  article  either  of  util- 
ity or  of  mere  ornament.  Similar  re- 
wards were  conceded  to  the  victorious 
Roman  leader  in  the  shape  of  a  triumph 
or  ovation.  Nor  was  it  to  military  merit 
alone  that  the  ancients  decreed  honors  : 
the  Fine  Arts  were  made  objects  of  national 
regard  and  encouragement.  Philosophy, 
eloquence,  painting,  poetry,  music,  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  were  each  enabled  to 
aspire  to  the  highest  distinctions.  The 
Lacedcemonians,  even  although  their  edu- 
cation was  decidedly  warlike,  erected 
statues  to  the  poet  Tyrta^us.  At  the  cel- 
ebrated public  games  in  Sparta,  prizes 
were  distributed  to  the  most  successful 
amongst  the  poets  and  musicians.  Athens 
erected  statues  to  Solon,  to  Socrates,  and 
an  infinity  of  others.  To  Homer  temples 
were  raised ;  and  various  poets  and  art- 
ists received  crowns,  prerogatives,  and 
often  the  rights  of  citizenship.  The  Athe- 
nians inscribed  upon  the  front  of  their 
temples  the  names  of  the  able  architects 
who  had  designed  them.  The  town  of 
Pergaraus  purchased  with  the  public 
funds  a  palace  for  the  reception  of  the 
works  of  Apelles.  The  Eleans.  for  whom 
Phidias  executed  the  statue  of  Jupiter 
Olympus,  in  honor  for  the  memory  of 
the  artist,  and  in  respect  for  the  surpass- 
ing beauty  of  his  work,  erected,  in  favo-r 
of  his  descendants,  a  lucrative  office,  of 
which  the  only  duty  consisted  in  taking 
care  of,  and  keeping  free  from  blemish, 
that  celebrated  piece  of  art.  In  the  times 
of  the  republic,  by  the  Romans,  amongst 
whom  the  use  of  arras  constituted  the 
chief,  nay,  almost  the  only  species  of 
merit,  few  testimonies  of  esteem  were 
awarded  to  the  practisers  of  the  Fine  Arts. 
They  afli.xed  no  honorable  distinctions  to 
the  successful  architect,  painter,  or  sculp- 
tor, inasmuch  as  these  peaceful  avoca- 
tions were,  for  the  most  part,  cultivated 
either  by  slaves  or  freedmcn.     It  was  not 


until  the  reign  of  Augustas  CcCsar  that 
the  Arts  were  duly  honored.  On  the  re- 
vival of  intellectual  energy,  after  the 
darkness  of  the  middle  ages,  the  Arts  were 
liberally  encouraged.  Michael  Angelo 
was  high  in  favor  with  the  fierce  Julius 
II.  Raphael  was  greatly  boloved  by 
Leo  X.  ;  and  the  emperor  Maximilian 
became  the  warm  patron  of  Albert  Durer, 
whom  he  ennobled.  Leonardo  d;\  Vinci 
died  in  the  arms  of  Francis  I.  Rubens 
enjoyed  the  highest  consideration,  and 
was  entrusted  with  important  negotia- 
tions both  by  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  and 
Charles  II.  of  England.  Even  the  stern 
Henry  VIII.  was  a  mild  and  kind  master 
to  Holbein;  and  the  illustrious  name  of 
Medici  will  at  once  recall  the  zeal  of  that 
princely  family  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
Fine  Arts. 

HOOD,  an  article  of  dress  designed  to 
cover  the  head  and  shoulders,  and  some- 
times signifying,  among  the  ancients,  a 
mantle,  which  served  likewise  to  envelop 
the  whole  body.  In  this  sense  we  find  it 
alluded  to,  as  serving  to  conceal  from  ob- 
servation the  persons  of  the  Roman  3'outh 
during  their  nocturnal  rambles.  In  such  a 
habit  is  usually  depicted  Telesphorus,  the 
son  of  Esculapius. 

HO'PLITES,  the  heavy-armed  infan- 
try of  Grecian  antiquity.  According  to 
the  Athenian  regulations  (similar,  prob- 
ably, to  those  of  other  states),  the  higher 
classes  of  citizens  only,  as  estimated  by 
the  census,  were  liable  to  this  expensive 
form  of  military  service  ;  in  process  of 
time,  however,  it  seems  that  the  Thetes 
or  inferior  classes  also  served  as  hoplites. 
The  hoplites  were  armed  in  early  times 
with  the  spear,  heavy  defensive  armor, 
and  large  shield ;  the  latter  were  ex- 
changed after  the  time  of  Iphicrates  for 
the  light  cuirass  and  target. 

HORDE,  a  company  of  wandering  peo- 
ple, who  have  no  settled  habitation,  but 
stroll  about,  dwelling  under  tents,  to  be 
ready  to  shift,  as  soon  as  the  provisions 
of  the  place  fail  them. 

HORI'ZOX,  is  the  plane  of  a  great 
circle  of  the  sphere,  dividing  the  visible 
from  the  invisible  tiemisphere.  The  hori- 
zon is  either  sensible  or  rational.  The 
sensible  horizon  is  a  plane  which  is  a 
tangent  to  the  earth's  surface  at  the  place 
of  tiie  spectator,  extended  on  all  sides  till 
it  is  bounded  by  the  sky;  the  rational 
horizon  is  a  plane  parallel  to  the  former, 
but  passing  through  the  centre  of  the 
earth.  Both  the  sensible  and  rational 
horizon  are  relative  terms,  and  change 
with  every  change  of  the  spectator's  po- 


300 


rvri.oi'KDiA    OK    i.riKi;ATLi;K 


HOI 


Bition  on  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  in  all 
cases  thej'  are  perpenilicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  gravity. — Artificial  or  painter's 
horizon.  In  every  picture  the  nrtijicinl 
eye,  or  point  of  siglit,  is  supposed  to  be 
at  a  certain  hcighi  from  tlie  baseline; 
us  high  as  a  human  figure  would  be,  rep- 
resented as  standing  there.  To  this  point 
everything  in  the  picture  tends,  as  every- 
thing in  a  real  view  tends  to  the  natural 
eye.  The  picture  then,  as  far  as  this 
circumstance  is  concerned,  is  perfect,  if 
the  artificial  eye  and  the  artificial  hori- 
zon go  together;  for  these  always  bear 
the  same  relation  to  each  other,  wherever 
the  picture  mav  bo  placed. 

HOR'OSCOPE,  a  representation  of  the 
aspect  of  the  heaven?  and  positions  of  the 
celestial  bodies  at  a  particular  moment, 
drawn  according  to  the  rules  of  the  ima- 
ginary science  of  astrology.  Thus  the 
aspect  of  the  heavens  at  the  moment  of  the 
birth  of  an  individual  is  his  horoscope,  and 
supposed  to  indicate  his  future  destinies. 

IIORSE'-POWER.  the  power  of  a 
horse,  or  its  equivalent;  the  force  with 
which  a  horse  acts  when  drawing.  It  is 
compounded  of  his  weight  and  muscular 
strength,  and  diminishes  as  his  speed  in- 
creases. The  mode  of  ascertaining  a 
horse's  power  is  to  find  what  weight  he 
can  raise,  and  to  what  height  in  a  given 
time,  the  horse  being  supposed  to  pull 
horizontally.  From  a  variety  of  experi- 
ments of  this  sort,  it  is  found  that  a 
horse,  at  an  average,  can  raise  160  pounds 
weight  lit  the  velocity  of  2  1-2  miles  per 
hour.  The  power  of  a  horse  exerted  in 
this  way,  is  ma'le  the  standard  for  esti- 
mating the  power  of  a  stoain-onginn. 
Thus  we  speak  of  an  engini!  of  60  or  80 
horse-power,  each  horse-power  being  es- 
timateil  as  equivalent  to  33,000  pounds, 
raised  one  foot  hiiiJi  per  minute. 

IIOll'TICULTURE,  the  cultivation  of 
a  garden  ;  or  the  art  of  cultivating  gar- 
dens. It  includes  in  its  most  extensive 
signification  the  cultivation  of  esculent 
vegetaliles,  fruits,  and  ornamental  plants, 
and  the  formation  and  management  of 
rural  scenery,  for  the  purposes  of  utility 
and  embellishment,  but  in  a  more  re- 
stricted sense,  it  is  employed  to  designate 
th;it  branch  of  rural  economy  which  con- 
sists in  the  formation  and  culture  of  gar- 
dens. Its  results  are  culinary  vegeta- 
bles, fruits,  and  flowers. 

IIOR'TUS  SICCI'S,  literally,  a  dry 
garden  ;  an  appolliition  given  to  a  collec- 
tion of  specimens  of  plants,  ('urofully  dried 
and  preserved.  The  old  name  of  her- 
barium. 


IIOSAX'XA,  was  a  form  of  supplica- 
tion amongst  the  Hebrews,  signifying, 
save,  I  beseech  you,  or  help  him  God! 
This  acclamation  was  so  nuieh  used  at  tlio 
feast  of  tabernacles,  that  the  solemnity 
was  called  Ilosanna  rabba.  It  was  used 
at  the  inauguration  of  kings  to  express 
their  good  wishes  for  the  prosperity  of 
their  princes.  At  the  feast  of  tabcrnaclos 
it  was  continually  echoed,  both  as  express- 
ive of  gratitude  for  former  deliverances, 
and  of  their  .joyful  expectation  of  a  future 
one  by  the  Jlessiah. 

IIO'SEA,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  the  first  of  the  minor  pro- 
phets. His  prophecies  are  chiefly  direct- 
ed to  the  ten  tribes  before  their  captivity, 
threatening  them  with  destruction  in  case 
of  disobedience,  but  comforting  the  pious 
with  the  promise  of  the  Messiah,  and  of 
the  happy  state  of  the  church  in  the  lat- 
ter days. 

IIOS'PITAL,  a  place  or  building  prop- 
erly endowed,  or  otherwise  supported  by 
charitable  contributions,  for  the  reception 
and  support  of  the  poor,  aged,  infirm,  sick, 
or  helpless.  Also,  a  house  f(U'  the  recep- 
tion of  disabled  seamen  or  soldiers,  fouml- 
lings,  &c.,  who  are  supported  by  public 
or  private  charity,  as  well  as  for  pauper 
lunatics,  infected  persons.  Ac. — Hospitals 
for  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  also  those 
for  the  poor  ami  infirm,  were  whollj'  un- 
known among  the  ancients.  In  Sparta, 
where  all  the  citizens  ate  together,  there 
was  no  institution  for  the  sick.  In  Rome, 
neither  under  the  consuls  nor  emperors 
did  they  ever  think  of  making  any  pro- 
vision for  the  infirm  or  the  poor.  The 
first  establishment  of  hospitals  must  be 
ascribed  to  Christians.  After  the  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity,  the  emperors  at 
Constantinople  built  many  hospitals  for 
poor  infants,  the  age<l,  orphans,  and 
strangers.  Piety  imiielled  many  individ- 
uals to  a|)propriate  a  part  of  their  funds 
to  religious  and  charitable  purposes  ;  and 
this  good  example  being  followed,  from 
patriotic  and  benevolent  motives,  hospi- 
tals of  various  kinds  were  founded  in  most 
of  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe. 

HOS'PITALLERS,  an  order  of  relig- 
ious knights,  who  built  a  hospital  at  Je- 
rusalem for  pilgrims.  They  arc  now 
known  bv  the  title  of  knights  of  i\Ialta. 

lIOSP'rTIUM,  a  term  used  in  old 
writers  cither  for  an  inn  or  a  monastery, 
built  for  the  reception  of  strangers  and 
travellers.  In  the  more  early  ages  of 
the  worlil,  before  imblic  inns  were  thought 
of,  ])ersoiis  who  travelled  lodged  in  pri- 
vate houses,  and  were  obliged,  if  need  re- 


iiou] 


AM)     illK     FINH    AITS. 


301 


quired,  to  return  tlic  favor  to  those  that 
entertaineil  theui.  This  was  the  occasion 
of  the  most  intimate  IVicndship  betwixt 
the  parties,  insomuch  that  they  treated 
one  another  as  relations.  Hence  the  word 
hospitlam,  which  [)roperIy  sif^nities  lodg- 
ing or  entertainment  at  the  house  of  an- 
other, is  used  for  friendship,  founded  upon 
the  basis  of  hospitality. 

IIOS'FUDAR,  a  title  borne  by  the 
princes  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  who 
receive  the  investiture  of  their  principal- 
ities from  the  grand  seignior,  lie  gives 
them  a  vest  and  standard  :  they  are  un- 
der his  protection,  and  obliged  to  serve 
him,  and  he  even  sometimes  deposes  them  ; 
but  in  other  respects  they  are  absolute 
sovereigns  within  their  own  dominions. 

HOST,  in  church  history,  a  contraction 
of  kostia,  a  Latin  word,  signifying  a  vic- 
tim, or  sacrifice  offered  to  the  Deity.  In 
a  general  sense,  the  term  is  used  to  Jesus 
Christ,  as  an  hostitia  offered  to  the  Father 
for  the  sins  of  mankind. — In  the  church 
of  Rome,  the  host  is  the  consecrated  wafer 
used  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist ; 
which  wafer,  or  bread,  being  transubstan- 
tiated, as  is  taught,  into  the  real  body 
,  and  blood  of  Christ,  is  in  that  rite  offered 
up  a  sacrifice  anew.  The  elevation  of  the 
host  is  a  ceremony  prevalent  in  all  Cath- 
olic countries,  in  which  the  consecrated 
elements  are  raised  aloft  and  carried  in 
procession  through  a  church,  or  even 
through  the  streets  of  a  city.  On  these 
occasions  the  people  fall  on  their  knees 
and  worship  the  host.  The  origin  of  the 
custom  is  dated  from  the  12th  century, 
when,  it  is  said,  it  was  thought  necessary 
to  make  this  public  and  conspicuous  de- 
claration of  the  Eucharist  on  the  occasion 
of  the  promulgation  of  the  opinions  of 
Berengarius  against  transubstantiation. 

HOS'TAGE,  a  person  given  up  to  an 
enemy  as  a  security  for  the  performance 
of  the  articles  of  a  treaty ;  on  the  per- 
formance of  which  the  person  is  to  be  re- 
leased. 

HOTEL',  signifies,  in  a  general  sense, 
a  large  inn  for  the  reception  of  strangers  ; 
but  in  a  particular  sense,  espcially  in 
France,  it  is  applied  to  the  residences  of 
the  king,  nobility,  or  other  persons  of 
rank:  or  it  is  used  synonymously  with 
hospitals,  as  the  Hotel  IJieu,  Hotel  des 
Invalides,  &c. 

HOTTE,  a  basket  of  wicker-work,  much 
used  in  Franco,  for  carrying  burthens  on 
the  back.  It  is  slung  over  the  arms  by 
means  of  straps,  and  groat  weights  are 
thus  carried  with  much  facility. 

HOT'TENTOT.^,  natives  of  the  south- 


ern extremity  of  Africa  ;  a  race  of  people 
whose  appearance,  habits,  and  general 
ignorance,  show  in  the  most  striking  man- 
ner to  what  a  degraded  condition  man- 
kind may  be  reduced,  when  wholly  desti- 
tute of  the  blessings  of  civilization. 

HOUR,  a  space  of  time  equal  to  one 
twentj'-fourth  part  of  a  day  and  night, 
and  consisting  of  60  minutes,  each  min- 
ute being  60  seconds. — The  ancient  He- 
brews did  not  divide  their  day  into  hours. 
Their  division  of  the  day  was  into  four 
parts,  morning,  high  day  or  noon,  the 
first  evening,  and  the  last  evening;  and 
their  night  was  divided  into  three  parts, 
night,  midnight,  and  the  morning  watch. 
But  afterwards  they  adopted  the  manner 
of  the  Greeks  and  Homans,  who  divided 
the  day,  i.  e.,  the  space  of  time  from  sun 
rising  till  sun-set,  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
which  consequently  differed  in  length,  at 
the  ditferent  seasons  of  the  year,  though 
still  equal  to  each  other. 

HOU'RIS,  the  name  given  by  the  Eu- 
ropeans to  the  imaginary  beings  whose 
company  in  the  Mohammedan  paradise  is 
to  form  the  principal  felicity  of  the  be- 
lievers. The  name  is  derived  from  hur 
al  oyun,  signifying  6/ac^-ei/ecZ.  They  are 
represented  in  the  Koran  as  most  beauti- 
ful virgins,  with  complexions  like  rubies 
and  pearls,  and  posse.ssed  of  every  intel- 
lectual and  corporeal  charm.  They  are 
not  created  of  clay,  as  mortal  women,  but 
of  pure  musk  ;  and  are  endowed  with  im- 
mortal youth,  and  immunity  from  the 
diseases  and  defects  of  ordinary  beings. 

HOURS,  in  mythology,  divinities  re- 
garded in  two  points  of  view — as  the  god- 
desses of  the  seasons,  and  hours  of  the 
day ;  and  their  number  is  stated  in  dif- 
ferent ways  accordingly.  Their  duty  was 
to  hold  the  gates  of  heaven,  which  they 
opened  to  send  forth  the  chariot  of  the 
sun  in  the  morning,  and  receive  it  again 
in  the  evening.  No  classical  poet  has 
described  them  with  greater  beaut}'  than 
Shelley,  in  a  celebrated  passage  of  his 
Prometheus  Unbound.  These  goddesses 
are  often  depicted  as  forming  the  train 
of  Venus. 

HOURS,  CANON'ICAL,  the  seven 
hours  of  praj'er,  observed,  it  is  said,  by 
the  Catholic  church  since  the  5th  cen- 
tury ;  chiefly  in  monasteries.  The  num- 
ber seems  before  that  time  to  have  va- 
ried, although  some  peculiar  seasons  of 
the  day  and  night  were  always  set  apart 
for  this  observance.  They  became  finally 
fixed  at  seven  by  the  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict ;  a  number,  perhaps,  recommended 
by  the   literal   acceptation  of  the   words 


302 


CV("L01'EL)I\     OF     LITlCliAiUUE 


[hL' 


of  Davi  I,  (Psalm  exix  ,)  "Seven  times  a 
day  will  I  praise  lliee."  These  hours 
are  ternicii,  in  the  lungunge  of  the  Latin 
church,  matins,  prima,  tertia,  tiona,  vesp- 
ers, complcta  or  coniplotorium,  which  last 
takes  place  at  inidniglit.  At  the  time 
of  the  Keformation  tlic  canonical  hours 
were  reduced  in  tiic  Lutheran  cliurch  to 
two,  morning  and  evening  ;  the  "  re- 
formed" church  never  observed  them. 

HOUSE,  a  human  habitation,  or  place 
of  abode  of  a  family.  Among  the  Eastern 
nations,  and  those  to  the  south,  houses 
are  flat  on  the  top,  with  the  ascent  to 
the  upper  story  by  steps  on  the  outside. 
As  we  proceed  northward,  a  declivity  of 
the  roof  becomes  requisite  to  throw  off 
the  rain  and  snow,  which  are  of  greater 
continuance  in  liigher  latitudes.  Among 
the  ancient  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews, 
the  houses  usually  enclosed  a  quadran- 
gular area  or  court,  open  to  the  sky. 
This  part  of  the  house  was  by  the  Romans 
called  the  hnpluinum,  or  cavtedlum,  and 
was  provided  with  channels  to  carry  olf 
the  waters  into  the  sewers.  The  word 
house  is  a  term  used  in  various  ways; 
as,  in  the  phrase,  "a  religious  house," 
either  the  buildings  of  a  monastery,  or 
the  community  of  persons  inhabiting  them, 
may  be  designated.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
when  a  family  retired  to  the  lodge  con- 
nected with  the  mansion,  or  to  their 
country-seat,  it  was  called  "  keeping 
•their  secret  house." — House,  among  ge- 
nealogists, a  noble  family,  or  an  illus- 
trious race,  descended  from  the  same 
stock  ;  as  the  house  of  Austria;  the  house 
of  Hanover — When  speaking  of  a  body 
of  men  united  in  their  legislative  capa- 
city, and  holding  their  place  by  right  or 
by  election,  we  also  use  the  word /io«se; 
as  the  House  of  Lords  or  the  House  of 
Commons. 

HOUSE'-BilEAKINa,  in  law,  the 
breaking  open  and  entering  of  a  house 
by  daylight,  with  the  intent  to  commit  a 
felony.  The  same  crime  committed  at 
night  is  denominated  a  bun^larij. 

HOUSE' HOLD,  the  whole  of  a  family 
considered  collectively',  inchuling  the  mis- 
tress, children,  and  servants.  ]5ut  the 
household  of  a  sovereign  prince  includes 
only  the  officers  and  domestics  belonging 
to  his  palace. 

HOWAD'jr,  the  Arabian  name  for 
merchant  or  shopkeeper,  and  applied  by 
the  Orientals  to  all  travellers. 

HOWUrZER,  a  kind  of  mortar,  mount- 
ed upon  a  carriage  like  a  gun.  The  how- 
itzer is  used  to  tlirow  grenades,  case-shot, 
and  sometimes  fire-balls  ;  their  jirincipal 


use,  however,  is  in  the  discharge  of  gre- 
nades. 

HUE  AND  CRY,  in  Uiw,  the  common 
law  process  of  pursuing  a  t'olon.  The  ori- 
ginal signification  of  the  phra.-ic  evidently 
was,  that  the  offender  should-be  pursued 
with  a  loud  outcry,  in  order  that  all 
might  hear  and  be  induced  to  join  in  the 
pursuit. 

HUGUENOT,  a  French  word  used  af- 
ter the  year  1560,  as  an  appellation  for  a 
Protestant.  Its  origin,  and  consequently 
its  literal  meaning,  has  /cceived  various 
explanations.  Their  history  forms  an 
important  feature  in  the  annals  of  per- 
secution. The  religious  prejuiliees  of  the 
people  were  kept  alive  by  contending  po- 
liticaU  factions,  till  France  was  nearly 
desolated  by  what  was  termed  "  religious 
wars  ;"  and  at  length  a  dreadful  massacre 
of  the  Huguenots  took  place  on  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's day,  l."572.  Henry  IV.,  1598, 
protected  them  by  the  edict  of  Nantes^ 
but  Loui.s  XIV.,  1G85,  revoked  this  edict, 
in  consequence  of  which  500,000  Hugue- 
nots fled  to  Switzerland,  (Jermany.  Hol- 
land, Eiiglau'l,  and  .\uierica,  where  their 
industry  and  wealth  found  a  welcome  re- 
ception. 

HUISSIERS',  civil  officers  in  France, 
whose  attendance  is  necessary  at  every 
judicial  tribunal,  from  that  of  a  justice 
of  the  peace  to  the  court  of  cassation. 
There  are  different  degrees  of  them,  an- 
swering in  some  respects  to  the  sheriffs, 
clerks,  and  criers  of  our  courts. 

HULK,  in  naval  architecture,  the  body 
of  a  vessel,  or  that  ])art  which  is,  in  truth, 
the  vessel  itself;  the  masts,  sails,  and 
cordage,  composing  only  the  apparatus  for 
its  navigation. — Hulk  is  also  an  old  ship  ; 
so  called  because  such  ship  being  no  lon- 
ger intended  for  navigation,  the  masts 
are  taken  away.  Such  old  vessels  are 
employed  in  the  business  of  raising  sand 
or  ballast;  and  the  criminals  that  are 
condemned  to  this  work  in  the  way  of 
punishment,  are  said  to  be  condemned  to 
the  hulks. 

HUMAN'ITIE.^,  a  term  used  in  .schools 
and  colleges,  to  signify  polite  literature, 
or  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  poetry,  in- 
cluding the  study  of  the  ancient  classics, 
in  distinction  from  philosophy  and  science. 

HUR'llICANE,  a  most  violent  storm 
of  wind,  generally  accompanied  by  thun- 
der and  lightning,  and  rain,  or  hail. 
Hurricanes  prevail  chiefly  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies,  the  Islo  of  France,  and 
in  somo  parts  of  China.  A  hurricane  is 
distinguished  from  every  other  kind  of 
tempest  by  the  e.\tremc  violence  of  the 


iiyaJ 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


303 


wind,  and  by  its  sudden  ehnnges ;  tho 
wind  often  veeiinj^  i-aildo:ily  several 
points,  soiuctiines  a  quarter  ol'  tho  circle 
and  even  more.  Jlurricunes  appear  to 
have  an  electric  origin  ;  the  velocity  of 
the  wind  exceeds  that  of  a  cannon  ball, 
sometimes  300  feet  in  a  second.  Corn, 
vines,  sugar-canes,  forests,  houses,  every- 
thing is  swept  away  by  it.  What  are 
called  hurricanes  in  more  northern  lati- 
tudes are  only  whirlwinds  occasioned  by 
tho  meeting  of  opposite  currents  of  air. 

HUSBANDRY,  the  practical  part  of 
the  science  of  agriculture,  or  the  business 
of  .cultivating  the  earth  and  rearing  ani- 
mals. Husbtmdry  is  tho  proper  term  for 
that  which  is  commonly  called  farming; 
and,  accordingly,  in  law,  a  man  of  this  pro- 
fession is  not  to  be  styled  a  farmer,  but  a 
husbandman.  It  includes  agriculture, 
breeding,  grazing,  dairying,  and  every 
other  occupation  by  which  riches  may  be 
drawn  from  the  superfic^al  products  of  the 
earth.  For  a  long  time  past  it  has  been 
progressivelj'  rising  in  estimation  ;  and 
the  present  age  beholds  the  descendants 
of  feudal  chieftains  seeking  honorable 
renown  in  that  pursuit  which  was  once 
abandoned  to  the  meanest  of  their  ances- 
tors' vassals.  Late  improvements  in  agri- 
culture consist  in  the  lessening  the  quan- 
tity of  labor,  by  means  of  implements, 
machines,  and  methodical  arrangements. 

HUSSARS',  the  name  by  which  certain 
cavalry  regiments  are  distinguished.  It 
is  a  word  of  Hungarian  origin,  and  was 
originally  given  to  the  cavalry  of  that 
country,  raised  in  1458,  when  Mathias  I. 
ordered  the  prelates  and  nobles  to  assem- 
ble, with  their  cavalry,  in  his  camp. 
Every  twenty  houses  were  obliged  to 
furnish  a  man ;  and  thus  from  tlie  Hun- 
garian words  husz  (twenty,)  and  ar  (pay,) 
was  formed  the  name  huszar  or  ussar. 

HUSS'ITES,  the  disciples  of  John 
Huss,  a  Bohemian,  and  curate  of  the 
chapel  of  Bethlehem  at  Prague;  who, 
about  the  year  1414,  embraced  and  de- 
defended  the  opinion  of  Wicliliff  of  Eng- 
land, for  which  he  was  cited  before  the 
council  of  Constance  and,  refusing  to  re- 
nounce his  supposed  errors,  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  burnt  alive,  which  sen- 
tence was  accordingly  e.vcuted  upon  him 
at  Constance.  This  gave  rise  to  a  rebel- 
lion of  the  Hussites,  who  avenged  his 
death  by  one  of  the  fiercest  and  most  ter- 
rible civil  wars  ever  known. 

HUS'TIN(}S,  (from  the  Saxon  word, 
hustinge,  a  council,  or  court,)  a  court 
held  in  the  guildhalls  of  several  English 
eities,  as  Loudon.  Westminster,  Winclies- 


ter,  and  York,  by  the  principal  officers 
of  their  respective  corporations.  Here, 
deeds  may  be  enrolle<l,  outlawries  sued 
out,  and  replevins  and  writs  of  error  de 
termined.  Here,  also,  the  elections  of 
oDicers  and  parliamentary  representa- 
tives take  place.  In  a  popular  sense,  tho 
word  hustings  is  used  for  a  place  raised 
for  the  candidates  at  elections  of  mem- 
bers of  parliament. 

HUTCHINSO'NIANS,  the  name  given 
to  those  who  embraced  the  opinions  of 
John  Hutchinson,  a  well-known  philoso- 
pher and  naturalist  of  the  18th  centurj'. 
Though  the  followers  of  Hutchinson  have 
never  constituted  a  sect,  they  have  reck- 
oned among  their  number  several  distin- 
guished divines  both  of  the  established 
churches  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  of 
dissenting  communities.  The  number 
of  professed  Hutchinsonians  is  rapidly  de- 
creasing, though  the  principles  and  views 
of  their  founder  are  still  entertained  by 
many.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
Hutchinson's  philosophy  consist  in  his 
rejection  of  Newton's  doctrine  of  gravita- 
tion ;  and  in  his  maintaining  the  exist- 
ence of  a  plenum  on  the  authority  of  the 
Old  Testament,  which,  according  to  him, 
embraces  a  complete  system  of  natural 
philosophy  as  well  as  of  religion. 

HY'ACINTH,  a  genus  of  pellucid 
geras,  whose  color  is  red  with  an  admix- 
ture of  yellow.  The  hyacinth,  though 
less  striking  to  the  eye  than  any  other 
red  gems,  is  not  without  its  beauty  in 
the  finest  specimens.  Its  structure  is 
foliated;  its  lustre,  strong;  its  fracture, 
conchoidal  ;  and  it  is  found  of  various 
sizes,  from  that  of  a  pin's  head  to  the 
third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Like  com- 
mon crystal,  it  is  sometimes  found  co- 
lumnar, and  sometimes  in  a  pebble  form  ; 
and  is  always  hardest  and  brightest  in 
the  larger  masses. 

HYACIN'THUS,  in  Grecian  mytholo- 
gy, the  son  of  Amyclas,  king  of  Laconia, 
and  of  the  muse  Clio,  accidentally  killed 
by  Apollo  while  they  vrere  plajing  at 
quoits.  The  story  is  thus  related  : — 
Zephyr,  enraged  at  the  preference  dis- 
played by  Hyncinthus  for  Apollo,  caused 
the  wind  of  which  he  was  the  god  to  turn 
from  its  course  a  quoit  thrown  by  Apollo, 
which,  hitting  him  on  the  forehead  in- 
stantaneously caused  his  death.  The  lat- 
ter immortalized  his  favorite  bj'  causing  . 
tho  flower  which  still  bears  his  name  to 
spring  from  his  blood,  and  inscribed  the 
word  AI  (Gr.  ai,  alas)  on  its  leaves,  to 
indicate  the  deep  grief  of  the  god  for  his 
loss.     An  annual  festival,   named  Hya- 


304 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[hym 


cinthia,  was  celebrated  at  Araj-clx  in 
honor  of  Hyaointhus.  It  continued  three 
days,  on  the  first  of  which  all  was  lamen- 
tation, and  mourning,  anil  woe  ;  but  on 
the  second  and  third  days  thej'  danced 
and  sung  hymns  to  Apollo,  oft'ered  sacri- 
fices, exhibited  spectacles,  treated  their 
friends,  and  enjoyed  themselves  with 
much  festivity. 

IIY'BRID,  an  epithet  for  any  animal 
whose  sire  is  of  one  kind,  and  dam  of 
another  kind. 

IIY'DRA,  a  celebrated  monster  wliich 
infested  the  neighborhood  of  the  lake 
Lerna  in  Peloponnesus.  It  was  the  fruit 
of  Echidna's  union  with  Typhon.  It  had 
a  hundred  heads,  according  to  Diodorus  : 
but  accounts  vary  much  on  this  point, 
and  no  wonder;  since,  as  soon  as  one  of 
these  heads  was  cut  off,  two  immediately 
grew  up,  unless  the  wound  was  stopped 
by  fire.  It  was  one  of  the  labors  of  Her- 
cules to  destroy  this  monster,  which  he 
easily  effected  with  the  assistance  of 
lolas,  who  applied  burning  iron  to  the 
wounds  as  soon  as  each  head  was  cut  off. 
The  ancient  artists  differ  in  their  repre- 
sentations of  the  hydra.  Sometimes  it 
is  a  serpent  branched  out  into  several 
others ;  and  sometimes  has  a  human  head, 
with  serpents  upon  it  instead  of  hair,  and 
descending  less  and  less  in  serpentine  folds. 
— The  term  hydra  is  sometimes  used  in  a 
metaphorical  sense  for  any  manifold  evil. 
IIY'DROMANCY,  a  method  of  divina-' 
tion  by  water,  amongst  the  ancients,  per- 
formed by  holding  a  ring  in  a  thread  over 
the  water,  and  repeating,  along  with  the 
question  to  be  solved,  a  certain  form  of 
words.  If  the  question  was  answered  af- 
firmatively, the  ring  of  its  own  accord 
struck  the  sides  of  the  bowl. 

IIYGE'IA,  the  god- 
dess of  health,  in  the 
Greek  mythology;  the 
daughter  or  wife  of  yEs- 
culai)ius,  according  to 
the  different  recitals  of 
genealogists.  Ilor  sta- 
tues (of  which  the  most 
celebrated  was  at  Si- 
cyon)  sometimes  repre- 
sented her  attended  by 
a  large  serpent  coiled 
round  her  boily,  and  el- 
evating its  head  above 
her  arm  to  drink  of  a 
cup  which  she  held  in 
her  liiind.  Isis,  in 
Egy])tian  monuments, 
appears  sometimes  in 
a      similar      attitude. 


The  employment  of  the  sefpent  as  a 
mj'thological  symbol  of  life  and  health 
has  been  by  some  derived  from  the  his- 
tory contained  in  the  first  chapter  of 
Genesis. 

IIY'GEIXE,  that  branch  of  medicine 
which  relates  to  the  means  of  preserving 
public  health. 

HYLOZO'ISM,  in  philosophy,  strictly 
the  doctrine  that  matter  lives.  Some 
writers  have  confined  this  name  to  the 
tenet  of  the  anima  niundi,  or  soul  of  the 
world;  others  to  the  theory  of  a  peculiar 
life  residing  in  the  whole  of  nature,  ap- 
proaching, therefore,  in  its  sense  to  pan- 
theism. This  life  is  either  merely  or- 
ganic or  actually  sentient:  tlie  latter 
notion  has  been  also  called  hylopathism. 

IIY'''MEX,  among  the  ancients,  the  god 
of  Marriage.  The  origin  of  the  worship 
of  this  divinity  is  attributed  to  the  fol- 
lowing story  : — A  young  Athenian,  nam- 
ed Hymenasus,  in  'humble  circumstances, 
having  become  enamored  of  a  rich  and 
noble  lady,  from  whose  presence  he  was 
debarred,  attired  himself  in  female  habili- 
ments, and  joined  a  religious  procession 
to  Eleusis,  in  which  his  mistress  took 
part.  On  their  way  thither  the  parties 
who  composed  it  were  attacked  by  pirates, 
who  carried  them  into  captivity ;  but 
Ilymenajus  seized  the  opportunity,  when 
they  were  asleep,  of  putting  them  to 
death,  and  departing  immediately  for 
Athens,  engaged  to  restore  all  the  ladies 
to  their  families  on  condition  of  his  ob- 
taining permission  to  marry  the  object 
of  his  affection.  The  Athenians  consent- 
ed ;  the  nuptials  of  Ilynienajus  were 
crowned  with  happiness;  and  from  that 
period  the  (3 reeks  instituted  festivals  in 
his  h(»nor,  and  invoked  him  at  the  cele- 
bration of  their  marriages.  The  formula 
employed  on  these  occasions  was,  "  0 
IIymcna?e  Hymen,  Hymen  0  Hymcnaue." 
— Hymeneal  is  used  to  signify  a  song  or 
ode  composed  in  celebration  of  a  mar- 
riage. 

HY'^MN',  an  ode  in  praise  of  the  Deity, 
or  some  divine  personage.  The  earliest 
Greek  hymns  are  those  attributcii,  prob- 
ably without  foundation,  to  Homer:  imi- 
tated by  Callimachu.s.  They  are  in  heroio 
verse,  c.\cept  one  of  Calliniaclius  in  hex- 
ameters and  pentameters;  and  their  con- 
tents, for  the  most  part,  are  narrations 
of  the  events  in  the  mythological  history 
of  the  respective  gods  and  goddesses  to 
whom  they  are  dedicated,  related  in  an 
encomiastic  strain.  The  choric  strains  of 
some  of  the  tragedians  in  honor  of  dei- 
ties, introduced  into  their  dramas,  appear 


hyp] 


AND    TIIK     IINK     AUT!^. 


305 


also  to  have  llie  character  of  hymns  ;  es- 
pecially as  dramatic  jiorfonua.nces  among 
the  Greeks,  had  something  of  a  religious 
solemnity  attached  to  thcni.  The  Tlicur- 
gic  hymns  were  strains  of  a  higher  charac- 
ter, and  intended  only  for  those  who  were 
initiated  into  certain  mysteries  supposed 
to  have  for  their  object  the  diflusion  of 
more  exalted  notions  of  the  divinity. 
Those  which  are  falsely  attributed  to  Or- 
pheus, and  pass  by  his  name,  are  said  to 
bo  of  this  class  ;  but.  e.xcept  from  their 
obscurity,  it  is  diflFicult  to  say  from  what 
reason.  Philosophical,  hymns,  intended 
for  the  use  of  the  followers  of  a  still  high- 
er species  of  worsliij),  are  mentioned  in 
the  division  of  ancient  hymns ;  but  we 
have  no  genuine  e.\amples  of  such  com- 
positions. In  modern  literature,  hymns 
are  pieces  of  sacred  poetry  intended  to 
be  sung  in  churches,  of  which  the  Psalms 
of  David,  the  most  ancient  pieces  of  po- 
etry, properly  so  called,  on  record,  (ex- 
cept the  book  of  Job,)  furnish  the  chief 
example  and  model.  St.  Hilary,  bishop 
of  Poitiers,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  composed  hymns  to  be  sung  in 
churches.  The  Latin  hymns  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church  are  well  known  from 
the  exquisite  music  to  which  they  have 
been  united. 

HYP.E'THR.VL,  in  architecture,  a 
building  or  temple  uncovered  by  a  roof. 
The  temples  of  this  class  are  arranged 
by  Vitruvius  under  the  seventh  order, 
having  six  columns  in  front  and  rear, 
and  surrounded  by  a  dipteral  or  double 
portico.  The  famous  temple  of  Neptune 
at  Pajstum,  still  remaining,  is  an  exam- 
ple of  this  species  of  building. 

HYPAL'LAdE,  in  grammar,  a  figure 
consisting  of  a  mutual  change  of  cases : 
a  species  of  hyperhaton. 

HY'PER,  a(}reek  word  signifying  oj'cr, 
which  is  used  in  English  composition  to 
denote  excess,  or  something  over  or  be- 
yond what  is  necessary. 

IIYPER'BATON,  in  grammar,  a  fig- 
urative construction  inverting  the  natural 
and  proper  order  of  words  and  sentences. 
The  species  are  the  anastrophe,  hijpcil- 
luge,  itc. ;  but  the  proper  hypcrbaton  is 
a  long  retention  of  the  verb  which  com- 
pletes the  sentence. 

IIYPER'BOLE,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
by  which  expressions  arc  used  signifying 
more  than  is  intended  to  represent  to 
the  hearer  or  reader;  as  when  thoughts 
and  sentiments  are  clothoil  in  tuiniil  lan- 
guage, or  ideas  brought  forward  which  in 
themselves  are  incredible,  in  order  to 
induce  a  belief  of  something  less  than 
20 


that  which  is  offered.  Exaggeration  ia 
hyperbole  applied  to  narrative,  when 
false  assertions  are  added  to  true,  in  or- 
der to  increase  the  impression  made  by 
them. 

IIYPERBO'REANS,  the  name  given 
by  the  ancients  to  the  unknown  inhab- 
itants of  the  must  northern  regions  of 
the  globe,  who  were  reported  always 
to  enjoy  a  delightful  climate,  being, 
according  to  their  notions,  situated  be- 
yond the  domain  of  Boreas  or  the  north 
wind ;  but,  in  fact,  they  were  the  Lap- 
landers, the  Samoiedes,  and  the  most 
northern  of  the  Russians. 

nY'PERCATALEC'TIC,  in  Greek  and 
Latin  poetry,  a  verse  exceeding  its  prop- 
er length  by  one  syllable. 

HY'PERCRIT'iCISM,  consists  in  view- 
ing the  works  of  an  author  in  an  ungen- 
erous spirit,  exaggerating  minor  defects, 
and  overlooking  or  undervaluing  such 
merits  or  beauties  as  might  fairly  be  con- 
sidered to  outweigh  the  former. 

IIYPER'METER,  a  verse  containing 
a  syllable  more  than  the  ordinary  meas- 
ure. When  this  is  the  case,  the  follow- 
ing line  begins  with  a  vowel,  and  the  re- 
dundant syllable  of  the  former  line  blends 
with  the  l^rst  of  the  following. 

IIY'PIIEN,  a  mark  or  character  in 
grammar,  implying  that  two  words  are 
to  be  connected  ;  as  pre-established,  five- 
leaved,  Ac.  Hyphens  also  serve  to  show 
the  connection  of  such  words  as  are  di- 
vided by  one  or  more  of  the  syllables  com- 
ing at  the  end  of  a  line. 

HYPOB'OLE,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  in 
which  several  things  are  mentioned  that 
seem  to  make  against  the  argument  or 
in  favor  of  the  opposite  side,  and  each  of 
them  is  refuted  in  ordop. 

IIYPOCAUS'TUM,  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture, a  vaulted  apartment  from  which 
the  fire's  heat  is  distributed  to  the  rooms 
above  by  means  of  earthen  tubes.  This 
method,  first  used  in  baths,  was  after- 
wards adopted  in  private  houses,  and 
difi'used  an  agreeable  and  equable  tempe- 
rature throughout  the  different  rooms. 

HtPOCIIONDRI'ASIS,  an  affection 
characterized  by  dyspepsia  ;  languor  and 
want  of  energy  ;  sadness  and  fear,  aris- 
ing from  uncertain  causes  ;  with  a  melan- 
cholic temperament.  The  principal  causes 
are  sorrow,  fear,  or  excess  of  any  of  the 
passions;  too  long-continued  watching; 
and  irregular  diet.  Hy pochondrlacs  are 
continually  apprehending  future  evils; 
and  in  respect  to  their  feelings  and  fears, 
however  groundless,  there  is  usually  the 
most  obstinate  belief  and  persuasion 


300 


CYfl.01'F.DIA     OK     l.IIEllATLUE 


[iCH 


HYPOS'TASIS,  in  theology,  a  tcrtn 
used  to  denote  the  subsistence  of  the  Fa- 
ther, Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  in-tiie  (iod- 
head,  called  by  the  (jreek  Christians, 
three  hi/i>ostases.  The  Latins  more  gen- 
erally used  persona,  and  this  is  the 
modern  practice  :  hence  it  is  said  the  God- 
head consists  of  three  persons. 

HYPOTHECATION,  in  the  civil  law, 
an  engagement  by  which  the  debtor 
assigns  his  goods  in  pledge  to  a  creditor 
as  a  security  for  his  debt,  without  parting 
with  the  immediate  possession  ;  differing 
in  this  last  particular,  from  the  simple 
pledge. 

HYPOTH'ESIS.  a  principle  taken  for 
granted,  in  order  to  draw  a  conclusion 
therefrom  for  the  proof  of  a  point  in  ques- 
tion. Also,  a  system  or  theory  imagined 
or  assumed  to  account  for  what  is  not  un- 
derstood. 

HYSTEROL'OGY,  or  HYSTEllON 
PROTERON,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  by 
which  the  ordinary  course  of  thought  is  in- 
verted in  expression  and  the  last  put  first : 
as,  where  objects  subsequent  in  order  of 
time  are  presented  before  their  antece- 
dents, cause  before  effect,  &c. ;  as,  Valet 
atque  vivti,^   (he  is  well  and  lives.) 


I,  the  ninth  letter  in  the  alpliabet,  and 
the  third  vowel.  Its  sound  varies ;  in 
some  words  it  is  long,  as  liigli,  mind,  pine  ; 
in  some  it  is  short,  as  hid.  kid ;  and  in 
others  it  is  pronounced  like  y,  as  collier, 
onion,  &c. ;  in  a  few  words  its  sound  ap- 
proaches to  the  ee  in  beef,  as  in  machine, 
which  is  the  sound  of  the  long  t  in  all 
European  languages  except  the  English. 
In  all  Latin  words  of  Latin  origin,  i  pre- 
ceding a  vowel  (unless  it  follows  another 
vowel.)  is  a  consonant,  as  lunus  (Janus,) 
coaiicio  (conjicio ;)  but  in  words  of 
Greek  origin,  it  is  a  vowel,  as  vimbus, 
iaspis.  No  English  word  ends  with  i,  but 
when  the  sound  of  the  letter  occurs  at 
the  end  of  a  word,  it  is  expressed  by  y. 
I,  used  as  a  numeral,  signifies  no  more 
than  one,  and  it  stands  for  as  many  units 
as  it  is  repeated  times;  thus  II  stands 
for  2,  and  III  for  3.  When  put  before  a 
higher  numeral  it  subtriicts  itself,  as  IV, 
four  ;  and  when  set  after  it,  the  effect  is 
addition,  as  XFI,  twelve. 

lAM'niC,  or  lAM'nUS,  in  poetry,  a 
foot  consisting  of  two  syllables,  the  first 
short  and  the  last  long,  as  in  declare, 
adorn.     Thus,  verses  composed  of  short 


and  long  syllables  alternately  arc  term- 
ed iambics  :  as, 
If    ty  I  rant  fac  |  tion  dare  |  assail  j  her 

throne, 
A    peo  I   pie's  love  |  shall   make  |  her 
cause    I   their  own. 

IAMBICS,  a  species  of  verse  consist- 
ing of  short  and  long  syllables  alter- 
nately, used  by  the  Greek  and  Latin 
poets,  and  especially  by  the  Greek  tragic 
poets.  The  iambics  of  the  Greek  tragic 
poets  were  originally  composed  of  a  suc- 
cession of  six  iambi,  but  at  a  later  period 
various  other  feet  were  admitted.  In  most 
modern  European  languages  the  verse  of 
five  iambic  feet  is  a  favorite  metre.  Ac- 
cording to  Aristotle,  the  iambic  measure 
was  first  employed  in  satirical  poems, 
called  iamba,  which  appear  to  have  bepn 
represented  or  acted. 

ICE'BERG,  a  hill  or  mountain  of  ice, 
or  a  vast  body  of  ice  accumulated  in  val- 
leys in  high  northern  latitudes,  or  float- 
ing on  the  ocean.  This  term  is  applied 
to  such  elevated  masses  as  exist  in  the 
valleys  of  the  frigid  zones  ;  to  those  which 
are  found  on  the  surface  of  fixed  ice  ;  and 
to  ice  of  great  thickness  and  height  in  a 
floating  state.  These  lofty  floating  masses 
are  sometimes  detached  from  the  icebergs 
on  shore,  and  sometimes  formed  at  a  dis- 
tance from  any  land.  They  are  found 
in  both  the  frigid  zones,  and  are  some- 
times carried  toward  the  equator  as  low 
as  40°. 

ICH  DIEN,  (Germ.,)  literally,  I  serve: 
the  motto  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  which 
was  originally  adopted  by  Edward  the 
Black  Prince  in  proof  of  his  subjection 
to  his  father  Edward  III.,  and  has  been 
continued  without  interruption  down  to 
the  present  time. 

ICHNOG'RAPHY,  in  architecture,  the 
transverse  section  of  a  building,  which 
represents  the  circumference  of  the  whole 
edifice ;  the  different  apartments ;  the 
thickness  of  the  walls ;  the  distribution 
of  parts ;  the  dimensions  of  doors,  win- 
dows, chimneys;  the  projection  of  col- 
umns and  door-posts;  and,  in  short,  all 
that  can  come  into  view  in  such  a  section. 

ICH'THYS,  (Gr.  a  fish,)  a  word  found 
on  many  seals,  rings,  urns,  tombstones, 
i^c,  belonging  to  the  early  times  of 
Christianity,  and  supposed  to  have  a 
mystical  meaning,  from  each  character 
forming  an  initial  letter  of  the  words? 
I//C0I1S  Xpirrrog,  Of  on  Ylos,  X'')Tf)(; ;  i.  e.,  Jesus 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour.  This 
interpretation  is  not  unlikely,  when  we 
consider  at  once  the  universal  reverence 
with  which  the  fish  was  symbolically  re- 


ideJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS, 


307 


garded  among  most  ancient  nations,  and 
the  many  s'l'^ns  and  ceremonies  adopted 
by  the  Christians,  with  some  change  of 
nieaniiig,  from  the  religious  rites  of  the 
surrounding  nations. 

I'CONISM,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
speech  which  consists  in  representing  a 
thing  to  the  life. 

ICOX'OCLASTS,  that  party  of  Chris- 
tians which  would  not  tolerate  images  in 
their  churches,  much  less  the  adoration 
of  them.  Images  and  paintings  were 
unknown  in  the  Christian  church  till  the 
fourth  centurj';  and  the  opposition  to 
them  was  long  continued  with  great  vio- 
lence. 

ICONOG'RAPHY,  the  description  of 
images  or  ancient  statues,  busts,  semi- 
busts,  paintings  in  fresco,  mosaic  works, 
&c. 

IDE 'A,  in  general,  the  image  or  re- 
semblance of  a  thing,  which,  though  not 
seen,  is  conceived  by  the  mind  ;  whatever 
is  held  or  comprehended  by  the  under- 
standing or  intellectual  faculties.  In 
logic,  idea  denotes  the  immediate  object 
about  which  the  mind  is  employed,  when 
we  perceive  or  think  of  anything.  Locke 
used  the  word  idea,  to  express  whatever 
is  meant  by  phantasm,  notion,  species, 
or  whatever  it  is  which  the  mind  can  be 
employed  about  in  thinking.  Darwin,  in 
his  Zoonomia,  uses  idea  for  a  notion  of 
external  things  which  our  organs  bring 
us  acquainted  with  originall}',  and  he  de- 
fines it  a  contraction,  motion,  or  configu- 
ration of  the  fibres  which  constitute  the 
immediate  organ  of  sense  ;  synonymous 
with  which  he  sometimes  uses  sensual 
motion,  in  contradistinction  to  muscular 
motion.  By  idea  Kant  eminently  des- 
ignated every  conception  formed  by  the 
reason,  (as  distinct  from  the  understand- 
ing,) and  raised  above  all  sensuous  per- 
ception. These  ideas  he  subdivides  into, 
1st,  empirical,  which  have  an  element 
drawn  from  experience,  for  instance,  or- 
ganization, a  state,  a  church ;  and  2d, 
pure,  which  are  totally  free  from  all  that 
is  sensible  or  empirical,  such  as  liberty, 
immortality,  holiness,  felicity.  Deity. 
Another  division  of  the  Kantian  ideas,  is 
into  theoretical  and  practical,  according 
to  a  similar  division  of  the  reason  itself. 
Thus  t^e  idea  of  truth  is  a  theoretical, 
that  of  morality  a  practical  idea. 

IDEAL,  that  which  considers  ideas  as 
images,  phantasms,  or  forins  in  the  mind  ; 
as,  the  ideal  theory  of  philosophy. — Beau 
ideal,  or  ideal  bcautij ;  an  expression  in 
the  Fine  Arts,  used  to  denote  a  selection 
for  a  particular  object,  of  the  finest  parts 


from  different  subjects,  united  in  that  one 
so  as  to  form  a  more  perfect  wliole  than 
nature  usually  exhibits  in  a  single  speci- 
men of  the  species ;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  divesting  nature  of  accident  in  the 
representation  of  an  individual. 

IDEALISM,  a  term  applied  to  sev- 
eral metaphj'sical  systems,  varying  in  its 
signification  according  to  the  meaning 
attached  in  each  particular  scheme  to  the 
word  idea;  from  which  it  is  derived.  In 
England  the  best  known  system  of  ideal- 
ism is  that  of  Berkeley.  In  reference  to 
this  philosopher's  doctrines,  the  word  is 
used  in  its  empirical  sense  for  the  object 
of  consciousness  in  sensation.  In  its  Pla- 
tonic or  transcendental  sense,  the  term 
it/ea/ism  has  been  applied  to  the  doctrines 
of  Kant  and  Schelling;  neither  of  whom 
is  an  idealist  in  the  way  in  which  Berke- 
ley may  be  so  called.  The  system  of 
Berkeley  may  be  thus  expressed: — The 
qualities  of  supposed  objects  cannot  be 
perceived  distinct  from  the  mind  that 
perceived  them ;  and  these  qualities,  it 
will  be  allowed,  are  all  that  we  can  know 
of  such  objects.  If,  therefore,  there  were 
external  bodies,  it  is  impossible  we  should 
ever  know  it;  and  if  there  were  not,  we 
should  have  exactly  the  same  reason  for 
believing  there  were  as  we  have  now. 
All,  therefore,  which  really  exists  is  spir- 
it, or  the  thinking  principle — ourselves, 
our  fellow-men,  and  God.  What  we  call 
ideas  are  presented  to  us  by  God  in  a  cer- 
tain order  of  succession,  which  order  of 
successive  presentation  is  what  we  mean 
by  the  laws  of  nature. 

IDEN'TITY,  sameness,  as  distinguish- 
ed from  similitude  and  diversity  ;  the 
sameness  of  a  substance  under  every  pos- 
sible variety  of  circumstances.  Among 
philosophers,  'personal  identity  denotes 
the  sameness  of  the  conscious  subject  /, 
throughout  all  the  various  states  of  which 
it  is  the  subject. — Sijstem.  of  identity,  in 
philosophy,  (otherwise  called  idcntism,) 
a  name  which  has  been  given  to  the  met- 
aphysical theory  of  the  German  writer 
Schelling.  It  rests  on  the  principle  that 
the  two  elements  of  thought,  the  objects 
respectively  of  understanding  and  rea- 
son, called  by  the  various  terms  of  mat- 
ter and  spirit,  "objective  and  subjective, 
real  and  ideal,  &c.,  are  only  relatively 
opposed  to  one  another,  as  ilifTerent  forms 
of  the  one  absolute  or  infinite:  hence 
sometimes  called  the  two  poles  of  the 
absolute. — In  a  secondary  sense  the  term 
identity  denotes  a  merely  relative  same- 
ness, which  may  he  also  called  logical, 
or  abstract.      Thus,   in   logic,   whatever 


508 


CYCl.OrEDIA    Ob"    I.I  I  Kli  ATU  HE 


[iDO 


things  are  subjects  of  the  same  attribute, 
or  collection  of  attrilmtos,  are  considered 
the  same  ;  for  cxiunplo,  dog  nnd  lion  are 
the  same  relatively  to  the  common  no- 
tion quadruped,  under  which  they  are 
both  contained.  Again,  in  physics,  a  tree 
may  be  assumed  to  be  the  same  in  rehi- 
tion  to  nil  the  rights  of  property,  not- 
withstanding the  j)hysical  change  which 
it  undergoes  frum  the  constant  segrega- 
tion of  old,  and  aggregation  of  new  par- 
ticles. Lastly,  it  is  only  in  this  logical 
use  of  the  term,  that  we  can  be  said  in 
memory  to  be  conscious  of  the  identity 
of  the  reproduced,  and  the  original  idea, 
for  if  they  were  absolutely  identical,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  first  appearance,  and  the  re- 
currence of  an  idea. 

IDEOGRAPH'IC  CIIAR'ACTEllS,  in 
philology,  characters  used  in  writing 
which  express  figures  or  motions,  instead 
of  the  arbitrary  signs  of  the  alphabet. 
The  Chinese  characters  are  ideographic, 
although  the  symbols,  at  first  intended  to 
represent  distinct  objects,  have  become 
by  use  merely  conventional.  The  hiero- 
glyphical  characters  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians were  of  the  same  description.  Ideo- 
graphical writing  is  opposed  to  phonetic. 

IDEOL'OGY,  literally,  the  science  of 
mind,  is  the  term  ai>plied  by  the  latter 
disciples  of  Condillac  to  the  history  and 
evolutions  of  human  ideas,  considered  as 
so  many  successive  modes  of  certain  origi- 
nal or  transformed  sensations.  The  writ- 
ings of  this  school  are  characterized  by  an 
unrivalled  simplicity,  boldness,  and  sub- 
tlety ;  and  the  ditlerent  phases  of  its  doc- 
trines are  admirably  exhibited  in  the 
physiological  researches  of  Cabanis.  the 
moral  dissertations  of  Garat  ami  Volncy, 
and  the  metaphysical  disquisitions  of 
Destutt  de  Tracy. 

IDES,  one  of  the  three  epochs  or  divi- 
sions of  the  ancient  Koman  month.  The 
calends  were  the  first  days  of  the  differ- 
ent months  ;  the  ides,  days  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  months;  an<l  the  voncs,  the 
ninth  day  before  the  iilcs.  In  the  montlis 
of  jNIarch,  .May,  July,  anil  October,  the 
ides  fell  on  the  !.5th  ;  in  the  other  months 
on  the  ]'Mh.  The  Itomans  used  a  very 
]iecaliar  methocl  of  reckoning  the  days  of 
the  month.  Insload  of  employing  the 
ordinal  numbers  first,  secoml.  third,  <fec  , 
they  distinguished  them  by  the  number 
of  days  intervening  between  any  given 
day  and  the  next  following  of  the  tliroe 
fixed  divisions.  For  examijlc,  as  there 
were  always  eight  days  between  the  nones 
and  the  ides,  the  day  after  the  nones  was 


called  the  eighth  before  the  ides,  the  next 
the  seventh  day  before  the  ides,  the  next 
the  sixth  day  before  the  ides,  and  so  on. 
In  leap  years,  when  February  had  twen- 
ty-nine days,  the  extra  day  was  aecounte.i 
for  by  calling  both  the  twenty-fourth  and 
twcntj'-fifth  daj's  of  that  month  the  sixtb 
day  before  the  calends  of  March  ;  whenc< 
the  leap  j'car  got  the  name  of  bissextile 
(from  bis,  twice  and  sestus,  si.vt/i  ) 

ID'IOM,  in  philology,  a  mode  of  speak- 
ing or  writing  foreign  from  the  usages  of 
universal  grammar  or  the  general  law; 
of  language,  and  restricted  to  the  geniu! 
of  some  individual  tongue.  Thus,  a  sen 
fence  or  phrase  consisting  of  words  ar- 
ranged in  a  particular  manner  may  be  a 
Latin  idiom;  the  same,  arranged  in  a 
difi'erent  manner,  an  English  idiom,  etc 
The  use  of  a  particular  inflexion  of  a  word 
may  also  be  an  idiom.  We  also  use  the 
term  idiom  in  a  more  general  sense,  to 
express  the  general  genius  or  character 
of  a  language.  We  have  a  number  of 
subordinate  words  to  express  the  idioms 
of  particular  tongues  :  thus,  a  Latin  id- 
iom is  a  Latinism,  a  Frencli  idiom  a  (ial- 
licisjn,  itc.  The  word  idiom  is  also  not 
uncommonly,  but  incorrectly,  used  in  the 
same  sense  with  the  French  idiome;  a 
dialect  or  variety  of  language.  Idiotisme 
is  the  French  form  expressing  the  correct 
signification  of  the  English  "idiom." 

IDIOPATII'IC,  a  disease  which  does 
not  depend  upon  any  other  disease,  and 
which  is  thus  opposed  to  those  diseases 
which  are  si/mptonuitic.  Thus,  an  epi- 
lepsy is  idiojiiithic,  when  it  happens  mere- 
ly through  some  fault  in  the  brain  ;  and 
sympnthetic,  when  it  is  the  consequence 
of  some  other  disorder. 

IDIOSYN'CRASY,  a  peculiar  temper- 
ament or  organization  of  body,  whereby 
it  is  rendered  more  liable  to  certain  dis- 
orders, than  bodies  differently  constituted 
usually  are. 

IDOL'ATRY,  in  its  literal  acceptation, 
denotes  tlie  worship  paid  to  idols.  It  is 
also  used  to  signify  the  superstitious  ailo- 
ration  paid  to  other  objects.  Soon  after 
the  flood,  idolatry  seems  to  have  been  the 
prevailing  religion  of  all  the  world;  for 
wherever  we  cast  our  eyes  at  the  time  of 
Aliraham,  we  scarcely  see  anything  but 
false  worship  ami  idolatry.  Thi' he;ivenly 
bodies  appear  to  have  been  tiic  first  ob- 
jects of  idolatrous  worship  ;  and,  on  ac- 
count of  their  beauty,  their  influence  on 
the  productions  of  the  earth,  and  the  reg- 
ularity of  their  motions,  the  sun  and  moon 
were  particularly  so,  being  considered  aa 
the  most  glorious  and  resplendent  images 


IbL] 


AM)    TIIK     riNIC     AKTS. 


309 


of  the  Deity;  afterwards,  as  tlicii-  senti- 
ments became  more  corrupted,  they  be- 
gan to  form  images,  and  to  entertain  the 
opinion,  tliat  by  virtue  of  consecration, 
the  gods  were  called  down,  to  inhabit  or 
dwell  in  their  statues.  But  history  plain- 
ly teaches  us,  that  before  the  idea  of  one 
infinite  and  true  God  was  ])roperly  com- 
prehended by  men,  their  imaginations 
created  rulers  and  deities,  to  whom  they 
ascribed  the  <lirection  of  all  outward 
events,  and  every  tribe  or  family  had  its 
peculiar  object  of  adoration.  The  selfish 
and  cunning  turned  this  frailty  to  their 
own  advantage;  and  hence  originated 
seers,  oracles,  and  all  the  numerous  su- 
perstitions which  have  disgraced  the 
world. 

I'DYL,  a  short  pastoral  poem.  The 
Greek  word  is  derived  from  tihi,  form,  or 
visible  object ;  and  hence  the  object,  or. 
at  least,  the  necessary  accompaniment  of 
this  species  of  poem,  has  been  said  to  be 
a  vivid  and  simple  representation  of  or- 
dinary objects  in  pastoral  nature.  But 
in  common  usage  the  signification  of  this 
word  is  hardly  diS'eront  from  that  of 
eclogue.  The  poems  of  Theocritus  are 
termed  Idyls,  those  of  Virgil  Eclogues  ; 
but  it  would  be  difiicult  to  assign  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  two,  except  what 
arises  from  the  greater  simplicity  of  lan- 
guage and  thought  which  characterizes 
the  former.  Many  critics,  however,  aver 
that  the  eclogue  requires  something  of 
epic  or  dramatic  action ;  the  idyl  only 
picturesque  representation,  sentiment,  or 
narrative.  In  English  poetry,  among 
this'class  may  be  ranked.  The  Seasons 
of  Thomson,  Shenst one's  Schoolmistress, 
Burn's  Cottager'' s  Saturday  Night,  Gold- 
smith's Deserted  Village,  &c.,  &c. 

IG'NIS  PAT'UUS,  ^a  kind  of  lumi- 
nous meteor,  which  flits  about  in  the  air 
a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  appears  chiefly  in  marshy  places,  or 
near  stagnant  waters,  or  in  ehurchj'ards, 
during  the  nights  of  summer.  There  are 
many  instances  of  travellers  having  been 
decoyed  by  these  lights  into  marshy  pla- 
ces, where  they  perished  ;  and  hence  the 
name  Jack-icith-a-laatern,  Will-xcitli-a- 
7cisp  :  some  people  ascribing  the  appear- 
ance to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits,  who 
take  this  mode  of  alluring  men  to  their 
destruction.  The  cause  of  the  phenome- 
non does  not  seem  to  be  perfectly  under- 
stood ;  it  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  the  decomposition  of  animal 
or  vegetable  matters,  or  by  the  evolution 
of  gases  which  spontaneously  inflame  in 
the  atmosphere. 


IGNORA'MUS,  in  law,  the  endorse- 
ment of  a  grand  jury  on  a  bill  of  indict- 
ment, equivalent  to  ''not  found."  The 
jury  are  said  to  ignore  a  bill  when  they 
do  not  find  the  evidence  such  as  to  make 
good  the  presentment. 

I.  II.  S.  an  abbreviation  for  Jesus  Ho- 
minum  Saluator,  Jesus  the  Saviour  of 
Jlankind. 

IL'IAD,  the  oldest  epic  poem  in  exist- 
ence ;  commonly  attributed  to  Homer, 
but  according  to  some  modern  hypotheses, 
the  work  of  several  hands.  The  theme 
of  the  poem  is  the  siege  of  Ilium  (whence 
its  name)  or  Troy  ;  or,  more  properly 
speaking,  the  quarrel  of  Achilles  with 
Agamemnon,  general  of  the  (Jrecian  ar- 
my before  that  city.  It  consists  of  twen- 
tj'-four  books.  The  first  book  relates  the 
origin  of  the  quarrel ;  and  the  residue  of 
the  poem  contains  an  account  of  the  ef- 
forts made  by  Agamemnon  and  the  chiefs 
who  adhered  to  his  party  to  conquer  the 
Trojans  without  the  aid  of  Achilles,  their 
defeat,  the  pacification  of  Achilles,  his 
resumption  of  arms  in  the  common  cause, 
and  the  death  of  Hector  by  his  hand. 
Neither  the  landing  of  the  chieftains,  nor 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  and  capture  of 
Troy,  come  within  its  range. 

ILLATIVE  CONVERSION,  in  logic, 
is  that  in  which  the  truth  of  the  converse 
follows  from  the  truth  of  the  exposita  or 
proposition  given.  Thus  the  proposition 
"no  virtuous  man  is  a  rebel,"  becomes, 
by  illative  conversion,  "  no  rebel  is  a  vir- 
tuous man."  "Some  boasters  are  cow- 
ards ;"  therefore,  a  converse,  "  Some 
cowards  are  boasters." 

ILLUMINA'TI,  or  THE  ENLIGHT 
ENED,  a  secret  society  formed  in  1776, 
chiefly  under  the  direction  of  Adam 
Weishaupt,  professor  of  law  at  Ingolstadt, 
in  Bavaria.  Its  professed  object  was  the 
attainment  of  a  higher  degree  of  virtue 
and  morality  than  that  reached  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  society.  It  numbered 
at  one  time  2000  members.  It  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  Bavarian  government  in 
1784.  It  has  been  supposed  that  this 
and  some  other  secret  societies  were  ac- 
tively engaged  in  preparing  the  way  for 
the  French  revolution  ;  but  of  this  no 
satisfactory  proof  has  been  adduced. 
Among  the  early  Christians,  the  term  II- 
luminati  was  given  to  persons  who  had 
received  baptism  ;  in  which  ceremony 
they  received  a  lighted  taper,  as  a  sym- 
bol of  the  faith  and  grace  they  had  re- 
ceived bv  that  sacrament. 

ILLU'MINATING,  the  art  of  laying 
colors  on  initial  capitals  in  books,  or  other- 


.310 


CYCLorKDIA     OF    I.lTEKAl  L'nK 


[lUA 


wise  embellishing  manuscript  books,  as 
was  formerly  done  by  artiste?  calle^l  Illu- 
minators. These  manuscripts,  contain- 
ing portraits,  pictures,  ami  emblematic 
figures,  form  li  valuable  part  of  tbe  rich- 
es preserved  iu  the  principal  libraries  in 
Europe. 

ILl.USTRA'TION,  in  rhetoric,  appears 
to  differ  from  comparison  or  simile  in 
this  only,  that  the  latter  is  used  merely 
to  give  force  to  the  expression  :  the  for- 
mer to  throw  light  upon  an  argument. 
Tiie  term  illustration  is,  however,  some- 
times used  in  a  wider  sense,  in  which  it 
seems  to  comprehend  example,  which  is 
the  recital  of  a  particular  fact  or  instance 
evincing  the  truth  of  a  general  proposi- 
tion laid  down  in  the  argument ;  and 
parable,  which  is  a  species  of  sj'mbolical 
narrative,  in  which  the  actors  and  events 
are  intended  to  represent  certain  other 
actors  and  events  in  a  typical  manner. 

IM'AGE,  in  rhetoric,  a  term  somewhat 
loosely  used;  but  which  appears  general- 
ly to  denote  a  metaphor  dilated,  and 
rendered  a  more  complete  picture  by  the 
assemblage  of  various  ideas  through 
which  the  same  metajjlior  continues  to 
run,  yet  not  sufficiently  expanded  to  form 
an  allegory. 

IMAGES,  in  sculpture.  This  word 
was  used  among  the  ancients,  more  par- 
ticularly to  denominate  the  portraits  of 
their  ancestors,  either  in  painting  or 
sculpture.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  en- 
tertained for  these  images  the  greatest 
veneration,  and  oven  rendered  them  a 
sort  of  worship.  The  Romans  preserved 
with  especial  care  the  images  of  their 
ancestors,  and  had  them  carrieil  both  in 
their  funeral  pomps  and  in  their  trium  j)hs. 
This  honor,  however,  was  restricted  to 
lighres  of  such  as  had  held  important  offices 
in  the  state  ;  as  for  instance,  those  of  tedile, 
praetor,  or  consul.  These  images  were 
often  made  of  wax,  sometimes  of  mar- 
ble, and  were  occasionally  adorned  with 
pearls.  The  atrium  or  porch  of  those 
families  who  had  for  a  long  time  held  the 
principal  magistracies,  were  filled  with 
an  intinite  number  of  these  images.  They 
became  smoke-dried,  in  course  of  time, 
by  the  fire  wiiieh  was  always  kept  lighted 
in  the  atrium,  in  honor  of  the  lares,  or 
household  gods.  In  order  to  prevent  this, 
thoy  were  sometimes  deposited  in  tlie 
chests  or  presses.  On  days  of  solemnity 
or  rejoicing,  they  drew  lhe.<e  statues  forth, 
crowned  them  with  laurel,  or  deckeil  them 
with  the  habits  which  characterized  tlie 
public  offices  of  the  parties  whom  tlioy 
dei)icted.      Tiie    ancients    were    likewise 


habituated  t.o  engrave  upon  their  rings 
the  images  of  their  T.iends,  with  which 
they  also  ornamented  their  cups  and 
vases.  The  disciples  of  Epicurus  did  not 
content  tliemselves  with  depositing  the 
image  of  tlieir  mtister  in  their  inner  or 
sleeping  apartments,  where  they  render- 
ed it  a  species  of  worship,  but  bore  it,  Id 
like  manner,  on  their  rings,  and  had  it 
engraven  on  their  vases.  The  Roman 
emperor  Claudius  permitted  not  his  sub- 
jects indiscriminately  to  wear  his  figure 
on  their  rings,  but  those  alone  who  had 
made  public  entry  of  them — thus,  in  fact, 
forming  a  kind  of  tax  tliereon.  It  was 
also  customary,  among  the  ancients,  to 
place  at  the  stern  of  a  vessel  the  images 
of  certain  deities  or  animals,  which  thence 
acquired  the  title  of  tutelce  navis,  the 
guardian  of  the  ship.  Another  custom 
was  to  set  up,  both  in  public  and  private 
libraries,  the  images  or  busts  of  the  most 
celebrated  writers.  Both  Greeks  and 
Romans  offered  in  the  temples  of  their 
gods,  not  only  images  of  themselves,  but 
of  other  personages  also.  Thus  Diogenes 
Lacrtius  informs  us,  that  Mithridatos, 
son  of  Rodobates,  dedicated  to  the  Muses 
the  statue  of  Plato.  According  to  an- 
other ancient  author,  Romulus  deilicated 
to  Vulcan  certain  chariots  of  gold,  toge- 
ther with  his  own  statue  ;  and  we  read  in 
Tacitus,  that  Julia  dedicated  to  Augustus 
the  image  of  Marcellus.  Since  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianitj',  the  use  of 
images  has  been  preserved  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Catholic  churches. 

IMAGINA'TION,  the  faculty  of  the 
mind  which  forms  images  or  representa- 
tions of  things.  It  ads  either  in  presenting 
images  to  the  minil  of  things  without,  or 
by  rejiroducing  those  whose  originals  are 
not,  at  the  moment,  present  to  the  mind 
or  the  sense.  We  therefore  distinguish — 
(1.)  original  imagination,  or  the  faculty 
of  forming  images  of  things  in  the  mind 
— that  is,  the  faculty  which  produces  the 
picture  of  an  object  which  the  mind  per- 
ceives by  the  actual  impression  of  tho 
object — from  the  (i.)  reproductive  ima- 
gination, or  tho  faculty  which  recalls  tho 
imago  of  an  object  in  the  mind  without 
the  presence  of  the  object.  Uesides  tho 
power  of  forming,  preserving,  and  recall- 
ing such  conceptions,  the  imagination  has 
also  the  power  (i  )  to  combine  different 
conceplions,  and  thus  create  now  images. 
In  this  case,  it  operates  involuntarily, 
according  to  the  laws  of  tho  association 
of  ideas,  when  tho  mind  is  abandoned  to 
the  current  of  ideas,  as  in  waking  dreams 
or  reveries.     Tho  association  of  ideas  is 


imp] 


AND    THE    FINK    A  UTS. 


311 


either  directed  to  a  definite  object  by  the 
understanding,  or  it  operates  only  in  sul)- 
jection  to  the  general  laws  of  the  under- 
standing. In  tbe  former  case,.tho  ima- 
gination is  confined;  in  the  latter,  its  op- 
erations are  free,  but  nut  lawless,  the 
general  law  of  tendency  to  a  definite  end 
fixing  limits  to  its  action,  within  which  it 
may  have  free  play,  but  which  must  not 
be  overstepped.  The  free  and  yet  reg- 
ulated action  of  the  imagination  alone 
can  give  birth  to  the  productions  of  the 
I'ine  Arts.  In  this  case,  it  forms  images 
according  to  ideas.  It  composes,  creates, 
and  is  called  the  poetical  faculty .  From 
the  twofold  action  of  the  imagination,  we 
may  distinguish  two  spheres,  within  which 
it  moves — the  prosaic  and  the  poetical. 
In  the  former,  it  presents  subjects  on 
which  the  understanding  operates  for  the 
common  purposes  of  life.  Here  it  is  re- 
stricted by  the  definite  object  for  which 
we  put  it  in  action.  In  the  latter,  it  gives 
life  to  the  soul,  by  a  free,  yet  regulated 
a-'tion,  elevates  the  mind  by  ideal  crea- 
tions, and  representations  above  common 
realities,  and  thus  ennobles  existence. 
Imagination  operates  in  all  classes,  all 
ages,  all  situations,  all  climates,  in  the 
most  exalted  hero,  the  profound  thinker, 
the  passionate  lover,  in  joy  and  grief,  in 
hope  and  fear,  and  makes  man  truly 
man. 

IM'AM,  or  I.M'AX,  a  Mahometan 
priest,  or  head  of  the  congregations  in 
their  mosques.  In  ecclesiastical  affairs 
they  are  independent,  and  are  not  subject 
to  the  mufti,  though  he  is  the  supreme 
priest. 

IMBRO'GLLO,  (a  word  borrowed  from 
the  Italian  brogliare,  to  confound  or  mix 
together ;  whence  the  French  brouillor 
and  English  embroil.)  In  literary  lan- 
guage, the  plot  of  a  romance  or  a  drama, 
■when  much  perplexed  and  complicated, 
is  said  to  be  an  "  imbroglio."  The  small 
burlesque  theatrical  pieces  so  termed  by 
the  Italians  derive  their  ludicrous  char- 
acter from  a  similar  species  of  absurdity. 

IMITATION,  the  act  of  following  in 
manner,  or  of  copying  in  form  ;  the  act 
of  making  the  similitude  of  anything,  or 
of  attempting  a  resemljlance.  By  the 
imitation  of  bad  men,  or  of  evil  exam- 
ples, we  are  apt  to  contract  vicious  hab- 
its. In  the  imitation  of  natural  forms 
and  colors,  we  are  often  unsucces.<ful  — 
Imitation,  in  music,  is  a  reiteration  of  the 
same  air,  or  of  one  which  is  similar,  in 
several  parts  where  it  is  repeated  by  one 
after  the  other,  either  in  unison,  or  at 
the  distance  of  a  fourth,  a  fifth,  a  third, 


or  any  interval  whatever. — Imitation,  in 
oratory,  is  an  endeavor  to  resemble  a 
speaker  or  writer  in  the  qualities  which 
we  propose  to  ourselves  as  patterns.  A 
method  of  translating,  in  which  modern 
examples  and  illustrations  are  used  for 
ancient,  or  domestic  for  foreign,  or  in 
which  the  translator  not  only  varies  the 
words  and  sense,  but  forsakes  them  as 
he  sees  occasion. 

IMMOLA'TIO,  a  ceremony  used  in  the 
Roman  sacrifices  ;  it  consisted  in  throwing 
upon  the  head  of  the  victim  some  sort  of 
corn  and  frankincense,  together  with  the 
mola  or  salt  cake,  and  a  little  wine. 

IMMORTALITY,  the  quality  of  end- 
less duration,  as  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  The  idea  that  the  dissolution  of  the 
body  involves  the  annihilation  of  exist- 
ence, is  so  cheerless,  so  saddening,  that 
the  wisest  and  best  of  men,  of  all  ages, 
have  rejected  it,  and  all  civilized  nations 
have  adopted  the  belief  of  its  continuation 
after  death,  as  one  of  the  main  points  of 
their  religious  faith.  The  Scriptures  af- 
ford numerous  evidences  of  the  soul's 
immortality  ;  the  hope  of  it  is  a  religious 
conviction;  man  cannot  relinquish  it, 
without  abandoning,  at  the  same  time, 
his  whole  dignity  as  a  reasonable  being 
and  a  free  agent ;  and  hence  the  belief 
in  immortality  becomes  intimately  con- 
nected with  our  belief  in  the  existence 
and  goodness  t)f  God. 

IMMU'NE.S,  in  Roman  history,  an  epi- 
thet applied  to  such  provinces  as  had  ob- 
tained an  exemption  from  the  ordinary 
tribute.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
soldiers  who  were  exempt  from  military 
service. 

IMMU'NITY,  in  jurisprudence,  legal 
freedom  from  any  legal  obligation.  Thus 
the  phrase  "ecclesiastical  immunities" 
comprehends  all  that  portion  of  the  rights 
of  the  Church,  in  different  countries, 
which  consists  in  the  freedom  of  its  mem- 
bers, or  of  its  property,  from  burdens 
thrown  by  law  on  other  classes. 

IMPALEMENT,  the  putting  to  death 
by  thrusting  a  stake  through  the  body, 
the  victim  being  left  to  perish  by  linger- 
ing torments.  This  barbarous  mode  of 
torture  is  used  by  the  Turks,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  Christians  who  say  anything 
against  the  law  of  the  prophet,  who  in- 
trigue with  a  Mohammedan  woman,  or 
who  enter  a  mosque. 

IMPARISYL'LABIC,  in  grammar,  an 
epithet  for  words  having  unequal  sylla- 
bles. 

IMPAR'LANCE,  in  law,  a  privilege 
or   license    granted,    on    petitioning    the 


312 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKRAITKE 


IMP 


court  for  a  Jay  to  consider  or  advise  wlKit 
answer  the  defendant  shall  wake  to  the 
plaintiff's  declaration. 

IMPASTA  TlOX,  the  mixture  of  vari-' 
ous  materials  of  ditl'orcnt  colours  and 
consistencies,  baked  or  bound  together 
with  some  cement,  and  hardened  by  the 
air  or  bv  fire. 

IMPKAClI'iMENT,  the  accusation  and 
prosecution  of  a  person  for  treason,  or 
other  liif^h  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  In 
England  the  house  of  lords  has  an  origi- 
nal jurisdicti(m  in  criminal  matters,  ex- 
eroised  over  either  peers  or  commons, 
upon  impeachment  by  a  member  of  the 
lower  house.  Any  member  of  the  house 
of  commons  may  not  only  impeach  one 
of  tlieir  own  body,  but  also  any  lord  of 
parliament.  When  any  per.'ion  is  im- 
peached, articles,  containing  the  accusa- 
tion, are  exhibited  on  behalf  of  the  com- 
mons, who  appoint  managers  to  conduct 
the  prosecution.  These  articles  are  car- 
ried to  the  lords,  and  if  they  liwl  the  ac- 
cused guilty  upon  suflicient  evidence,  no 
pardon  under  the  Great  Seal  can  be 
pleaded  to  such  impeachment.  Till  the 
house  of  commons  demand  judgment  on 
an  impeachment  exhibited  by  them,  the 
lords  cannot  pass  sentence.  In  the  United 
States,  it  is  the  right  of  the  house  of 
representatives  to  impeach,  and  of  the 
senate  to  try  and  determine  impeach- 
ments. The  senate  of  the* United  States, 
and  the  senates  in  the  several  states,  are 
the  high  courts  of  impeachment. 

IMPER'ATIVE,  in  grammar,  one  of 
the  moods  of  a  verb,  used  when  we  vfould 
command,  exhort,  or  advise ;  as  go,  at- 
tend, &c. 

IMPERA'TOR,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
a  title  of  honor  conferred  on  victorious 
generals,  by  their  armies,  and  afterwards 
confirmed  by  the  senate.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  republic,  iinperator  became 
the  highest  title  of  the  supreme  ruler; 
and  in  later  times  it  had  the  signification 
which  we  attach  to  the  word  emperor. 

IMPER'FECT  CON'CORDS,  in  music, 
such  as  are  liable  to  change  from  major 
to  minor,  or  the  contrary,  as  are  thirds 
and  sixtlis;  still,  however,  not  losing 
their  consonancy. 

IMPER'FECT  TENSE,  in  grammar, 
that  modiiication  of  a  verb  which  ex- 
presses that  the  action  or  event  of  which 
we  speak  was,  at  a  certain  time  to  which 
we  refer,  in  an  unlinished  state.  This  is 
in  English  dcsignatoil  by  the  auxiliary 
"  was."  jdined  with  the  ]irescnt  participle. 

IMPE'RIAL,  in  architecture,  a  species 
of  dome  whose  profile  is  pointed  towards 


the  top  and  widens  towards  the  base,  thu3 
forming  a  curve  of  contrary  flexure — Im- 
peridl,  pertaining  to  an  emiiire.  Thus 
the  imperial  chamber,  means  the  sove- 
reign court  of  the  Cierman  empire;  an 
imperial  city,  a  city  in  (Jcrmany  which 
has  no  head  but  the  emperor:  the  impe- 
rial diet,  an  assembly  of  all  the  states  in 
the  (lerman  empire. 

IMPERIALIST,  a  subject  or  soldier 
of  an  emperor.  The  denomination  im- 
perialists is  often  given  to  the  troops  or 
armies  of  the  emperor  of  Austria. 

IMPER'SONAL  VERB,  in  grammar, 
a  verb  used  only  in  the  third  person  sin- 
gular, with  it  for  a  nominative  in  English, 
as  it  rains ;  and  without  a  nominative  in 
Latin,  as  pus;natur. 

IxMPETRA'TION,  in  law,  the  obtain- 
ing anything  by  request  or  prayer  :  but 
in  old  statutes,  it  is  taken  for  the  pre- 
obtaining  of  church  benefices  from  the 
court  of  Rome,  which  belonged  to  the 
disposal  of  the  king  and  other  lay-patrona 
of  the  realm. 

IMPOSE',  in  printing,  to  put  flic  pago3 
on  the  imposing  stone,  and  fit  on  the 
chase,  and  thus  prepare  the  form  for  the 
press. — In  legislation,  to  lay  on  a  tax, 
toll,  duty,  or  penalty. —  To  impose  c/»,  to 
mislead  bv  a  false  pretence. 

IMPOS'UTION  of  hands,  a  religious 
ceremony,  in  which  a  bishop  lays  his  hand 
ujjon  the  head  of  a  person,  in  ordination, 
confirmation,  or  in  uttering  a  blessing. 
This  practice  is  also  generally  observed 
at  the  ordination  of  congregational  minis- 
ters, while  one  prays  for  a  blessing  on  the 
labors  of  him  they  are  ordaining.  Impo- 
sition of  hands  was  a  Jewish  ceremony, 
introduced  not  by  any  divine  authority, 
but  by  custom  ;  it  being  their  practice, 
whenever  they  prayed  for  any  person,  to 
lay  their  hands  on  his  head.  Our  Saviour 
observed  the  same  ceremony  buth  when 
he  conferred  his  blessing  on  the  children, 
and  when  he  cured  the  sick. 

IMPOSSIBLE,  that  which  cannot  bo 
done  or  effected.  A  proposition  is  said  to 
be  impossible,  when  it  contains  two  icieas, 
which  mutually  destroy  each  other,  and 
which  can  neither  bo  conceived  nor  united 
together  in  the  mind  :  thus,  it  is  impossi- 
ble that  a  circle  should  be  a  square,  or 
that  two  anil  two  should  make  five.  A 
thing  is  said  to  be  physically  impossible, 
that  cannot  be  <lone  by  any  natural  pow- 
ers, as  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  ;  and 
morally  im})ossible,  when  in  its  own  na- 
ture it  is  possible,  but  attended  withditfi- 
culties  or  circumstances  which  give  it  tha 
appearance  of  being  impossible. 


imp] 


AND    TlIK     FIXE    ARTS. 


313 


IM'POST,  any  tax  or  tribute  imposed 
by  authority;  particularly  a  duty  or  tax 
)aid  by  govcrniiicnt  on  goods  imported. — 
In  architecture,  that  part  of  a  pillar  in 
vaults  and  arches,  on  which  the  weight 
of  the  building  rests;  or  the  capital  of  a 
pillar,  or  cornice  which  crowns  the  pier  and 
supports  the  first  stone  or  part  of  an  arch. 
IM'POTEXCE,  or  IM'POTENCY, 
want  of  strength  or  power,  animal,  intel- 
lectual, or  moral.  The  first  is  a  want  of 
some  physical  jirinciple,  necessary  to  an 
action  ;  the  last  denotes  the  want  of  pow- 
er or  inclination  to  resist  or  overcome 
habits  or  natural  propensities. 

IMPllESCPtlP'TIBLE  RIGHTS,  such 
rights  as  a  man  may  use  or  not  at  pleas- 
ure, those  which  cannot  be  lost  to  him 
by  the  claims  of  another  founded  on  pre- 
scription. 

IMPRESSION,  in  the  Arts,  is  used  to 
signify  the  transfer  of  engravings  from  a 
hard  to  a  soft  substance,  whether  by 
means  of  the  rolling-press,  as  in  copper- 
plate and  lithographic  printing,  or  by 
copies  in  wax,  &c.,  from  medals  and  en- 
graved gems.  The  word  is  also  used  to 
denote  a  single  edition  of  a  book  ;  as,  the 
whole  impression  of  the  work  was  sold  in 
two  months. 

IMPRIMA'TUR,  {Latin,  let  it  be 
printed,)  the  word  by  which  the  licenser 
allows  a  book  to  be  printed,  in  countries 
where  the  censorship  of  books  is  rigorous- 
ly exercised.  This  formula  was  much 
used  in  English  books  printed  in  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries ;  and  this  permission 
is  even  still  vested  in  some  of  the  British 
universities,  especially  in  Scotland,  where 
It  is  nothing  unusual  to  find  on  the  title- 
page  of  some  works  recommended  to  pub- 
lic favor  by  the  senatus  academicus  the 
"  imprimatur"  of  the  principal. 

IMPRrMIS,(L,o«t/i,)  in  the  first  place  ; 
first  in  order. 

IMPRINT,  the  designation  of  the 
place  where,  by  whom,  and  when  a  book 
is  published,  are  always  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  title.  Among  the  early 
printers  it  was  inserted  at  the  end  of  the 
book,  and  is  styled  the  colophon. 

IM  PROMP'TU,  in  literature,  any  short 
and  pointed  production  supposed  to  be 
brought  forth  on  the  si)ur  of  the  moment ; 
gencrallv  of  an  epigrammatic  character. 

IMPROPRIA'TION,  in  law,  the  act  of 
appropriating  or  employing  the  revenues 
of  a  church  living  to  one's  own  use. — Li^ij 
impropriation  is  an  ecclesiastical  living 
in  the  hands  of  a  layman.  Before  the 
destruction  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry 
V^III.,  in   1539,  many  livings  were  in  the 


possession  of  impropriators;  the  great 
tithes  they  kept  themselves,  allowing  the 
small  tithes  to  the  vicar  or  substitute  who 
served  the  church.  On  the  suppression 
of  the  monasteries,  Henry  disposed  of  the 
great  tithings  among  his  favorites. 

IM  PROVISATORE,  an  Italian  word, 
signifying  a  person  who  has  the  talent  oi' 
composing  and  reciting  a  suite  of  verses 
on  a  given  subject  immediately  and  with- 
out premeditation.  This  peculiar  talent, 
thus  restricted,  appears  to  belong,  almost 
exclusively,  to  the  Italian  language  anil 
people.  Much,  no  doubt,  of  the  facility 
of  these  improvisatori,  which  appears  al- 
most preternatural  to  one  unaccustomed 
to  hear  them,  arises  from  the  peculiar 
ease  and  flexibility  of  their  language,  and 
its  richness  in  rhymes.  But  this  circum- 
stance will  not  wholly  account  for  so  sin- 
gular a  national  faculty  ;  for,  about  the 
time  of  the  revival  of  letters,  Ital^'  pos- 
sessed improvisatori  in  Latin  as  well  as 
Italian.  Many  poets  have  enjo^'ed  con- 
siderable celebrity  in  their  day  from  their 
success  in  this  mode  of  composition;  but 
we  are  not  aware  that  any  of  their  poems 
have  acquired  a  permanent  celebrity,  al- 
though often  taken  down  from  their  reci- 
tation. Tuscany  and  the  Venetian  states 
have  been  most  famous  for  the  production 
of  improvisatori,  especially  Sienna  and 
Verona;  in  which  latter  city  the  talent 
seems  to  have  been  perpetuated  by  suc- 
cession. The  chevalier  Bernardino  Per- 
fetti,  the  most  famous  of  all  these  reciters, 
was  of  Sienna  :  he  flourished  in  the  first 
half  of  the  17th  century.  He  is  said  to 
have  possessed  unbounded  erudition,  and 
to  have  been  able  to  pour  forth  extem- 
pore poetical  essays  on  the  most  abst»-use 
questions  of  science.  There  have  been 
many  distinguished  females  possessed  of 
this  talent,  (improvi.satrici.)  Gorilla,  the 
most  celebrated  of  them,  was  of  Pistuia 
in  Tuscany.  She  was  the  original  of 
Madame  de  Stael's  Corinnc.  She  re- 
ceived in  1776  the  laureate  crown  at 
Rome,  an  honor  which  had  also  been  ac- 
corded to  Perfetti.  (Jermany  is  said  to 
have  produced  one  noted  improvisatriee, 
Anna  Louisa  Karsch.  There  appears  no 
reason  why  the  term  improvisation  should 
not  also  be  applied  to  the  delivery  of  un- 
premeditated discourses  in  prose.  It  is 
the  exertion  of  a  very  similar  faculty, 
perfected  in  the  same  manner  by  habits 
to  a  degree  almost  inconceivable  by  those 
not  accustomed  to  witness  its  exercise. 
It  is,  however,  much  more  general.  The 
North  American  Indians  are  represented 
to  possess   it   in  a  high  degree.     In  Eu- 


314 


rrCI.OPEDIA     OF    I.JTi-.liAll'KK 


[ixc 


rope,  it  Ls  most  generally  to  be  found  in 
the  pulpit.  Public  secular  oratory  of  this 
unpreiiielitated  description  is  f.ir  more 
common  in  England,  and  the  power  much 
more  sedulously  cultivated,  than  in  any 
continental  CDuntry. 

IN  ALIEN  ABLE,  an  epithet  applied 
10  such  things  as  cannot  be  legally  alien- 
ated or  made  over  to  another  :  thus  the 
dominions  of  a  sovereign,  the  revenues 
of  the  chuich,  the  estates  of  a  minor,  &c. 
are  inalienable,  otherwise  than  with  a 
reserve  of  the  right  of  redemption. 

INAUUURA'TION,  was  originally 
applied  to  the  llonian  ceremony  of  ad- 
mission to  the  college  of  augurs  or  sooth- 
sayers, or  to  the  selection  of  a  proper  site 
for  the  erection  of  temples  or  other  na- 
tional edifices ;  but  it  afterwards  received 
a  more  extended  signification,  Xinl  is  now 
used  in  a  sense  nenrly  synonymous  with 
the  consecration  of  a  prelate,  or  the  coro- 
nation of  a  king  or  empcinr.  It  means 
also  an  introduction  to  any  office  with 
certain  ceremonies. 

INCA,  or  VNCA,  a  name  given  by  the 
Indians  of  ancient  Peru  to  their  kings 
and  princes  of  the  blood.  The  empire  of 
the  Incas,  founded,  according  to  tradition, 
by  the  celebrated  Manco  Capac,  extended 
over  the  table-land  of  the  Andes,  from 
Pasto  to  the  neighborhood  of  Chili,  as 
well  as  the  low  lands  on  the  coast.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Pizarro  and  Almagro.  The  blood  royal 
of  the  Incas  is  preserved,  or  believed  to 
be  so,  among  the  Indians  of  the  present 
day,  and  Tupac  Amaru,  who  carried  on 
a  long  and  nearly  successful  insurrection 
against  Spain  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century,  professed  to  be  descended 
from  them. 

IN  C.ENA  DOMINI,  (Lat.  at  the 
Lord's  Siij>pf,r,)  the  n;une  of  a  celebrated 
papal  bull,  containing  a  collection  of  ex- 
tracts from  different  constitutions  of  the 
pope,  comprising  those  rights  which,  since 
the  time  of  (Jregory  V[[.,  have  been  un- 
interruptedly chiimeil  by  the  Roman  see, 
and  a  proclainiition  of  anathema  against 
all  who  violate  them.  It  was  annually 
read  on  Holy  Thursdaj',  whence  it  re- 
ceives its  name;  but  lately  on  Easter 
Monday.  The  sects  of  heretics  are  cursed 
in  it  by  their  several  designations.  A 
copy  of  the  bull  is  hung  up  at  the  door 
of  the  churches  of  St.  I'eter  and  St.  John 
Lateran  :  and  all  patriarchs,  ]irimates, 
bishop.",  Ac,  are  re<|uircd  to  have  it  read 
once  or  more  annually  in  their  churches. 

INCARNA'TION,  a  word  in  common 
use  among  the  theologians  to  express  the 


union  of  the  Godhead  with  the  Manhood 
in  Jesus  Christ.  The  real  manner  of  this 
union,  or  indwelling  of  the  (.Jod  in  the 
!Man,  is  allowed  to  be  a  m^vstery  such  as 
cannot  be  fully  apprehended  by  the  hu- 
man intellect. 

INCENSE,  in  the  materia  medica,  a 
dry  resinous  substance,  known  by  tha 
name  of  tlius  and  olibanum.  The  burn- 
ing of  incense  made  part  of  the  daily 
service  of  the  Jewish  temple  ;  and  in  tho 
Romish  church  it  is  the  deacon's  office  to 
incense  the  officiating  priest  or  prelate, 
and  the  choir.  In  the  religious  rites  of 
heathen  nations,  too,  the  odors  of  spices 
and  fragrant  gams  were  burnt  as  incense. 

1NCEP'TI\'E,  in  grammar,  an  epithet 
for  verbs  which  express  a  proceeding  by 
degrees  in  an  action. 

INCOG'NITO,  (abbreviated  to  incog.,) 
unknown,  or  so  di.sguised  as  not  to  be  rec- 
ognized ;  a  mode  of  travelling  without 
any  mark  of  .distinction,  which  is  some- 
times adopted  by  princes  and  great  people 
who  do  not  wish  to  bo  recognized. 

INCOMPAT  IBLE,  in  a  general  sense, 
morally  inconsistent;  or  that  cannot  sub- 
sist with  another,  without  destroying  it: 
thus,  truth  and  falsehood  are  essentially 
incompatible :  so  cold  and  heat  are  in- 
conipatible  in  the  same  subject,  the 
strongest  overcoming  and  expelling  tho 
weakest.  In  a  legal  sense,  that  is  incom- 
patible which  cannot  be  united  in  tha 
same  person,  without  violating  tho  law, 
or  constitution. 

INCORPORATION,  in  law,  the  for- 
mation of  a  legal  or  a  political  body,  with 
the  quality  of  perpetual  existence  or  suc- 
cession, unless  limited  by  the  act  of  in- 
corporation. 

IN'CL'BUS,  or  Nightma)-e,  tho  name 
of  a  disease  which  consists  in  a  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  breast, 
usually  happening  in  the  night,  and  at- 
tended witii  a  verj'  painful  difficulty  of 
respiration  and  great  anxiety.  The  most 
obvious  symptom  of  this  disease  is  a  sen- 
sation of  some  great  weight  l.iid  upon  tho 
breast.  Sometimes  the  sufferer  finds  him- 
self in  some  inextricable  difficulty,  en- 
deavoring to  escape  froni  a  monster,  or, 
perhaps,  in  imminent  danger  of  falling 
from  a  precipice,  while  his  limbs  refuse 
to  do  their  otiicc,  until  ho  suddenly  awa- 
kens himself  by  starting  from  his  recum- 
bent posture,  or  by  a  cry  of  terror. 

INCUM'BENT,  the  person  who  is  in 
present  possession  of  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice. 

INCUNAB'ULA,  in  bibliography,  a 
term  applied  to  books  printed  during  tha 


IND 


AM)    Tlir,     FIXF.    ARTS. 


!1, 


early  peiiod  of  the  art;  in  general  con- 
fined to  those  which  appeared  before  the 
year  1500. 

IXDKCLI'XABLE,  in  grammar,  a 
word  admitting  of  no  dcclenf<ion  or  in- 
flexion. Adverbs,  preposition.'*,  jiarlicles, 
conjunction?,  are  all  indeclinable.  In 
classical  languages,  indeclinable  nouns  are 
those  few  (chiefly  borrowed  by  the  (J reeks 
and  Latins  from  foreign  languages)  of 
which  the  termination  is  not  altered  in 
the  several  cases. 

IXDEFEA'SIBLE,  in  law,  an  epithet 
for  an  estate,  or  any  right  which  cannot 
be  defeated  or  made  void. 

INDEFINITE,  or  INDETER'MI- 
NATE,  that  which  has  no  certain  bounds; 
or  to  which  the  human  mind  cannot  alK.v 
any.  Descartes  makes  use  of  this  word 
in  his  philosophy  instead  of  infinite,  both 
in  numbers  and  quantities,  to  signify  an 
inconceivable  number,  or  a  number  so 
great  as  not  to  be  capable  of  any  addi- 
tion.— Indefinite,  is  also  used  to  signify  a 
thing  that  has  but  one  extreme ;  for  in- 
stance, a  line  drawn  from  any  point  and 
extended  infinitely. — Indefinite,  in  gram- 
mar, is  understood  of  nouns,  pronouns, 
verbs,  participles,  articles,  &c.  which  are 
left  in  an  uncertain  indeterminate  sense, 
and  not  fixed  to  any  particular  time, 
thing,  or  other  circumstiuice. 

INDEM  NITV,  in  law,  a  writing  to 
secure  one  from  all  damage  and  danger 
that  may  ensue  from  any  act — Act  of 
Indemnity,  an  act  passed  every  session 
of  parliament  for  the  relief  of  those  who 
have  neglected  to  take  the  necessary 
oaths,  Ac. 

INDENT'URE,  in  law,  a  writing  con- 
taining an  agreement  or  contract  made 
between  two  or  more  persons;  so  called 
because  it  was  indented  or  cut  scoUopwise, 
so  as  to  correspond  with  another  writing 
containing  the  fame  words.  But  indent- 
ing \i  often  neglected,  while  the  writings 
or  counterparts  retain  the  name  of  in- 
dent htcs. 

INDEPEX'DENTS,  a  sect  of  Protes- 
tants, distinguished,  not  by  doctrine,  but 
discipline.  They  regard  every  congrega- 
tion of  Christians,  meeting  in  one  build- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  public  worship,  as 
a  complete  church,  independent  of  any 
other  religious  government ;  and  they 
reject  the  use  of  all  creeds,  as  impious 
substitutes  for  the  letter  of  the  Scripture. 
The  direction  of  each  church  is  vested  in 
its  elders.  The  Independents  arose  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth;  and  <luring  the 
civil  wars  of  England,  in  the  17th  century, 
they  formed  a  powerful  partj'. 


IN'DEX,  in  arithmetic  and  algebra, 
the  number  that  shows  to  what  power  the 
quantitj'  is  to  be  raised  ;  the  exjionent. — 
Index,  in  literature,  an  alphabetical  table 
of  the  contents  of  a  book. — K.rpurgatonj 
index,  a  catalogue  of  prohibited  books  in 
the  church  of  Rome. 

IN'DIAN,  a  general  name  of  any  na- 
tive of  the  Indies  ;  as,  an  East  Indian, 
or  West  Indian.  It  is  particularly  ap- 
plied to  an  aboriginal  native  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent. 

IN'DIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  the  ar- 
chitecture of  India,  in  its  details,  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  that  of  Persia 
and   Egypt,   and  they  are  considered  to 


Indian  Capital  Elephantal. 
have  a  common  origin.  Its  monuments 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  ex- 
cavated, which  is  either  in  the  form  of  a 
cavern,  or  in  which  a  solid  rock  is  sculp- 
tured into  the  resemblance  of  a  building; 
and  the  constructed,  in  which  it  is  actu- 
ally a  building,  or  formed  by  the  aggre- 
gation of  different  materials.  The  first 
class  is  exemplified  in  the  caves  of  Ele- 
phanta  and  Ellora,  and  the  sculptured 
pagodas  of  Mavalipouram.  and  the  sec- 
ond class  in  the  pagodas  of  Chillimbaram, 
Tanjore,  and  others.  The  architecture 
of  India,  it  is  said,  resembles  in  its  details 
that  of  Egypt,  but  its  differences  are  also 
very  striking.  In  the  architecture  of 
Egypt,  raassiveness  and  solidity  are  car- 
ried to  the  extreme  ;  in  Indian  architec- 
ture these  have  no  place.  In  the  former, 
the  ornaments  are  subordinate  to  the 
leading  forms,  and  enrich  without  hiding 
them.  In  the  latter,  the  principal  forma 
are  overwhelmed  and  decomposed  by  the 
accessories.  In  the  one  grandeur  of  ef- 
fect is  the  result,  while  littleness  is  the 
characteristic  of  the  other. 

IN'DIAN    INK,  a  substance  brought 


316 


CYCI.OI'EDIA    OF    I.ITERATIRE 


[:n3 


i'rora  China,  used  for  water-colors.  It  is 
i:i  rolls  or  in  square  cakes,  and  is  said  to 
consist  i)(  lamp-black  and  animal  glue. 

INDIC'ATl  \'E,  in  grammar,  the  first 
mood,  or  manner,  of  conjugating  a  vei'b, 
by  which  we  simply  affirm,  deny,  or  indi- 
cate something;  as,  he  icr(7es;  they  run., 

IXDIC'TIOX,  Cycle  of,  in  chronol- 
ogy, a  mode  of  computing  time  by  the 
space  of  fifteen  j'ears,  instituted  by  Con- 
stantine  the  Great;  originally  the  period 
for  the  jjayment  of  certain  ta.xes.  The 
popes,  since  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
have  dated  their  acts  by  the  year  of  the 
indiction,  which  was  fi.ved  on  the  1st  of 
January.  At  the  time  of  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar,  the  year  15S2  was 
reckoned  the  tenth  year  of  indiction. 
Now  this  date,  when  divided  by  1.5,  leaves 
a  remainder,  7,  that  is,  three  less  than 
the  indiction,  and  the  same  must  neces- 
sarily be  the  case  in  all  subsequent  cases; 
so  that,  in  order  to  find  the  indiction  for 
any  year,  divide  the  date  by  15,  and  add 
3  to  the  remainder.  It  has  no  connection 
with  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bo'lies. 

INDICT'MEXT,  in  law,  a  written  ac- 
cusation of  one  or  more  persons  for  a 
crime  or  misdemeanor,  preferred  to,  and 
presented  on  oath  by  a  grand  jury.  In 
determining  whether  there  is  a  reason- 
able cause  to  put  the  accused  upon  his 
trial,  the  graml  jury  hear  evidence  only 
of  the  charge  ;  and  if  twelve  of  them  are 
satisfied  of  the  truth  of  the  charge,  the 
indictment  is  then  said  to  be  found,  and 
is  publicly  delivered  into  court.  If  the 
grand  jury  think  the  accusation  ground- 
less, the  accused  is  discharged ;  but  a 
new  bill  of  indictment  may  be  preferred 
to  a  subsequent  grand  jury.  By  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  no  i)erson 
is  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  other- 
wise infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  present- 
ment or  indictment  by  a  graml  jury,  ex- 
cejjt  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces;  and  the  same  principle  is  adoj)ted 
in  several  of  the  states. 

INDOR.S'ER,  ho  who  writes  his  name 
on  the  back  of  a  bill  of  e.tchange.  That 
which  is  written  on  the  back  is  called  the 
iv.ilorscmenl ;  and  the  person  to  whonj 
the  bfU  is  assigned  by  indorsement,  is  the 
indorsee. 

INDUCTION,  the  counter-process  in 
scientific  method  to  deduction,  implies 
the  raising  individuals  into  generals,  and 
those  into  still  higher  generalities;  de- 
duction being  the  briui^imr  down  of  uni- 
vorsals  to  lower  genera  or  to  individuals. 
Every  deduction,  therefore,  to  be  valid, 
must  rest  on  a  prior  induction,  which,  in 


order  that  we  may  obtain  logical  cer- 
tainty, must  be  a  complete  induction ; 
that  is  to  say,  must  include  all  the  indi- 
viduals which  constitute  the  genus.  This, 
it  is  evident,  is  impossible,  so  long  as  we 
assume  the  only  power  necessary  to  in- 
duction to  be  the  observation  of  particu- 
lars;  for  these  are  infinite  in  number: 
we  can  never  be  sure  that  we  have  ob- 
served them  all.  We  are  therefore  com- 
pelled, if  we  are  to  admit  the  possibility 
of  science  properly  so  called,  to  allow  the 
necessity  of  some  spontaneous  action  of 
the  understanding  in  every  inductive  pro- 
cess ;  of  a  faculty,  in  short,  which  takes 
occasion  from  experience  to  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  of  truths  not  contained  in  that 
experience. 

INDUL'(tEXCE,  a  power  claimed  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  of  granting 
to  its  contrite  members  remission  for  a 
certain  term,  either  on  earth  or  in  pur- 
gatory, of  the  penaltj'  incurred  by  their 
transgressions.  The  practice  was  first 
instituted  in  the  eleventh  century  by 
Popes  Gregory  VII.,  Victor,  and  Urban 
II.,  as  a  recompense  to  those  who  em- 
barked in  the  perilous  enterprise  of  the 
Crusades  ;  but  its  benefits  in  process  of 
time  extended  to  all  who,  either  by  dona- 
tions or  other  services,  contributed  to  the 
well-being  of  the  church.  It  was  the 
profligate  sale  of  indulgences  that  first 
excited  Luther  to  commence  his  warfare 
against  the  see  of  Rome  ;  and  although 
the  traffic  in  indulgences  has  been  repro- 
bated by  many  councils,  and  some  minor 
corruptions  have  been  partially  reformed, 
still  the  Council  of  Trent  decreed  the 
usefulness  and  validity  of  such  instru- 
ments, and  left  the  whole  control  of  their 
nature  and  manner  of  issuing  them  en- 
tirely in  the  discretion  of  the  pope  for 
the  time  being. 

INDUL'TO.  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  an 
Italian  term  for  a  dispcrisation  granted 
by  the  pope,  to  do  or  obtain  something 
Contrary  to  the  common  law. 

IX  E.S'SE,  {L.itin,)  actually  existing  ; 
distinguishe  1  from  in  pu>t.^e,  which  de- 
notes that  a  thing  is  not,  but  may  bo. 

IX'FAMV,  in   law.  that  total  lo.ss  of 
character  or  ])ubli(;  disgrace  which  a  con- 
vict incurs,  and  by  which  a  person  is  ron-< 
dered  incapable  of  being  a  witness  or  a 
juror. 

IN'FANCY,  the  period  physically  con- 
sidered, from  birth  to  seven  years,  and 
legally,  till  21,  previously  to  which  no 
one  can  inherit  or  execute  any  obligation, 
or  incur  any  responsibility  except  for 
necessaries. 


inf] 


AND    THE    FINE    AIU'S. 


317 


INFANT'E,  and  INFANT'A,  appul- 
lations  severally  given  to  all  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  the  kings  of  tSpain  and 
Portugal,  except  the  eldest.  The  dignity 
cf  the  title  consists  in  the  pro-eininenc«) 
implied  by  styling  the  children  of  the 
king,  the  children. 

IX'FAXTRY,  the  general  name  for 
soldiers  who  serve  on  foot.  The  term  is 
in  all  probability  derived  from  the  Italian 
•word  /ante,  signifying  a  child  or  young 
person ;  and  was  originally  conferred  on 
the  young  Italian  peasantry,  who  served 
ill  the  wars  on  foot,  the  nobles  being  usu- 
ally mounted.  There  are,  however,  va- 
rious other  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the 
term.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  infantry  constituted  the  chief 
strength  of  an  army;  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  that  period  in  European  his- 
tory during  which  the  institutions  of  chiv- 
alry prevailed,  when  the  tournament 
with  its  gay  appendages  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  all  the  powerful  nobles  and 
otherwise  distinguished  persons,  who  thus 
imparted  to  the  cavalry  a  factitious  im- 
portance, it  has  generally  been  regarded 
as  the  principal  military  arm.  Since  the 
institution  of  standing  armies  this  has 
been  peculiarly  the  case. 

INFECTION,  the  act  or  process  of 
infecting,  or  the  act  by  which  poisonous 
matter,  morbid  miasmata,  or  exhalations, 
produce  disease  in  a  healthy  body. — The 
thing  which  infects.  The  terms  infection 
and  contagion  are  used  as  synonymous 
in  a  great  majority  of  cases.  Different 
writers  proposed  and  attempted  to  make 
a  distinction  between  them,  but  there  has 
been  a  great  disagreement  as  to  what  the 
distinction  should  be;  and  in  general  no 
regard  is  paid  to  the  proposed  distinctions. 
Infection  is  used  in  two  acceptations ;  first, 
us  denoting  the  effluvium  or  infectious 
matter  exhaled  from  the  person  of  one 
diseased,  in  which  sense  it  is  sj'nonymous 
with  contagion  ;  and  secondly,  as  signi- 
fying the  iict  of  communication  of  such 
morbid  effluvium,  by  which  disease  is 
transferred.  The  atmosphere  and  other 
inert  substances  are  often  contaminated 
by  the  deleterious  or  offensive  qualities 
of  malaria,  the  matter  of  contagion,  efflu- 
via from  putrid  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 

INFEODA'TION  nf  tithes,  in  law,  the 
granting  of  tithes  to  mere  laymen. 

INFE'RI^'E,  in  Roman  nntiquity,  sac- 
rifices offered  to  the  infernal  deities  for 
the  souls  of  the  departed. 

IN'FINITK,  in  mathematiis,  infinite- 
quantities    arc    such    quantities    a.i    a  o 


either  greater  or  less  than  assignable 
ones.  And  infinite  series,  a  series  con- 
sidered as  infinitely  continued  as  to  the 
number  of  its  terms. 

INFINITE.S'IMAL,  a  term  denoting 
an  indefinitely  small  quantity. 

INFIN'ITIVE,  in  grammar,  a  mood 
expressing  the  action  of  the  verb,  without 
limitation  of  person  or  number,  as  to 
love. 

INFINITY,  a  term  applied  to  the 
vast  and  the  minute,  to  distances  and 
spaces  too  great  to  be  expressed  in  any 
numbers  of  measures,  or  too  small  to  be 
expressed  by  any  fraction  ;  and  one  of 
the  incomprehensible,  but  necessarily  ex- 
isting wonders  of  the  universe.  AV^e  ap- 
ply infinity  to  God  and  his  perfections. 
We  speak  of  the  infinity  of  his  existence, 
his  power,  and  his  goodness. 

INFIR'MARY,  a  charitable  establish- 
ment where  the  poor  may  receive  medi- 
cal advice  and  medicine  gratis. 

INFLECTION,  in  grammar,  in  strict- 
ness of  language  is  any  change  which 
take.s  place  in  a  word  from  a  modifica- 
tion of  its  sense  between  the  root  ami  the 
termination.  The  inflection  must,  there- 
fore, not  be  confouniled  with  the  termina- 
tion itself.  Thus,  the  syllable  am  is  the 
root  of  all  the  words  employed  in  the 
conjugation  of  the  Latin  verb  amo,  I  love  : 
in  the  imperfect  tense,  the  inflection  is 
the  syllable  ab.  The  termination  varies 
according  to  the  person ;  amabam,  ama- 
bas,  amabat. 

INFLUEX'ZA,  an  epidemic  catarrh 
which  has  in  various  times  spread  more 
rapidly  and  extensively  than  any  other 
disorder,  and  this  universality  of  its  at- 
tacks, together  with  the  greater  severity 
of  its  symptoms, principally  distinguishes 
it  from  common  catarrh.  It  attacks 
all  ages  and  conditions  of  life,  but  is 
seldom  fatal,  except  to  the  aged,  or  to 
those  previously  suffering,  or  having 
a  tendency  to  pulmonary  disease.  The 
epidemics  of  1831-2,  anil  of  1836-7,  were 
nearly  universal  throughout  the  civilized 
world. 

INFORMA'TION,  inlaw,  an  accusa- 
tion or  complaint  exhibited  against  a 
person  for  some  criminal  offence.  An  in- 
formation differs  from  an  imlictment, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  is  exhibited  on  the 
oath  of  twelve  men.  but  the  information 
is  only  the  allegation  of  the  individual 
who  exhibits  it. — lie  vyho  communicates 
to  a  masristrate  a  knowleilge  of  the  vio- 
lation? of  law,  is  an  informer  ;  but  he 
who  %  akes  a  trade  of  laying  informa- 
tion ',    is    termed   a   common    informer 


318 


CV'CLOPKUl.V    OK     i.im:i:.\tl'1!F. 


[iNl 


and  is  generally  held  in  disesteein  by  so- 
ciety- 

INFllALAPSA'RIANS,  in  church  his- 
tory, an  appellation  given  to  such  pre- 
destinarians  as  think  the  decrees  of  God, 
in  regard  to  the  salvation  and  damnation 
of  mankind,  were  formed  in  consequence 
of  Adam's  fall. 

IXFU'LA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  abroad 
kind  of  fillet,  made  of  white  wool,  which 
the  priests  used  to  wear  round  their  heads. 
At  later  periods,  the  imperial  governors 
wore  infula  as  a  sign  of  dignity,  and,  as 
such,  it  was  adopted,  in  the  7th  century, 
by  the  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  who  continue  to  wear  it  on  solemn 
occasions.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  mitre  ; 
which  the  bishops  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land have  in  their  coat  of  arms,  but 
never  wear  on  their  head. 

IN'GOT,  a  small  bar  of  metal  made  of 
a  certain  form  and  size,  by  casting  it  in 
moulds.  The  term  is  chiefly  applied  to 
the  small  bars  of  gold  and  silver,  intend- 
ed either  for  coining  or  for  exportation  to 
foreign  countries. 

IN'GRES.S,  EGRESS,  and  RE'GRESS, 
in  law,  words  frequently  used  in  leases  of 
lands,  which  signify  a  free  entry  into,  a 
going  out  of,  and  returning  from  some 
part  of  the  premises  leased  to  another. 

INGRES'SU,  in  law,  a  writ  of  entry, 
termed  also  a  praecipe  quod  reddat. 

INGRESS'US,  in  law,  a  duty  which  the 
heir  at  full  age  formerly  paid  to  the  chief 
lord  for  entering  upon  lands  which  had 
fallen  to  him. 

INIIAB'ITANT,  a  dweller  ;  one  who 
dwells  or  resides  permanently  in  a  place, 
or  who  has  a  fi.\od  residence,  as  distin- 
guished from  an  occasional  lodger  or  visi- 
tor ;  as  the  inhabitant  of  a  house  or 
cottage;  i\\Q  inhabitants  oi  s\,  town,  city, 
county,  or  state.  So  brute  animals  are 
inhabitants  u[  the  regions  to  whicdi  their 
natures  are  adapted  ;  and  wo  speak  of 
spiritual  beings,  as  iiiliabitantsot'  heaven. 
— In  F2nglisk  law,  the  term  inhabitant 
is  used  in  various  technical  senses.  Thus 
a  person  having  lands  or  tenements  in 
his  own  possession,  is  an  inhabitant  for 
the  purpose  of  repair  of  bridges,  wher- 
ever ho  may  reside  ;  but  for  purposes  of 
personal  services,  the  inhabitant  must 
necessarily  bo  a  resident.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  the  poor  rate,  the  word  means  a 
person  residing  permanently,  ami  sleep- 
ing in  the  parish.  AVhero  the  right  of 
voting  is  in  inhabitant  householders,  it  is 
generally  understood  that  an  inhabitant 
is  one  who  keeps  a  house  in  his  own  occu- 
pation, cither   personally  residing  in   it, 


or  having  it  occupied  by  servants  an(J 
rea  ly  for  his  residence,  he  having  wliat 
is  termed  the  animus  rerertendi,  or  in- 
tention to  return. 

.IXHE'RI'jXT,  that  which  is  insepara- 
ble, distinguished  from  the  accidental 
and  acquired  ;  as  the  inherent  qualities 
of  the  magnet.  Ac. 

INHERITANCE,  an  estate  derived 
from  an  ancestor  to  an  heir  by  succession 
or  in  course  of  law  ;  or  an  estate  which 
the  law  casts  on  a  child  or  other  person, 
as  the  representative  of  the  deceased  an- 
cestor. An  estate,  or  real  property  which 
a  man  has  to  himself  and  heirs,  or  the 
heirs  of  his  bodj',  &c.,  is  termed  afi-eehold 
of  inheritance. 

INHIBITION,  in  law,  a  writ  to  forbid 
a  judge's  proceeding  in  a  cause  that  lies 
before  him.  This  writ  generally  issues 
out  of  a  higher  court  to  an  inferior,  and 
is  of  much  the  same  nature  as  a  prohibi- 
tion. 

INITIATIVE,  in  politics.  In  legisla- 
tive assemblies  constituted  so  as  to  corL.- 
prise  more  than  one  chamber,  or  men 
than  one  distinct  and  co-ordinate  power, 
that  branch  of  the  legislature  to  which 
belongs  of  right  the  power  to  propose 
measures  of  a  particular  class  is  said  to 
have  the  initiative  with  respect  to  those 
measures.  Thus  in  England  all  proposi- 
tions for  taxing  the  subject,  whether  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  must  begin  in  the 
Commons ;  a  usage  which  has  been 
adopted  in  most  modern  constitutions. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  private 
bills  which  by  custom  originate  in  the 
Lords;  and  one  bill,  that,  namely,  for  a 
general  pardon,  is  proposed  in  the  first 
instance  by  the  crown. 

INJUNCTION,  in  law,  a  writ  or  pro- 
hibition granted  in  several  cases ;  and 
for  the  most  part  grounded  on  an  inter- 
locutory order  or  decree,  made  in  the 
court  of  chancery  or  exchequer,  for  stay- 
ing proceedings  either  in  courts  of  law, 
or  ecclesiastical  courts.  When  the  reason 
for  granting  an  injunction  ceases,  the  in- 
junction is  dissolved. 

INJURY,  in  a  legal  sense,  any  wrong 
or  damage  done  to  another,  either  in  hi? 
person,  rights,  reputation,  or  goods. 
Whatever  impairs  the  quality  or  dimin- 
ishes the  value  of  goods  or  property,  is  an 
irijurij;  so  also  whatever  imjiairs  the 
hoaltli,  weakens  the  mental  faculties,  or 
prejudices  the  character  of  a  person,  is  an 
iiijunj. 

INLAND,  in  law,  that  part  of  any 
land  or  mansion  which  lay  next  to  the 
mansion-house,  and  was  used  by  the  lord 


inq] 


AM>    THK    FINE     AIMS. 


yi9 


himself — In  gcogrnphy.  Ihrit  which  is  sit- 
unted  in  the  interioi-  of  a  country  reuinto 
from  the  ?ea-ci)ast — Inland  bills,  in  com- 
merce, bills  payable  in  the  country  whore 
they  iire  drawn 

1NLAY'IN(t,  the  art  of  diversifying 
cabinet-work,  or  working  in  wood  or  raetal 
with  several  pieces  of  different  colors,  cu- 
rionsly  put  together. 

IN  LIMINE,  {Latin,)  in  the  outset; 
before  anything  is  said  or  done. 

INN,  in  England,  a  college  of  muni- 
cipal or  common  law  professors  and  stu- 
dents ;  formerly,  the  town-house  of  a  no- 
bleman, bishop,  or  other  distinguished 
personage,  in  which  he  resided  when  he 
attended  the  court. — Inns  of  court,  col- 
leges or  corporate  societies  hi  which 'stu- 
dents of  law  reside  and  once  were  in- 
structed. The  princi{)al  are  the  Inner 
Temple,  the  Middle  Temple,  Lincoln's 
Inn,  and  Gray's  Inn.  Every  candidate 
for  the  rank  of  barrister-at-law  is  obliged 
to  be  admitted  a  member  of  one  of  these 
societies,  and  to  submit  to  its  regulations 
as  a  student.— /;!?(s  of  Chancery,  colleges 
in  which  young  stmlents  formerly  began 
their  law  studies.  These  are  now  occu- 
pied chiefly  by  attorneys,  solicitors,  &c. 

INNATE  IDE'AS,  principles  or  ideas 
supposed  to  be  stamped  on  the  mind  from 
the  first  moment  of  its  existence,  and 
which  it  constantly  brings  into  the  world 
with  it  :  a  doctrine  which  has  given  rise 
to  much  discussion,  and  which  the  cele- 
brated Locke  took  great  pains  to  refute. 

INNOCENTS'  DAY,  a  festival  ob- 
served in  the  church  on  the  28th  of  De- 
cember, in  memory  of  the  children  that 
were  slain  bv  command  of  Herod. 

INOCULA'TION,  the  insertion  of  poi- 
sonous or  infectious  matter  into  any  part 
of  the  body ;  but  in  this  country  the 
phrase  is  comm<nily  used  to  signify  the 
insertion  of  the  virus  of  the  common 
sraall-pox,  the  insertion  of  the  virus  of  the 
cow-pox  being  called  Vaccination.  In- 
oculation was  introduced  into  general  no- 
tice by  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague, 
whose  son  was  inoculated  at  C(mstanli- 
nople  about  the  year  1721,  and  whose 
daughter  was  the  tirst  who  underwent 
the  operation  in  England.  A  milder  dis- 
ease is  thus  propagated  than  when  it  is 
received  in  the  natural  way. 

IN  PRO'PRIA  PERSO'NA,  {Latin,) 
in  one's  own  person  or  character. 

IN  QL'E.ST,  judicial  inquiry.  It  may 
either  be  a  jury  to  decide  on  the  guilt  of 
an  accused  person,  according  to  fact  and 
law;  or  to  examine  the  weights  and 
measures   used  by  shopkeepers;    decide 


on  the  cause  of  any  violent  or  sudden 
deatli ;  or  to  examine  into  accusations 
before  trial. 

INQUI'IIY,  irrit  of,  in  law,  a  writ  that 
issues  out  to  tlic  sherilF  to  summon  a 
jury  to  inquire  what  damages  a  plaintiff 
has  sustained  in  an  action  upon  the  case 
where  judgment  goes  by  default. 

INQ'UISI'TION,  the  title  given  to  a 
court  armed  with  extensive  criminal  au- 
thority in  various  European  countries ; 
especially  instituted  to  inquire  into  of- 
fences against  the  established  religion. 
The  first  of  these  tribunals  of  faith  was 
that  established  in  the  south  of  France 
after  the  conquest  of  the  Albigenses  in 
the  13th  century.  They  were  established 
in  Spain  in  the  middle  of  the  same  cen- 
tury, not  without  much  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  bishops  and  secular  clergy, 
who,  in  Castile,  long  maintained  their 
exclusive  spiritual  jurisdiction.  In  1480, 
the  supremo  general  inquisition  was 
founded  at  Seville  by  Queen  Isabella, 
with  the  ai.l  of  the  Cardinal  Pedro  Gon- 
zalez de  Mendoza.  This  great  court, 
coramouly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Holy  ORico,  had  far  more  extensive  au- 
thority than  those  local  tribunals  of  the 
same  name  which  had  previously  been 
established.  Thomas  do  Torquemada, 
prior  of  a  Dominican  convent,  was  its 
first  president,  with  the  title  of  inquisitor- 
general.  The  process  of  the  inquisition 
was  widely  ditferent  from  that  of  all  other 
courts  of  justice.  The  kings  named  the 
grand  inquisitor,  who  appointed  his  as- 
sessors, some  of  whom  were  secular,  but 
the  greater  part  regular  ecclesiastics : 
the  counsellors  were  six  or  seven  in  num- 
ber, of  whom  one,  by  the  ordinance  of 
Philip  III.,  must  be  a  Dominican.  A 
party  who  was  brought  under  cognizance 
of  the  court  by  secret  accusation  was  im- 
mediately seized  by  its  officers,  (termed 
officials  or  familiars,)  and  his  property 
put  under  sequestration.  If  the  accused 
was  fortunate  enough  to  absent  himself, 
and  did  not  appear  at  the  third  summons, 
he  was  excommunicatcrl,  and  in  some 
cases  burnt  in  effigy.  The  subsequent 
process  of  the  court  by  imprisonment, 
secret  examination,  ami  torture,  is  well 
known.  Penitent  offenders  wore  sub- 
jected to  imprisonment,  scourging,  con- 
fiscation, and  legal  infamy.  Those  con- 
victed, who  were  sentenced  to  death,  were 
burnt  at  the  Autos  da  Fe,  which  usually 
take  place  on  some  Sunday  between 
Trinity  and  Ailvent.  During  the  16th 
century,  .the  chief  officers  of  the  inquisi- 
tion were  for  the  most  tiart  men  of  intol- 


320 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEUATURK 


[iNfJ 


ligence  and  moderation,  and  its  procee  1- 
ings  chiefly  directed  against  parties  guilty 
of  such  offences  against  decency  or  reli- 
gion as  would  have  been  punishable  in 
most  European  countries,  although  not 
by  an  equally  arbitrary  process.  But 
there  were  exceptions  to  this  general 
character ;  and  b^'  the  provincial  courts 
of  inquisition,  of  which  Spain  contained 
sixteen,  some  acts  of  barbarous  injustice 
were  coiuinitted.  According  to  a  common 
cilculatinn,  340,000  persons  had  been 
J  unished  by  the  inquisition  from  14S1  to 
1808,  of  wliDra  nearly  32,000  were  burnt. 
In  th;it  year  it  was  abolished  by  Napo- 
leon. It  was  afterwards  re-established 
by  Ferdinand  III.  in  1814;  but  having 
been  again  abrogated  by  the  Cortes  in 
1820,  it  has  not  been  since  reconstituted. 
In  Portugal,  the  supreme  court  of  in- 
quisition was  established  in  1557.  Its 
history  in  many  respects  resembles  that 
of  the  Spanish  court;  but  in  the  ISth 
century  its  power  was  greatly  curtailed 
by  ordinances  which  required  a  certain 
degree  of  publicity  in  its  procedure.  It 
was  abolished  by  the  Cortes  of  1821. 
There  were  courts  of  inquisition  in  vari- 
ous southern  provinces  of  Prance,  the 
principal  that  of  Languedoc,  established 
at  Tonlou.so,  which  was  first  founded  after 
the  war  against  the  Albigenses;  but  their 
power  was  limited  not  long  after  their 
creation,  and  fell  into  desuetude  long  be- 
fore their  final  abolition.  In  several 
Italiafl  states  courts  of  inquisition  have 
been  est;iblished  ;  but  the  institution  has 
never  taken  much  hoM  on  the  sentiments 
or  habits  of  the  people  of  that  countrj'. 
It  was  restored  at  Home  by  Pius  YII. 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  French,  but 
had  jurisdiction  only  over  the  faith  and 
conduct  of  the  clergy. 

IXQULS'ITOR,  in  law,  any  ofHcer,  as 
the  sheriff  and  the  coroner,  having  power 
to  inquire  into  certain  matters. — -Griind 
in^/uisitor  is  the  name  given  to  a  judge 
of  the  Inquisition. 

IXS.VN  ITY,  Toental  derangomiHit  of 
any  degree,  from  slight  delirium  to  raving 
madness.  It  is,  however,  rarely  used  to 
express  temporary  delirium  occasioned 
by  fever,  Ac. 

INSCIUHE',  to  engrave  on  a  monu- 
ment, pillar,  Ac.  ;  or  to  commend  by  a 
short  adilress,  less  formal  than  a  dedica- 
tion ;  as,  to  inscribe  an  ode  or  book  to  a 
prince. 

INSCRIP'TI,  in  Koman  antiquity,  a 
name  given  to  those  who  wore  branded 
with  any  ignominious  mark  after  the 
manuor  in  which  slaves  were  treated. 


INSCRIPTION,  any  monumoatal 
writing,  engraved  or  afDxed  to  a  thing, 
to  give  a  more  distinct  knowledge  of  it, 
or  to  transmit  some  important  fact  to 
posterity.  The  inscripti.ins  mentioned 
by  Herodotus  and  DioJorus  Siculus,  suf- 
ficiently show  that  this  was  the  first 
method  of  conveying  instruction  to  man- 
kind, and  transmitting  the  knowledge  of 
history  and  sciences  to  posterity  :  thu3 
the  ancients  engraved  upon  pillars  both 
the  principles  of  sciences,  and  the  history 
of  the  world.  Pisistratus  carved  precepts 
of  husbandry  on  pillars  of  stone  ;  and  tho 
treaties  of  confederacy  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  Jews  were  engraved  on  plates 
of  brass.  Antiquarians  have  accordingly 
been  very  curious  in  examining  the  in- 
scriptions on  ancient  ruins,  coins,  medals, 
Ac. 

INSOLVENCY,  inability  of  a  person 
to  pay  all  his  debts  ;  or  the  state  of  want- 
ing property  sufficient  for  such  payment. 
Insolvency  is  a  terra  in  mercantile  law, 
applied  to  designate  the  condition  of  all 
persons  unable  to  pay  their  debts  accord- 
ing to  the  ordinary  usage  of  trade.  A 
bankrupt  is  an  insolvent,  but  persons 
may  be  in  a  state  of  insolvency,  without 
having  committed  any  of  the  specific  acts 
which  render  them  liable  to  a  commission 
of  bankruptcy. 

INSPIRA'TION,  the  infusion  of  ideas 
into  the  mind  by  the  Holy  Spirit ;  the 
conveying  into  the  minds  of  men,  ideas, 
notices,  or  monitions  b}'  extraordinarj'  or 
supernatural  influence. — Inspiration  of 
tlic  sacred  writers,  is  defined  an  influenco 
of  tho  Holy  Spirit  exercised  on  tho  under- 
standings, imaginations,  memories,  and 
other  mental  powers  of  the  writers,  by 
means  of  which  they  were  qualified  for 
communicating  to  the  world  divine  reve- 
lation, or  the  knowledge  of  the  will  of 
Ciod,  without  error  or  mistake.  Writers 
on  theology  have  enumerated  several 
kinds  or  degrees  of  inspiration,  which 
are  founded  upon  the  supposition  that 
(lod  im])arte'i  to  the  sacred  writers  that 
measure  and  degree  of  assistance  which 
was  just  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
jects which  they  committed  to  writing, 
and  did  not  supersede  t!io  use  of  their 
natural  powers  and  faculties,  and  of  their 
acquired  knowledge  where  these  were  suf- 
ficient. The  measure  of  divine  assistance 
which  enabled  Moses  to  give  an  account 
of  tho  creation  ;  Joshua  to  record  with 
exactness  the  settlement  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  Canaan  ;  David  to  mingle  pro- 
jthetic  infor.'nation  with  the  varied  ef- 
fusions    of    gratitude,    contrition,    and 


ins] 


ANU    THr,    yiXE    AKTS. 


321 


piety  ;  Isaiiili  to  deliver  preJictions  re- 
gpecting  the  Mes.si.ih  ;  ami  the  Evangu- 
lists  to  reeoril,  in  their  own  several  styles 
and  ways,  the  life  and  transactions  of 
Jesus  Christ,  has  been  termed  inspira- 
tion cf  direction.  In  some  cases  inspira- 
tion only  produced  correctness  and  accu- 
racy in  relatintj  past  occurrences,  and 
preserved  the  writers  generally  from  rela- 
ting anything  derogatory  to  the  revelation 
with  which  it  was  connected.  This  has 
been  termed  inspiration  of  superintend- 
e\icy.  Where  indeed  it  not  only  commu- 
nicates ideas,  new  and  unknown  before, 
but  has  also  imparted  greater  strength 
and  vigor  to  the  efforts  of  the  mind  than 
the  writers  could  otherwise  have  attain- 
ed, this  divine  assistance  has  been  called 
inspiration  of  deration.  Further,  when 
the  prophets  and  apostles  received  such 
communications  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as 
suggested  and  dictated  minutely  every 
part  of  the  truths  delivered  ;  this,  which 
is  the  highest  degree  of  divine  assistance, 
has  been  termed  inspiration  of  sugges- 
tion. The  infusion  or  communication  of 
ideas  or  poetic  spirit,  by  a  superior  being 
or  supposed  presiding  power ;  as,  the  in- 
spiration of  llonier  or  other  poet. 

IXSTALLA'TIOX,  the  ceremony  of 
inducting,  or  investing  with  any  charge, 
office,  or  rank  ;  as,  the  placing  a  dean  or 
prebendary  in  his  stall  or  seat,  or  a  knight 
into  his  order. 

IXSTAL'MEXT,  in  commercial  tran- 
sactions, the  payment  of  a  certain  por- 
tion of  a  gross  sum,  which  is  to  be  paid 
at  different  times,  or,  as  the  phrase  is,  by 
instalments.  In  constituting  a  capilial- 
stock  by  subscriptions  of  individuals,  it 
is  customary  to  afford  facilities  to  sub- 
scribers by  dividing  the  sum  subscribed 
into  instalments,  or  portions  payable  at 
distinct  periods.  In  large  contriujts  also, 
it  is  not  unusual  to  agree  that  the  money 
shall  be  paid  by  instalments. 

IN'STANT,  a  part  of  time  or  duration 
in  which  no  succession  is  perceived.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  instants  distinguished 
by  the  schoolmen ;  a  temporary,  a  natu- 
ral, and  a  rational  instant.  The  first  is 
a  part  of  time  immediately  preceding 
another ;  the  second  is  what  is  otherwise 
termed  a  priority  of  nature,  which  ob- 
tains in  things  subordinated  in  acting,  as 
first  and  second  causes,  or  causes  and 
their  effects ;  and  the  third  is  not  any 
real  instant,  but  a  point  which  the  un- 
derstanding conceives  to  have  existed 
before  some  other  instant,  founded  on  the 
nature  of  the  things  which  cause  it  to  be 
conceived 

21 


INSTAN'TER.  in  law,  instantly  ;  with- 
out the  least  delay ;  as,  the  party  waa 
compelled  to  plead  instanter. 

INSTANTI/E  CRUCIS,  in  philoso- 
phy, crucial  instances  or  examples;  a 
phrase  invented  by  the  faney  of  Bacon. 
The  use  of  crucial  examples  or  experi- 
ments is  to  facilitate  the  process  of  induc- 
tion. For  example,  A  and  B,  two  differ- 
ent causes,  may  proiluce  a  certain  number 
of  similar  effects  ;  find  some  effect  which 
the  one  produces  and  the  other  does  not, 
and  this  will  point  out,  as  the  direction- 
post  at  a  point  where  two  highways  meet, 
(crux,)  which  of  these  causes  may  have 
been  in  operation  in  any  particular  in- 
stance. Thus,  for  example,  many  of  the 
symptoms  of  the  Oriental  plague  are 
common  to  other  diseases;  but  when  the 
observer  discovers  the  peculiar  bubo  or 
boil  of  the  complaint,  he  has  an  instantia 
crucis,  which  directs  him  immediately  to 
its  discovery. 

IN  STATU  QUO,  {Latin,)  a  term  sig- 
nifying that  condition  in  which  things 
were  left  at  a  certain  period ;  as  when 
belligerent  parties  agree  that  their  mu- 
tual relations  should  be  in  statu  quo,  or 
as  they  were  before  the  commencement" 
of  a  war ;  and  the  like. 

IXSTAURA'TA  TER'RA,  in  arche- 
ology, land  ready  stocked  or  furnished 
with  all  things  necessary  to  carry  on  the 
employment  of  a  farmer. 

INSTAU'RUM  ECCLE'SI^E,  the  vest- 
ments, plate,  and  all  utensils  belonging 
to  a  church. 

IN  STINCT,  that  power  of  volition  or 
impulse  produced  by  the  pp-iuliar  nature 
of  an  animal,  which  prompts  it  to  do  cer- 
tain things,  independent  of  all  instruction 
or  experience,  and  without  deliberation, 
whore  such  act  is  immediately  connected 
with  its  own  individual  preservation,  or 
with  that  of  its  kind  Indeed,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  instinct  not  only  makes  animals 
perform  certain  actions  necessary  to  the 
preservation  of  the  species,  but  often  alto- 
gether foreign  to  the  apparent  wants  of 
the  individual ;  and  often,  also,  extremelj 
complicated.  AVe  cannot  attribute  thcst 
actions  to  intelligence,  without  supposing 
a  degree  of  foresight  and  understanding 
infinitely  superior  to  what  we  can  admit 
in  the  species  that  perform  them.  The 
actions  performed  by  instinct  are  not  the 
effects  of  imitation,  for  the  individuals 
that  execute  them  have  often  never  seen 
them  done  by  others;  they  bear  no  pro- 
portion to  the  common  intelligence  of  tho 
species,  but  become  more  singular,  more 
skilful,  more  disinterested,  in  proportion 


322 


CVCLOI'KIJIA     OF     LITEItATLKK 


[INI 


as  the  animals  belong  to  the  less  elevated 
classes.  They  are  so  much  the  property 
of  the  species,  that  all  the  individuals 
perform  theui  in  the  sumo  manner,  with- 
out any  im|)rovement.  The  duckling 
hastens  to  the  water,  the  hen  remains  the 
proper  time  on  her  eggs  during  incuba- 
tion, the  beaver  builds  his  curious  habita- 
tion with  a  skill  peculiar  to  the  species, 
and  the  bees  construct,  with  architectural 
accuracy,  their  waxen  cells.  Instinct, 
then,  is  the  general  property  of  the  living 
principle,  or  the  law  of  organized  life  in 
a  ?'jate  of  action. 

IN'STITLfTE,  orlNSTITU'TION,  any 
society  instituted  or  established  according 
to  certain  laws,  or  regulations,  for  the 
furtherance  of  some  particular  object, 
such  as  colleges  or  seminaries  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  sciences.  Literary  In- 
stitutes, Mechanics'  Institutes,  and  others. 
We  apply  the  word  institution  to  laws, 
rites,  and  ceremonies,  which  are  enjoined 
by  authority  as  permanent  rules  of  eon- 
duct  or  of  government;  as,  the  institu- 
tions of  Moses  or  Lyciirgus.  Also,  a  so- 
ciety of  individuals  for  promoting  any 
public  object,  as  a  charitable  or  benevo- 
lent institution. 

IX'STIIUMEXT,  Musical,  a  machine 
or  sonorous  body,  artificially  constructed 
for  the  production  of  musical  sounds. 
They  are  divided  into  three  kinds,  wind 
instruments,  stringel  instruments,  and 
instruments  of  percussion. — JMatkemati- 
cal  instruments,  a  common  case  of,  con- 
tains,— a  pair  of  plain  compasses  ;  a  pair 
of  drawing  compasses  ;  a  drawing  pen  ;  a 
protractor;  a  parallel  ruler;  a  plain 
scale  ;  and  a  sector ;  besides  black  lead 
pencils. — Instrument,  in  law,  a  deed  or 
writing  drawn  up  between  two  parties, 
and  containing  several  covenants  agreed 
between  them. 

INSTRUMEX'T.-VL  MU'SIC,  music 
produced  by  instruments,  as  distinguished 
from  vocal,  music;  particularly  applied 
to  the  greater  compositions,  in- which  the 
human  voice  has  no  part.  Until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century,  the  Italian  com- 
posers used  no  otbsr  in-it  ruinents  in  thi'ir 
great  pieces  than  violins  and  bas;-viols; 
at  that  time,  however,  they  began  to  use 
the  haut-boy  and  the  horn  ;  ami  even  to 
this  day,  the  Italians  use  wind  instru- 
ments much  loss  than  the  French  and 
Germans.  In  general,  symphonies  ami 
overtures,  solos,  duets,  terzettos,  quar- 
tottos,  Ac  ,  sonatas,  fantasias,  concerts  for 
single  instruments,  dances,  inarches,  Ac, 
belong  to  instrumental  music. 

INSUL.VTED.  in  architecture,  an  ap- 


pellation given  to  such  columns  as  stanc 
alone,  or  free  from  any  contiguous  wall, 
<fcc.,  like  an  island  in  the  sea;  whence 
the  name. 

INSURANCE,  in  law  and  comjierce, 
the  act  of  providing  against  a  possible 
loss,  by  entering  into  contract  with  one 
who  is  willing  to  give  assurance  ;  that  is, 
to  bind  himself  to  make  goorl  such  possi- 
ble loss,  upon  the  contingency  of  its  oc- 
currence. In  this  contract,  the  chances  of 
the  benefit  are  equal  to  the  insurer  and 
the  assurer.  The  first  actually  pays  a  cer- 
tain sum,  and  the  latter  undertakes  to 
pay  a  larger,  if  an  accident  should  hap- 
pen. The  one,  therefore,  renders  his 
property  secure  ;  the  other  receives  mo- 
ney, with  the  probability  that  it  is  clear 
gain.  The  instrument  by  which  the  con- 
tract is  made,  is  denominated  a  policy, 
and  the  stipulated  consideration  is  called 
the  premium.  These  are  generally  for 
protection  against  losses  by  fire,  or  risks 
at  sea.  Policies  on  lives  are  another  de- 
scription of  this  contract,  whereby  a 
party,  for  a  certain  premium,  agrees  to 
pay  a  certain  sum,  if  a  person,  to  whose 
life  it  relates,  shall  die  within  a  time 
specified,  or  to  pay  the  executors  of  the 
insured  a  certain  sum  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  These  policies,  however,  usually 
make  an  exce|)tion  of  death  by  suicide. 
Accoriling  to  general  practice,  a  life  in- 
surance is  seldom  made  by  the  payment 
of  a  single  sum  when  it  is  eftected,  but 
almost  always  by  the  payment  of  an  an- 
nunl  premium  during  its  continuance, 
the  first  being  paid  down  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  insurance.  An  indi- 
viilual,  therefore,  who  has  insured  a  sum 
on  his  life,  would  forfeit  all  the  advanta- 
ges of  the  insurance,  were  he  not  to  con- 
tinue regularly  to  make  his  annual  pay- 
ments. 

INT.V'GLTO.^,  precious  stones  on  which 
are  engraved  the  hearls  of  eminent  men, 
inscriptions,  Ac,  such  as  are  set  in 
riniis,  Ac. 

INTELLECT,  that  faculty  of  the  hu- 
man soul  or  mind,  which  receives  or 
coi'iiprehends  the  i^lens  communicated  to 
it  by  the  senses,  or  by  perception,  or  by 
other  means  ;  the  faculty  of  thinking  ; 
otherwise  called  the  undcrst(tndins(.  It 
is  applied  to  the  mind  when  only  its  ra- 
tional ]>owers  are  consiilercd,  apart  from 
the  animating  principle,  or  the  ifi7/,  and 
from  the  source  of  the  passions.  A  clear 
intellect  receives  and  entertains  the  same 
ideas  which  another  communicates  with 
perspicuity.  In  the  philosophy  of  Kant, 
the  intellect  is  distinguished  into  two  fao 


int] 


A>D    Till-.    FINK    A  UTS. 


320 


ultie5,  understanding  and  reason.  The 
understanding,  acting  on  experience, 
merely  compares,  judges,  and  measures 
its  representations,  and  is  conversant 
solely  with  their  mutual  limits  and  rela- 
tions, classifying  them  according  to  cer- 
tain schemes  of  its  own  which  are  called 
categories.  While,  however,  the  under- 
standing is  thus  limited,  the  activity  of 
the  reason  is  unbounded,  and  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  principles,  it  is  the  base  and  the 
verification  of  every  special  principle  and 
reasoning. — 

I}\TEXD'ANT.  a  word  much  u.sed  in 
France,  denoting  a  person  who  has  the 
charge,  direction,  or  management  of  some 
otSce  or  department ;  as  an  intendant 
of  marine,  an  intendant  of  finance,  &g. 

INTER'CALARY  DAY,  in  the  calen- 
dar, a  day  inserted  out  of  the  usual 
order  to  preserve  the  account  of  time. 
Thus  every  fourth  year  containing  360 
days,  while  the  other  years  contain  only 
365,  one  of  the  months  in  that  year  must 
have  an  additional  day,  which  is  called 
the  intercalary  day.  The  additional  day 
was  given  to  February,  as  being  the 
shortest  month,  and  in  the  ancient  Roman 
calendar  was  inserted  between  the  ■24th 
and  25th  days.  In  the  ecclesiastical  cal- 
endar it  still  retains  that  jilace  ;  but  in 
the  civil  calendar  it  is  the  29th. 

INTERCES'SION,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
the  act  of  a  tribune  of  the  people,  where- 
by he  inhibited  the  act  of  another  magis- 
trate, or  prevented  the  passing  of  a  law 
in  the  senate,  which  was  usually  done  by 
the  single  word  veto. 

IXTERCOLUMNIA'TIOX,  in  archi- 
tecture, the  space  between  two  columns, 
which  is  always  to  be  proportioned  to  the 
height  and  bulk  of  the  columns.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  important  elements  in 
architecture,  and  on  it  depend  the  effect 
of  the  columns  themselves,  their  propor- 
tion, and  the  harmony  of  an  edifice. 

IN'TERDICT,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
a  spiritual  weapon,  by  which  the  popes 
used  in  fv)rmer  times  to  reduce  individuals 
or  whole  states  to  the  most  abject  submis- 
sion to  their  power.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  was  the  most  terrible  blow  which  could 
be  inflicted  on  the  people  or  the  prince. 
AVhen  an  interdict  was  laid  on  a  kingdom 
all  spiritual  services  ceased  ;  the  church- 
es were  shut  up  ;  the  sacraments  were 
no  longer  administered  ;  no  corpses  were 
buried  with  funeral  rites ;  and  all  the 
ministry  of  the  church  which  was  then 
believed  to  be  the  only  channel  of  salva- 
tion was  forbidden  to  be  exercised.  The 
first  memorable   occasion   on   v?hich  this 


j  method  of  warfare  was  adopted  was  the 
marriage  of  King  Robert  of  France  with 
j  Bertha  his  cousin,  when  Gregory  V. 
!  in  998  issued  interdicts  against  the  whole 
I  country,  and  compelled  the  sovereign  to 
{  dissolve  his  union.  It  had,  however, 
j  been  often  used  before  by  bishops  ;  an 
instance  is  quoted  by  Moreri  as  early  as 
A.D.  870.  The  ban  under  which  England 
was  laid  in  the  reign  of  John  by  inno- 
[  cent  III.  is  well  known  in  the  history 
of  that  country  The  latest  pretensions 
to  the  exercise  of  this  power  were  as- 
sumed by  Pius  VII.,  when  he  issued  an  in- 
etiieient  decree  against  Napoleon  in  1809. 
INTERIM,  in  modern  European  his- 
tory, the  name  given  to  a  decree  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  after  the  overthrow 
of  the  Protestant  League  of  Smalcalde, 
in  which  he  attempted  to  reduce  to  har- 
mony the  conflicting  opinions  of  the  Prot- 
estants and  Romanists.  The  use  of  the 
cap,  however,  and  the  marriage  of  the 
clergy,  were  the  only  points  which  he 
conceded  to  the  Reformers  ;  and  it  be- 
came a  question  among  them,  and  gave 
rise  to  many  serious  disputes,  whether 
they  could  conscientiously  submit  even  to 
a  temporary  decree  of  such  a  nature.  The 
enactments  of  the  interim  were  intended 
only  to  remain  in  full  force  till  some  defin- 
itive settlement  could  be  made  ;  whence 
it  derives  the  name  by  which  it  is  gene- 
rally known.  It  received  the  force  of 
law  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  1548. 
Its  provisions  against  the  Protestants 
were  however,  in  most  respects,  set  agide 
by  the  treaty  of  Passau,  1552.        * 

"  INTERJECTION,  in  grammar,  an  in- 
declinable part  of  speech,  serving  to  ex- 
press some  passion  or  emotion  of  the 
mind  ;  as,  "  Alas  !  my  fondest  hopes  are 
now  forever  fled  !" 

INTERLACING  ARCHE.S,  in  archi- 
tecture, circular  arches  which  intersect 
each  other,  as  in  the  figure.    They  are  fre- 


Interlacing  Arcade,  Norwich  Cathedral 

quent  in  arcades  in  the  Norman  style  of 
the  twelfth  century,  and  from  them  Dr. 
Milner  supposed  the  pointed  arch  to 
have  hid  its  origin. 


324 


CVCLOl'KL'lA     OK     LI  1  KK  ATL^  i;  K 


[iNT 


INTERLOCUTOR,  in  literary  piira- 
seology,  a  person  who  is  introduced  as 
taking  part  in  a  dialogue ;  in  dramatic 
literature,  termed  dramatis  persona  : 
the  latter  name,  liowevor,  comprehends 
such  as  appear  on  the  stage  but  take  no 
part  in  speaking,  termed  by  the  Greeks 
mute  personages. 

INTERLOCUTORY  Order  or  Decree, 
in  law,  an  order  that  does  not  decide  the 
cause,  but  only  some  matter  incident 
thereto,  which  may  h;ippen  in  the  inter- 
mediate stage  of  a  cause  ;  as  when,  in 
chancer}',  the  plaintiff  obtains  an  order 
for  an  injunction  until  the  hearing  of  the 
cause  ;  which  order,  not  being  final,  is 
called  interlocutory. 

INTERLUDE,  "in  the  drama,  alight 
entertainment  exhibited  on  the  stage  be- 
tween the  principal  performance  and  the 
afterpiece.  At  pret^ent,  the  term  inter- 
lude is  applied  principally  to  small  comic 
operas,  written  for  two  or  three  persons. 
In  ancient  trageily,  the  chorus  sung  the 
interludes  between  the  acts. 

IN'TERMEDE,  or  INTERMEZZO, 
in  dramatic  literature,  nearly  the  same 
with  interlude.  A  short  musical  piece, 
generally  of  a  burlesque  character  ;  but 
man}',  not  intended  merely  for  introduc- 
tion between  the  acts  of  a  more  serious 
performance,  are  comprised  under  these 
names  bv  the  French  and  Italians. 

INTERN  UN  CIO,  an  envoy  of  the 
jope,  sent  to  small  states  and  republics, 
distinguished  from  the  nuncio  who  repre- 
sents the  pope  at  the  courts  of  emperors 
and  kings.  Also  a  species  of  diplomatic 
otlicers,  who  ranked,  according  to  the  olil 
jjractice,  between  ambassadors  and  pleni- 
potentiaries. 

INTERPOLA'TION,  in  philological 
criticism,  the  insertion  of  spurious  pas- 
sages in  the  writings  of  some  ancient 
author. 

INTERREG'NUM,  the  time  during 
which  a  throne  is  vacant  in  elective  king- 
doms; for  in  such  as  are  hereditary,  like 
that  of  England,  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  an  interregnum . 

INTEKROGA'TION,  in  grammar,  a 
character  or  ]ioint  (?)  denoting  a  ques- 
tii  n,  as.  Do  you  love  me  7 — Interroga- 
tion, in  rhetoric,  a  figure  containing  a 
proposition  in  the  form  of  a  question. 

INTEUROG'ATORY,  in  law.  a  ques- 
tion in  writing  demanded  of  a  witness  in 
a  cau.-e  who  is  to  answer  it  under  tlic 
solemnity  of  an  oath. 

IN'TERVAL,  in  music,  the  difference 
between  the  number  of  vibrations,  pro- 
duced by  one  tonorous  body  of  a  certain 


magnitude  and  texture,  and  of  those  pro- 
duced by  another  of  a  different  magni- 
tude and  te.xture.  in  the  same  ti:ue.  The 
ancients  divided  the  intervals  into  simple 
or  uncomposite,  which  they  call  diastems, 
and  composite  intervals,  which  they  call 
systems.  Modern  musicians  consider  the 
semitone  as  a  simple  interval,  and  onlv 
call  those  composite  which  consist  of  twa 
or  more  semitones. 

INTONA  TION,  in  music,  the  act  of 
sounding  the  notes  in  the  scale  with  the 
voice,  or  any  other  given  order  of  musi- 
cal tones.  It  consists,  in  fact,  in  giving 
to  the  tones  of  the  voice  or  instrument 
that  occasional  impulse,  swell,  and  de- 
crease, on  which,  in  a  great  meiisure,  all 
expression  depends. 

INTOXICATION,  the  state  produced 
by  the  e.xcessive  use  of  alcoholic  liquids. 
It  may  be  called  progressive  madness. 
Its  first  stage  is  marked  by  an  increased 
circulation  of  the  blood  ;  the  conscious- 
ness is  not  yet  attacked,  the  fancy  i.s 
more  lively,  and  the  feeling  of  strength 
and  courage  is  increased.  In  the  sectmd 
stage,  the  effect  on  the  brain  is  more  de- 
cided :  the  peculiarities  of  character,  and 
the  faults  of  temperament,  which  in  his 
sober  moments  the  individual  could  con- 
trol and  conceal,  manifest  themselves 
without  reserve.  Consciousness,  in  the 
next  stage,  becomes  more  weakened  :  the 
balance  of  the  body  cannot  be  kept,  and 
dizziness  attacks  the  brain.  In  the  ne.xt 
degree,  the  soul  is  overwhelmed  in  the 
tumult  of  animal  excitement ;  conscious- 
ness is  extinguished  ;  the  organs  of  speech 
refuse  to  i)erforni  their  otfiee,  or  the 
tongue  pours  forth  an  incoherent  jargon  ; 
the  face  is  red  and  swollen  ;  the  eyes  are 
protruded  and  meaningless ;  and  the 
drunkard  falls  into  a  state  of  stupor  and 
insensibility. 

INTRANSITIVE,  in  grammar,  an 
epithet  for  a  verb  that  expresses  actions 
that  do  not  pass  over  to  an  object,  as  I 
go,  I  come,  I  sleep,  Ac. 

IN  TR AN  SITU,  a  Latin  expression, 
signifying,  during  the  passage  from  one 
place  to  another. 

INTREXCH'MENT,  in  fortification, 
any  work  that  shelters  a  post  against  the 
attacks  of  an  enemy. 

IN'TROIT,  in  ecclesiastical  antiqui- 
ties, the  verses  chanted  or  repeated  at 
the  first  entering  of  the  congregation  into 
the  church  ;  a  custom  as  (dil  as  the  fourth 
century:  called  "  ingrcssa"  in  the  Am 
brosian  ritual. 

INTRUSION,  in  law,  a  violent  or  nn 
lawful  seizing  upon  lands  or  tenements. 


ixvj 


AND     lilK     FINK     AIMS. 


32; 


INTUI'TION,  the  act  by  which  tho 
mind  perceives  the  agreeniciit  or  tlis- 
agreemeiit  of  two  ideas,  or  the  truth  ot" 
things,  immediately,  or  the  moment  they 
are  presented,  without  the  intervention 
of  other  ideas,  or  without  reasoning  and 
deduction.  Intuition  is  the  most  simple 
act  of  the  reason  or  intellect,  on  which, 
according  to  Locke,  depends  the  certainty 
and  evidence  of  all  our  knowledge  ;  which 
certainly  every  one  finds  to  be  so  great, 
tliat  he  cannot  imagine,  and  therefore 
cannot  renuire,  greater.  In  the  philoso- 
phy of  Kant,  the  term  intuition  is  used 
to  denote  the  single  act  of  the  sense  upon 
outward  objects  according  to  its  own  laws. 

INTUITIVE,  perceived  by  the  mind 
immediately,  without  the  intervention  of 
argument  or  testimony;  e.\hibit,ing  truth 
to  the  mind  on  bare  inspection  ;  as,  in- 
tuitive evidence.  The  different  species 
of  intuitive  evidence,  according  to  Dugald 
Stewart,  are,  1.  The  evidence  of  axioms  ; 
2.  The  evidence  of  consciousness  ;  of  per- 
ception and  of  memory  ;  3.  The  evidence 
of  tho.?e  fundamental  laws  of  human  be- 
lief which  form  an  essential  part  of  our 
constitution,  and  of  which  our  entire  con- 
viction is  implied,  not  only  in  all  specu- 
lative reasonings,  but  in  all  our  conduct 
as  active  beings.  Of  this  class  is  the  evi- 
dence for  our  own  personal  identity;  for 
the  existence  of  the  material  world ;  for 
the  continuance  of  those  laws  which  have 
been  found,  in  the  course  of  our  past  ex- 
perience, to  regulate  the  succession  of 
phenomena.  Such  truths  no  man  ever 
thinks  of  stating  to  himself  in  the  form 
of  propositions;  but  all  our  conduct  and 
all  our  reasonings  proceed  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  they  are  admitted.  Every 
step  which  the  reason  makes  in  demon- 
strative knowledge  has  intuitive  certain- 
ty; and,  consequently,  the  power  of  rea- 
son presupposes  that  of  intuition. 

IN' VALID.?,  those  soldiers  or  sailors 
who,  either  on  account  of  wounds  or  length 
jf  service,  are  admitted  into  hospitals, 
and  there  maintained  at  the  jinblic  ex- 
pense. The  practice  of  m.aking  provision 
for  soldiers  worn  out  or  disabled  in  the 
public  service  dates  from  high  antiquity. 
The  liberality  of  Pisistratus  to  the  Athe- 
nian soldiers  is  known  to  every  scholar  ; 
and  the  history  of  ancient  Rome  is  re- 
plete witli  instances  of  the  veterans  of  the 
legions  being  rewarded  with  grants  of 
land.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  thit 
in  ancient  times  such  recompenses  h:id 
not  their  origin  in  that  high  philanthropic 
feeling  by  which  the  moderns  are  actu- 
ated in  making  provision  for  military  and 


naval  invalids;  for  they  were  granted 
only  after  victory,  and  eman.ited  moro 
from  individual  power  or  favor  tiian  from 
any  general  or  established  principles  of 
benevolence.  In  modern  times  there  is 
no  civilized  country  without  institutions 
for  the  maintenance  of  invalids  ;  but  the 
most  magnificent  are,  without  question, 
the  Greenwich  and  Chelsea  hosiiitals  in 
England,  and  iii  France  the  Hotel  des  In- 
validcs. 

INVENTION,  the  action  or  operation 
of  finding  out  something  new;  the  con- 
trivance of  that  which  did  not  before  ex- 
ist ;  as,  the  invention  of  logarithms  ;  the  in- 
vention of  the  art  of  printing  ;  the  inven- 
tion of  the  orrery.  Invention  differs  from 
discovery.  Invention  is  applied  to  the 
contrivance  and  production  of  something 
that  did  not  before  exist.  Discovery 
brings  to  light  that  which  e.xisted  before, 
but  which  was  not  known.  We  are  in- 
debted to  invention  for  the  thermometer 
and  barometer.  We  are  indebted  to  dis- 
covery for  the  knowledge  of  the  islands 
in  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  for  the  knowl- 
edge of  galvanism,  and  many  species  of 
earth  not  formerly  known.  This  distinc- 
tion is  important,  though  not  always  ob- 
served.— That  which  is  invented.  The 
cotton  gin  is  the  invention  of  Whitney  ; 
the  steamboat  is  the  invention  of  Fulton. 
The  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders 
are  said  to  be  inventions  of  the  Greeks; 
the  Tuscan  and  Composite  are  inventions 
of  the  Latins. — In  painting,  the  finding 
or  choice  of  the  objects  which  are  to  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  piece. — In 
poetry,  it  is  applied  to  whatever  the  poet 
adds  to  the  history  of  the  subject. — In 
rhetoric,  the  finding  and  selecting  of  ar- 
guments to  prove  and  illustrate  the  point 
in  view. 

INVER'SION,  in  rhetoric  and  philolo- 
gy, the  transposition  of  words  out  of  their 
natural  order.  Every  language  has  a 
customary  arrangement  of  its  own  to  reg- 
ulate the  order  of  succession  in  which 
words  forming  part  of  the  same  sentence, 
member,  or  proposition  follow  each  other. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  undoubtedly 
a  natural  or  philosophical  order  of  words 
following  each  other  in  the  same  analyt- 
ical succession  in  which  ideas  present 
themselves  to  the  mind,  varied  occasion- 
ally by  that  produced  by  the  succession 
of  sentiments  or  emotions  ;  and  as  in  eve- 
ry language  many  customary  phrases,  if 
not  the  general  arrangement  of  the  words, 
are  contrary  to  this  primitive  order,  evo- 
ry  language  has  customary  invcrsi.'>ns  of 
its  own.     Deviations  from  the  cu£.'o/n.a/-»/ 


326 


CVCL0;"1;DIA     ok    LliKRATUaE 


[loy 


order  of  words  arc  more  commonly  called 
transpositions  ;  but  each  word  has,  of 
course,  a  relative  and  somewhat  arbitra- 
ry signiflcaliou.  As  an  instance  of  ordi- 
nary inversion,  it  may  be  observed  that, 
according  to  the  metaphysical  or  analyt- 
ical order,  the  subject  of  a  proposition 
precedes  the  predicate,  being  the  first  idea 
which  presents  itself  to  the  mind.  Thus, 
in  the  construction  of  a  sentence  contain- 
ing a  proposition,  "Solon  is  wise,"  or 
"Alexander  reigns,"  we  habitually  fol- 
low the  order  of  nature.  But  when  a  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  in  connection  form 
part  of  a  sentence,  i.  e  ,  a  subject  or  pred- 
icate, or  a  part  of  either,  the  substantive 
is  that  which  seems  naturally  to  present 
itself  first  to  the  mind  ;  whereas  in  most 
modern  languages  it  follows  the  adjective, 
Avhile  in  the  (xreek  and  Latin  its  ordinary 
although  not  its  necessary  place  was  be- 
fore it :  "  Who  is  a  wise  man  ?  '  "  Vir 
bonus  est  quis7"  "The  end  of  a  long 
silence."  "  Finis  silentii  diuturni."  It 
is  in  general  to  be  observed,  that  modern 
languages  admit  far  less  readily  than  an- 
cient of  transposition  ;  but  there  are  con- 
siderable differences  in  this  respect  be- 
tween modern  languages  themselves. 
German  admits  much  latitude,  French 
very  little.  In  our  own  language  we  are 
frequently  able  to  vary  the  analytical  or- 
der by  following  what  maybe  termed  the 
order  of  emotion,  where  a  French  writer 
could  not  do  so  :  thus  in  the  proposition, 
"Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  it 
would  be  impossible,  in  French,  to  give 
the  force  which  is  added  to  the  expression 
by  the  transposition  of  the  ])redicate  to 
the  beginning  without  violating  the  ha- 
bitual rules  of  construction.  A  similar 
instance  of  inversion  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Swedish  and  some  kindred  languages,  in 
which  the  article  follows  instead  of  pre- 
ceding the  noun. — Inversion,  in  music, 
the  change  of  place  between  two  notes  of 
an  interval  ;  that  is,  placing  the  lower 
note  an  octave  higher,  or  the  higher  note 
an  octave  lower. 

INVERTED  ARCH,  in  architecture, 
one  wherein  the  lowest  stone   or  brick  is 


the  key-stone.  It  is  used  in  foundations, 
to  distribute  the  weight  of  particular 
points  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  foun- 


dation, and  hence  its  employment  is  fre- 
quently of  the  first  imparlance  in  con- 
structive architecture. 

IXVES'TiTL'KE,  in  feudal  law,  the 
delivery  of  a  fief  by  a  lord  to  his  vassal, 
accompanied  by  peculiar  ceremonies. 
The  investiture  of  a  bishop  was,  properly 
speaking,  his  endowment  with  the  fiefs 
and  temporalities  of  the  see.  "  Hence  it 
became  a  subject  of  contest  between  the 
popes  and  emperors,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal grounds  of  the  great  quarrel  ot 
Guelfs'.ind  Ghibellines.  It  wivs  conceded 
by  the  emperors  to  the  Roman  see  in 
1122;  but  the  question  was  ended  by  a 
substantial  compromise,  which  left  the 
nomination  in  reality  in  the  hands  of  the 
temporal  prince  in  European  monarchies 
under  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 

INVOCA'TIOX,  in  literature,  signi- 
fies, in  a  general  sense,  an  address  at  the 
commencement  of  a  j)oem,  preferred  to 
the  Muses  or  some  other  being  supposed 
capable  of  giving  inspiration.  Thus, 
while  the  ancient  poets  generally  ad- 
dres.icd  their  invocations  to  some  partic- 
ular muse  or  divinity,  ^Milton  invokes 
the  "Heavenly  Muse"  and  the  "  Holy 
Spirit;"  and,  in  his  Henriade,  Voltaire 
calls  to  his  aid  "  auguste  Verite." 

IN'VOICE,  in  commerce,  a  written  ac- 
count of  the  particulars  of  merchandise 
shipped  or  sent  to  a  purchaser,  factor.  &c. 
with  the  value  or  prices  and  charges  an- 
nexed. 

lON'IC  DIALECT,  the  most  eupho- 
nious of  the  four  written  varieties  of  the 
Greek  language,  was  spoken  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  in 
their  colonial  possessions  in  Asia  Minor. 
It  was  originally  the  same  as  the  Attic 
dialect,  at  least  they  boasted  of  a  com- 
mon origin  ;  but  from  the  extensive  com- 
mercial intercourse  of  the  lonians  with 
the  eastern  nations,  their  language  grad- 
ually imbibed  a  portion  of  Asiatic  effem- 
inacy, which  at  length  became  its  chief 
characteristic,  forming  a  striking  con- 
trast to  that  combination  oQstrengili  and 
harmony  which  distinguished  the  dialect 
of  Attica.  The  chief  writers  in  the  lonio 
dialect  are  Herodotus,  Hippocrates,  and 
Galen  :  but  it  is  in  the  writings  of  the 
first  that  tlie  most  complete  specimen  is 
to  bo  found. 

IONIC  ORDER,  one  of  the  five  or- 
ders of  architecture.  The  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  this  order  is  the 
volute  of  its  capital.  In  the  Grecian 
Ionic,  the  volutes  appear  the  same  on 
the  front  and  rear  ;  being  connected  on  the 
flanks  by  a  baluster-like  form  ;  through 


isaI 


AND    HIE     FINE     AIMS. 


327 


the  external  angles  of  the  capitals  of  the 
corner  columns,  however,  a  diagonal  vo- 
lute is  intro'luced.  The  Romans  gave 
their  Ionic  four  diagonal  volutes,  and 
curved  the  sides  of  the  abacus.  The 
Greek  volute  continues  the  fillet  of  the 
spiral  along  the  face  of  the  abacus, 
whereas  in  the  Roman,  its  origin  is  be- 
hind the  ovolo.  In  the  modern  Ionic  cap- 
ital, the  volutes  are  placed  diagonally, 
and  the  abacus  has  its  sides  hollowed  out. 
The  shaft,  including  the  base,  which  is 
half  a  diameter,  and  the  capital  to  the 
bottom  of  the  volute,  generally  a  little 
more,  is  about  9  diameters  high,  and  may 
be  fluted  in  24  flutes,  with  tillets  between 
them;  these  fillets  are  semi-circular.  The 
pedestal  is  a  little  taller  and  more  orna- 
mented than  the  Doric.  The  bases  used 
to  this  order  are  very  various.  The  Attic 
base  is  very  often  used,  and  with  an  as- 
tragal added  above  the  upper  torus, 
makes  a  beautiful  and  appropriate  base. 
The  cornices  of  this  order  may  be  divided 
into  three  divisions,  the  plain  Grecian 
cornice,  the  dentil  cornice,  and  the  mo- 
dillion  cornice.  The  best  examples  of 
this  order  are  the  temple  on  the  Ilissus, 
of  Minerva  Polias,  and  Erichtheus  in  the 
Acropolis,  and  the  aqueduct  of  Adrian  at 
Athens  ;  the  temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis, 
and  the  Coliseum  at  Rome.  The  bold- 
ness of  the  capital,  with  rhe  beauty  of 
the  shaft,  makes  it  eligible  for  porticoes, 
frontispieces,  entrances  to  houses,  &c. 

lON'IC  PHILOSOPHERS,  the  earliest 
among  the  Greek  schools  of  philosophy. 
Speculation  arose  in  (}reece,  as  elsewhere. 
in  the  attempt  to  discover  the  laws  of 
outward  phenomena,  and  the  origin  and 
Buccessive  stages  of  the  world's  develop- 
ment. Such  an  attempt,  it  is  needless 
to  say,  must  at  first  have  been  extremely 
rude.  To  the  student  of  philosophical 
literature,  however,  no  such  undertaking, 
however  unsuccessful,  can  possibly  be 
otherwise  than  interesting  ;  and  in  this 
instance  in  particular  we  are  able  to  dis- 
cover the  manifest  traces  of  that  liveli- 
ness of  thought  and  systematic  spirit 
which  distinguish  the  later  Greek  specu- 
lations. The  fathers  of  the  Ionic  school 
were  Thales  and  his  disciple  Ana.\imenes. 
They  were  succeeded  in  the  same  line  of 
thought  by  Diogenes  of  Apollonia,  and 
Heraclitus  of  Ephesus.  The  character- 
istic mark  which  distinguishes  the  specu- 
lations of  these  thinkers  is  the  endeavor 
to  refer  all  sensible  things  to  one  origi- 
nal principle  in  nature.  The  two  first 
named  were  satisfied  with  a  very  simple 
solution  '>f  the  problem.     Water  with  the 


one,  and  air  with  the  other,  were  made 
the  original  materials  out  of  which  all 
things  arose,  and  into  which  they  were 
finally  resolved.  In  their  successors  the 
germs  of  a  more  philosophical  doctrine 
are  apparent.  They  retain,  indeed,  the 
simplicity  of  an  original  element ;  but 
the  air  of  Diogenes  and  the  Jire  of  He- 
raclitus are  apparently  only  sensible 
symbols  which  they  used  only  in  order  to 
present  more  vividly  to  the  imagination 
the  energy  of  the  one  vital  principle 
which  is  the  ground  of  all  outward  ap- 
pearances. It  would  indeed  be  a  mistake 
to  regard  these  philosophers  as  material- 
ists. The  distinction  between  objective 
and  subjective,  between  a  law  operating 
in  the  universe,  and  the  corresponding 
apprehension  of  that  law  by  reason,  how- 
ever obvious  it  may  seem  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  seems  to  have  required  the  deep 
meditation  of  numerous  powerful  think- 
ers to  bring  it  into  clear  consciousness. 
But  we  meet  also  with  a  class  of  thinkers 
in  whom  the  contrary  tendency  prevail- 
ed. Ana.ximander  (b.c.  590)  and  Anax- 
agoras.  the  master  of  Pericles,  agree 
in  this  respect,  that  they  consider  the 
world  to  be  made  up  of  numberless  small 
particles,  of  different  kinds  and  of  various 
shapes,  by  the  change  in  whose  relative 
position  all  phenomena  are  to  be  account- 
ed for.  This  hypothesis  is  combined  by 
Anaxagoras  with  a  Supreme  Reason,  the 
author  of  all  that  is  regular  and  harmo- 
nious in  the  disposition  of  these  element- 
ary atoms.  Anaxagoras  may  indeed  be 
considereil  as  the  first  philosopher  who 
clearly  and  broadly  stated  the  leading 
distinctions  between  mind  and  matter. 

I'RONY,  a  mode  of  speech,  or  writing, 
expressing  a  sense  contrary  to  what  the 
speaker  or  writer  means  to  convey. 
When  irony  is  uttered,  the  dissimulation 
is  generally  apparent  from  the  manner 
of  speaking,  which  may  be  either  accom- 
panied by  an  arch  look  or  by  affected 
gravity. 

ISA'IAH,  or  the  Prophecy  q/"  Isaiah, 
a  canonical  book  of  the  Okl  Testament. 
Isaiah  is  the  first  of  the  four  great  pro- 
phets, the  other  three  being  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  iind  Daniel.  The  style  of  Isaiah 
is  noble,  sublime  and  florid.  Grotius 
calls  him  the  Demosthenes  of  the  He- 
brews. He  had  the  advantage,  above 
the  other  prophets,  of  improving  his 
diction  by  conversing  with  men  of  the 
greatest  learning  and  elocution  ;  and  this 
added  a  sublimity,  force,  and  majesty  to 
what  he  said.  He  boldly  reproved  the 
vices  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and 


328 


CVCLorEDIA     OF    LIJEUATURE 


[ivc 


openly  displaj-eJ  the  judj^mcnts!  of  God 
that  threatened  the  Jewish  nation;  at 
the  same  time  denouncing  vens^eance  on 
the  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Ethiopians, 
Moabites,  Edomites,  Syrians,  and  Ara- 
bians, who  were  instrumental  in  inflict- 
ing those  judgments.  lie  foretold  the 
deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  their  cap- 
tivity in  Babylon,  by  the  hands  of  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia,  a  hundred  years  before  it 
came  to  pass ;  but  the  most  remarkable 
of  his  predictions  are  those  concerning 
the  Messiah,  in  which  he  not  only  foretold 
his  coming  in  the  flesh,  but  many  of  the 
great  and  memorable  circumstances  of 
his  life  and  death.  The  whole,  indeed, 
bears  the  stamp  of  genius  and  true  inspi- 
ration. 

I'SIS,  one  of  the  chief  deities  in  the 
Egyptian  mythology.  By  the  Egyptians 
she  was  regarded  as  the  sister  or  sister- 
wife  of  Osiris,  who  concurred  with  her  in 
the  endeavor  to  polish  and  civilize  their 
subjects;  to  teach  them  agriculture  and 
other  necessary  arts  of  life.  Among  the 
higher,  and  more  philosophical  theolo- 
gians, she  was  made  the  symbol  of  i>an- 
thcistic  divinity.  By  the  people  she  was 
worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  fecundity. 
The  cow  was  sacred  to  her.  She  is  repre- 
sented variously,  though  most  usually  as 
a  woman  with  the  horns  of  a  cow,  and 
sometimes  with  the  lotus  on  her  head, 
and  the  sistrum  in  her  hand. 

IS'LAMISM,  the  practical  as  well  as 
the  doctrinal  tenets  of  the  Mohammedan 
religion,  embracing  the  whole  of  their 
civil  and  religious  polity. 

ISLANDS  OF  THE  BLESSED,  ac- 
cording to  the  Grecian  mythology,  the 
Happy  Islands,  supposed  to  lie  westward 
in  the  ocean,  whither  after  death,  the 
souls  of  the  virtuous  were  transported. 
In  the  early  mythology  of  the  Greeks, 
the  Islands  of  the  Blessed,  the  Elysian 
fields,  and  the  infernal  regions,  were 
generally  confounded  with  each  other. 

ISOTOM'IC,  in  music,  consisting  of 
intervals,  in  which  each  concord  is  alike 
tempered,  and  in  which  there  are  twelve 
equal  semitones. 

IS'SUE,  in  law,  the  legitimate  off- 
spring of  parents.  Also,  the  profits 
a  rising  from  lands,  tenements,  fines,  &c. — 
The  point  of  matter  at  issue  between 
contending  parties  in  a  suit,  is  when  a 
thing  is  affirmed  on  the  one  side,  and 
denied  on  the  other. 

IST'IIMIAN  GAMES,  so  called  be- 
cause they  were  celebrated  in  the  Isth- 
mus of  Corinth,  which  joins  the  Pelopon- 
nesus to  the  Continent,  at  the  temple  of 


Isthmian  Xeptune,  which  was  surrounded 
with  a  thick  forest  of  pine.  They  were 
originally  held  in  the  night,  and  had 
perhaps  fallen  into  disuse,  when  Theseus 
restored  them,  and  ordered  them  to  be 
celebrated  in  the  day.  The  contests  were 
of  the  same  kind  as  at  the  Olympic  games ; 
and  so  great  was  the  concourse  at  these 
games,  that  only  the  principal  people^  of 
the  most  remarkable  cities,  could  have 
place. 

ITAL'IAX,  a  native  of  Italy,  or  the 
language  spoken  by  its  inhabitants.  The 
origin  of  this  beautiful  and  most  harmo- 
nious tongue,  is  involved  in  great  ob- 
scurity. 

ITAL'ICS,  in  printing,  characters  or 
letters  (first  used  in  Italy)  which  stand 
inclining;  thus — Italic;  and  which  are 
often  used  by  way  of  distinction  from  Ro- 
man letters,  for  emphasis,  antithesis,  or 
some  peculiar  importance  attached  to  the 
words  in  which  they  are  employed. — 
Italicize,  to  write  or  print  in  Italic  char- 
tictcrs. 

ITAL'IC  SCHOOL  OF  PHILOSO- 
PHY, comprehends  properly  the  Pytha- 
gorean and  Eleatic  systems  taken  to- 
gether; but  sometimes  it  is  used  as 
synonymous  merely  with  the  school  of 
Pythagoras.  Under  the  several  heads 
will  be  found  the  chief  features  of  these 
philosophical  systems,  which,  comprising 
as  they  do  all  that  can  be  said  in  ret'cr- 
ence  to  the  Italic  school,  it  would  seem 
unnecessary  in  this  place  further  to  ad 
vert  to.  The  Italic  school  has  been  so 
designated  from  the  fact  that  its  founder, 
Pytliagoras,  taught  in  Italy,  spreadin;; 
his  doctrine  among  the  people  of  Ta- 
rentuni,  Metapontum,  Heraclea,  Naples, 

I'VOllY,  the  tusks  and  teeth  of  the 
elephant,  ami  of  the  walrus  or  sea-horse  ; 
a  hard,  solid  substance,  of  a  fine  white 
creamy  color,  and  greatly  esteemed  for 
the  fineness  of  its  grain,  and  the  high 
polish  ft  is  capable  of  receiving.  That 
of  India  loses  its  color  and  becomes  yel- 
low ;  but  that  of  Achem  and  Ceylon  is 
free  from  this  imperfectiim.  Ivory  is 
extensively  used  by  cutlers  in  the  manu- 
facture of  handles  for  knives  and  forks  ; 
by  miniature  painters  for  their  tablets; 
by  turners,  in  making  numberless  useful 
and  ornamental  objects,  as  well  as  for 
che.ss-mcn,  billiard  balls,  toys.  Ac.;  also 
by  musical  and  philosophical  instrument 
makers;  comb-makers;  and  by  dentists 
for  making  artificial  teeth;  for  which 
last-mentioned  purpose  the  ivory  of  the 
walrus   is   preferred.     The  western   and 


JACJ 


AND     IIIK     FINE    A  UTS. 


d2S 


eastern  coasts  of  Africa,  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  Jnilia,  ami  the  coun- 
tries to  the  eastward  of  the  straits  of 
Malacca.,  are  tliu  jjre  it  marts  whence 
supplies  (f  ivory  are  derived.  Ivory 
articles  are  said  to  be  manufactured  to  a 
greater  extent,  anil  with  better  success, 
at  Dieppe,  than  in  any  otiier  place  in 
Europe;  but  the  preparation  of  this 
beautiful  material  is  much  better  under- 
stood by  the  Chinese  than  by  any  other 
peoiilc.  No  European  artist  has  hitherto 
succeeded  in  cutting  concentric  balls  after 
the  manner  of  the  Chinese ;  and  their 
boxes,  chess-men,  and  other  ivory  arti- 
cles, are  all  far  superior  to  any  that  are 
to  be  met  with  anywhere  else.  The  use 
of  ivory  was  well  known  in  very  early 
ages.  We  find  it  employed  for  arms, 
girdles,  sceptres,  harnesses  of  horses, 
sword-hilts,  &c.  The  ancients  were  also 
acquainted  with  the  art  of  sculpturing  in 
ivory,  of  dying  and  encrusting  it.  Homer 
refers  to  the  extreme  whiteness  of  ivory. 
The  coffer  of  Cypselus  was  doubtless  the 
most  ancient  monument  of  this  kind  in 
basso-relievo,  and  we  meet  with  similar 
instances  in  the  temple  of  Juno,  at  Olym- 
pius,  in  the  time  of  Pausanias — that  is 
to  say,  seven  hundred  years  after  it  had 
been  built.  Antiquity  possessed  numer- 
ous statues  of  ivory,  particularly  in  the 
temples  of  Jupiter  and  of  Juno  at  Olym- 
pius.  In  these  statues  there  was  very 
frequently  a  mixture  of  gold.  The  most 
celebrated  are  stated  to  have  been  the 
Olympian  .Jupiter  and  the  Minerva  of 
Phidias  :  the  former  was  covered  with  a 
golden  drapery,  and  seated  on  a  throne 
formed  of  gold,  of  ivory  and  cedar-wood, 
and  enriched  with  precious  stones.  In 
his  hand  the  god  held  a  figure  of  Victory, 
alike  of  ivory  and  gold.  The  Minerva 
was  erected  in  the  Parthenon  at  Athens 
during  the  first  year  of  the  eighty-seventh 
Olympiad,  the  year  which  commenced 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  Pausanias,  like- 
wise, makes  mention  of  an  ivory  statue 
of  .Juno,  on  her  throne,  of  remarkable 
magnificence,  by  Polycletes,  together  with 
an  infinity  of  others. 

I'VY,  in  mythological  painting  and 
sculpture,  a  plant,  the  leaves  of  which 
were  made  very  plentiful  use  of  by  an- 
cient artists  on  vases,  pedestals,  altars, 
•tc.  It  was  also,  in  the  shape  of  a  crown, 
the  constant  attribute  of  Bacchus,  proba- 
bly because,  being  evergreen,  it  imjilicd, 
in  an  allegorical  and  at  the  same  time 
elegant  manner,  the  eternal  youth  of  that 
deity. 


J,  this  letter,  although  very  ancient, 
h.as  been  added  to  the  English  alphabet 
only  in  modern  daj's.  Its  form  was  origi- 
nally identical  with  that  of  I,  and  it  is 
only  within  the  last  century  that  any  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  them.  The 
separation  of  these  two  letters  in  English 
dictionaries  is  of  still  more  recent  date. 
It  seems  to  have  had  the  sound  of  y  in 
many  words,  ,is  it  still  has  in  the  German.' 
The  English  sound  of  this  letter  may  be 
expressed  by  dzh,  or  edzh^  a  compound 
sound  coinciding  exactly  with  that  of  o-, 
in  genius ;  the  French  J,  with  the  articu- 
lation d  preceding  it.  It  is  the  tenth 
letter  of  the  English  alphabet,  and  the 
seventh  consonant. 

JA'COBINS,  in  French  history,  a  po- 
litical club,  which  bore  a  well-known  part 
in  the  first  revolution.  It  was  first  form- 
ed by  some  distinguished  members  of  the 
First  Assembly,  particuliirly  from  Brit- 
tany, where  revolutionary  sentiments  ran 
high.  They  took,  at  first,  the  name  of 
Friends  of  the  Kevolution  ;  but  as,  at  the 
end  of  1789,  they  held  their  meetings  in 
the  hall  of  a  suppressed  Jacobin  monas- 
tery in  the  Rue  Saint  Ilonore,  the  name 
of  Jacobins,  at  first  familiarly  given  them, 
was  finally  assumed  by  themselves.  The 
history  of  the  J.acobin  club  is,  in  effect, 
the  history  of  the  Revolution.  It  con- 
tained at  one  time  more  than  2, .500  mem- 
bers, and  corresponded  with  more  than 
400  attiliated  societies  in  France.  The 
club  of  the  Cordeliers,  formed  by  a  small 
and  more  violent  party  out  of  the  genera! 
body  of  Jacobins,  was  reunited  with  the 
parent  society  in  June,  1791  ;  but  con- 
tinued to  form  a  separate  section  within 
its  limits.  The  Jacobin  club,  which  had 
almost  controlled  the  first  assembly,  was 
thus,  during  the  continuance  of  the  sec- 
ond, itself  divided  between  two  contend- 
ing parties;  although  the  name  of  Jaco- 
bins, as  a  political  partly,  is  commonly 
given  to  that  section  wliich  opposed  the 
Girondists  or  less  moderate  in  tlieclub  no 
less  than  in  the  assembly.  .\f'ter  the 
destruction  of  the  latter  under  the  Con- 
vention, the  club  was  .again  exclusively 
governed  by  the  more  violent  among  its 
own  members,  until  the  downfall  of  Robes- 
pierre. After  tliat  period  it  became  un- 
popular ;  ami  its  members  having  at- 
tempted an  insurrection  on  behalf  of  the 
subdued  Terrorists,  November  11,  1794, 
the  meeting  was  dispersed  by  force,  and 
the  club  finally  suppressed.     Some  wri 


330 


CYCLOl'KUIA     OV    I.nEUATUIlE 


[jAN 


ters,  such  ns  Barrue,.  nave  seen  in  the 
first  formation  of  this  and  similrtr  socle- 
ties,  the  long-concocteJ  operations  of  a 
conspiracy  against  legitimate  governuio:"it 
and  religion  througliout  Europe.  The 
Jacobins,  and  tlie  otlicr  principal  clubs 
of  the  Kevolution,  adopted  all  the  forms 
of  a  legislative  assembly.  In  the  consti- 
tution of  1792,  their  legal  existence  was 
recognized.  See  the  historians  of  the 
French  Revolution,  especially  Carlyle, 
Mignet,  and  Thiers,  for  general  views ; 
Buchez  et  Roux,  Ilisloire  Parlemeii- 
taire  de  la  Revolution  I'^rangaise,  for  the 
most  complete  series  of  details  respecting 
the  Jacobins  and  their  meetings  which 
has  yet  been  made  public. — Jacobins,  in 
ecclesiastical  history,  the  religious  of  the 
order  of  St.  Dominic  were  so  called  in 
France,  from  the  situation  of  the  princi- 
pal convent  at  Paris,  near  the  Rue  St. 
Jacques. 

JACOBITES,  in  English  history,  that 
party  which,  after  the  Revolution  of  1688, 
adhered  to  the  dethroned  monarch  James 
II.,  and  afterwards  to  his  descendants. 
In  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  the  revo- 
lution was  not  effected  except  with  the 
assistance  of  arms,  the  Jacobite  party 
formed  one  of  the  two  great  divisions  of 
each  nation  ;  and  although  crushed  in  the 
latter  country  by  conquest,  they  contin- 
ued in  the  former  to  comprise  a  large 
proportion  of  the  population  until  long 
after  the  last  rebellion  in  1745.  But  in 
England  the  revolution  was  effected  at 
first  with  the  consent  of  all  parties;  the 
adherents  to  the  exiled  monarch  were  si- 
lenced :  yet  in  a  year  or  two,  the  Jaco- 
bite faction  rose  into  strength,  and  con- 
tinued to  harass  the  government  of  Wil- 
liam throughout  his  reign.  Its  immedi- 
ate cause  was  to  be  found  in  the  refusal 
of  a  portion  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  to 
take  the  oaths  to  the  new  government, 
which  gave,  as  it  were,  a  certain  consist- 
ency and  tangible  ground  of  opposition  to 
the  friends  of  the  dethroned  monarch  in 
general.  At  the  same  time  many  of  Wil- 
liam's chief  advisers  anil  officers  main- 
tained a  secret  correspondence  with  James 
II.  at  the  French  court,  less  from  any  at- 
tachment to  his  cause  than  with  a  view 
to  secure  their  own  interest  in  case  of  his 
return.  After  the  death  of  James  II.  in 
France,  and  accession  of  Anne  in  Eng- 
land the  efforts  of  the  party  languished 
for  a  time;  but  towards  the  close  of  her 
reign  they  revived,  on  the  j)rospect  of  a 
change  in  the  succession.  In  1715,  on 
the  arrival  of  George  I.,  broke  out  the 
unsuccessful  first    rebellion  in  Scotland  : 


its  ill  conduct  and  failure  proved  a  con- 
siderable check  to  the  hopes  of  the  Eng- 
lish Jacobites.  Bishop  Atterburj',  the 
last  of  their  bolder  intriguers  and  adher- 
ents, w.is  banished  in  1722  :  after  which 
time  it  is  probable  that  no  extensive  con- 
spiracy look  place  on.  their  part.  In 
Scotland,  however,  the  party  maintained 
its  strength  unabated,  until  the  second 
rebellion  of  1745,  by  its  complete  failure, 
put  an  end  to  its  political  existence. — 
Jacobites,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  the 
monophysite  Christians  of  Syria  are  so 
called,  from  Jacob  Baradzi,  who  revived 
their  belief  and  form  of  worship  in  that 
country  and  Mesopotamia,  in  the  middle 
of  the  6th  century.  Many  unsuccessful 
attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times 
to  unite  them  with  the  church  of  Rome. 

JACOBUS,  a  gold  coin  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.  of  the  value  of  25s. 

JACQUERIE,  in  history,  the  name 
popularly  given  to  a  revolt  of  the  French 
peasantry  against  the  nobilitj',  which  took 
place  while  king  John  was  a  prisoner  in 
England,  in  1356.  Jacques  Bonhomme 
was  a  term  of  derision  applied  by  the 
nobles  to  the  peasants,  from  which  the 
insurrection  took  its  name.  It  began  ia 
the  Beauvoisis,  under  a  chief  of  the  name 
of  Caillet,  and  desolated  Picard}-,  Artois, 
and  Brie,  where  savage  reprisals  were 
executed  against  the  nobility  for  their 
oppressions.  It  was  suppressed  after  some 
weeks  by  the  dauphin  and  Charles  the 
Bad,  king  of  Navarre.  A  similar  spirit 
in  England  produced,  not  many  years 
afterwards,  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler. 

JACTITA'TION  of  Marriage,  a  suit 
in  the  ecclesiastical  court,  when  one  of 
the  parties  declares  that  ho  or  she  is 
married,  which  if  the  other  party  deny, 
and  no  adequate  proof  of  the  marriage  be 
brought,  the  offending  party  is  enjoined 
silence  on  that  head. 

JAMBS,  in  architecture,  the  side  oi* 
vertical  pieces  of  any  opening  in  a  wall, 
which  bear  the  piece  that  discharges  the 
superincumbent  weight  of  such  wall. 

JAN'IZARIES,  or  JAN'ISSARIES, 
the  appellation  given  to  the  grand  seig- 
nior's guard,  or  the  soldiers  of  the  Turk- 
ish infantry.  They  became  turbulent, 
and  rising  in  arras  against  the  sultan,  in 
May,  1826,  were  attacked,  defeated,  and 
subsequently  abolished,  and  their  places 
supplied  by  troops  trained  after  the  Eu- 
ropean manner. 

JAN'SENISTS,  a  denomination  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  in  France,  who  followed 
the  opinon  of  Jansen,  bishop  of  Ypres, 
and  formed   a  considerable  party  in  tho 


JEWj 


AND    THE    FIXE    AilTS. 


331 


latter  half  of  the  17th  century.  The  Jan- 
senists  were  Calvinistic  in  many  of  their 
sentiments,  and  in  several  respects  ap- 
proximated to  the  reformed  opinions. 
They  did  not,  however,  separate  them- 
selves from  the  Catholic  church  ;  nor  did 
they  long  survive  the  decree  of  Alexan- 
der VII.,  by  which  certain  propo.sitions 
e.ttracted  from  their  writmgs  are  con- 
demned as  heretical.  The  Jansenists  are 
chiefly  celebrated  for  the  contest  thcj' 
maintained  with  the  Jesuits,  by  whom 
they  were  at  last  overcome,  and  subjected 
to  the  enmity  both  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
the  pope. 

.TAX'lJARY.  the  first  month  of  the 
year.  By  some  the  name  is  derived  from 
Janus,  a  Roman  divinity  ;  by  others  from 
janua.  a  gate.  The  months  of  January 
and  February  were  inserted  in  the  Ro- 
man year  by  Numa  Pompilius.  The 
Roman  feast  of  the  kalends  of  January 
seems  to  have  been  converted  in  the  6th 
century  into  the  Christian  festival  of  the 
circumcision. 

JA'NUS,  a  Latin  deity,  originally  the 
same  as  the  sun.  lie  was  represented 
with  two  faces  looking  opposite  ways,  and 
holding  a  key  in  one  hand,  a  staff  in  the 
other.  He  presided  over  the  commence- 
ment of  all  undertakings,  whence  the  first 
month  in  the  year  was  named  after  him. 
His  temple  at  Rome  was  kept  open  in 
the  time  of  war,  and  shut  in  peace.  The 
warlike  disposition  of  the  Romans  is 
manifest  from  the  fact  that  this  temple 
was  only  shut  si.x  times  in  800  years: 
viz.,  once  in  the  reign  of  Numa;  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  first  Punic  war ;  thrice 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus ;  and  once  again 
under  Nero. 

JEAL'OUSY,  that  passion  or  peculiar 
uneasiness  which  arises  from  the  fear 
that  a  rival  may  rob  us  of  the  affection 
of  one  whom  we  love,  or  the  suspicion 
that  he  has  already  done  it;  or  it  is  the 
uneasiness  which  arises  from  the  fear 
that  another  does,  or  will  enjoy  some 
advantage  which  we  desire  for  ourselves. 
A  man's  jealousy  is  excited  by  the  atten- 
tions of  a  rival  to  his  favorite  lady.  A 
woman's  jealousy  is  roused  by  her  hus- 
band's atfention.s  to  another  woman.  The 
candidate  for  office  manifests  a  jealousy 
of  others  who  seek  the  same  office.  The 
jealousy  of  a  student  is  awakened  by  the 
apprehension  that  his  fellow  will  bear 
away  the  palm  of  praise.  In  short,  jeal- 
ousy is  awakened  by  whatever  may  ex- 
alt others,  or  give  them  pleasures  and 
ndvantages  which  we  desire  for  ourselves. 
— Jcalousij  is  nearh  allied  to  envy,  for 


jealousy,  before  a  good  is  lost  by  our- 
selves, is  converted  into  envy,  after  it  is 
obtained  by  others. 

JEIIO'VAII,  one  of  the  Scripture 
names  of  (jod,  signifying  the  Being  who 
is  self-existent,  and  gives  existence  to 
others.  This  is  the  awful  and  inetf.ible 
name  of  the  God  of  Israel,  which  was  re- 
vealed to  Moses ;  denoting  Him  who  is, 
who  was,  and  who  is  to  come. 

JEM'IDAR,  in  military  affairs,  a 
black  oflicer,  who  has  the  same  rank  as  a 
lieutenant  in  the  East  India  Company's 
service. 

JES'UITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus,  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  Romish  reli- 
gious orders;  founded  by  Ignatius  Lo- 
yola, a  Spaniard,  in  the  year  1534,  when 
he,  with  Francis  Xavier  and  four  or  five 
other  students  at  the  university  of  Paris, 
bound  themselves  to  undertake  the  con- 
version of  unbelievers.  As  a  religious 
body,  the  Jesuits  differ  from  their  pred- 
ecessors, inasmuch  as,  their  principle 
being  to  conform  as  much  as  possible 
with  the  manners  of  the  age,  they  have 
never  adopted  the  austere  observances 
and  exclusive  spiritual  character  upon 
which  all  earlier  orders  had  grounded 
their  claims  to  notoriety.  They  are  di- 
vided into  different  classes  ;  of  which  only 
the  'professed  take  the  religious  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  to  their 
superior.  Among  the  novices  are  fre- 
quently enrolled  influential  laymen,  as 
was  Louis  the  XIV.  himself  in  his  latter 
years  ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  means  which 
the  order  has  employed  to  extend  its  ef- 
ficiency where  it  would  be  least  liable  to 
observation.  The  professed  are  of  sev- 
eral ranks,  the  whole  body  being  under 
the  absolute  control  of  the  general,  whose 
abode  is  fixed  in  Rome,  and  whose  coun- 
cil consists  of  an  admonitor  and  five  as- 
sistants or  counsellors,  who  represent  the 
five  principal  Catholic  states — Italy,  Ger 
many,  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  To 
Rome,  as  the  central  seat  of  the  order, 
are  sent  monthly  communications  from 
the  superiors  of  the  different  provinces 
through  which  its  members  are  distrib- 
uted. 

JEU  D'ESPRIT',  {French,)  a  witti 
cism  or  unexpected  association   of  ideas 

JEWS,  the  descendants  of  Abraham, 
once  an  independent  tribe  in  Palestine, 
but  dispersed  by  the  Romans;  yet  still 
distinguished  by  their  religion,  peculiar 
pursuits,  and  primitive  customs.  They 
are  the  negotiators  of  money  between  all 
nations,  an  I  everywhere  distinguished  for 
their  successful  enterprise  and  accumu 


332 


CYCLOI'EUIA    OF    LITKUATLUE 


[j03 


lations  of  wealth.  The}-  have,  however, 
lost  the  distinction  of  twelve  tribes, 
though  perhaps  more  numerous  than  at 
any  period. — See  Judaism. 

JEW.S'-IIARP,  an  in.struinent  of  mu- 
sic, of  a  very  imperfect  character,  which, 
placed  between  the  teeth  and  by  means 
of  a  spring  struck  by  the  finger,  gives  a 
sound  which  is  modulated  by  the  breath. 
By  some  it  has  been  called  the jaw^ s-harp, 
because  the  place  where  it  is  played  upon 
is  between   the  jaws. 

JOB,  or  the  book  of  Job,  a  canonical 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  containing 
the  narrative  of  a  series  of  misfortunes 
which  happened  to  a  man  named  Job,  as 
a  trial  of  his  patience  and  fortitude,  to- 
gether with  conferences  which  he  held  with 
his  several  friends  on  the  subject  of  his 
iQisfortunes,  and  the  manner  in  which  he 
was  restored  to  happiness.  Many  of  the 
Jewish  Rabbins  pretend  that  this  relation 
is  purely  a  fiction  ;  others  think  it  a  sim- 
ple narrative  of  a  matter  of  fact ;  while 
a  third  class  of  critics  acknowledge  that 
the  ground-work  of  the  story  is  true,  but 
that  it  is  written  in  a  poetical  style,  and 
decorated  with  peculiar  circumstances,  to 
render  the  narration  more  profitable  and 
interesting.  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Gro- 
tius,  who  supposed  that  the  events  record- 
ed in  it  happened  in  Arabia,  while  the 
Hebrews  wandered  in  the  desert.  The 
whole  narrative  is  characterized  by  sim- 
plicity of  manner  and  intensity  of  feel- 
ing, combined  with  pure  and  lofty  senti- 
ments, illustrating  in  a  striking  manner, 
the  nature  of  man  and  the  providence  of 
God. 

JOIIT^  BULL,  the  well-known  collec- 
tive name  of  the  English  nation,  was 
first  used  in  Arbuthnot's  satire,  The 
History  of  John  Bull,  usually  published 
in  Swift's  works  ;  in  which  the  French  are 
designated  as  Lewis  Baboon,  the  Dutch 
as  Nicholas  Frog,  itc. 

JOHN  (St.)  the  EVANGELIST, 
the  author  of  the  (Jospel  which  bears  his 
name,  of  the  book  of  Revelations,  which 
he  wrote  while  an  exile  in  the  isle  of  Pat- 
mos,  and  of  three  Epistles.  He  was 
emphatically  called  "  the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved  ;"  and  he  was  one  of  the 
most  pure  and  estimable  characters  men- 
tioned in  the  Now  T(^sfnin(mt. 

JOHN  Till']  I'.Al'TIST,  the  inspired 
harbinger  of  the  Messiah.  His  7,eal,  as 
one  who  came  to  "  prepare  the  way"  of 
a  greater  and  more  glorious  prophet, 
was  equalled  only  by  his  self-denial  and 
humility.  lie  at  last  fell  a  victim  to  his 
independence  and  scvoro   virtues,  being 


beheaded  by  order  of  Ilerod  Antipas,  tc- 
trarch  of  Galilee,  to  gratify  a  vindictive 
woman.  His  disciples  are  said  to  have 
been  the  founders  of  the  sect  of  Sabians. 

JOINT-.^TOCK,  stock  held  in  com- 
pany. Joint- Stock  Companies,  associa- 
tions of  a  number  of  individuals  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  on  a  specified  busi- 
ness or  undertaking.  Thej'  are  generally 
formed  for  the  accomplishment  of  exten- 
sive schemes  of  trade  or  manufacture,  or 
the  completion  of  some  object  of  national 
and  local  importance,  such  as  railways, 
bridges,  canals,  &c.  They  have  also  been 
found  well  adapted  for  the  formation  of 
banks. 

JOINT-TEN'ANCY,  in  law.  a  tenure 
of  estate  by  unity  of  interest,  title,  time, 
and  possession. 

JOINT'URE,  in  law,  a  wife's  separate 
estate,  secured  by  will,  or  by  marriage 
settlement.  In  other  cases  the  wife  in- 
herits one  third. 

JO'NAH,  prophecy  of,  a  canonical 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  which  it 
is  related  that  Jonah,  about  the  year  771, 
B  c,  was  ordered  to  go  and  prophesy  the 
destruction  of  the  Ninevites,  on  account 
of  their  wickedness.  But  instead  of 
obeying  the  divine  command,  he  embark- 
ed for  Tarshish,  when  a  tempest  arising, 
the  mariners  drew  lots  to  determine  who 
was  the  cause  of  it,  and  as  the  lot  fell  to 
him  he  was  thrown  into  the  sea,  and  was 
swallowed  by  a  great  <fish,  which  after 
three  days,  cast  him  on  the  shore.  Afler 
this  he  boldly  preached  to  the  people  of 
Nineveh,  and  predicted  their  destruction  ; 
but  which,  on  account  of  their  repentance, 
was  averted.  Jonah,  dreading  the  suspi- 
cion which  might  attach  to  him  as  a  false 
prophet,  retired  to  a  mountain  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  city,  where  he  learnt  the 
folly  and  unreasonableness  of  his  own  dis- 
content. It  may  be  observed  that  some 
critics  consider  this  book  as  a  collection 
of  traditiims,  collected  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh,  while  others  treat  it  as 
a  mere  allegorical  poem. 

JOSH'UA,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  containing  a  history  of  the 
wars  and  transactions  of  the  })orson  whose 
name  it  bears.  This  book  is  divisible  into 
three  parts,  the  first  of  which  is  a  history 
of  the  conquest  of  Canaan  ;  the  second, 
which  begins  with  the  12th  chapter,  is  a 
description  of  that  country,  and  the  di- 
vision of  it  among  the  tril)es  :  and  the 
third,  comprised  in  the  last  two  chapters, 
contains  the  renewal  of  the  covenant 
which  he  caused  the  Israelites  to  make 
and  the  death  of  their  victorious  leader. 


Jul] 


AND     MiK.     KINR     ARTS. 


.n33 


JOUR'XAL,  a  diavy  ;  an  account  of 
daily  transactions  and  events;  or  the 
booli  containing  such  account.— Among 
merchants,  a  book  in  wiiich  every  partic- 
ular article  or  charge  is  fairly  entered 
from  the  waste  book  or  blotter. — In  navi- 
gation, a  daily  register  of  the  ship's 
jaurse  and  distance,  the  winds,  weather, 
ind  other  occurrences. — A  paper  publish- 
ed daily,  or  other  newspaper;  also,  the 
title  of  a  book  or  pamphlet  published  at 
stated  times,  containing  an  account  of  in- 
ventions, discoveries,  and  improvements 
in  arts  and  sciences;  as,  the  Journal  des 
Savans  ;  the  Journal  of  Science. — A  nar- 
rative, periodically  or  occasionally  pub- 
lished, of  the  transactions  of  a  society, 
&c.,  as  the  Journals  of  the  Houses  of 
Congress. 

JU'BILEE,  a  grand  festival  celebrated 
every  fiftieth  year,  by  the  Jews,  in  com- 
memoration of  their  deliverance  out  of 
Egypt.  At  this  festival,  which  was  a 
season  of  joy,  all  debts  were  to  be  can- 
celled; all  bond-servants  were  set  free; 
all  slaves  or  captives  were  released;  and 
all  estates  which  had  been  sold  reverted 
to  the  original  proprietors  or  their  de- 
scendants.— In  imitation  of  the  Jewish 
jubilee,  the  Romish  church  instituted  a 
year  of  jubilee,  during  which  the  popes 
grant  plenary  indulgences,  &c. 

JU'DAISM,  the  religious  doctrines  and 
rites  of  the  Jews,  a  people  of  Judah,  ot 
Judea.  These  doctrines  and  rites  are  de- 
railed in  the  five  books  of  Moses,  hence 
called  the  laic.  'The  Caraites  acknowl- 
edge no  other  ;  but  the  Rahbinists,  the 
second  of  the  two  sects  of  Jews,  add  those 
inculcated  by  the  <a/»iurf.  The  following 
is  a  summary  of  the  religious  creed  of  the 
Jews  :  1,  that  God  is  the  creator  and  ac- 
tive supporter  of  all  things  ;  2,  that  God 
is  ONE,  and  eternally  unchangeable  ;  3, 
that  God  is  incorporeal,  and  cannot  have 
any  material  properties  ;  4,  that  God 
shall  eternally  subsist;  5,  that  God  is 
alone  to  be  worshipped  ;  6,  that  whatever 
has  been  taught  by  the  prophets  is  true  : 

7,  that  Moses  is  the  head  and  father  of 
all  contemporary  doctors,  and  of  all  those 
who  lived  before  and  shall  live  after  him  ; 

8,  that  the  law  was  given  by  Moses;  9, 
that  the  la\7  shall  always  exist,  and  nev- 
er be  altereil ;  10.  that  God  knows  all  the 
thoughts  and  actions  of  man;  II,  that 
God  will  reward  the  observance  and  pun- 
ish the  breach  of  his  law;  12,  that  the 
Messiah  is  to  come,  though  he  tarry  a 
long  time  ;  and  13,  that  there  shall  be  a 
resurrection  of  the  dead  when  God  shall 
think  fit.     These  doctrines,  commonly  re- 


ceived by  the  Jews  to  this  day,  were 
drawn  up  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century  by  the  famous  Jewish  rabbi  Mai- 
monides. 

JUDG'ES,  THE  Book  of,  a  canonical 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called  from 
its  relating  the  state  of  the  Israelites  un- 
der the  administration  of  many  illustrious 
persons  who  were  called  judges,  from  the 
circumstance  of  their  being  both  the  civil 
and  military  governors  of  the  people. 
The  power  of  the  judges  extended  to  af- 
fairs of  peace  and  war.  They  were  pro- 
tectors of  the  laws,  defenders  of  religion, 
avengers  of  all  crimes;  but  they  could 
make  no  laws,  nor  impose  any  new  bur- 
thens upon  the  people.  They  lived  with- 
out pomp  or  retinue,  unless  their  own  for- 
tunes enabled  them  to  do  it  ;  for  the 
revenues  of  their  office  consisted  in  vol- 
untary presents  from  the  people.  They 
continued  from  the  death  of  Joshua  till 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Saul. 

JUDG'MENT,  in  metaphysics,  a  fac- 
ulty of  the  soul,  whereby  it  compares 
ideas,  and  perceives  their  agreement  or 
disagreement. — In  law,  the  sentence  or 
doom  pronounced  in  any  cause,  civil  or 
criminal,  by  the  judge  or  court  by  which 
it  is  tried.  Judgments  are  either  inter- 
locutory, that  is,  given  in  the  middle  of 
a  cause  on  some  intermediate  point,  or 
final,  so  as  to  put  an  end  to  the  action. 

JU'DICES  SELEC'TI,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquities, were  persons  summoned  by  the 
prfctor,  to  give  their  verdict  in  criminal 
matters  in  the  Roman  courts,  as  juries 
do  in  ours.  No  person  could  be  regular- 
ly admitted  into  this  number  till  he  was 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  Sortitia  Judi- 
cum,  or  impanelling  the  jurv,  was  the  of- 
fice of  the  Judex  Qicastionis,  and  was 
performed  after  both  parties  were  come 
into  court,  for  each  had  a  right  to  reject 
or  challenge  whom  the.y  pleased,  others 
being  substituted  in  their  room. 

jrCrCIUM  DEI,  the  term  formerly 
applied  to  all  extraordinary  trials  of  se- 
cret crimes,  as  those  by  arms,  single  com- 
bat, ordeals,  &c.,  in  which  it  was  believed 
that  heaven  would  miraculously  interfere 
to  clear  the  innocent  and  confound  the 
guilty. 

JU'LIAN  PE'RIOD,  in  chronology, 
signifies  a  revolution  of  7980  years,  which 
arises  from  multiplying  the  solar  cycle, 
the  cycle  of  the  moon,  and  the  cycle  of 
indiction  into  one  another.  This  period 
is  of  great  use,  as  the  standard  and  gen- 
eral receptacle  of  all  other  epochas,  perl- 
oils,  and  cycles  :  into  this  as  into  a  largo 
ocean,  all  the  streams  of  time  discharge 


334 


fYCI.dl'KDI  A     OF     1.1  IKIJATl'UK 


(..r. 


themselves,  yet  so  as  not  io  lose  their  pe- 
culiar characters  ;  and  had  historians  re- 
marked the  number  of  each  cycle  in  each 
year  respectively,  there  could  have  been 
no  dispute  about  the  time  of  any  action 
or  event  in  past  ages. —  When  the  Chris- 
tian era  commenced  4713  j-ears  of  the 
Julian  jieriod  were  elapsed,  4713  there- 
fore being  added  to  the  year  of  our  Lord, 
will  give  the  year  of  the  Julian  period. 

JULY',  the  seventh  month  of  the  year. 
It  was  the  fifth  month  of  the  old  Eoman 
year,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Qiihi- 
tilis ;  but  received  the  name  of  July  in 
compliment  to  Julius  Csesar,  who  r'^form- 
ed  the  calendar,  in  such  a  manner,  that 
this  month  stood  as  it  does  now  with  us, 
the  seventh  in  order. 

JUNE,  the  si.Kth  month  of  the  year,  iu 
which  is  the  summer  solstice.  It  was  the 
fourth  month  of  the  old  Roman  year,  but 
the  sixth  of  the  year  as  reformed  by  Nu- 
ma  and  Julius  Ca;sar.  Some  suppose  it 
received  its  name  in  honor  of  Junius  Bru- 
tus. It  was  looked  upon  as  under  the 
protection  of  Mercury. 

JU'NO,  the  Latin  name  of  the  divinity 
called  by  the  Greeks  Hera.  She  was  the 
sister  and  consort  of  Jupiter,  and  was 
held  to  preside  over  marriage,  and  pro- 
tect married  women.  She  was  represented 
as  the  model  of  majestic  beauty,  in  royal 


Vlf* 


vj.  ^-y./ 


attire  and  attended  by  her  favorite  bird 
the  peacock.  Her  principal  temples  in 
Greece  were  at  Sanios  and  Argos.  She 
was  also  the  patroness  of  Veii,  whence 
she  was  invited  to  Rome  on  the  occasion 
of  the  last  siege  of  the  former  city. 


JUNTA,  a  grand  Spanish  council  of 
state.  Besides  the  assembly  of  the  states 
or  cortes,  there  were  two  juntas:  one 
whicli  presided  over  the  commerce,  the 
mint,  and  the  mines;  and  the  other  form- 
ing a  board  for  regulating  the  tobacco 
nionopol}'.  The  assembling  of  a  junta  by 
Napoleon  in  180?,  and  the  part  tliey  sub- 
sequently played  in  Spanish  history,  are 
sulliciently  known  to  the  reader.  In 
English  the  term  junto  (evidently  of 
Spanish  origin)  is  used  almost  synony- 
mously with  cabal  or  faction. 

JU'PITER,  the  supreme  deity  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Ho  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  Zeus  (Zcvs.)  and  appears 
originally  to  have  been  worshipped  as  an 
elemental  -divinity  who  presided  over 
rain,  snow,  lightning,  &c.  He  was  tho 
son  of  Saturn,  whom  he  deposed  from  hi.s 
throne,  and  thence  became  the  supreme 
monarch  of  gods  and  men.  He  married 
his  sister  Juno,  by  whom  he  had  Vulcan 


but  he  had  a  numerous  progeny  besides, 
the  chief  of  whom  was  Minerva.  His 
most  celebrated  Grecian  temple  was  at 
Olympia  in  Elis,  and  his  chief  oracle  was 
at  Dodona  in  Epirus.  He  is  usually  rep- 
resented as  seated  on  an  ivory  throne 
with  a  sceptre  in  his  left  hand  and  a 
thunderbolt  in  his  right.  The  eagle,  his 
favorite  bird,  is  generally  placed  by  the 
side  of  the  throne. 

JilUSroN'SULT,  a  master  of  Roman 
jurispruilciu'o,  who  was  consulted  on  the 
interpretation  of  the  laws. 

JURISDICTION,  in  its  most  general 
sense,  is  the  power  to  make,  declare,  or 
apply  the  law  ;  when  confined  to  the  ju- 


jus] 


AND     i'lIK     FINR     AltTS. 


•■j;^.-) 


diciary  departiuont,  it  is  what  we  Jenoin- 
inato  the  judicial  jioirer,  the  ri?ht  of  ud- 
ministerini;  justice  tlirough  the  laws. 
Inferior  courts  liave  jurisdiction  of  debt 
and  tresjiass,  or  of  smaller  oflfences;  the 
supreme  courts  have  jurisJiction  of  trea- 
son, murder,  and  other  high  crimes. 

JUKISPKU'DENCE,  tiio  science  which 
gives  a  knowledge  of  the  laws,  customs, 
and  rights  of  men  in  a  state  or  commu- 
nity, necessary  for  the  due  administration 
of  lustice. 

Jr'llIS  U'TRUM,  in  law,  a  writ  in 
behalf  of  a  clergyman  whose  predeces- 
sor has  alienated  the  lands  belonging  to 
his  church. 

JU'RY,  a  certain  number  of  men  sworn 
to  inquire  into  or  to  determine  facts,  and 
to  declare  the  truth  according  to  the 
evidence  legally  deduced,  and  they  are 
sworn  judges  upon  evidence  in  matters  of 
fact.  When  the  object  is  inquiry  onl}', 
the  tribunal  is  sometimes  called  an  in- 
quest or  inquisition  ,•  but  when  facts  are 
to  be  determined  by  it  for  judicial  pur- 
poses, it  is  always  termed  a  jury.  Trial 
by  jury,  in  popular  language,  signifies 
the  determination  of  facts  in  the  admin- 
istratioa  of  civil  or  criminal  justice  by 
twelve  men,  sworn  to  decide  facts  truly 
according  to  the  evidence  produced  be- 
fore them.  Grand  juries  are  exclusively 
incident  to  courts  of  criminal  jurisdiction  ; 
their  oCBee  is  to  e.vauiine  into  charges  of 
crimes  brought  to  them,  and  if  satisfied 
that  they  are  true,  or  at  least  that  they 
deserve  more  particular  examination,  to 
return  a  bill  of  indictment  against  the 
accused,  upon  which  he  is  afterward  tried 
bj'  a  petty  jury.  A  grand  jur3'  must 
consist  of  twelve  at  the  least,  but  in  prac- 
tice a  greater  number  usually  serve,  and 
twelve  must  always  concur  in  finding 
every  indictment.  Petty  or  common  ju- 
ries consist  of  twelve  men  only.  They 
are  appointed  to  try  all  cases  both  civil 
and  criminal,  and  to  give  their  verdict 
according  to  the  evidence  adduced. 

JUS,  (Latin,)  in  its  general  accepta- 
tion, signifies  that  which  is  right  or  con- 
formable to  law. — Jus  accrescendi,  in 
law,  the  right  of  survivorship  between 
two  joint  tenants. — Jus  coronoE,  signifies, 
in  general,  the  rights  of  the  crown.  These 
are  a  part  of  tlivc  laws  of  the  kingdom, 
though  they  differ  in  many  things  from 
the  gfcT.eral  laws  relating  to  the  subject. 
— Jus  duplicatum,  is  a  double  right,  and 
is  used  when  a  person  has  the  possession 
of  a  thing,  as  well  as  a  right  to  it. — Jus 
divinum,  is  that  which  is  ordered  by  a 
revelation    in    contradistinction    to   that 


which  is  ordered  by  reason  :  but  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  distinction  exists  only  in 
the  form,  and  not  in  the  essence,  because 
that  which  is  ordered  by  our  reason  is  to 
be  referred  to  God,  as  its  origin,  equally 
with  that  which  is  decreed  by  revelation. 
— Jus  gentium,  the  law  of  nations,  or 
the  laws  established  between  different 
kingdoms  and  states,  in  relation  to  each 
other — -Jus  heredilatis,  the  right  or  law 
of  inheritance. — Jus  patronatus,  in  tho 
canon  law,  is  the  right  of  presenting  to  a 
benefice  ;  or  a  kind  of  commission  grant- 
ed by  the  bishop  to  inquire  who  is  the 
rightful  patron  of  a  church. — Jus  pos- 
sessionis,  is  a  right  of  seisin  or  possession, 
a,^  jus  proprietalis  is  the  right  of  owner- 
ship of  lands,  &c. — Jus  quiritium.  in  an- 
tiquity, the  fullest  enjoyment  of  Roman 
citizenship.  This  is  also  caW&Hi  Jus  civile 
and  Jus  urbanum. — Jus  imaginis.  the 
right  of  using  pictures  and  statues,  sim- 
ilar to  the  modern  right  of  bearing  coats 
of  arms,  which  was  allowed  to  none  but 
those  whose  ancestors  or  themselves  had 
borne  some  eurule  office. 

JUSTICE  OF  THE  PEACE,  the  word 
justice  is  applied  to  judicial  magistrates  ; 
as  justices  of  such  a  court,  and,  in  the 
English  laws,  justices  of  the  forest,  hun- 
dred, or  tho  laborers,  &o. ;  and  hence  the 
appellation  justice  of  the  peace — that  is, 
a  judicial  magistrate  intrusted  with  the 
conservation  of  the  peace.  A  great  part 
cf  the  civil  officers,  are,  in  fact,  the  con- 
servators of  the  peace,  as  their  duty  is  to 
prevent  or  punish  breaches  of  the  peace. 
Thus  the  judges,  grand-jurymen,  justices 
of  the  peace,  mayors  and  aldermen  of 
municipal  corporations,  sheriffs,  coro- 
ners, constables,  watchmen,  anil  all  offi- 
cers of  the  police,  are  instituted  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing,  in  different  ways, 
crimes  nnd  disturbances  of  the  peivce  of 
the  community,  or  for  arresting,  trying 
and  punistiing  the  violators  of  tho  laws 
and  good  order  of  society.  In  England 
and  the  United  States,  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  though  not  high  in  rank,  is  an  offi- 
cer of  great  importance,  as  the  first  ju- 
dicial proceedings  are  had  before  him  in 
regard  to  arresting  persons  .accused  of 
grave  offences  ;  and  his  jurisdiction  ex- 
tends to  trial  and  adjudication  for  small 
offences.  In  case  of  the  commission  of 
a  crime  or  a  breilch  of  the  pe.ace,  .a  com 
plaint  is  m.ade  to  one  of  these  magistrates, 
if  he  is  satisfied  with  the  evidence  of  a 
commission  of  some  offence,  the  cogni- 
z.ance  of  which  belongs  to  him,  either 
for  the  purpose  of  arresting,  or  for  trying 
the    party  accused,  he    issues   a  warrant 


03G 


CVCl.OIEUIA    OF    MTKRATUKE 


KAL 


directed  to  a  constable,  oroUier  executive 
officer  designated  by  the  law  for  this 
purpose,  ordering  the  person  complained 
of  to  be  brought  before  hiui,  and  he  there- 
upon tries  the  party,  if  the  offence  be 
within  his  jurisdiction,  and  acquits  him 
or  awards  punishment.  If  the  offence 
charged  be  of  a  graver  character,  the  ad- 
judication upon  which  is  not  within  the 
justice's  jurisdiction,  the  question  then 
is,  whether  the  party  complained  of  is  to 
be  imprisoned,  or  required  to  give  bonds 
to  await  his  trial  before  the  tribunal 
having  jurisdiction,  or  is  to  be  discharg- 
ed ;  and  on  these  questions  the  jus- 
tice decides  according  to  his  view  of 
the  law  and  the  facts.  In  the  United 
States,  the  office  is  held  only  by  special 
appointment,  and  the  tenure  is  different 
in  different  states,  the  office  having  been 
held,  in  one  state  at  least,  during  good 
bshavior ;  but  the  commission  is  more 
usually  for  seven  years,  or  some  other 
specific  limited  period.  These  magis- 
trates have  usually  also  a  civil  jurisdic- 
tion, of  suits  for  debts,  on  promises,  or 
for  trespasses,  (where  the  title  to  real  es- 
tate does  not  come  in  question,  and  with 
some  other  exceptions,)  to  an  amount 
varying,  in  the  different  states,  from 
$13.33  to  $100.  In  some  states,  a  party 
may  appc:il  from  the  decision  of  the  jus- 
tice to  a  higher  tribunal,  whatever  may 
be  the  amount  in  question,  in  a  civil  suit, 
and  whatever  may  be  the  judgment.  In 
other  states,  no  appeal  is  allowed,  except 
in  case  of  an  amount  in  question  exceed- 
ing four  dollars,  or  some  other  certain, 
but  always  inconsiderable  sum.  So  an 
appeal  is  usually  allowed  to  the  accused 
party  in  a  criminal  prosecution  before  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  in  case  of  the  judg- 
ment being  for  a  penalty  over  a  certain 
specified  and  small  amount,  or  an  impris- 
onment over  a  certain  number  of  days.  It 
is  evidently  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
the  peace  and  good  order  of  a  community, 
that  the  justices  should  be  discreet,  hon- 
est and  intelligent. 

JU,STIFIC.\"nON,  in'  law,  the  .show- 
ing good  reason  in  a  court,  why  one  has 
done  the  thing  for  which  he  is  called  to 
answer.  Pleas  in  justification  must  set 
forth  some  special  matter  :  thus,  on  be- 
ing sued  for  a  trespass,  a  person  may 
justify  it  by  proving  th»t  the  land  is  his 
own  freehold ;  that  ho  entered  a  house, 
in  order  to  apprehend  a  felon  ;  or  by  vir- 
tue of  a  warrant,  to  levy  a  forfeiture  ;  or, 
in  order  to  take  a  distress. —  In  theology, 
justification  signifies  remission  of  sin  and 
absolution   from    guilt    and    ])unishinent, 


or  an  act  of  free  grace  by  which  God  par- 
dons the  sinner  and  accepts  him  as  right- 
eous, on  account  of  the  merits  of  Christ. 

JU\'EXA'LI/E,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
a  feast  instituted  for  youth  by  Nero, 
when  his  beard  was  first  shaven. 


K. 


The  eleventh  letter  of  the  English  al- 
phabet, is  borrowed  from  the  Greeks, 
being  the  same  character  as  the  Greek 
kappa,  answering  to  the  Oriental  kapli. 
It  represents  a  close  articulation,  formed 
by  pressing  the  root  of  the  tongue  against 
the  upper  pa-rt  of  the  mouth,  with  a  de- 
pression of  the  lower  jaw  and  opening  of 
the  teeth.  It  is  usually  denominated  a 
guttural,  but  is  more  properly  a  palatal. 
Before  all  the  vowels,  it  has  one  i-ivaria- 
blc  sound,  corresponding  with  that  of  c, 
before  a,  o,  and  u,  as  in  keel,  ken.  In 
monosyllables,  it  is  used  after  c,  as  in 
crack,  check,  deck,  being  necessary  to  ex- 
hibit a  correct  pronunciation  in  the  de- 
rivatives, cracked,  checked,  decked,  crack- 
ing, for  without  it,  c.  before  the  vowels  a 
and  i  would  be  sounded  like  s.  Formerly, 
A- was  added  to  e,  in  certain  words  of  Lat- 
in origin,  as  in  Diusick,  pnblick,  republick 
But  in  modern  practice.  A"  is  very  properly 
omitted,  being  entirely  superflwous,  and 
the  more  properly,  as  it  is  never  written 
in  the  derivatives,  musical,  publication, 
republican.  It  was  till  lately  retained 
in  traj/ick,  as  in  monosyllables,  on  ac- 
count of  the  pronunciation  of  the  deriva- 
tives, trafficked,  trajfirkin'j,  but  we  now 
write  trajjlc.  K  is  silent  before  )(,  as  in 
know,  knife,  knee.  As  a  numeral,  K 
stands  for  2.50;  and  with  a  stroke  over  it 
thus,  K,  2.50,000.  As  a  contraction,  K 
stands  for  knight,  as  K.B.^  Knight  of  the 
Bath;  KG.,"  Knight  of  the  Garter; 
K.C.B.,  Knight  Commander  of  tlie  R:ith  ; 
K.T.,  Knight  of  the  Thistle  ;  and  K  11 , 
Knight  of  Hanover.  This  character  was 
not  used  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and 
rarely  in  the  later  ages  of  their  empire. 
In  the  place  of  k  they  used  c,  as  in  cUno, 
for  the  Greek  fXiw.).  In  the  Teutoiii* 
dialects,  this  Greek  letter  is  sometimes 
represented  by  /;. 

K.\'R.\ND,  a  lay  fraternity  instituted 
in  (iermany  in  the  13fh  century,  for  tlie 
purpose  of  doing  honor  to  deceased  rela- 
tives and  friends.  The  term  is  probably 
derived  from  kalenche,  the  first  day  of 
any  month,  as  the  ineml)ers  of  this  society 
chose  that  day  for  the  observance  of  their 


k\n] 


AND    TflE    FINK    ARTS. 


337 


ceremonies.  These  consisted  originiilly 
uf  jirayers,  followed  by  a  slight  repast,  in 
wliirh  all  the  inonibers  participated  ;  but 
in  process  of  time  the  rclii^imis  purposes 
of  the  society  became  whuUy  merge  J  in 
the  festivities,  so  that  it  eventually  was 
found  necessary  to  abolish  the  fraternity 
on  account  of  its  excesses. 

KA'MI,  spirits  or  divinities,  the  belief 
in  which  appears  to  have  characterized 
the  ancient  religion  of  Japan  before  it 
became  intermingled  with  foreign  doc- 
trines, and  still  constitutes  its  ground- 
v.'ork.  These  spirits  are  partly  ele- 
mental, subordinate  to  the  gods  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  and  partly  the  spirits  of 
men;  but,  in  fact,  every  natural  agent 
or  phenomenon  has  its  spirit  or  genius. 
The  human  spirits  survive  the  body,  and 
receive  happiness  or  punishment  for  the 
actions  of  the  individual  in  life.  Distin- 
guished benefactors  of  their  species,  or 
men  renowned  for  purity  of  life,  are  dei- 
tied ;  and  their  kami  become  objects  of 
worship,  like  the  heroes  of  antiquity. 
The  number  of  them  is  said  at  present  to 
be  above  3,000.  They  are  worshipped  in 
temples  in  which  no  images  are  retained, 
eacli  particular  divinity  being  merely 
typified  by  a  mirror,  the  emblem  of 
purity  ;  and  all  the  rites  of  the  worship 
appear  to  be  symbolical  of  purification. 

KAMSIN,  the  name  given  to  a  hot 
and  dry  southerly  wind,  common  in  Egypt 
and  the  deserts  of  Africa,  which  prevails 
more  or  less  for  fifty  days.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  this  wind  the  sky  becomes  dark 
and  heavy,  the  air  gray  and  thick,  and 
filled  with  a  dust  so  subtile  that  it  pene- 
trates everywhere.  It  is  not  remarkably 
hot  at  first,  but  increases  in  heat  the 
longer  it  continues,  during  which  time  it 
causes  a  difiTiculty  of  breathing,  and  when 
at  its  highest  pitch,  will  sometimes  cause 
suffocation. 

KAN'TIAN  PIIILOS'OPHY,  (known 
also  bj'  the  name  of  the  Critical  Philoso- 
phj',)  a  system  which  owes  its  existence 
to  Immanuel  Kant,  professor  of  logic  and 
metaphysics  in  the  university  of  Kiinigs- 
berg  iu  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. The  promulgation  of  Kant's  doc- 
trines forms  a  very  marked  era  in  the 
history  of  philoso])hy.  Our  limits  will 
prevent  us  from  giving  an  explanation 
of  this  system  in  any  degree  adequate  to 
its  importance.  We  must  confine  our- 
selves to  a  brief  outline  of  its  leading 
features.  At  the  time  when  Kant  com- 
menced his  metaphysical  labors  the  phil- 
osophical world  was  divided  between  the 
sensualism  of  the  French  followers  of 
22 


Locke  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  dogmatic 
rationalism  of  the  disciples  of  Wolf  an<i 
Leibnitz  on  the  other.  The  former,  by  a 
species  of  analj'tical  legerdemain,  re- 
solved all  our  mental  powers  into  niodili- 
cations  of  sense;  while  the  latter,  in  au 
equally  indiscriminating  spirit,  though 
with  far  more  laudable  intentions,  sought 
to  construct  a  system  of  real  truth  out  of 
the  abstract  conceptions  of  the  und^'i- 
standing.  Against  both  of  these  schools 
Kant  declared  c pen  warfare.  Withdr.in- 
ing  himself  froui  all  ontological  specul.i- 
tion,  he  sought,  by  a  stricter  analysis  of 
our  intellectual  powers,  to  ascertain  the 
po.ssibility  and  to  determine  the  limits 
of  human  knowledge.  He  divides  the 
speculative  part  of  our  nature  into  three 
great  provinces — sense,  understanding, 
and  reason.  Our  perception  of  the  out- 
ward world  is  representative  merely  :  of 
things  as  they  are  in  themselves  it  affords 
us  no  notices.  In  order  to  render  human 
experience  possible,  two  ground-forms, 
under  which  all  sensible  things  are  con- 
templated, are  assumed — time  and  space. 
To  these  he  assigns  a  strictly  subjective 
reality.  The  truth  of  the  fundamental 
axioms  of  geometry  rests  on  the  necessity 
and  universality  of  our  intuitions  of  space 
in  its  three  dimensions — intuitions  which 
are  not  derived  from  any  one  of  our 
senses,  or  from  any  combinations  of  them, 
but  lie  at  the  ground  and  are  the  condition 
of  all  sensible  human  experience.  The 
understanding,  or  the  faculty  which  com- 
bines and  classifies  the  materials  yielded 
by  sense,  Kant  subjects  to  a  similar  analy- 
sis. All  its  operations  are  generalized 
into  four  fundamental  modes  or  forms  of 
conception  ;  which,  after  the  example  of 
Aristotle,  he  names  categories.  These 
are  four  in  number  :  1.  Quantity,  includ- 
ing unity,  multeity,  totality  ;  2.  Quality 
divided  into  reality,  negation,  and  limita- 
tion; 3.  Relation,  viz.  substance  and  acci- 
dent, cause  and  effect,  action  and  reac- 
tion ;  and  4.  Jlodality,  also  subdivided 
into  possibility,  existence,  and  necessity. 
These  form,  as  it  were,  the  moulds  in 
which  the  rude  material  of  the  senses  is 
shaped  into  conceptions,  and  becomes 
knowledge  properly  so  called.  The  cate- 
gories in  themselves  are  the  subject-mat- 
ter of  logic,  which  is  so  far  forth  a  pure 
science,  determinable  a  priori.  The  third 
and  highest  faculty,  the  reason,  consists 
in  the  power  of  forming  ideas — pure 
forms  of  intelligence,  to  which  the  sensi- 
ble world  has  no  adequate  correspondents. 
Out  of  these  ideas  no  science  can  be 
formed  ;  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  regu- 


338 


CYCLOPEDIA     OK     I.ITKRATLRK 


lative  only,  not  as  constitutive.  The  ex- 
istence of  God,  immortality,  freedom, 
are  the  objects  after  which  the  reason  is 
perpetually  striving,  but  concerniiig 
which  it  can  decide"  nothing  either  one 
way  or  the  other.  Thus  far  Kant's  sys- 
tem may  be  regarded  as  one  of  pure 
skepticism.  The  dotioiencies  of  our  spec- 
ulative reason  he  conceives  to  be  supplied 
by  the  moral  faculty,  to  which  lie  has 
given  the  name  of  practical  reason,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  determine,  not  what 
is.  but  what  ought  to  be.  As  the  former 
determines  the  form  of  our  knowledge, 
so  the  latter  pre.-'cribes  the  form  of  our 
action.  Obligation  is  not  a  mere  feeling ; 
it  hiis  a  pure  form  under  which  the  reason 
is  compelled  to  regard  human  conduct. 
The  personality  of  man,  which  lies  at  the 
ground  of  speculative  knowledge,  becomes, 
in  relation  to  action,  freedom  of  the  will. 
It  is  in  our  moral  niiture  that  we  must 
seek  for  the  only  valid  foundation  of  the 
Dolief  in  God,  the  irajnortality  of  the  soul, 
and  a  future  state  in  which  the  demands 
of  the  practical  reason  shall  be  realized. 

KEEL,  the  lowest  piece  of  timber  in  a 
ship,  running  her  whole  length  from  the 
lower  part  of  her  stem  to  the  lower  part 
of  her  stern  post,  and  supporting  the 
whole  frame.  Sometimes  a  second  keel, 
or  false  keel,  as  it  is  called,  is  put  under 
the  first. 

KEEL'-IIAULTNG,  among  seamen,  a 
punishment  of  offenders  at  sea  by  letting 
them  down  from  the  yard-arm  with  ropes, 
and  drawing  them  under  the  keel  from 
one  side  to  the  other. 

KEEL'SON,  or  KEL'SON.  in  naval 
architecture,  a  principal  timber  in  a  ship, 
laid  withinside  across  all  the  timbers  over 
the  keel,  and  fastened  with  long  bolts  ;  so 
that  it  forms  the  interior  or  counterpart 
of  the  keel. 

KEEP,  a  strong  tower  in  old  castles, 
where  the  besieged  retreated  in  cases  of 
extremity.  It  is  also  called  the  donjon 
or  duns^eon. 

KEEP'ER,  in  English  law,  an  officer 
of  dift'erent  descriptions,  as  the  keeper  of 
the  great  seal,  a  lord  by  his  office,  and 
one  of  the  privy  council,  through  whose 
hands  pass  all  charters,  commissions,  and 
grants  of  the  king  under  the  great  seal ; 
the  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  through 
whose  hands  pass  all  charters,  &e.,  before 
they  come  to  the  great  seal.  There  is 
also  the  keeper  of  Ike  forests,  the  keeper 
oj" the  touch,  an  olficer  of  the  mint,  &,c. 

KEEPING,  a  term  used  in  various 
branches  of  the  Eine  Arts,  to  denote  the 
just  proportion  and  relation  of  the  vari- 


I  ous  parts. — In  painting,  it  signifies  the 
peculiar    management   of  coloring    and 

I  rhiuro  oscuro,  so  as  to  produce  a  proper 
degree  of  reliero  m  different  objects,  ac- 
cording to  their  relative  position  and  im- 
portance. If  the  lights,  shadows,  and 
half  tints  be  not  in  proper  keeping,  that 
is,  in  their  exact  relative  proportion  of 
depths,  no  rotundity  can  bo  effected,  and 
without  due  opposition  of  light,  shade, 
and  colors,  no  apparent  separation  of  ob- 
jects can  take  place. 

KE  RI-CIIE'Trn,  in  philology,  the 
name  given  to  various  readings  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  Keri  signifies  that  which, 
is  read,  and  chetib  that  ichich  is  written. 
When  anj-  such  various  readings  occur, 
the  false  reading  or  chetib  is  written  in 
the  text,  and  the  true  reading  or  keri  is 
written  in  the  margin.  These  correc- 
tions, which  are  about  1000  in  number, 
have  been  generally  attributed  to  Ezra; 
but  as  several  keri-chetibs  are  found  in  the 
sacred  books  the  produce  of  his  own  pen,  it 
is  more  probable  that  they  are  of  later 
date. 

KEY,  in  music,  the  name  of  the  funda- 
mental note  or  tone,  to  which  the  whole 
piece  is  accommodated,  and  in  which  it 
usually  begins  and  always  ends.  There 
are  but  two  species  of  keys  ;  one  of  the 
major,  and  one  of  the  minor  mode,  all  the 
keys  in  which  we  employ  sharps  or  flats 
being  deduced  from  the  natural  keys  of 
C  major  and  A  minor,  of  which  they  are 
mere  transpositions. — The  keys  of  an  or- 
gan or  pianoforte,  are  movable  project- 
ing levers,  made  of  ivory  or  wood,  so 
placed  as  conveniently  to  receive  the  fin- 
gers of  the  performer,  by  which  the  me- 
chanism is  sot  in  motion  and  the  sounds 
produced. 

KEY'STONE,  in  architecture,  the 
highest  central  stone  of  an  arch ;  that 
placed  on  the  top  or  vertex,   to  bind  the 


K,  the  Keystone. 

two  sweeps  together.  In  some  arches  the 
keystone  projects  from  the  face.  In  vault 
cd  (jothic  roofs,  the  keystones  are  usu- 
ally ornamented  with  a  boss  or  Dendant. 


KNi] 


AMI    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


3.m 


KHAN,  an  Asiatic  governor.  In  the 
north  of  Asia  this  title  expresses  the  full 
regal  dignity  ;  but  there  are  also  khrins 
of  provinces,  cities,  Ac.  "  This  is  the 
word,"  says  Sir  William  Jones,  '•  so  va- 
riously and  so  erroneously  written  by 
Europeans.  The  sovereign  lord  of  Tar- 
tary  is  neither  the  chain,  as  our  travellers 
call  hiin,  nor  the  lian,  as  Voltaire  will 
have  it  ;  but  the  khan,  or  can,  with  an 
aspirate  on  the  first  letter." — Khan  is 
frequently  used  to  signify  an  Eastern 
caravansera,  in  which  travellers  find  a 
gratuitous  lodging,  provided  their  stay 
be  limited  to  a  single  night. 

KlXd,  the  chief  magistrate  or  sove- 
reign of  a  nation;  a  man  invested  with 
supreme  authority  over  a  nation,  tribe, 
or  country.  Kings  are  absolute  mon- 
archs,  when  they  possess  the  powers  of 
government  without  control,  or  the  entire 
sovereignty  over  a  nation  :  they  are 
called  limited  monarehs  when  their  power 
is  restrained  by  fixed  laws.  Kings  are 
hereditary  sovereigns,  wlien  they^  hold  the 
powers  of  government  by  right  of  birth 
or  inheritance,  and  elective,  when  raised 
to  the  throne  by  choice.  The  person  of 
the  king  of  England  is  sacred.  He  can- 
not, by  any  process  of  law,  be  called  to 
account  for  any  of  his  acts.  His  concur- 
rence is  necessary  for  every  legislative 
enactment.  He  sends  embassies,  makes 
treaties,  and  even  enters  into  wars  with- 
out any  previous  consultation  with  par- 
liament. He  nominates  the  judges,  and 
the  other  high  officers  of  state,  the  officers 
of  the  army  an  I  navy,  the  governors  of 
colonies  and  dependencies,  the  bishops, 
deans,  and  some  other  dignitaries  of  the 
English  Church.  He  calls  parliament 
together,  and  can  at  his  pleasure  pro- 
rogue or  dissolve  it.  He  is  the  fountain 
of  honor;  all  hereditary  titles  are  de- 
rived from  his  grant  — King  at  arms,  an 
officer  in  England  of  great  antiquity,  and 
formerly  of  great  authority,  whose  Ijusi- 
ness  is  to  direct  the  heralds,  preside  at 
their  chapters,  and  have  the  jurisdiction 
of  armory.  There  are  three  kings  at 
arras,  viz..  garter,  clarencieux,  and  nor- 
roy  {northroy.)  The  first  of  these  is 
styled  principal  king  at  arms,  and  the 
two  latter  provincial  kings,  because  their 
duties  are  confined  to  the  provinces ;  the 
one  (clarencieux,)  officiating  south  of  the 
Trent,  and  the  other  (norroy.)  north  of 
that  river.  There  is  also  a  Lyon  king  at 
arm's  for  Scotland,  and  an  Ulster  king  at 
ar?n.5  for  Ireland,  who.=e  duties  are  nearly 
analogous  to  those  of  England. 

KINGS,  Books  of.  two  canonical  books 


of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called  because 
they  contain  the  history  of  the  kings  of 
Israel  and  Judah,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Solomon,  down  to  the  IJai)y- 
lonish  captivity,  for  the  space  of  near  six 
hundred  years. 

KING'S  J3ENCH,  Bancu.s  Regius^, 
so  called  because  the  king  used  formerly 
to  sit  there  in  person.  It  is  the  supremo 
court  of  common  law  in  England,  consist- 
ing of  the  Lord  Chief  Justice,  and  throo 
puisne  or  inferior  judges,  who  hear  and 
determine,  for  the  most  part,  all  pleas 
which  concern  the  crown. 

KI'OSK,  (a  Turkish  word,)  a  kind  of 
summer-house,  or  open  pavilion,  with  a 
tent-shaped  roof,  and  supported  by  pillars. 

j  Kiosks  have  been  introduced  from  Turkey 

I  and  Persia  into  European  gardens,  which 

'  they  greatly  serve  to  embellisjj. 

I  KIRK,  in  Scotland,  a  church. — Kirk- 
man,  one  of  the  church  of  Scotland. — 
Kirk  sessions,  an  inferior  church-judica- 
tory,  in  Scotland,  consisting  of  the  minis- 

■  ters,  elders,  and  deacons  of  a  parish. 

I  KIT-CAT  CLUB,  the  name  of  a  cele- 
brated association  in  London,  instituted 
about  16S8  by  some  young  men,  origi- 
nally for  convivial  purposes ;  but  as  its 
most  distinguished  members  were  whigs 
in  politics,  it  gradually  assumed  a  politi- 
cal character,  till  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  exclu- 
sively political  in  its  objects.  At  that 
period  it  comprised  above  forty  noblemen 
and  gentlemen  of  the  first  rank  and  qual- 
itj',  merit  and  fortune,  firm  friends  tc 
the  Hanoverian  succession  ;  among  whom 
were  Addison,  Steele,  Marlborough,  Wal- 
pole,  &c.  kc.  It  was  originally  formed 
in  Shire  Lane,  and  derived  its  name  from 
one  Christopher  (Kit)  Kat,  who  supplied 
the  members  with  mutton  pies.  The 
fame  of  this  club  has  been  transmitted 
chiefly  by  the  collection  of  the  portraits 
of  the  members  painted  by  Sir  Godfrey 
Kneller,  himself  a  member,  who  w.as 
obliged  to  invent  a  new-sized  canvass  ac- 
commodated to  the  height  of  walls; 
whence  has  originated  the  application  of 
the  epithet  kit-kat  to  any  portrait  about 
three  quarters  in  length.  It  was  dissolved 
in  the  year  1720. 

KNIGHT.  Originallj',  a  knight  was  a 
youth  ;  and  j'oung  men  being  employed 
as  servants,  hence  it  came  to  signify  a 
servant.  But  among  our  warlike  ances- 
tors, the  word  was  particularly  applied 
to  a  young  man  after  he  was  admitted  to 
the  privilege  of  bearing  arms.  The  ad- 
mission to  this  privilege  was  a  ceremc- 
ny  of   great   importance,    and    was    the 


340 


CVCLOrF.DIA     OF     LlTEi;  ATLUK 


LKNl 


origin  of  the  institution  of  knighthood. 
Hence,  in  feudal  times,  a  knighl  was  a 
man  admitted  to  military  rank  by  a 
certain  ceremony.  Thi.s  privilege  was 
oonfcrred  on  youths  of  family  and  for- 
tune, and  hence  sprung  the  honorable 
title  of  knight,  in  modern  u.sage,  which 
in  dignity  ranks  ne.xt  tonobilify.  Knight- 
hood is  the  highest  rank  of  a  commoner, 
but  a  knight  is  still  a  commoner.  A 
knight  has  the  title  of  .Sir  before  his 
Christian  name,  as,  Sir  John,  Sir  AVil- 
liam.  Anciently,  when  the  Christian 
name  was  not  known,  the  style  was  Sir 
Knight. 

KNIGHT'ED,  created  a  knight. 

KNIGHT-ER'KANT,  or  wandering 
Knight,  one  who  in  the  generous  enthu- 
siasm of  chivalry,  set  out,  attended  by 
his  esquire  or  shield-bearer,  with  the  de- 
sign of  exposing  his  life  wherever  wrong 
was  to  be  redressed.  The  chivalrous  age 
in  which  this  profession  was  taken  up, 
demanded  such  exertions ;  and  though 
poetry  has  given  an  air  of  fiction,  to  the 
adventures  of  knights-errant,  they  are 
founded  on  truth. 

KNIGHT'IIOOD,  the  order  or  frater- 
nity of  knights.  The  order  of  knight- 
hood, as  now  existing,  appears  to  have 
originated  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries,  and  it  was  introduced  into 
England  from  France.  It  was  a  military 
institution,  bilt  there  apjiears  to  hnve 
been  something  of  a  religious  character 
belonging  to  it,  and  the  order  of  knight- 
hood, like  the  orders  of  the  clergy,  could 
be  conferred  only  by  persons  who  were 
themselves  members  of  the  order  In 
early  times  some  kniglits  undertook  the 
protection  of  pilgrims  ;  others  were  vow- 
ed to  the  defence  or  recovery  of  the 
holy  sepulchre ;  others  roved  about  as 
knights-errant,  seeking  adventures.  It 
was  common  to  create  knights  on  various 
occasions.  The  most  honorable  species 
of  knighthood  was  that  conferred  on  the 
field  and  after  a  battle  ;  but  the  more 
common  fashion,  especially  in  France, 
was  to  make  knights  when  a  battle 
was  expected.  In  the  age  of  chivalry, 
the  youth  who  aspircil  to  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  was  first  educated,  in  general, 
a.s  a  page  attached  to  the  family,  and 
especially  to  the  ladies  of  some  noble 
house,  during  which  period  ho  was  also 
trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  riding,  <tc. 
■\Vlien  properly  qualified  for  arms  he  be- 
came an  esquire,  or  squire,  in  which 
capacity  he  attended  on  some  knight,  and 
wn«  his  shield-bearer.  The  third,  and 
highest  rank  of  chivalry,    was   that  of 


knighthood,  which  was  not  conferred  be- 
fore the  twenty-first  year,  except  in  the 
case  of  distinguished  birth  or  great 
achievements.  The  candidate,  when  the 
order  was  conferred  with  full  solemnity, 
had  to  go  through  various  imiiosing  pre- 
liminary ceremonies,  and  was  then  ad- 
mitted with  religious  rites.  Knighthood 
was   conferred    by   the    accolade,    which 


£i;  ?iji^.^ 


Conferring  Knighthoocl. 
from  the  derivation  of  the  name,  should 
appear  to  have  been  originally  an  em- 
brace, but  afterwards  consisted,  as  it  still 
docs,  in  a  blow  of  the  flat  of  a  sword  on 
the  neck  of  the  kneeling  candidate.  The 
oath  of  knighthood  was  previously  ad- 
ministered. Knighthood  is  now  conferred 
in  England  by  the  king,  (or  queen  when 
the  throne  is  filled  by  a  female,)  by  sim- 
ple verbal  declaration,  attended  with  a 
slight  form,  without  any  patenter  other 
written  instrument.  It  gives  to  the  party 
precedence  over  esquires  and  other  un- 
titled gentlemen.  Sir  is  prefixed  to  the 
baptismal  name  of  knights  and  baronets, 
and  their  wives  have  the  legal  designation 
of  Dame,  which  is  ordinarily  converted 
into  Lady.  The  chief  ilistiiu-tidU  of  rank 
which  subsisted  between  knights  in  France 
and  England,  was  that  of  knights  bache- 
lors, imd  knights  bannerets.  The  knight 
bacheli)r  was  iif  the  lower  order,  and  ob- 
tained his  honor  without  any  reference 
to  a  qualification  of  property,  and  many 
of  this  rank  were  mere  adventurers,  who 
offered  their  services  in  war  to  any  suc- 
cessful leader.  The  knight  banneret  was 
one  who  possessed  fiefs  to  a  considerable 
amount,  and  was  obliged  to  serve  in  war 
with  a  greater  attendance,  and  carried  a 
banner.  The  orders  of  knighthood  are 
of  two  cla.saes  ;  either  they  are  associa- 
tions, or  fraternities,  possessing  proper- 


labJ 


AND  THE   VI  Si:  A  ins. 


341 


ty  and  rights  of  their  own,  as  indepen- 
dent bodies,  or  they  are  merely  honorary 
associations,  established  by  sovereigns 
within  their  respective  dominions.  To 
the  former  class  belonged  the  three  cele- 
brated religious  orders  founded  during 
the  Crusades — Templars,  Hospitallers, 
and  Teutonic  Knights,  the  other  class, 
consisting  of  orders  merely  titular,  em- 
braces most  of  the  existing  European 
orders  ;  such  as  the  order  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  the  order  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
order  of  St.  Michael.  The  three  great 
Uritish  orders  are  the  Garter,  the  Thistle, 
and  St.  Tatrick.  The  Garter  is  the  most 
ancient  and  illustrious  of  the  three.  It 
was  founded  by  E.lward  the  Third.  The 
knights,  twenty-tive  in  number,  are  the 
most  eminent  persons  of  the  English  na- 
tion, together  with  many  illustrious  for- 
eigners, chiefly  sovereign  princes.  The 
order  of  the  Thistle  was  instituted  in 
1540,  by  James  the  Fifth  of  Scotland. 
The  number  of  knights  is  sixteen,  all  of 
whom  are  nobility  of  Scotland.  The  or- 
der of  St.  Patrick  was  instituted  in  1783. 
The  number  of  knights  is  twenty-two, 
who  are  peers  of  Ireland.  The  order  of 
the  Bath  differs  in  some  respects  from 
those  spoken  of.  It  is  now  composed  of 
three  classes,  military,  and  civil  knights, 
grand  crosses,  knights  commanders,  and 
knights  companions.  All  these  orders 
have  particular  badges.  There  are  also 
knights  of  the  Guelphic  order,  knights  of 
the  Ionian  order,  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George. 

KXOUT,  a  mode  of  punishment  in 
Russia,  which  at  one  time  was  exercised 
with  the  greatest  possible  barbarity,  but 
which  is  now  less  cruel,  though  it  at  pres- 
ent consists  of  a  severe  scourging  on  the 
back  with  a  leather  strap,  in  the  point  of 
which  wire  is  interwoven.  Formerlj^,  in 
addition  to  this,  the  nose  was  slit  up,  and 
the  ears  were  cut  off. 

K  N  0  W  L'  E  D  G  E,  that  information 
which  the  mind  receives,  either  by  its 
own  experience,  or  by  the  te.^timony  of 
others.  The  beneficial  use  of  knowledge 
is  irisdom.  That  portion  of  knowledge, 
the  truth  of  which  can  be  demonstrated, 
is  science. 

KRAAL,  the  name  given  to  the  villa- 
ges of  the  Hottentots. 

KRA'KEN,  a  name  applied  in  the 
fjibulous  epoch  of  zoology  to  a  marine 
monster  of  gigantic  size. 


L,  the  twelfth  letter  of  the  English  al- 
phabet. It  is  a  semi-vowel,  formed  in 
the  voice  by  intercepting  the  breath  be- 
tween the  tip  of  the  tongue  and  the  fore- 
part of  the  palate,  with  the  mouth  open. 
There  is  something  of  aspiration  in  its 
sound,  and  therefore  our  British  ances- 
tors usually  doubled  it,  or  added  an  h  to 
it;  as  in  linn,  ov  Ihaii,  a  temple.  In  Eng- 
lish words  of  one  syllable  it  is  doubled  at 
the  end,  as  in  all,  uall,  mill,  well,  &c., 
but  not  after  diphthongs  and  digraphs,  as 
foul,  fool,  prowl,  growl,  J'ual,  &c. ;  words 
of  more  syllables  than  one,  as  foretel, 
proportional,  &c.,  are  written  with  a  sin- 
gle /.  In  some  words  I  is  mute,  as  in 
half,  calf]  talk;  chalk.  It  may  be  placed 
after  most  of  the  consonants,  as  in  blue, 
clear, Jlame,  &c.,  but  before  none  of  them. 
As  a  numeral  letter  L  denotes  50  ;  and 
with  a  dash  over  it,  50,000. 

LA,  in  music,  the  syllable  by  which 
Guido  denotes  the  last  sound  of  each  hex- 
achord  :  if  it  begins  in  C,  it  answers  to 
our  A  ;  if  in  G,  to  E  ;  and  if  in  F,  to  D. 

LAB'ADISTS,  a  sect  who  lived  in  the 
17th  century,  the  followers  of  Jean  de 
Labadie,  who  held  that  (iod  can  and  does 
deceive  men,  that  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  is  not  required,  and  other  heret- 
ical opinions. 

LA'BARUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
standard  borne  before  the  emperors ; 
being  a  rich  purple  streamer,  supported 
by  a  spear.  It  was  the  name  given  to 
the  imperial  standard,  upon  which  Con- 
stantine,  after  his  conversion,  blazoned 
the  monogram  of  Christ. 

LA'BOREl),  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  term 
applied  to  works  of  art  wherein  are  ap- 
parent the  marks  of  constraint  in  the  es. 
eeution ;  and  used  in  opposition  to  the 
term  easy  or  free. 

LAB  YRINTH,  literally  a  place,  usu- 
ally subterraneous,  full  of  inextricable 
windings.  Ancient  history  gives  an  ac- 
count of  four  celebrated  labyrinths  ;  the 
Cretan,  Egyptian,  Lemnian,  and  Italian. 
The  first  was  built  by  Da;dalus  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Minos,  to  secure  the  Mino- 
taur ;  the  second  is  said  to  have  been 
constructed  bj'  Psammetichus,  king  of 
Egypt ;  the  third  was  on  the  island  of 
Lemnos,  and  was  supported  by  columns 
of  great  beauty;  and  the  fourth  was 
designated  by  Porsenna.  king  of  Etruria, 
as  a  tomb  for  himself  and  his  successors. 
Of  these  labyrinths  the  Cretan  is  most 
celebrated  in  the  historical  and  mytholo- 


342 


CVCLOIKUIA     OK    I.ITKIiATLKK 


[lam 


gical  writings  of  antiquity;  but  the 
Egyptian  was  by  far  the  most  important, 
both  in  extent  and  magnificence.  The 
latter,  which  was  built  on  the  isle  of  Me- 
roe,  was  avast  e-lifice,  composed  of  twelve 
palaces,  all  contained  within  the  compass 
of  one  wall,  and  communicating  with 
each  other.  It  had  only  one  entrance  ; 
but  the  innumerable  turnings  and  wind- 
ings of  the  terraces  and  rooms  of  which 
it  consisted  rendered  it  impossible  for 
those  who  had  once  entered  within  its 
walls  to  get  out  without  a  guide  It  is 
said  to  have  been  designed  either  as  a 
burial-place  for  the  Egyptian  kings,  or 
for  the  preservation  of  the  sacred  croco- 
diles, the  chief  objects  of  Egyptian  idola- 
try. It  was  partly  demolished  between 
the  reigns  of  Augustus  and  Titus  ;  but 
even  at  the  period  of  Pliny's  visit,  its 
ruins  were  magnificent.  With  regard  to 
the  labyrinth  of  Crete,  no  doubt  can  now 
remain,  after  the  statements  of  Cockerell 
and  Tournefort,  that  its  existence  was  a 
reality,  and  not  merely  a  fabulous  crea- 
tion of  the  Grecian  imagination.  Accord- 
ing to  these  travellers  the  island  of 
Crete  abounds  even  at  the  present  day  in 
extensive  caverns,  one  of  which,  consist- 
ing principally  of  many  long  windings 
and  narrow  passages  that  can  only  lae 
safely  explored  by  means  of  a  clue,  ex- 
hibits a  wonderful  similarity  in  all  es- 
sential particulars  to  the  famous  laby- 
rinth of  Dasdalus.  It  is  impossible,  at 
this  distant  period,  to  pronounce  with 
certainty  on  so  difficult  a  question  ;  but 
the  substantial  coincidences  that  exist 
between  the  ancient  and  modern  laby- 
rinths seem  to  leave  little  doubt  as  to 
their  identity. 

LACIIRYMATO'RY,  in  antiquity,  a 
vessel  in  which  were  collected  the  tears 
of  a  deceased  person's  friends,  and  pre- 
served along  with  the  ashes  and  urn.  It 
was  a  small  glass  bottle  or  phial,  manj' 
of  which  have  been  found  in  the  tombs 
and  sepulchres  of  the  ancients. 

LA'CONISM,  a  short  and  pointed  say- 
ing ;  so  termed  from  the  celebrity  which 
the  Laceda?monians  enjoyed  in  antiquity 
for  their  belief  and  sententious  mode  of 
expressing  themselves  jiroduced  by  the 
severe  di.scipline  of  their  institutions,  and 
the  gravity  which  it  engendered.  When 
they  became  famous  for  this  quality,  they 
appear  to  have  begun  to  aim  at  the  ex- 
hibition of  it  in  rather  an  affected  man- 
ner, of  which  some  curious  instances  are 
contained  in  Herodotus.  None  of  the 
many  Laconisms  recorded  in  ancient  his- 
tory are  more  noble  than  the  expression 


'of  the  Spartan  mother  to  her  son,  when 
presenting  him  with  his  buckler  :  n  toc  ij 
£iri  roi/ — '"either  bring  it  back,  or  be 
brought  home  dead  upon  it." 

LA'UING,  a  term  apjilieil  to  the  goods 
in  a  ship,  whose  quantity  is  limitc<l  by 
her  own  tonnage,  when  the  specific  gravi 
ty  of  the  goods  is  greater  than  water. 

LADY,  this  word  originally  apper- 
tained onlj'  as  a  title  to  the  daughters  of 
earls  ;  but  now,  by  custom,  it  belongs  to 
any  woman  of  genteel  manners  and  edu- 
cation. 

LADY-DAY,  the  25th  of  March,  so 
called  because  it  is  the  day  of  the  An- 
nunciation of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

LAGOON',  a  name  given  to  thosa 
creeks,  or  shallow  lakes,  which  extend 
along  the  coast,  and  which  contain  nu- 
merous small  islands ;  Venice,  for  in- 
stance, is  built  on  sixty  of  them.  To- 
wards the  sea  the  islets  arc  secured  by 
dams,  natural  or  artificial. 

LAIR,  among  sportsmen,  the  place 
where  the  deer  harbor  by  daj'.  This 
term  is  also  used  to  signify  a  place  whero 
cattle  usually  rest  under  shelter;  also 
the  bed  or  couch  of  a  wild  beast. 

LAIKD,  a  title  of  honor  in  the  High- 
lands, equivalent  to  that  of  Lord. 

LA'ITY,  the  great  body  of  the  faithful, 
as  opposed  to  those  who  are  set  apart  for 
the  ministration  of  the  services  and  sac- 
raments— the  clergy.  This  distinction  is 
plainly  observed  in  the  writers  of  the 
third  century — Origen,  Cyprian,  and  Ter- 
tullian  ;  ami  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  prevailed  from  the  first  foundation 
of  Christianity.  The  word  laity  is  prop- 
erly a  general  name  for  the  jjcople  :  in 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers /J'wuoi,  secu- 
lars, I'diwrai,  private  men,  and  A'ii»:o<,  lay- 
men, are  used  indifferently  to  express 
this  class. 

LA'MA,  a  pretended  delegate  of  heav- 
en, or  pontiff  of  Tartary  and  Thibet.  He 
is  worshipped  as  a  supernatural  being 
by  his  subjects,  and  is  never  to  be  seen 
but  in  the  secret  recesses  of  his  palace, 
where  he  sits  cross-legged  on  a  .•■ushion. 
The  people  believe  that  the  supreme  di- 
vinity lives  in  him,  that  he  knows  and 
sees  everything  in  the  deepest  recesses  of 
the  heart,  and  tiiat  he  never  dies,  but  on 
the  dissolution  of  his  mortal  frame  his 
soul  enters  into  the  body  of  a  new-born 
child.  The  worship  of  his  followers  con- 
sists in  clamorous  songs  and  prayers,  in 
splendid  processions,  in  the  solemnization 
of  certain  festivals,  and  in  personal  aus- 
terities. 

LAMENTA'TIONS,  a  canonical  book 


L\s] 


AM)    THE    FINE    AIITS. 


343 


of  the  CM  Testament,  written  by  the 
prophet  Jeremiah.  The  first  four  chap- 
ters of  the  LaiiientatiDns  are  an  abeceda- 
ry, every  verse  or  couplet  beginning  with 
one  of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alplia- 
bet,  in  the  alphabetical  order. 

LAAIPADEl'lIO'llIA,  a  torch  race, 
which  it  was  customary  to  exhibit  at  cer- 
tain sacred  festivals  at  Athens.  The  per- 
formers were  three  young  men,  to  one  of 
whom,  chosen  by  lot,  was  given  a  lighted 
torch,  which  he  was  to  carry  to  the  goal 
unextinguished  ;  or  if  he  failed,  to  deliver 
it  to  the  second  ;  wlio,  if  he  failed  also, 
gave  it  to  the  third  :  whence  a  metaphor 
is  sometimes  derived  by  ancient  writers, 
to  be  applied  to  persons  who  anxiously 
wait  for  the  deaths  of  others.  If  the  run- 
ners slackened  their  pace,  they  were  driv- 
en on  by  the  blows  of  the  spectators. 

LANCE,  a  weapon  consisting  of  a  long 
shaft  with  a  sharp  point,  much  used  by 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  and  also  by  the 
moderns  before  the  invention  of  gunpow- 
der. The  JIacedonian  phalanx  and  the 
Roman  inf.intry,  as  well  as  the  most  bar- 
barous nations,  all  considered  the  lance 
as  one  of  the  most  eft'ective  weapons  ;  and 
even  at  the  present  day  it  is  still  consid- 
ered of  great  value,  though  it  is  now  al- 
most universally  bdrne  by  cavalry.  Al- 
most all  the  armies  of  Europe  have  now 
regiments  of /ancers,  so  culled  from  the 
lance  being  the  chief  ofl'ensive  weapon 
with  wiiich  thej-  are  armed.  The  lances  in 
use  among  the  European  cavalry  have  a 
shaft  of  ash  or  beech  wood,  eight,  twelve, 
or  in  some  cases  even  sixteen  feet  long, 
with  a  steel  point  eight  or  ten  inches  in 
length,  adorned  by  a  small  flag,  the  wav- 
ing of  which  is  said  to  frighten  the  ene- 
m}''s  horses.  The  ancient  lancea  was  a 
general  term  for  missile  weapons  or  jav- 
elins. 

LAX'DAMMAN,  in  Switzerland,  the 
president  of  the  diet  of  the  Helvetic  re- 
public. The  highest  magistrate  in  ten 
of  the  cantons  also  bears  the  title  of 
landamman  ;  in  the  others  he  is  desig- 
nated by  various  appellations. 

LAN'DAU,  the  name  giveti  to  a  pe- 
culiar kind  of  carriage,  which  opens  and 
closes  at  the  top  ;  so  called  from  Landau 
in  Germany,  where  they  were  originally 
made. 

LAXD'FALL,  the  first  land  seen  after 
a  voyage  is  so  called.  A  good  landfall  is 
when  the  land  is  seen  as  expected. 

LAND'GKAVE,  a  title  taken  by  some 
German  counts  in  the  twelftli  century, 
who  wished  to  distinguish  themselves  from 
the  inferior  count.s  uu'ler  tiieir  juri,-dic- 


tion  ;  and  thus  assumed  the  designation 
of  land-graf,  or  count  of  the  whole  coun- 
try. This  was  the  origin  of  the  land- 
graves of  Thuringia,  of  Lower  and  High- 
er Alsace,  the  only  three  who  vveio  prin- 
ces of  the  empire. 

LAND'SCAPE,  the  scenery  presented 
to  the  eye  in  the  country ;  as  also,  in  its 
more  common  acceptation,  a  picture  rep- 
resenting such  scenery.  A  landsciipe  in 
the  latter  sense  may,  however,  become 
allegorical  and  historical  'p  the  meaning 
applied  by  artists  to  tho.;e  terms.  The 
chief  study  of  the  landscape  painter  is 
the  vegetaJole  world,  air,  water,  rocks, 
and  buildings.  To  these  he  may  impart 
an  ideal  beauty,  and  thus  elevate  his 
art  above  mere  topographical  painting; 
which  may  be  applied  to  his  work,  if  he 
merely  copies  without  refinement  what  is 
presented  to  his  eye. 

LAND'SCAPE  GAR'DENING,  the 
art  of  laying  out  grounds  so  as  to  produce 
the  efi'ect  of  natural  landscape.  Its  prin- 
ciples are  the  same  as  those  upon  which 
the  landscape  painter  proceeds  in  com- 
posing a  picture. 

LANGUAGE,  human  speech;  the  ex- 
pression of  ideas  by  words  or  significant 
articulate  sounds,  for  the  communication 
of  thoughts.  Lianguage  consists  in  the 
oral  utterance  of  sounds,  which  usage  has 
made  the  representatives  of  ideas.  When 
two  or  more  persons  customarily  anne.x 
the  same  sounds  to  the  same  ideas,  the 
expression  of  these  sounds  by  one  person 
communicates  his  ideas  to  another.  This 
is  the  primary  sense  of  language,  the  use 
of  which  is  to  communicate  the  thoughts 
of  one  person  to  another  through  the  or- 
gans of  hearing.  Articulate  sounds  are 
represented  by  letters,  marks,  or  charac- 
ters which  form  words.  Hence,  language 
consists  also  in  words  duly  arranged  in 
sentences,  written,  printed,  or  engraved, 
and  exhibited  to  the  ^ye. — The  speech  or 
expression  of  ideas  peculiar  to  a  particu- 
lar nation.  Men  had  originally  one  and 
the  same  language,  but  the  tribes  or 
families  of  men,  since  their  dispersion, 
have  distinct  languages.  Many  philolo- 
gists'have  included  all  known  languages 
under  three  great  divisions: — 1.  Lan- 
guages composed  of  monosyllabic  roots 
without  any  forms  of  grammar.  To  this 
class  belong  the  Chinese  idioms.  2.  Lan- 
guages com  posed  of  monosyllabic  roots,  but 
with  a  great  abundance  of  grammatical 
forms,  as  the  Indo-Germanic,  Armenian, 
anil  other  languages.  3.  Languages  whose 
verbal  roots  consist  in  their  present  form  of 
two  syllables,  and  require  three  consonaits 


344 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITtUATrUE 


[lan 


Ibr  the  expression  of  their  fundamental 
meaning.  This  class  is  limited  to  the 
Schcmitic  lansiuages,  including  the  Ari- 
m.cnn,  the  Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  The 
Indo-Gcrmanic  languages  are  divided 
into — 1.  The  Indian  branch,  comjirising 
the  Sanscrit,  and  its  derivatives.  2.  The 
Medo-Persic  or  Arian  branch,  at  the 
head  of  which  stands  the  Zend.  3.  The 
Teutonic  branch,  with  the  txothic  at  its 
head,  and  comprising  the  different  Ger- 
man dialects,  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  Ice- 
andic,  Swedish,  Danish,  &c.  4.  The 
(Jra'co-Latin  branch,  comprising  the  two 
auciont  classical  languages.  5.  The  Sla- 
vonic branch,  including  the  Lithuanian, 
the  ancient  Prussian,  the  Russian,  the 
Polish,  and  Bohemian.  6.  The  Celtic 
branch,  including  the  AVelsh,  Cornish, 
Arniorican,  th.)  Irish  or  Erse,  the  Gaelic 
or  Highland  Scotch,  and  the  Manx. 

The  comparative  perfection  of  a  lan- 
guage, as  an  instrument  for  the  commu- 
nication of  thought,  depends  mainly  on 
its  copiousness.  In  order  to  estimate 
this,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
classes  of  words  employed  in  a  language 
are  all  reducible  into  two,  which  have 
been  termed  by  some  notional  and  rela- 
tional. The  former  express  distinct  ideas 
or  notions ;  the  latter  serve  to  display 
the  relation,  connection,  and  order  of 
ideas.  Nouns  and  verbs  belong  to  the 
first  class  ;  prepositions,  adverbs,  Ac,  and 
the  signs  denoting  the  inflections  of  verbs 
and  nouns,  to  the  latter.  With  respect 
to  the  former  class,  all  languages,  to  be 
serviceable  for  the  purposes  of  life,  must 
be  sufficiently  copious  to  express  all  dis- 
tinct notions.  But  the  comparative  rich- 
ness of  a  language  is  mainly  shown  by 
the  manner  in  which  this  is  done.  As 
nations  advance  from  barbarism  towards 
civilization,  new  notions,  and  new  varie- 
ties of  notions,  are  constantly  requiring 
utterance.  In  those  in  which  this  can 
easily  be  done  by  composition,  (as  in  (ireek 
and  (terman,)  great  facilities  are  afford- 
ed for  the  easy  expression  of  thought, 
ooinparativoly  with  those  in  which  it  can 
oTiIy  be  effected  by  tlie  laboiioiis  process 
of  borrowing  and  adojiting  words  from 
the  vocabularies  of  more  advanced  na- 
tions. 

But  it  is  in  the  relational  words,  or  modes 
in  which  relations  of  ideas  are  expressed, 
that  the  genius  of  ditfercnt  languages 
most  varies.  Tlie  Chinese,  in  their  sin- 
gular and  obscure  fnngne,  seem  never  to 
have  reaehe<i  lioyond  the  process  of  vary- 
ing the  collocation  ol'thi'ir  unchangeable 
roots  in  the  sentence,  in  order  to  express 


varieties  of  meaning.  The  next  process 
should  appear  to  be  that  of  using  auxil: 
ary  words.  In  many  languages  (our  own 
among  the  number)  relations  are  almost 
wholly  expressed  in  this  manner.  But 
in  others  the  auxiliary  words  have,  in 
course  of  time,  coalesced  with  the  princi- 
pal ;  so  that  many  relations  are  expressed 
by  varying  the  beginning,  termination, 
&,o.,  of  the  principal  word.  This,  at 
least,  is  the  most  probable  origin  of  those 
forms  termed  in  grammar  injlcctionr,  or 
forms  of  declension  and  conjugation,  in 
which  Greek,  Latin,  Sanscrit,  Gerivin, 
and  their  derivative  languages  are  more 
or  less  rich  ;  the  Greek,  for  example,  be- 
ing more  copious  than  the  Latin  or  mod- 
ern German,  in  having  the  dual  form  and 
additional  tenses  (the  aorists,  and  the 
paulo-post  futurum.)  And  some  lan- 
guages (especially  among  the  American 
Indians)  are  so  curiously  constructed  as  to 
carry  the  power  of  inflection  far  beyond 
this  point.  A  complex  idea,  which  in 
English  would  require  to  be  expressed 
by  a  pronoun,  an  adverb,  and  an  auxili- 
ary verb,  (or,  perhaps,  a  second  auxiliary 
verb  also,  e.g.,  "I  desire,"  or  "I  ab 
stain,")  together  with  the  principal  verb, 
would  in  some  American  languages  be 
expressed  merely  by  a  variety  of  the 
form  of  the  principal  verb  itself. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  power  of  inflec- 
tion adds  greatl}'  to  the  copiousness  of 
a  language  ;  and  although  some  enthusi- 
asts, in  their  admiration  of  our  own.  have 
maintained  that  the  process  of  conjugat- 
ing or  declining  by  auxiliary  words  and 
particles  is  more  convenient,  and  affords 
more  variety  and  harmony  than  that  by 
changes  in  the  termination  of  tlio  verb  or 
noun,  it  is  probable  that  few  candid  rea- 
soners  will  hold  the  same  (jpinion.  But 
there  are  distinctions  in  language,  aris- 
ing out  of  relations  simply  iiuaginarj-, 
wiiich  may  be  pronounced  unnecessary 
and  cumbersome.  Such  are  the  genders, 
common  to  almost  all  languages  of  tlio 
Indo-European  family  except  our  own, 
but  for  which  it  would  be  difficult  "to  as- 
sign either  utility  or  beauty. 

Another  and  a  more  substantial  disad- 
vantage of  language  rich  in  inflections, 
if  the  fact  be  true,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
greater  difficulty  which  common  people 
are  supjKised  to  have  in  framing  tiieir 
speech  grammntically  and  accurately  un- 
der this  system  than  the  otlicr.  Thil 
greater  the  niceties  of  a  language,  it  hiw 
been  urged,  the  greater  the  difference 
must  inevitably  be  between  the  variety 
spoken  and  written  by  educated  men  and 


lap] 


AND    THE    P'INE    AKTS. 


34i 


that  in  use  among  the  uneilucateJ;  and  i 
it  has  been  contundeJ  that  in  ancient  i 
Italy,  for  instance,  the  rustic  language 
was  altogether  ditFerent  from  the  written 
Latin.  But  the  facts  on  which  this  rea- 
soning rests  ma}' be  pronounced  extrejiely 
controvertible.  There  are  certainly  some 
grounds  fur  the  suspicion  that  there  was 
an  unusual  difference  between  the  vul- 
gar and  the  polished  Roman  tongue,  at 
least  in  the  later  times  of  the  empire; 
but  if  this  was  alwaj's  the  case,  it  is  sin- 
gular that  Plautus  and  Terence  should 
nowhere  furnish  us,  by  way  of  heighten- 
ing the  ludicrous,  with  instances  of  un- 
grammatical  locution.  The  language  of 
ancient  Greece  was  more  refined  and  in- 
flective than  that  of  Rome ;  and  there  is 
no  appearance  that  there  was  a  greater 
diversity  between  the  speech  of  the  peas- 
ant and  the  philosopher  and  rhetorician 
than  in  any  modern  country.  In  Attica 
the  very  reverse  seems  to  have  been  the 
truth,  since  its  most  elegant  writers  and 
orators  appear  carefully  to  have  modelled 
their  language  on  the  common  dialect  of 
their  countrymen.  And,  finally,  the  wild 
Inrlians  of  America  speak  with  purity  a 
language  often  surpassing  in  variety  of 
inllections  those  of  the  most  civilized  and 
illustrious  nations  of  the  Old  World. 

LANGUEN'TE,  in  music,  a  direction 
to  the  performer,  when  prefi.xed  to  a 
composition  denoting  that  it  is  to  be  per- 
formed in  a  languishing  or  soft  manner. 

LAO'COON,  in  fabulous  history,  the 
priest  of  Apollo  or  Neptune  during  the 
Trojan  war.  While  he  was  engaged  in 
sacrificing  a  bull  to  Xeptune,  two  enor- 
mous serpents  sent  by  Minerva,  in  re- 
venge for  his  having  endeavored  to  dis- 


suade the  Trojans  from  admitting  the 
famous  wooden  horse  within  their  wall*, 
issued  from  the  sea;  and  having  fastenefi 
on  his  two  sons,  whom  he  vainly  endeav- 
ored to  save,  at  last  attacked  the  father 
himself,  and  crushed  him  to  death  in  their 
complicated  folds.  This  story  has  gained 
immortal  celebrity  from  its  forming  the 
subject  of  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
groups  of  sculpture  in  the  whole  history 
of  ancient  Art.  The  composition  is  py- 
ramidal, and  represents  Laocoon  and  his 
two  sons  writhing  and  expiring  in  the 
convulsions  of  the  serpents.  Agony  iu 
an  intense  degree  is  exhibited  in  the 
countenance  and  convulsed  body  of  La- 
ocoon, who  is  attempting  to  disengage 
himself  from  the  serpents  ;  and  the  sons 
are  represented  as  imploring  assistance 
from  their  helpless  parent.  This  famous 
group  of  sculpture  was  discovered  at 
Rome  among  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of 
Titus,  at  the  beginning  of  the  I6th  cen- 
turj',  and  afterwards  placed  in  the  Far- 
nese  palace,  whence  it  found  its  way  to 
the  Vatican.  It  was  executed  by  Poly- 
dorus,  Agesander,  Athenodorus,  the  three 
celebrated  artists  of  Rhodes. 

LAP'IDARY,  one  who  polishes  and 
engraves  stones.  This  is  effected  by 
means  of  friction  produced  by  wheels  of 
various  metal,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  stone  to  be  worked.  Thus  dia- 
monds require  wheels  of  soft  steel ;  ru- 
bies, sapphires,  and  topazes,  copper 
wheels  ;  emeralds,  amethysts,  &c.,  leaden 
wheels — worked  with  oil  and  various 
powders. — The  term  lapidary  is  also  used 
for  a  virtuoso  skilled  in  the  nature,  kinds, 
Ac.  of  precious  stones,  or  a  merchant  who 
deals  in  them. — Lapidary -style,  denotes 
that  which  is  proper  for  monumental  or 
other  inscriptions. 

LA'PIS  LA'ZULI,  in  painting,  a  stono 
of  an  azure  or  blue  color,  of  which  the 
paint  called  ultramarine  is  made.  It  ia 
a  combination  of  silex,  the  blue  fluate  of 
lime  and  sulphate  of  lime,  and  iron  ;  is 
very  compact  and  hard,  and  is  found  in 
lumps  of  a  beautiful  blue  color,  richly 
variegated  with  clouds  of  white,  and 
veins  of  shining  gold  color. 

LA'PIS  MARMO'REUS,  in  archeol- 
ogy, a  marble  stone  in  Westminster  Hall, 
in  the  midst  of  which  stood  a  chair 
wherein  the  English  kings  anciently  sat 
at  their  coronation.  The  courts  of  Chan- 
cery and  King's  Bench  were  erected  over 
this  stone. 

LA'PITIIiE,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
people  of  Thessaly,  chiefly  known  to  U9 
from  their  fabled  contests  with  the  Cen- 


34G 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[lat 


taurs.  The  bvttle  between  the  Centaurs 
and  the  Lapithre  has  been  described  by 
Hesiod,  and  by  Ovid  with  grout  minute- 
ness. To  the  Lapith;*  has  been  attributed 
the  invention  of  bits  and  bridles  for 
horses. 

LAPSE,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  an  omis- 
sion on  the  part  of  the  patron  to  present 
to  a  benelice  within  six  months  after  it  is 
vacant,  upon  which  default  the  ordinary 
has  a  right  to  collate  to  the  said  benefice. 
— hapsed  Jbegacy,  one  which  falls  or  is 
lost  by  a  lapse;  as  where  the  legatee 
dies  before  the  testator,  or  where  a  legacy 
is  given  upon  a  future  contingency,  and 
the  legatee  dies  before  the  contingency 
happens. 

LAR'CENY,  is  the  fraudulent  taking 
by  a  person  of  the  goods  of  another,  with- 
out his  consent,  with  the  intent,  on  the 
part  of  the  taker,  to  appropriate  them  to 
his  own  use.  Larceny  was  formerly  di- 
vided, in  England,  into  two  kinds,  grand 
and  petty  ;  the  former  being  the  stealing 
of  an  article  over  the  value  of  one  shil- 
ling, the  latter,  that  of  an  article  not 
over  that  value.  The  same  division  of 
the  kinds  of  the  offence,  according  to  the 
value  of  the  thing  stolen,  is  made  in  some 
of  the  United  States.  But  this  distinction 
is  abolished  in  England  by  a  statute.  In 
that  country,  tlie  punishment  for  grand 
larceny  was  death;  but,  most  frequently 
of  late  years,  it  h.as  been  commuted  for 
transportation;  and,  now,  the  punish- 
ment of  all  simple  larceny,  of  whatever 
value,  is,  the  imprisonment  or  transpor- 
tation. In  the  United  States,  the  pun- 
ishment is  usually  imprisonment  in  the 
common  jail,  or  penitentiary,  for  a  longer 
or  shorter  period. 

LA'RES,  in  antiquity,  the  domestic  or 
householi]  gods  among  the  Romans,  which 
the  family  honored  as  their  protectors. 
They  were  Linages  of  wood,  stone,  or 
metal,  and  generally  stood  upon  the 
hearth  in  a  kind  of  shrine. 

LAR'GOandLARGIIET'TO,  (7<a/£a)i,) 
musical  terms,  directing  to  slow  move- 
ment. Ldnrgo  is  one  degree  quicker 
than  grave,  and  two  degrees  quicker  than 
adagio. 

L  AR'VA,  spectres  of  the  deceased  vrere 
so  termed  by  the  Romans:  mere  empty 
forms  or  phantoms,  as  their  name  indi- 
cates;  yet  endowed  with  a  sort  of  exist- 
ence resembling  life,  since  they  were  to 
be  propitiated  by  libation  and  sacrifice. 
The  larva  of  Caligula,  according  to  Sue- 
tonius, was  often  seen  in  his  palace  after 
his  decease.  The  larva;  are  described  by 
Soneca,  and  often  represented  in  paint- 


ings and  on  gems  under  the  figure  of  a 
skeleton  ;  sometimes  under  those  of  old 
men,  with  shorn  locks  and  long  beards, 
carrying  an  owl  on  their  hands. 

LA'Ri'NX,  an  organ  of  the  voice,  be- 
ing a  cartilaginous  cavity  connected  with 
the  windpipe,  and  on  the  size  and  flexi- 
bility of  which  depend  the  powers  and 
tones  of  the  human  voice.  The  superior 
opening  of  the  larynx  is  called  the  glottis. 

LASCAR',  in  the  East  Indies,  a  native 
seaman,  or  a  gunner. 

LAT'ERAN,  a  church  at  Rome,  the 
Pope's  see,  and  the  metropolitan  or  the 
whole  world,  dedicated  to  St.  John  Late- 
ran.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Ro- 
man family  of  the  Laterani,  who  possessed 
a  palace  on  this  spot,  which  was  seized 
by  Nero,  and  became  from  his  time  an 
imperial  residence.  The  Lateran  palace 
was  given  by  Constantine  to  the  popes, 
who  continued  to  inhabit  it  until  their 
retirement  to  Avignon,  when  it  was  ex- 
changed for  the  Vatican.  The  building 
was  then  converted  into  a  church.  Eleven 
councils  have  been  held  in  the  Basilica 
of  this  name  (hence  styled  Lateran  coun- 
cils in  ecclesiastical  history,)  of  which 
four  are  considered  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics to  be  general.  The  last  of  these  (or 
the  r2tli  General,  according  to  the  same 
computation)  is  the  most  celebrated.  It 
was  held  in  1215  by  Innocent  III.,  and 
is  principally  famous  as  establishing  the 
Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist, 
using  for  the  first  time  the  term  transub- 
stantiation  for  the  change  of  the  elements. 
This  council  was  ctmvoked  on  the  occasion 
of  the  heresy  of  the  Albigenses,  and  its 
exposition  of  the  Catholic  faith  is  directed 
principally  against  them.  It  established 
also  some  canons  for  the  maintenance  of 
discipline  among  the  clergy,  and  that 
which  enforces  confession  and  commun- 
ion upon  all  the  faithful  at  least  once  a 
year. 

LAT'ICLAVE,  in  antiquity,  an  orna- 
ment of  dress  worn  by  Roman  senators. 

LAT'IN,  the  language  spoken  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  or  the  inhabitants  of 
Latium,  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 
The  Latin  tongue  was,  for  a  while,  con- 
fined almost  wjiolly  within  the  walls  of 
Rinne  ;  nor  would  the  Romans  allow  the 
common  use  of  it  to  their  nciglibors,  or  to 
the  nations  they  subdued:  but,  by  de- 
grees, they  in  time  became  sensible  of 
the  necessity  of  its  being  generally  un- 
derstood for  the  convenience  of  com 
merce;  and  accordingly  used  their  en- 
deavors that  all  the  nations  subject  to 
their   cmi)iro,   should  be   united  bv  one 


law] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


347 


common  language,  so  that  at  length  they 
imposel  the  use  of  it  bv  an  express  law. 

LATITL'D[X.\'KIAXS,  in  ecclesias- 
tical history,  a  class  of  English  divines 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  opposed  alike 
to  the  high  tenets  of  the  ruling  party  in 
the  church,  and  the  fanaticism  which  then 
distinguished  so  luany  of  the  Dissenters. 
Henry  More,  and  the  other  Platonizing 
divines  of  the  time,  were  sometimes  com- 
prehended under  this  appellation.  The 
word  has  been  since  very  generally  used 
to  designate  those  who  hold  opinions  at 
variance  with  the  more  rigid  interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture  and  church  traditions, 
or  merely  as  a  term  of  party  vitupera- 
tion. 

LA'TRI  A,  the  highest  kind  of  worship, 
or  that  paid  to  God  :  distinguished  by  the 
Catholics  from  dul'ia,  or  the  inferior  wor- 
ship paid  to  saints. 

LAU'ilEATE,  literally  crowned  with 
laurels ;  applied  at  present  to  a  well- 
known  officer  in  the  royal  household.  At 
the  Certamina,  or  gymnastic  and  other 
contests  celebrated  under  the  Roman  em- 
perors, especially  at  the  Quinquatria,  or 
Fe.ast  of  Minerva,  poets  also  contended, 
and  the  prize  was  a  crown  of  oak  or  olive 
leaves.  But  it  was  from  some  tradition- 
ary belief  respecting  the  coronation  of 
Virgil  and  Horace  with  laurel  in  the 
Capitol,  (of  which,  however,  no  record  is 
e.xtant.)  that  the  dignity  of  poet  laureate 
was  invented  in  the  14th  century,  and 
conferred  on  Petrarch  at  Rome  by  the 
senator  or  supreme  magistrate  of  the 
city.  It  was  intended  to  confer  the  same 
honor  on  Tasso,  who,  however,  died  on 
the  night  before  the  proposed  celebration. 
In  1725  and  1776  it  was  granted  to  two 
celebrated  iinprovisatori,  tlie  Signor  Ru- 
fetti  and  the  Signora  Morelli,  better  known 
by  the  name  of  Corilla.  In  most  Euro- 
pean countries  the  sovereign  has  assumed 
the  privilege  of  nominating  a  court  poet 
with  various  titles.  In  France  and  Spain 
these  have  never  been  termed  poets  lau- 
reate ;  but  the  imperial  poet,  or  Poeta 
Cesareo,  in  Germany,  was  invested  with 
the  laurel.  This  crown,  however,  was 
customarily  given  at  the  universities  in 
the  middle  ages  to  such  persons  as  took 
degrees  in  grammar  and  rhetoric,  of 
which  poetry  formed  a  branch  ;  whence, 
according  to  some  authors,  the  term  Bac- 
calaureatus  has  been  derived.  In  Eng- 
land traces  of  a  stipendiary  poet  royal  are 
found  as  early  as  Henry  III  ,  and  of  a 
poet  laureate  bj'  that  name  under  Edward 
IV.  Skolton,  under  Henry  VII.  and 
VIII.,  was  created  poet  laureate  by  the 


universities  of  O.tford  and  Cambridge, 
and  appears  to  have  held  the  same  dig- 
nity at  court ;  but  the  academical  and 
court  honor  were  distinct  until  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  university  custom,  of 
which  Henry  VIII. 's  reign  exhibits  the 
last  instance.  Royal  poets  laureate  are 
supposed  not  to  have  begun  to  write  in 
English  until  after  the  Reformation. 
The  office  was  made  patent  by  Charles  I., 
and  the  salary  fixed  at  ;elOO  annually, 
and  a  tierce  of  Spanish  Canary  wine. 
Under  tjueen  Anne  it  was  placed  in  the 
control  of  the  lord-cbamberlain.  In  the 
reign  of  George  III.  the  annual  tierce  of 
wine  was  commuted  for  an  increase  of 
salary,  and  at  the  close  of  the  same  reign 
the  custom  of  requiring  annual  odes  from 
the  lord-chamberlain  was  discontinued. 
The  most  distinguished  poets  in  recent 
time.*  who  have  held  the  office  are 
Southey,  Wordsworth,  and  Tennj'son. 

LAUREA'TIOX,  in  the  Scotch  univer- 
sities, signifies  the  act  of  taking  the  de- 
gree of  master  of  arts,  which  the  students 
are  permitted  to  do  after  four  years' 
study. 

LAUREXTA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  a  fes- 
tival kept  by  the  Romans  on  the  '23d  of 
December,  in  memory  of  Acca  Laurentia, 
the  nurse  of  Romulus  and  Remus.  She 
was  called  Lupa  by  way  of  nick-name  ; 
hence  the  story  of  the  wolf  that  suckled 
the  royal  twins. 

LAW,  an  established  or  permanent 
rule,  prescribed  by  the  supreme  power  of 
a  state  to  its  subjects,  for  regulating  their 
social  actions.  Laws  may  be  divided  into 
the  following  classes  :  declaratory  laws  ; 
directory  laws  ;  remedial  laws  ;  and  pro- 
hibitory and  penal  laws.  Declaratory 
laws  only  declare  what  the  law  shall  be, 
not  what  it  has  been,  or  is.  Directory 
laws  are  those  which  prescribe  rules  of 
conduct,  or  limit  or  enlarge  rights,  or 
point  out  modes  of  remedy.  Remedial 
laws  are  those  whose  object  it  is  to  redress 
some  private  injury,  or  some  public  in- 
convenience. Prohibitory  and  penal  laws 
are  those  which  forbid  certain  things  to 
be  done  or  omitted,  under  a  penalty,  or 
vindicatory  sanction.  The  legislation  of 
no  country,  probably,  ever  gave  origin  to 
its  whole  body  of  laws.  In  the  very  for- 
mation of  society,  the  principles  of^  nat- 
ural justice,  and  the  obligations  of  good 
faith,  must  have  been  recognized  before 
any  common  legislature  was  acknowl- 
edged. Debts  were  contracted,  obliga- 
tions created,  personal  property  acquired, 
and  lands  cultivated,  before  any  positive 
rules  were  fi.xed  as  to  the  rights  of  posses- 


348 


CVCLOl'EIilA     OV     LITIKATUKK 


[laz 


sion  and  enjoyment  growing  out  of  them. 
The  first  ruiliiuents  of  jurisprudence  re- 
sulted from  general  consent  or  acquies- 
cence ;  and  when  legislation  began  to  act 
upon  it,  it  was  rather  to  confirm,  alter,  or 
add  to,  than  to  supersede,  the  primitive 
principles  adopted  into  it.  The  forma- 
tion of  codes,  or  S3'stems  of  general  law, 
for  the  government  of  a  people,  and 
adapted  to  their  wants,  takes  place  only 
in  advanced  stages  of  societj',  when  knowl- 
edge is  considerably  diffused,  and  legisla- 
tors have  the  means  of  ascertaining  the 
best  principles  of  policy  and  the  best  rules 
vfiir  justice,  not  by  mere  speculation  sind 
theory,  but  by  the  results  of  experience, 
and  the  reasoning  of  the  learned  and  the 
wise. — We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  sep- 
arate definitions  of  the  word  law,  as  it  is 
variously  applied. — Municipal  or  civil 
laic,  is  a  rule  of  civil  conduct  prescribed 
by  the  supreme  power  of  a  state,  com- 
manding what  its  subjects  are  to  do,  and 
])rohibiting  wliat  they  are  to  forbear. — 
The  law  of  nature,  otherwise  called  ethics, 
or  morals,  comprehends  those  rules  of 
right  and  wrong,  of  which  the  sentiment 
is  in  every  man's  breast,  and  of  the  jus- 
tice of  which  reflection  affords  sufficient 
conviction.  The  divine  law  is  that  which, 
not  being  naturally  felt,  nor  discovered 
by  reflection,  is  found  only  in  inspired 
writings. — The  law  of  nations  is  that  rule 
of  conduct  which  nations  are  to  observe 
toward  each  other.  This  is  founded  upon 
the  law  of  nature;  but  either  ascertained 
or  modified  by  usage,  or  by  mutual  com- 
pacts.— The  icritten  law,  those  laws  or 
rules  of  action  prescribed  or  enacted  bj'  a 
sovereign  or  state,  and  promulgated  and 
recorded  in  writing.  Unwritten  or  coni- 
mon  law,  a  rule  of  action  which  derives 
its  authority  from  long  usage,  or  estab- 
lished custom,  which  has  been  immeraori- 
ally  received  and  recognized  bj' juilicial 
tribunals. — Ecclesiastical  or  canon  laic,  a 
rule  of  action  prescribed  for  the  govern- 
ment of  a  church. — Martial  law,  the  rules 
ordained  for  the  government  of  an  army 
or  military  force. — Marine  laws,  rules 
for  tlie  regulation  of  navigation,  and  the 
commercial  intercourse  of  nations. — 
Physical  laws,  the  invariable  tendency 
or  determination  of  any  species  of  matter 
to  a  particular  form  with  definite  proper- 
ties, and  the  determination  of  a  body  to 
certain  motions,  changes,  and  relations, 
which  uniformly  take  place  in  the  same 
circumstances. — The  Mosaic  law,  the  in- 
stitutions of  Moses,  or  the  code  of  laws 
prescribed  to  the  Jews,  as  recorded  in  the 
Old  Testament.     That  part  which  relates 


to  the  mere  external  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies to  be  observed  by  them,  as  distinct 
from  the  moral  \  recepts,  is  called  tho 
ceremonial  law. 

L.\Y.  the  lyric  poems  of  the  old  French 
minstrels,  or  trouveres,  were  termed  lais  ; 
but  the  title  appears,  in  modern  usage,  to 
be  peculiarly  appropriate  to  narrative 
poems,  or  serious  subjects  of  modcrato 
length  in  simple  stvle  and  light  metre. 

LAY  BKOTH'ER.S,  persons  received 
into  convents  of  monks,  under  the  threo 
vows,  but  not  in  holy  orders.  The  intro- 
duction of  this  class  of  devotees  appears 
to  have  begun  in  the  11th  century.  They 
are  dressed  somewhat  difTerently  from  the 
other  monks  or  brothers  of  the  choir,  and 
often  employed  in  the  manual  exercises 
necessary  for  the  uses  of  the  community. 
The  Carthusian  and  Cistercian  orders  are 
said  to  have  first  recognized  the  distinc- 
tion, and  their  example  was  followed  by 
the  other  orders.  The  same  distinction 
exists  in  monasteries  of  females  between 
the  nuns,  properly  so  called,  and  the  lay 
sisters,  or  sisters  converse. 

LAY  EL'DERS,  in  Presbyterian 
churches,  ministers  of  ecclesiastical  juris- 
diction, not  ordained  as  clergymen,  who 
assist  the  pastor  in  each  congregation. 
The  divines  of  that  persuasion  rest  the 
appointment  of  lay  elders  in  some  meas- 
ure on  that  of  presbyters  "  in  every  city," 
by  Paul  and  Barnabas,  who,  they  ima- 
gine, frcrm  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
mentioned,  could  not  have  been  all 
preachers. 

LAY'.AIAN,  the  appellation  by  which 
the  rest  of  the  communitj'  are  distinguish- 
ed from  the  clergy. — Layman  or  lay-fis- 
ure,  among  painters,  signifies  a  small 
statue,  whose  joints  are  so  formed  that  it 
may  be  put  into  anj'  attitude  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adjusting  the  drapery  of  figures. 

LA'ZAK-HOUSE,  or  LAZARET'TO, 
a  public  building  in  the  southern  Euro- 
pean states  of  the  nature  of  an  hospital, 
for  the  reception  of  the  poor  and  those 
afllicted  with  contagious  disorders.  In 
some  places  lazarettoes  are  set  apart  foi 
the  performance  of  quarantine  ;  in  which 
ease  only  those  are  admitted  who  have 
arrived  from  countries  infested  by  the 
plague,  or  suspected  of  being  so. 

LAZARLSTS,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
a  body  of  missionaries,  founded  by  St. 
Vincent  de  I'aul  in  1632  ;  so  termed  from 
occupying  the  jniory  of  St.  Lazarus,  at 
Paris,  as  their  head-quarters.  Their 
primary  object  was  to  dispense  religious 
instruction  and  assistance  among  the 
])oorcr  iiiiiiiV)itanls  of  the   rural  districts 


LECj 


AND    'IHK    FiNK    AliTS. 


:19 


of  France.  They  were  dispersed  at  the 
time  of  the  revolution,  but  have  since  le- 
established  a  congregation  at  Paris;  and 
the  French  Government  lias  lately  pro- 
jected entrusting  them  with  the  spiritual 
care  of  the  colony  at  Algiers. 

LAZARUS.  SAINT,  ORDER  OF,  a 
military  order  of  religious  persons,  ori- 
ginally an  association  of  knights,  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  lepers,  ,tc.,  in 
lazar-houses  or  hospitals,  especially  in 
the  Holy  Land.  Being  driven  out  of 
Palestine  in  1253,  they  followed  St.  Louis 
to  France.  In  1490,  their  order  was  sup- 
pressed by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.;  and 
united  with  that  of  St.  John  ;  but  the  bull 
was  not  universally  received.  In  1572, 
they  were  united  in  Italy  with  the  order 
of  St.  Maurice  ;  in  1608,  in  France,  with 
that  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel.  The 
knights  of  these  united  orders  were  al- 
lowed to  marry. 

LAZZARO'NI,  a  name  given  to  the 
poorer  classes  at  Naples,  from  the  hospi- 
tal of  St.  Lazarus,  which  served  as  a 
refuge  for  the  destitute  in  that  city. 
Forty  years  ago  two  large  sections  of  the 
people  were  generally  comprehended  un- 
der this  name,  the  fishermen,  and  the 
laz/.aroni,  properly  so  called,  who  lived  in 
the  streets,  and  performed  no  other  labor 
but  that  of  errand  porters  and  occasional 
servants.  These  alone  were  estimated  at 
40,000.  These  lazzaroni  formed  a  power- 
ful community,  which  under  Masaniollo, 
accomplished  the  revolution  of  Naples ; 
and,  in  later  times  overthrew  the  popular 
government,  under  the  influence  of  Car- 
dinal Rulfo  and  the  English  party.  But 
during  the  French  occupation  of  Najiles 
they  ceased  to  e.xist  as  a  distinct  clas.^ ; 
and  the  name  is  now  only  used  to  desig- 
nate, in  general  language,  the  mob  or 
populace  of  that  great  city. 

LE.4D'ING  NOTE,  in  music,  the  sharp 
seventh  of  the  s^ale. 

LEADS,  or  SPACE  LINES,  are  pieces 
of  type  metal  cast  to  specific  thickness 
and  lengths,  lower  than  ty))es,  so  that 
*  they  do  not  make  any  impression  in  print- 
ing, but  leave  a  white  space  where  pla- 
ced. Their  general  use  is  to  be  placed 
between  the  lines  when  a  work  is  not 
closely  printed,  which  is  considered  to 
look  better  than  when  printed  solid,  and 
also  to  branch  out  the  heads  of  pages  and 
titles. 

LEAGUE,  in  politics,  an  alliance  be- 
tween two  or  more  powers,  in  order  to 
execute  some  common  enterprise.  It  is 
more  active,  and  less  durable,  than  an 
alliance  or  a  confederacy  ;  both  of  which 


have  some  permanent  object,  while  neither 
necessarily  requires  active  co-operation. 
In  the  middle  ages,  the  word  league  was 
used  nearly  in  the  sense  now  attached  to 
these  latter  terms:  hence  we  read  of 
the  Hanseatic  league,  and  of  the  three 
leagues  still  subsisting  in  the  canton  of 
the  Grisons  in  Switzerlaml ;  both  of 
which  were  more  properly  confederacies. 
The  word  is  of  Spanish  origin;  and  it; 
has  been  said  that  the  period  of  its  com- 
monest use  in  political  language  was 
commensurate  with  that  during  which  the 
Spanish  government  exercised  the  great- 
est inOuence  among  those  of  Europe — 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 

LEASE,  in  law,  a  demise  of  lands  or 
tenements,  or  a  conveyance  of  them,  gene- 
rally in  consideration  of  rent  or  other 
annual  recompense,  for  term  of  years, 
for  life,  or  at  will,  provided  it  be  for  a 
shorter  term  than  the  lessor  has  in  the 
premises.  The  party  letting  the  lands, 
&c.  is  called  the  lessor,  and  the  party  to 
whom  they  are  let,  the  lessee.  Any  one 
of  the  conditions  of  a  lease  not  being 
complied  with,  the  proprietor  may  resume 
possession. 

LECTERN  or  LET'TERN,  a  reading 
desk  or  stand  for  the  larger  books,  used 
in  the  service  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  The  lecterti  was  sometimes  a  fix- 
ture of  stone  or  marble,  but  it  wasoftener 
constructed  of  wood  or  brass,  and  mova- 
ble. It  was  of  various  forms,  sometimes 
highly  decorated  and  enriched ;  a  fre- 
quent form  of  the  brass  leftern  was  that 
of  a  pelican  or  an  eagle,  with  its  wings 
expanded  to  receive  the  book. 

LECTI'CA,  a  sort  of  couch  used  by  the 
Romans  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  se- 
dan chair,  or  rather  the  palanquin,  is 
employed  by  the  moderns,  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  the  person  carried  on  the 
lectica  reclined.  It  was  used  also  for  the 
conveyance  of  .dead  bodies  to  the  funeral 
pile.  The  persons  who  carried  the  lectica 
were  called  lecticarii,  whose  number  in 
the  Lower  Empire  is  said  to  have  amount- 
ed to  11,000 

LEC'TISTER'NIUM,  a  religious  festi- 
val or  ceremony  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, celebrated  during  times  of  public 
calamity,  and  remarkable  as  a  singular 
relic  of  barbarous  superstition,  retaining 
the  impression  of  a  very  rude  age.  In 
this  festival  the  gods  themselves  were 
invited  to  the  entertainment ;  their  stat- 
ues were  taken  from  their  pedestals,  laid 
on  couches  with  pillows  and  pedestals, 
and  placed  at  the  table,  while  the  ser- 
vants used  gravely  to  convey  the  viands 


350 


CYCLOrKDIA     OK     LITKUATCKK 


[lko 


to  the  idols'  lips.  The  first  festival  of 
this  sort,  according  to  Livy,  which  took 
place,  was  held  in  the  .year  of  Rome  334, 
on  the  occasion  of  a  contagious  disease 
which  committed  frightful  ravages  among 
their  cattle,  and  lasted  for  eight  succes- 
sive daj-s.  On  the  celebration  of  this  festi- 
val enemies  were  said  to  forget  their  ani- 
mosity, and   all  prisoners  were  liberated. 

LECTOR,  in  the  early  church,  a  per- 
son set  apart  fur  the  purpose  of  reading 
parts  of  the  Bible  and  other  writings 
of  a  religious  character  to-  the  people. 
They  were  consecrated  by  prayers  and 
ceremonies  for  this  office,  and  hi  the 
third  century  appear  to  have  formed 
proper  officers  of  the  church. 

LECTURE,  a  discourse  read  or  pro- 
nounced on  any  subject  ;  usually,  a  formal 
or  methodical  discourse,  intended  for  in- 
struction ;  as,  a  lecture  on  morals,  philos- 
ophy, rhetoric,  or  theology  :  but  the  term 
is  applied  in  a  more  extended  sense  to 
every  species  of  instruction  communica- 
ted viva  voce.  In  the  Scotch  and  conti- 
nental universities,  as  well  as  those  re- 
cently established  in  England,  the  great 
business  of  teaching  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  public  lectures  delivered  at 
stated  periods,  and  embracing  the  differ- 
ent subjects  included  in  the  curriculum 
of  study. —  Pulpit  lectures  have  for  their 
object  some  portion  of  Scripture,  which  is 
explained,  and  the  doctrines  therein  con- 
tained stated  and  enforced. 

LEG'ACY,  in  law,  a  bequest  or  gift 
by  will  of  any  personal  effects  ;  the  per- 
son bequeathing  is  called  the  testator, 
and  he  to  whom  it  is  bequeathed  the  leg- 
atee. There  is  also  a  residuary  lei^atee, 
or  one  to  whom,  after  the  several  de- 
vises or  bequests  made  by  will,  the  resi- 
due of  the  testator's  estate  and  effects  are 
given. 

LEG'ATE,  the  pope's  ambassador  to 
foreign  countries  ;  either  a.  cardinal  or  a 
bishop.  The  power  of  a  legate  is  some- 
times given  without  the  title.  It  was  one 
of  the  ecclesiastical  privileges  of  England 
from  the  Norman  conquest,  that  no  for- 
eign legrfle  should  be  obtruded  upon  the 
English,  unless  the  king  should  ilesire  it 
upon  some  extraordinary  emergency,  as 
when  a  case  was  too  difficult  for  the  Eng- 
lish prelates  to  detcriniiie. 

LE(;A'TION,a  term  denoting  the  body 
of  official  persons  attaclied  to  an  embassy. 
Hence  secretary  of  lefratiou. 

LEGA'TO,  (Italian,)  in  music,  a  word 
used  in  an  opposite  sensu  to  staccato,  and 
implying  that  the  notes  of  a  movement  or 
pasflDgc  to  which  it  is  affi.xed  are  to  be  pcr- 


formel  in  a  close,  smooth,  ani  gliding 
manner. 

LEGEND,  a  book  used  in  the  ancient 
Roman  churches,  containing  the  lessons 
that  were  to  be  read.  The  word  was 
afterwards  used  to  denote  a  chronicle  or 
register  of  the  lives  of  saints.  As  these 
histories  were  often  nothing  more  than 
pious  fictions,  the  name  of  n  legend  was 
given  to  the  incredulous  fables  which 
make  pretensions  to  truth. — Legend,  m 
Roman  antiquity,  signifies  the  motto  en- 
graved upon  medals,  which  differs  from 
the  inscription  properly  so  called.  The 
inscription  slgnifitii  words  placed  on  th^ 
reverse  of  a  medal  in  lieu  of  figures;  but 
the  legend  is  the  word  made  use  of  rour,  J 
the  head  or  other  figure. 

LEG'Ell,  the  principal  book  used 
in  merchants'  accounts,  wherein  e%  cry 
man's  particular  account  is  kept ;  the 
book  into  which  a  summary  of  the  jour- 
nal is  carried  — Leger-lines,  in  music, 
those  lines  added  to  the  usual  stave  of 
five  lines,  when  more  are  wanted  for  notes 
ascen  ling  or  descending. 

LEGERDEMAIN',  tricks,  which,  from 
the  dexterity  of  the  performer,  are  made 
to  deceive  the  observer,  and  are  called 
sleight  of  Itand. 

LE'GION,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  body 
of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  army,  consist- 
ing of  different  numbers  at  different  po> 
riods  of  time.  In  the  time  of  Romulus 
the  legion  consisted  of  3,000  foot  and  300 
horse;  though  after  the  reception  of  the 
Sabines,  it  was  augmented  to  4,000.  In 
the  war  with  Hannibal  it  was  raised  to 
5,000  ;  after  this  it  sunk  to  4,000  or  4,500, 
which  was  the  number  in  the  time  of  Po- 
lybius.  The  number  of  legions  kept  in 
pay  together,  also  difTered  according  to 
times  and  occasions.  Each  legion  was 
divided  into  ten  cohorts,  each  cohort  into 
ten  companies,  and  each  company  into 
two  centuries.  The  chief  commander  of 
the  legion  was  called  Legatus  (lieuten- 
ant.) The  principal  standard  of  a  legion 
was  a  silver  eagle  ;  and  the  legions  were 
named  from  their  commanders,  (as  the 
Claudian  legion.)  or  from  the  place 
where  they  were  stationed,  &e.  The 
word  legion,  w.as  revived  in  the  time  of 
Napoleon;  and  has  since  been  commonly 
applied  to  a  body  of  troops  of  an  indefi- 
nite number,  and  usually  of  different 
kinds;  as  the  Kn<jlish-(icrmnn  legion, 
the  British  lecrion  in  Spain,  Ac. 

LEGION  OF  HONOR,  an  order  in- 
stituted by  Napoleon,  while  consul,  (May 
19,  1802,)  for  military  and  civil  merit.  It 
consisted  of  different  grades  of  merit,  as 


lev] 


AND    THE     FINE    ARTS. 


Hoi 


granH  prr>''<"»R  rri.'ses,  coiunianders,  offi- 
cers, and  Ip.'rioiiaries  ;  all  of  whom  re- 
ceive pensions  with  this  mark  of  distinc- 
tion. 

LEG'ISLATOR,  one  who  frames  or  es- 
tablishes the  laws  and  polity  of  a  state  or 
kingdom.  The  term  is  chiefly  applied  to 
some  di.*tinguished  persons  of  antiquity, 
such  as  Moses  among  the  Jews ;  These- 
us, Draco,  Solon,  among  the  Athenians  ; 
Lycurgus  among  the  Spartans ;  and 
Numa  among  the  Romans. 

LEGISLATURE,  the  supreme  power 
of  a  state. 

LEGlT'IMACy,  a  word  which,  in  a 
political  sense,  is  variously  defined,  ac- 
cording to  the  bias  of  the  party  by  whom 
it  is  u.sed.  But  in  its  most  commonly  re- 
ceived acceptation,  it  denotes  the  lawful- 
ness of  the  government,  in  an  hereditary 
monarchy,  where  the  supreme  dignity 
and  power  pass  by  law  from  one  regent 
to  another,  according  to  the  right  of  pri- 
mogeniture.— Legitimate  means,  accord- 
ing to  law  ;  hence,  children  born  in  wed- 
lock are  called  legitimate,  and  those  born 
out  of  wedlock  are  stjied  illegitimate. 

LE'MURES,  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, spectres  or  ghosts,  believed  to  be  the 
souls  of  the  dead,  which  tormented  men 
in  the  night.  In  order  to  lay  them,  a 
ceremony  called  lemnria  was  observed 
on  the  nights  of  the  9th,  11th,  and  13th 
of  May. 

LENT,  a  solemn  time  of  fasting  and 
abstinence  in  the  Christian  church,  ob- 
served as  a  time  of  humiliation  before 
Easter,  the  great  festival  of  our  Saviour's 
resurrection.  It  begins  on  Ash-Wednes- 
dav,  and  continues  forty  days. 

LE'OXIXE  VERSE,  a  kind  of  Latin 
verse,  consisting  of  hexameters  and  pen- 
tameters, of  which  the  final  and  middle 
syllables  rhyme.  Some  say  it  derived 
its  name  from  pope  Leo  I.  (a.d.  680,) 
others  from  Leonius,  a  poet  of  the  12th 
century. 

LES'SON.S,  are  certain  ]iortions  of  the 
Scriptures  read  in  most  Christian  churches 
during  divine  service,  the  performance  of 
Tvhich  in  the  nncient  church  devolved, 
among  other  duties,  on  the  catechumen. 
In  the  English  church,  the  course  of 
lessons  begins  with  the  year  at  the  book 
of  Genesis,  and,  with  the  omission  of 
the  two  books  of  Chronicles,  continues 
through  the  Old  Testament,  including 
portions  of  the  Apocrypha.  In  the  second 
lessons,  as  they  are  called,  the  same 
course  is  followed  with  the  New  Testa- 
ment. In  the  Presbyterian  church,  the 
word  lesson,  in  this  sense,  is  unknown, 


though  the  pn.ctice  of  reading  a  portion 
of  Scripture  is  almost  universally  adopt- 
ed;  but  the  selection  of  the  pnssage  is 
left  to  the  choice  of  the  officiating  cler- 
gyman. 

LE'TIIE,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
River  of  Oblivion  :  one  of  the  streams  of 
the  infernal  regions.  Its  waters  possessed 
the  quality  of  causing  those  who  drank 
them  to  forget  the  whole  of  their  fo/mor 
e.xistence  In  the  si.xth  book  of  Virgil's 
jUneid,  the  shades  of  the  departed,  after 
fulfilling  their  various  destinies  in  the 
infernal  regions  during  a  thousand  yoars, 
are  brought  to  drink  of  the  water  of 
Lethe,  as  a  preparation  for  their  trans- 
migration into  new  bodies. 

LET'TER,  a  mark  or  character,  writ- 
ten, printed,  engraved,  or  paintt  il  ;  used 
as  the  representative  of  a  sound,  or  of  an 
articulation  of  the  human  organs  of 
speech.  By  sounds,  and  articulations  or 
closures  of  the  organs,  are  formed  syl- 
lables and  words.  Hence  a  letter  is  the 
first  element  of  written  language,  as  a 
simple  sound  is  the  first  element  of 
spoken  language  or  speech.  As  sounds 
are  audible  and  communicate  ideas  to 
others  by  the  ear,  so  letters  are  visible 
representatives  of  sounds,  and  communi- 
cate the  thoughts  of  others  by  means  of 
the  eye.  Letters  are  distinguished  by 
grammarians  into  vowels,  and  consonants 
(which  latter  are  again  subdivided  into 
mutes,  and  liquids)  and  diphthongs,  ac- 
cording to  the  organ  employed  in  their 
pronunciation. 

LEVANT',  in  geography,  is  applied  in 
a  general  sense  to  any  country  situated 
to  the  eastward  of  us,  or  in  the  eastern 
part  of  any  continent  or  country  ;  but,  in 
a  more  contracted  signification,  it  is  given 
to  that  pnrt  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
bounded  by  Asi.a  Minor  on  the  north, 
Syria  and  Palestine  on  the  east,  Egypt 
and  Barca  on  the  south,  and  by  the  island 
of  Candia  and  the  rest  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean on  the  west. 

LEVEE,  in  court  phraseology,  a  cere- 
monial visit  of  the  nobility,  gentry,  itc  , 
who  assemble  to  pay  their  respects  to  the 
queen  (or  king.)  It  consists  of  gentlemen 
only,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from 
what  is  termed  a  drauring-room.  where 
ladies  as  well  as  gentlemen  attend. 

LEV'EE-EN-MAS.^E,  a  military  ex- 
pression for  the  patriotic  rising  of  a  whole 
people,  including  all  capable  of  bearing 
arms,  who  are  not  otherwise  engaged  in 
the  regular  service ;  and  is  the  most  for- 
midable obstacle  an  enemy  can  enixjaa- 
ter.     In  Germany  it  is  called  the  land- 


352 


CVCLOPEDIA    U*     1.1TEKATUKK 


[LIB 


Sturm,  in  distinction  from  the  landitehr, 
or  militia.  In  1813  the  governments  of 
Northern  Germany  calleil  it  forth  in 
every  part  of  the  country. 

LEVIATHAN,  a  word  which,  in  the 
Hebrew,  .signifies  a  great  fish.  Some 
suppose,  from  the  description  of  it  in  the 
book  of  Job,  it  means  a  whale,  while 
others  have  presumed  it  is  a  crocodile. 
In  Isaiah,  however,  it  is  called  the  crook- 
ed serpent. 

LE'VITES,  a  term  applied  in  Scripture 
to  such  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  as  were  em- 
ployed in  the  lower  offices  and  ministries 
of  the  temple.  In  this  particular,  they 
were  distinguished  from  the  priests,  who, 
being  descended  from  Aaron,  were  like- 
wise of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  The  Levites 
bore  some  resemblance  in  the  tabernacle, 
and  temple  of  the  Jews,  to  the  deacons 
among  Christians.  They  were  employed 
in  bringing  wood,  water,  and  other  neces- 
saries for  the  sacrifice,  and  they  sung 
and  played  upon  instruments  in  the  tem- 
ple. They  also  applied  themselves  to  the 
study  of  the  law,  and  were  the  ordinary 
judges  of  the  country,  though  always 
subordinate  to  the  priests.  Their  subsist- 
ence was  the  tithes  of  corn,  fruit  and 
cattle  throughout  Israel ;  but  the  priests 
were  entitled  to  a  tenth  of  their  tithes, 
by  way  of  first-fruits  to  the  Lord. 

LEVIT'ICUS,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  so  called  from  its  con- 
taining the  laws  and  regulations  relating 
to  the  priests,  Levites,  and  sacrifices. 
These  duties,  rites  and  ceremonies,  formed 
what  is  termed  the  Ltevitical  law. 

LEXICOL'OGY,  or  LEXICOG'llA- 
PIIY,  a  word  used  by  some  writers  to 
e.xprcss  that  branch  of  philology  which 
treats  of  words  alone,  independently  of 
their  grammatical  and  rhetorical  uses ; 
considering  their  senses,  their  composi- 
tion and  their  etymology. 

LEX'ICON,  a  dictionary  of  words,  or 
vocabulary  ;  originallj',  and  still  usually, 
confined  to  dictionaries  of  the  Greek  or 
Hebrew  tongues.  The  oldest  Greek  lex- 
icon is  the  Onomasticon,  which  was  writ- 
ten 180  years  before  Christ :  the  oldest 
Hebrew  lexicon  belongs  to  the  9th  cen- 
tury. 

LEZE-MAJ'E.«^TY,  in  jurisprudence, 
any  crime  committed  against  the  sove- 
reign power  in  a  state.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Roman  phrase,  "crimen 
hesaj  majestatis,"  which  denoted  a  charge 
brought  against  a  citizen  for  acts  of  re- 
bellion, usurpation  of  office,  and  general 
misdemeanors  of  a  political  character, 
which  were  comprehended  under  the  title 


of  injuries  to  the  "  majesty  of  the  Roinan 
people."  The  emperors  transferred  to 
all  offences  against  themselves  the  same 
criminal  character;  and  offences  of  le/.e- 
majesty  were  multiplied  under  their  ar 
bitrary  governments. 

LIBA'TION,  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  was  an  essential  part  of  solemn 
sacrifices.  It  was  also  performed  alone, 
as  a  drink  offering,  by  way  of  procuring 
the  protection  and  favor  of  the  gods,  in 
the  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  At  sacrifices, 
after  the  libation  had  been  tasted  by  the 
priest,  and  handed  to  the  bj-standers,  it 
was  poured  upon  the  victim.  At  enter- 
tainments a  little  wine  was  generally 
poured  out  of  the  cup,  before  the  liquor 
began  to  circulate. 

LI'BEL,  in  law,  the  malicious  defama- 
tion  of  any  person,  either  written  or  print- 
ed, in  order  to  provoke  him  to  anger,  or  to 
expose  him  to  public  hatred,  contempt,  or 
ridicule.  Any  book,  pamphlet,  writing, 
or  picture,  containing  such  representa- 
tions, although  only  communicated  to  a 
single  person,  is  considered  in  law  a 
publication  of  it;  and  libellers  maj-  be 
brought  to  punishment  by  a  prosecution, 
or  be  compelled  to  make  reparation  by  a 
civil  action.  The  civil  .action  is  grounded 
upon  the  injury  which  the  libel  is  sup- 
posed to  occasion  to  the  individual ;  the 
public  prosecution  upon  its  tendency  to 
provoke  a  breach  of  the  peace.  In  a 
civil  action,  the  plaintiff  recovers  dam- 
ages, the  amount  of  which  is  settled  by 
the  jury:  but,  upon  an  indictment,  the 
jury  has  merely  to  acquit  the  defendant, 
or  to  find  him  guilty,  after  which  the 
court  passes  judgment. — Libel,  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical and  admiralty  courts,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  formal  written  state- 
ment of  the  complainant's  ground  of  com- 
plaint again,st  the  defendant. 

LI'BER,  in  Roman  mythology,  .a  sur- 
name of  Bacchus,  in  reference,  perhaps, 
to  the  idea  of  his  being  a  liberator  or  de- 
liverer. Liber  was  originally  .an  old 
divinity,  who  presided  over  fertility,  and 
who  was  worshipped  in  connection  with 
Libera  (a  name  of  Proserpine,)  and^ Ceres. 

LIB'ERAL,  in  politics,  a  conventional 
name  given  to  that  party  in  a  country 
which  advocates  progressive  reform  of 
abuses  in  the  state,  real  or  supposed. 

LIBERAL  ARTS,  such  as  depend 
mori!  on  the  cxerti(m  of  the  mind  th.an 
on  manual  labor,  and  regard  intellectual 
improvement  and  amusement,  rather  than 
the  necessity  of  subsistence. 

LIBERA'LIA,  a  s.acred  festival,  with 
games ;   so   called  from   Liber,   a  Latin 


Lie] 


AND    TIIK    FISK    A  liTS. 


353 


name  of  Bacchus,  in  honor  of  which  god 
they  were  celebrated  at  Koine.  It  was 
on  occasion  of  this  festival  that  the  Ro- 
man youths  who  attaincil  the  age  of 
seventeen  assumed  the  wanly  dress,  or 
toga. 

LIBER'TAS,  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  was  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped with  peculiar  veneration.  By  the 
former  she  was  invoked  by  the  synony- 
mous title  Eleutheria;  and  throughout 
all  parts,  both  of  Greece  and  Italy,  statues, 
temples,  and  altajs  were  erected  in  honor 
of  her.  At  Rome,  her  most  famous  tem- 
ple, built  by  T.  Gracchus,  was  situated  on 
the  Aventine  Mount.  She  was  repre- 
sented under  the  figure  of  a  woman,  hold- 
ing in  one  hand  a  cap,  the  symbol  of 
liberty,  and  two  poniards  in  the  other. 
In  modern  times  a  cap  is  also  used  as  a 
symbol  of  libertj' ;  thus,  in  France  a  red 
cap  formed  the  badge  of  the  Jacobin  club. 
In  England  a  blue  cap  with  a  white 
border  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  the  consti- 
tutional freedom  of  the  nation,  and  Bri- 
tannia sometimes  bears  it  on  the  point  of 
her  spear. 

LIBER'TUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
person  who  from  being  a  slave  had  ob- 
tained his  freedom.  The  libertl  were 
such  as  had  been  actually  made  free 
themselves ;  the  lihertini  were  the  chil- 
dren of  such  persons. 

LIB'ERT  Y,  freedom  from  restraint,  in  a 
general  sense,  and  applicable  to  the  body, 
or  to  the  will  or  mind.  The  body  is  at 
liberty,  when  not  confined;  the  will  or 
mind  is  at  liberty,  when  not  checked  or 
controlled.  A  man  enjoys  liberty,  when 
no  physical  force  operates  to  restrain  his 
actions  or  volitions. — Natural  liberty, 
consists  in  tlie  power  of  acting  as  one 
thinks  fit,  without  any  restraint  or  con- 
trol, except  from  the  laws  of  nature.  It 
is  a  state  of  exemption  from  the  control 
of  others,  and  from  positive  laws  and  the 
institutions  of  social  life.  This  liberty  is 
abridged  by  the  establishment  of  govern- 
ment.— Civil  liberiij,  is  the  liberty  of  moo 
in  a  state  of  society,  or  natural  liberty, 
so  far  only  abridged  and  restrained,  as  is 
neces.sary  and  expedient  for  the  safety 
and  interest  of  the  society,  state,  or  na- 
tion. A  restraint  of  natural  liberty,  not 
necessary  or  expedient  for  the  public,  is 
tyranny  or  oppression.  Civil  liberty  is 
an  exemption  from  the  arbitrary  will  of 
others,  which  exemption  is  secured  by 
established  laws,  which  restrain  ev-ery 
man  from  injuring  or  controlling  another. 
Hence  the  restraints  of  law  are  essential 
to  civil  liberty. — Political  liberty,  is 
23 


sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  civii 
liberty.  But  it  more  properly  designates 
the  liberty  of  a  nation,  the  freedom  of  a 
nation  or  state  from  all  unjust  abridg- 
juent  of  its  rights  and  independence  by 
another  nation.  Hence  we  often  speak 
of  the  political  liberties  of  Europe,  or  the 
nations  of  Europe. — Religious  liberty,  is 
the  free  right  of  adopting  and  enjoying 
opinions  on  religious  subjects,  and  of 
worshipping  the  Supreme  Being  accord- 
ing to  the  dictates  of  conscience,  without 
external  control. — Liberty,  in  metaphys- 
ics, as  opposed  to  necessity,  is  the  power 
of  an  agent  to  do  or  forbear  any  particu- 
lar action,  according  to  the  determination 
or  thought  of  the  mind,  by  which  either 
is  preferred  to  the  other. — Liberty  of  the 
press,  is  freedom  from  any  restriction  on 
the  power  to  publish  books ;  the  free 
power  of  publishing  what  one  pleases, 
subject  only  to  punishment  for  abusing 
the  privilege,  or  publishing  what  is  mis- 
chievous to  the  public  or  injurious  to  in- 
dividuals. 

LI'BRARY,  a  collection  of  books  be- 
longing to  a  private  person,  or  to  a  pub- 
lic institution  or  a  company. — An  apart- 
ment, or  suite  of  apartments,  or  a  whole 
building  appropriated  to  the  keeping  of 
books.  The  most  celebrated  library  of 
antiquity  was  the  Alexandrian  in  Lower 
Egypt.  The  principal  libraries  of  mod- 
ern times  are  the  Royal  library  at  Paris, 
the  Bavarian  State  library  at  Munich, 
the  Imperial  library  at  Petersburg,  the 
Imperial  librar3'  at  Vienna,  the  Univer- 
sity library  at  Gottingen,  the  Royal  li- 
brary at  Dresden,  the  Royal  library  at 
Copenhagen,  the  Royal  library  at  Berlin, 
the  Vatican  library  at  Rome,  the  Am- 
brosian  library  at  Milan,  the  Bodleian 
library  at  Oxford,  the  Universitj'  library 
at  Cambridge,  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum  in  London,  the  Advocates'  li- 
brary in  Edinburgh,  and  that  of  Trinity 
College  in  Dublin. 

LI'CENSE,  in  law,  an  authority  given 
to  a  person  to  do  some  lawful  act.  A  li 
cense  is  a  personal  power,  and  therefore 
cannot  be  transferred  to  another.  If  the 
person  licensed  abuse  the  power  given 
him,  he  becomes  a  trespasser.  A  license 
may  be  cither  verbal  or  written  ;  when 
written,  the  paper  containing  the  author- 
itv  is  called  a  license. 

"LICEN'TIATE,  in  law,  one  who  has 
full  license  to  practise  any  art  or  faculty  ; 
generally,  a  physician  who  has  a  license 
to  practise,  granted  by  the  college  of  phj'- 
sicians. 

LIC'TOKS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  offi 


154 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    l.ITERATUliK 


i.;g 


cersor  beadles  wlio  carriel  the  fasces  be- 
fore the  cliief  magistrates  whenever  they 
appeared  in  public.  It  was  also  a  part 
of  their  duty  to  be  the  ]nil)Iic  executioners 
in  beheadiujj,  scourging,  ,tc.  A  dictator 
was  attended  by  twent3--four  lictors ;  a 
consul  by  twelve  ;  the  master  of  the  horse, 
six;  a  prictor,  six;  and  each  vestal  vir- 
gin had  one. 

LIEdE,  in  law,  a  term  used  either  as 
liege  lord,  signifying  one  that  acknowl- 
edges no  superior,  or  the  chief  lord  of  the 
fee  ;  or  as  liege  man,  ho  who  owes  hom- 
ige  and  allegiance  to  the  liege  lord.  By 
the  term  liege  people  is  meant  the  sub- 
jects of  a  monarch,  because  they  owe  him 
their  allegiance. 

LI'EN,  in  law,  the  right  which  one 
person,  in  certain  cases,  possesses  of  de- 
taining property  belonging  to  another, 
when  placed  in  his  possession,  until  some 
demand,  which  the  former  has,  is  satis- 
fied. Liens  are  of  two  kinds  :  particular 
liens,  that  is,  where  the  person  in  posses- 
sion of  goods  may  detain  them  until  a 
claim  which  accrues  to  him  from  those 
identical  goods  is  satisfied ;  and  general 
liens,  that  is,  where  the  person  in  posses- 
sion may  detain  the  goods,  not  only  for 
his  claim  accruing  from  them,  but  also 
for  the  general  balance  of  his  account 
with  the  owners.  Some  liens  also  are 
created  by  express  agreement,  and  some 
by  usage 

LIEUTEN'ANT,  this  word,  like  cap- 
tain, and  many  others,  has  received  grad- 
ually a  much  narrower  meaning  than  it 
had  originally.  Its  true  meaning  is  a 
deputy,  a  substitute,  from  the  French 
lieu,  (place,  post,)  and  tenant,  (holder.) 
A  lieutenant  general  du  royaume  is  a 
person  invested  with  almost  all  the  pow- 
ers of  the  sovereign.  Such  was  the  count 
d'.\rtois  (afterwards  Charles  X.)  before 
Louis  XVIII.  entered  France,  in  1S14. — 
Lieutenant-general  was  formerly  the  ti- 
tle of  a  commanding  general,  but  at  pres- 
ent it  signifies  the  degree  above  major- 
general. — Ijieuienant-colonel  is  the  offi- 
cer between  the  colonel  and  major. — 
Liieutenant,  in  military  language,  signi- 
fies the  officer  next  below  a  captain. 
There  arc  first  lieutenants,  and  second,  or 
sous-lieutenants,  with  dilTercnt  pay. — 
A  lieutenant  in  the  navy  is  the  second 
officer  next  in  command  to  the  captain  of 
a  ship. — In  Englatnl,  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  a  county  has  the  authority  to  call  out 
the  militia  in  case  of  invasion  or  rebel- 
lion. The  governor  of  Ireland  is  also 
called  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  In 
gome   English   colonics,  jointly  under  a 


governor-general,  the  chief  magistrato 
of  each  separate  colony  is  called  lieuten- 
atit-gorernor.  Many  of  the  United  States 
choose  lieutenant-governors  to  act  in  case 
of  the  governor's  death. 

LIfct'ATUllE,  in  music,  the  tie  which 
binds  several  notes  of  like  length  to- 
gether, by  which  they  appear  in  groups. 

Thus    '^  ^  ^  u,  four   quavers,    by  means 

of  a  ligature  at  the  top  or  bottom,  assumn 

the  formiMj  ,  the  line  .connecting  them 

being  the  ligature. 

LIGHT,  that  imponderable  ethereal 
agent  or  matter  which  makes  objects  per- 
ceptible to  the  sense  of  seeing,  but  the 
particles  of  which  are  separately  in- 
visible. It  feas  been  believed  that  light 
is  .a  fluid  or  real  matter,  existing  inde- 
pendent of  other  substances,  with  prop- 
erties peculiar  to  itself.  Its  velocity  is 
astonishing,  as  it  passes  through  a  space 
of  nearly  twelve  millions  of  miles  in  a 
minute.  Light,  when  decomposed,  is 
found  to  consist  of  rays  din"erently  color- 
ed ;  as,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
indigo,  and  violet.  The  sun  is  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  light  in  the  solar  system  ; 
but  light  is  also  emitted  from  bodies  ig- 
nited, or  in  combustion,  and  is  reflected 
from  enlightened  bodies,  as  the  moon. 
Light  is  also  emitted  from -certain  putre- 
fying substances.  It  is  usually  united 
with  heat,  but  it  exists  also  independent 
of  it.  The  intensity  of  light,  at  difi"erent 
distances  from  a  luminous  body,  is  in- 
versely as  the  squares  of  those  distances, 
so  that  in  this  respect  it  follows  the  samo 
law  as  heat,  sound,  and  the  force  of  grav- 
itj'.  Light  acts  a  very  important  part 
in  the  vegetable  economy.  The  green 
color  of  plants  and  the  hues  of  flowers 
entirely  depend  ujion  it.  It  is  also  found 
to  assist  in  developing  the  forms  of  some 
of  the  lower  classes  of  animals.  There 
are  two  theories  respecting  the  nature 
of  light.  Some  maintain  that  it  is  com- 
posed of  material  particles,  which  arc 
constantly  thrown  off"  from  the  luminous 
body  ;  while  others  suppose  that  it  is  a 
fluid,  diffused  through  all  nature,  and 
that  the  luminous  body  occasions  waves 
or  undulations  in  this  fluid,  by  which  the 
light  is  propagated  in  the  same  manner 
as  sound  is  conveyed  through  the  air. 
The  first  is  called  the  corpuscular,  the 
second  the  undulaforij  theory;  the  lat- 
ter is  now  more  generally  entertained, 
several  facts  being  wholly  inexplicable 
on  the  former  theory.  The  language, 
however,  which  is  employed  in  treating 


lip] 


AND     rill':     KINK     ARTS. 


•35L 


of  light  is,  for  the  most  part,  acoorarao- 
dated  to  the  former. — Light,  in  painting, 
the  luoJiuiu  by  wliich  objects  are  di.s- 
ccrned.  In  a  picture  it  means  the  part 
the  most  illuminate  1.  This  may  happen 
from  natural  light,  as  the  sun  or  moon  ; 
or  from  artificial  light,  as  a  fire,  candle, 
Ac.  The  principal  light  is  generally 
made  to  fall  on  the  spot  where  the  prin- 
cipal figures  are  placed,  and  generally 
near  the  centre  of  the  picture.  A  re- 
flected light  is  that  which  a  body  in  shad- 
ow receives  from  a  contiguous  light  ob- 

LWHT'NING,  a  sudden  discharge  of 
electricity  from  a  cloud  to  the  earth,  or 
from  the  earth  to  a  cloud,  or  from  one 
cloud  to  another,  that  is,  from  a  body 
positively  charged  to  one  negatively 
charged,  producing  a  vivid  flash  of  light, 
and  usually  a  loud  report,  called  thun- 
der. Sometimes  lightning  is  a  mere  in- 
stantaneous flash  of  light  without  thun- 
der, as  heat-lightning,  lightning  seen  by 
reflection,  the  flash  being  beyond  the 
limits  of  our  horizon.  When  the  flash 
of  lightning  takes  a  zigzag  course,  or 
when  it  branches  out,  it  is  teruiedjorked 
lightning;  when  it  has  the  appearance 
of  a  sudden  and  wide  illumination,  it  is 
called  sheet-light ning. 

LIM'BO,  a  region,  supposed  by  some 
of  the  school  theologians  to  lie  on  the 
edge  or  neighborhood  of  hell.  This  serv- 
ed as  a  receptacle  for  the  souls  of  just 
men,  not  admitted  into  purgatory  or 
heaven.  Such  were,  according  to  some 
Christian  writers,  the  patriarchs  and  oth- 
er pious  ancients  who  died  before  the 
birth  of  Christ :  hence  the  limbo  was 
called  Limbus  Patrum.  These,  it  was 
believed,  would  be  liberated  at  Christ's 
second  coming,  and  admitted  to  the  priv- 
ileges of  the  blessed  in  heaven.  Though 
some  have  asserted  that,  when  our  Saviour 
went  down  into  hell,  he  liberated  these 
souls,  and  carried  them  away  with  him 
into  heaven.  This  latter  idea  is  proba- 
bly an  adorned  representation  of  the  re- 
markable passage  in  St.  Peter's  epistle, 
(i.  3,  19,)  where  he  says  that  Christ 
)ireached  to  the  spirits  in  prison ;  and, 
baing  held  by  certain  of  the  later  fathers, 
seems  to  have  given  some  influence  to 
the  growing  opinion  in  favor  of  a  purga- 
tory. The  limbus  puerorum,  or  infan- 
tum, was  a  similiir  receptacle  allotted 
by  some  of  the  schoolmen  to  the  souls  of 
infants  wlio  die  unbaptized.  Dante  has 
fixe  1  his  liinbr),  in  which  the  distinguished 
spirits  of  antiquity  are  confined,  as  the 
outermost  of  the  circle  of  his  hell.     The 


use  which  Milton  has  made  of  the  same 
superstitious  belief  is  well  known. 

LIMITA'TION,  in  law,  a  certain  time 
prescribed  by  statute,  within  which  an 
action  must  be  brought. 

LINE,  in  fortification,  whatever  is 
drawn  on  the  ground  of  the  field,  as  a 
trench,  or  a  row  of  gabions,  <fec. — Lines 
arc  most  commonly  made  to  shut  up  an 
avenue,  or  entrance  to  some  place,  an<l 
are  distinguished  into  lines  of  approach, 
oi  defence,  of  communication,  &c. — Line, 
in  genealogy,  a  series  or  succession  of 
relations,  from  a  common  progenitor. 
Direct  line,  is  that  which  goes  from  fa- 
ther to  son  ;  being  the  order  of  ascendants 
and  descendants.  The  collateral  line,  is 
the  order  of  those  who  descend  from  a 
common  father  related  to  the  former,  but 
out  .)f  the  line  of  ascendants  and  descend- 
ants :  in  this  are  placed  uncles,  aunts, 
nephews,  &c. — A  ship  of  tlie  line,  in  na- 
val affairs,  any  vessel  of  war  large  enough 
to  bo  drawn  up  in  the  line  of  battle. — In 
military  affairs,  regular  troops,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  militia,  volunteers,  <fec., 
are  called  troops  of  the  line. 

LIX'EN,  cloth  made  of  flax,  being 
much  finer  than  that  which  is  made  of 
hemp.  In  common  linen  the  warp  and 
woof  cross  each  other  at  right  angles  ;  if 
figures  are  woven  in,  it  is  called  damask. 
The  species  of  goods  which  come  under 
the  denomination  of  linen,  are  table- 
cloths, sheeting,  cambric,  lawn,  shirting, 
towels,  &c.  The  chief  countries  in  which 
linens  are  manufactured  are  Russia,  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  Holland,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland.  In  several  parts  of  Ger- 
many, Switzerland.Flanders,  and  France, 
linens  arc  frequently  embellished  with 
painting  ;  and  in  England  the  produce 
of  the  Irish  linen  manufacture  is  beauti- 
fully printed  in  the  manner  of  calicoes. — 
In  the  middle  ages,  linen  and  woollen 
cloth  formed  the  only  m.aterials  for  dress 
and  fine  linen  was  held  in  very  high  es 
timation.  In  more  ancient  limes  linen 
formed  the  dress  of  the  Egyptian  priests, 
who  wore  it  at  all  their  religious  cere- 
monies. 

LTPOGRAMM.A.T'IC  WORKS  or 
WRITINGS,  compositions  in  which  a 
particular  letter  is  omitted  throughout. 
The  ancients  produced  many  ingenious 
trifles  of  this  description.  In  the  Odijs- 
561/  of  Tryphiodorus  there  was  no  A  in  the 
first  book,  no  B  in  the  second,  and  so  on. 
There  are  other  pieces  of  modern  inven- 
tion, such  as  the  Pugna  Porcorum,  in 
which  all  the  words  begin  with  the  letter 
P.     Odes  in  Spanish,  containing  only  ono 


350 


CVCLOI'EUIA    OF    UTERATLRE 


[lit 


of  the  vowels,  are  refinements  on  the  same 
invention. 

LIST,  the  enclosed  field  of  ground 
wherein  the  ancient  knights  held  their 
jousts  and  tournaments  ;  so  called  from 
its  being  encircled  with  pales,  barriers, 
or  stakes,  as  with  a  list.  t?ome  of  these 
were  double,  one  for  each  cavalier,  which 
kept  them  apart,  and  prevented  them 
from  coming  nearer  each  other  than  a 
spear's  length.  Hence  the  expression  to 
enter  the  lists  is  S3'nouymous  with  enga- 
ging in  contest. 

LIT'ANY,  signifies  a  general  suppli- 
cation ;  and  was  applied  by  the  Eastern 
church  in  early  ages  to  a  special  form 
of  prayer  which  was  introduced  into  the 
ritual,  or  used  on  particular  occasions. 
The  term  passed  over  into  the  Western 
church,  where  the  words  rosratio  and 
supplicatio  have  been  used  in  the  same 
technical  sense.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
change  of  term  was  occasioned  by  the 
frequency  of  processional  supplications 
from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  church- 
es, beginning  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
litany  of  tlie  English  Church  is  mostly 
translated  from  the  forms  of  the  Western 
litanies  previously  used  in  that  country  ; 
those  of  the  breviary  of  Salisbury  and 
York.  The  direction  in  the  prayer-book 
is,  that  the  litany  shall  be  read  on 
AVednesilays,  Fridays,  and  Sundays  :  on 
the  two  former,  as  fast-days  in  the  primi- 
tive Church  ;  the  one  as  the  day  in  which 
Christ  was  sold  by  Judas,  tue  other  as 
that  of  the  crucifi.vion,  and  therefore  pe- 
riods of  peculiar  humiliation  :  on  tiie 
Sunday,  as  the  day  appointed  for  the  most 
complete  and  solemn  service  in  the  week. 

LITERA'TI,  in  general,  denotes  men 
of  learning. ^In  antiquity,  those  who 
were  branded  with  any  letters  by  way 
of  ignominy,  were  so  called. 

L[T'ER.\TES,  in  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
a  name  given  to  those  who  are  admitted 
to  ordination  by  the  bishop  witliout  hav- 
ing taken  a  university  degree. 

LIT'ER.VTURE,  in  the  general  sense 
of  the  word,  comprises  the  entire  results 
<  f  kno-.vlodge  and  mental  activity  e.\- 
pressed  in  writing  ;  but  in  a  narrower 
sense,  it  is  used  to  denote  the  depart- 
ment of  elegant  letters,  excluding  works 
of  abstract  science  and  mere  erudition. 
In  this  limited  view  it  compreiiends 
languages,  particularly  Oreek  and  Lat- 
in, grammar,  etymology,  logic,  rhetoric, 
poetry,  history,  criticism,  bibliography, 
un'l  a  description  of  the  attainments 
of  the  human  mind  in  every  .sphere 
of  research  and  invention.     The  history 


of  literature  represents  the  develop- 
ment and  successive  changes  of  civil- 
ization, so  far  a^  these  are  e.xhibited 
in  written  works,  and  embraces  the  his- 
tory of  the  literature  of  special  ages  or 
countries,  and  of  the  separate  branches 
of  literature,  as  poetry,  rhetoric,  philol- 
ogy, and  so  forth.  A  brief  sketch  of  the 
literature  of  different  nations,  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  will  be  given  in  the 
present  article. 

I.  Ancient  Literatuke. 

1.  Chinexe  Literature. — The  antiquity 
of  Chinese  literature  is  proportionate  to 
that  of  the  language,  and  its  develop- 
ment has  been  greatly  promoted  by  the 
early  invention  of  the  art  of  printing, 
which  has  been  known  in  China  for  at 
least  nine  hundred  years.  The  Chinese 
language  presents  a  remarkable  speci- 
men of  philological  structure,  which  for 
ingenuit}'  of  arrangement  aivl  copious- 
ness of  expression,  is  not  surpassed  in 
any  written  literature.  It  belongs  to 
that  class  of  idioms  which  are  called 
monosyllabic.  Every  word  consists  of 
only  one  syllable.  The  roots  or  original 
characters  of  the  Chinese  are  only  214 
in  number,  and  it  is  supposed  that  a 
minute  analysis  would  reduce  them  to 
a  still  smaller  amount.  Each  of  these 
characters  represents  one  word,  and  each 
word  an  idea.  Their  various  combina- 
tions form  the  whole  language.  Taken 
singly,  they  express  the  principal  objects 
or  ideas  that  are  suggested  in  the  com- 
mon intercourse  of  life  ;  and  conibineJ, 
according  to  obvious  analogies,  they  are 
made  to  comprehend  the  entire  field  of 
thought.  Thus  the  character,  which 
originally  represents  the  word  hand,  is 
so  modified  and  combined  with  others, 
as  to  denote  every  variety  of  manual 
labor  and  occu])ation.  The  Chinese 
characters  arc  written  from  top  to  bot- 
tom, and  from  right  to  left.  The  lines 
are  not  horizontal,  but  perpendicular  and 
parallel  to  each  other.  Much  impor- 
tance is  attached  by  the  Chinese  to  the 
graphic  beauty  of  their  written  charac- 
ters, which  in  picturesque  effect,  it  must 
be  owned,  are  superior  to  most  forms  of 
alphabetic  symbols.  The  grammar  of 
the  language  is  very  limited.  The  nouns 
and  verbs  cannot  be  inflected,  and  hence 
the  relation  of  words  to  each  other  in  a 
sentence  can  be  understood  only  from 
the  context,  or  marked  by  their  position. 

The  Chinese  literature  is  rich  in  works 
in  every  dcparlmeut  of  composition,  both 


lit] 


AM)    TIIK     I-'INK     AIMS. 


verso  and  prose.  Their  scholars  are 
fond  of  discussions  in  moral  philo.soijiiy, 
but  they  have  al.so  numerous  book.s  of 
history,  geograpiiy,  voyages,  dramas, 
romances,  tales,  and  fictions  of  all  kinds. 
The  labors  of  various  European  travellers 
and  students  have  given  us  specimens  of 
almost  every  description  of  Chinese  liter- 
ature. In  legislation,  we  have  a  trans- 
lation of  the  I'enal  Code  of  the  Empire  ; 
in  politics  and  morals,  the  sacred  books 
of  Confucius,  and  his  successor  Meng- 
Tsew ;  in  philology  and  belles-lettres, 
a  well-e.xeeuted  dictionary  of  the  lan- 
guage ;  several  translations  and  ab- 
stracts of  historj'  ;  and  selections  from 
the  drama,  criticism,  and  romance. 
Among  the  most  successful  explorers  of 
the  field  of  Chinese  literature,  we  may 
mention  Staunton,  Davis,  Morrison, 
Klaproth,  and  Kemusat,  who  have  fol- 
lowed up  the  earlier  researches  of  the 
Jesuits  at  Pekin,  and  greatly  elucidated 
a  subject  which  had  been  supposed  to  be 
inaccessible. 

2.  Greek  Literature. — The  language 
which  we  call  Greek,  was  not  the  prim- 
itive language  of  Greece,  for  that  coun- 
try was  originally  inhabited  bj'  the  Pe- 
lasgi,  whose  language  had  become  e.xtinct 
iu  the  time  of  Herodotus.  With  regard 
to  its  origin,  there  is  a  diversity  of  opin- 
ion among  the  learned,  although  it 
evidently  forms  a  branch  of  the  exten- 
sive family  of  languages,  known  by  the 
name  of  Indo-Germanic.  It  has  existed 
as  a  spoken  language  for  at  least  three 
thousand  years,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  Arabic  and  the  English,  has  been 
more  widely  diffused  than  any  other 
tongue.  Out  of  Greece,  it  was  spoken  in 
a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  of  the  south 
of  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  in  other  regions 
which  were  settled  by  Grecian  colonies. 
The  Greek  langu.ige  is  divided  into  four 
leading  dialects,  the  ..Eolic,  Ionic,  Doric, 
and  Attic,  beside  which  there  are  several 
secondary  dialects.  The  four  principal 
dialects  may,  however,  be  reduced  to 
two.  the  llellenie-Doric,  and  the  Ionic- 
Attic,  the  latter  originally  spoken  in  the 
northern  part  of  Peloponnesus  and  At- 
tica, the  former  in  other  parts  of  Greece. 
In  each  of  these  dialects,  there  are  cele- 
brated authors.  To  the  Ionic  dialect, 
belong  in  part  the  works  of  the  oldest 
poets.  Homer,  lIc,>iod.  Theognis ;  of 
some  prose  writers,  especially  Herodotus 
and  Hippocrates  :  and  the  j)oems  of  Pin- 
dar, Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus. 
The  Doric  dialect  was  of  the  greatest  an- 
tiquity.    We  have  few  remains  of  Doric 


prose,  which  consists  chiefly  of  mathe- 
matical or  philosophical  writings.  Af- 
ter Alliens  became  the  centre  of  litera- 
ry cult i vat i(jn  in  (Jrcece,  the  works  of 
yEschylus,  .Sophocles,  Euripides.  Aris- 
tophanes, Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Plato, 
Isocrates,  Dcmos-thenes,  and  so  forth, 
were  regarded  as  standards  of  style,  a;id 
made  the  Attic  the  common  dialect  of 
literature.  Poetry,  however,  was  nut 
written  in  the  Attic  dialect.  The  pecu- 
liarities of  Homer  were  imitated  by  ali 
subsequent  poets,  except  the  dramatists, 
and  even  they  assumed  the  Doric  to  a 
certain  degree  in  their  choruses,  for  the 
sake  of  the  solemnity  of  expression 
which  belonged  to  the  oldest  liturgies 
of  the  Greeks.  According  to  the  gen- 
eral tradition,  Cadmus  the  Phrenician, 
was  the  first  who  introduced  the  alpha- 
bet into  Greece.  His  alphabet  consisted 
of  but  sixteen  letters;  four  are  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Palamedes  in  the 
Trojan  war,  and  four  more  by  Simonides 
of  Ceos.  It  has  been  maintained  how- 
ever by  some  persons,  that  the  art  of 
writing  was  practised  by  the  Pelasgi 
before  the  time  of  Cadmus.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  of  the  most  sagacious 
critics,  place  the  origin  of  writing  in 
Greece  at  a  much  later  period. 

The  origin  of  Greek  literature,  or  the 
intellectual  cultivation  of  the  Greeks,  by 
written  works,  dates  at  a  period  of  which 
we  have  few  historical  metnorials.  The 
first  period  of  Grecian  cultivation,  which 
extends  to  80  j'ears  after  the  Trojan  war, 
is  called  the  ante-Homeric  period,  and  is 
destitute  of  any  literarj'  remains,  proper- 
ly deserving  the  name.  Of  the  poets 
previous  to  Homer,  nothing  satisfactory 
is  known.  The  most  ancient  was  Oien, 
who  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias.  He  was 
followed  by  Linus,  Orpheus,  ]Musa;us,  and 
others,  but  the  poems  which  arc  circu- 
lated under  their  names  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  their  genuine  productions.  It 
was  in  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor, 
that  the  first  great  impulse  was  given 
to  the  development  of  literature ;  and 
among  them  we  find  the  earliest  authen- 
tic specimens  of  Greek  poetry  and  his- 
torical composition.  Situated  on  the 
borders  of  a  noble  sea,  enjoying  a  climate 
of  delicious  softness  and  purity,  abound- 
ing in  the  most  nutritious  and  tempting 
products  of  nature,  whose  fertility  was 
not  inferior  fo  its  beautj',  these  colonies 
possessed  a  character  of  refined  voluptu- 
ousness, which,  if  not  favorable  to  the 
performance  of  great  deeds,  allured  the 
dreamy  spirit  to  poetical  contemiilalione, 


358 


r-YCl.drKIiIA    OF    LMEUATrRR 


[lit 


and  was  manife»teil  in  noble  creations  of 
the  fancy,  which  have  not  been  surpassed 
in  the  progress  of  cultivation.  Living 
near  the  scene  of  the  Trojan  war,  the 
bards  devoted  their  first  poems  to  the 
celebration  of  Grecian  iieroisin.  AViih 
them,  commenced  the  second  period  of 
Greek  literature,  which  we  call  the  Epic 
age.  Of  these.  Homer  alone  has  survived. 
We  have  from  hira  the  two  great  poems, 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  with  several 
hymns  and  epigrams.  lie  gave  his  name 
to  the  llomeridffi,  an  Ionian  school  of 
minstrels,  who  preserved  the  old  Homeric 
and  epic  style,  and  who  are  probably  the 
.authors  of  much  that  has  been  ascribed 
to  Homer  himself. 

Ne.xt  to  the  Homerida?.  come  the  Cyclic 
poets,  whose  works  emhraee  the  whole 
circle  of  mythology  and  tradition,  de- 
scribing the  origin  of  the  gods  and  of  the 
world,  the  adventures  of  the  Heroic  times, 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  the  labors  of 
Hercules  and  Theseus,  the  principal 
events  of  the  Theban  and  Trojan  wars, 
and  the  fortunes  of  the  Greeks  after  the 
fall  of  Troy.  A  transition  between  these 
historic-poets  and  the  later  school  of 
lon'an  minstrelsy,  is  formed  by  Hesiod, 
who  conducted  poetry  back  from  Asia 
Minor  into  Greece.  Of  the  sixteen  works 
ascribed  to  hira,  we  have  the  Theogony, 
the  Shield  of  Hercules,  and  Works  and 
Days,  the  last,  an  agricultural  poem,  in- 
terspersed with  moral  reflections  and  pru- 
dential maxims. 

The  third  period  commences  with  the 
growth  of  lyric  poetry,  of  apologues  and 
philosophy,  with  which  history  gained  a 
new  development  and  a  higher  degree  of 
certainty.  Lyric  poetry  sprung  up  on 
the  decline  of  the  Epic  school,  and  was 
much  cultivated  from  the  beginning  of 
the  epoch  of  the  Olympiads  (77(5  b c.)  to 
the  first  Persian  war.  The  poems  of  this 
psriol  are  ennsidered  among  the  most 
valuable  productions  of  (Grecian  litera- 
ture. Many  of  them  resembleil  the  epic, 
and  contained  the  subjects  of  heroic  song. 
Thftv  were  sung  by  bunds  of  youths  and 
maidens,  nccomjKinied  by  instrumental 
music.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  lyric  poets  were  .\rchilochus  of  Paros, 
the  inventor  of  the  Iambus;  Tyrtfcus, 
Terpander,  and  Alcman,  whose  martial 
strains  or.kin<lled  the  valor  of  the  .'^i)ar- 
tans  ;  CalUmachus  of  Ephesus,  inventor 
of  the  elegiac  measure;  Simoniles  and 
An  icreon  of  Ceos  ;  the  impa^sionel  .Saji- 
pho  of  .Mitylenc;  Stesichorus,  Hipponax, 
and  Pindar.  Many  didactic  poems,  fa- 
bles, and  proverbs  were  written  during  ' 


this  period,  and  served  to   prepare    the 
way  for  prose  composition. 

The  philosophy  of  this  age  w.as  marked 
by  its  constant  reference  to  ■  practical 
affairs.  Among  its  expoun<lers,  we  may 
consider  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece, 
as  they  are  called,  (Pcriander,  or  accord- 
ing to  some,  Epimeniiies  of  Crete,  Pitta- 
cus,  Thales,  Solon,  Bias,  Chilo,  and  Cleo- 
bulus,)  of  whom  six  acquired  their  fame, 
not  by  the  teaching  of  speculative  .ab- 
stractions, but  by  their  admirable  wisdom 
in  the  affairs  of  life,  and  their  skill  in  the 
offices  of  state.  Their  celebrated  sayings 
are  the  maxims  of  experience,  applied  to 
the  practical  relations  of  life.  But  with 
the  progress  of  intellectual  culture,  a 
taste  fur  speculative  inquiries  was  un- 
folded. This  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Ionic  philosophj'  by  Thales, 
the  Itali.an,  by  Pythagoras,  and  the  older 
and  later  Eleatic.  With  the  development 
of  these  schools,  we  are  brought  to  the 
scientific  period  of  Greek  literature.  The 
Ionic  school  ascribed  a  material  origin 
to  the  universe.  Its  principal  followers 
were  Pherecydes,  Anixamander,  Anaxa- 
raines,  Anaxagoras,  Diogenes  of  ApoUo- 
nia,  and  Archilaus  of  Miletus.  Of  tho 
Pythagorean  school,  which  explained  tho 
organization  of  the  world  by  number  and 
measure,  were  Ocellus  Lucanus,  TimiBus 
of  Locris,  Epicharmus,  Theages,  Archy- 
tas,  Philolaus,  and  Eudoxus.  To  the 
older  Eleatic  school,  which  cherished  a 
more  sublime,  but  less  intelligible  con- 
ception of  the  origin  of  the  world,  as- 
suming the  fact  of  a  pure  necessary 
existence,  belonged  Xenophanes  .and  Par- 
menides;  to  the  later  Eleatic,  Melissus 
and  Diragoras.  l.'ntil  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  90th  Olympiad,  the 
philosophers  and  iheir  disciples  were  dis- 
persed throughout  the  various  Grecian 
cities.  Athens  subsequently  became  their 
chief  residence,  where  the  class  of  men 
called  Sophists  first  rose  into  importance 
.as  public  teachers.  Of  these,  the  most 
distinguished  names  that  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  arc  Gorgi.vs  of  Leontiura, 
Protagoras  of  ,\bdera,  Hippias  of  Elis, 
Prodicus  of  Cos,  Tr.asimaMis  and  Tisiiis. 
They  were  especially  devoted  to  the  sub- 
jects of  politics  and  eloquence,  but  also 
made  a  study  of  the  natural  sciences, 
mathematics,  the  theory  of  the  fine  arts, 
and  philosophy.  Professing  the  art  of 
logic  as  a  trade,  they  wore  less  earnest 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth,  than  in  'he  con- 
struction of  plausible  arguments.  Their 
fallacious  pretences  awakened  the  honest 
indignation  of  Socrates,  who  not  only  be- 


wtJ 


AND    TIIK     FINIl     AlilW. 


350 


came  their  zealous  antagonist,  but  gave 
a  vigorous  and  original  impulse  to  the 
progress  of  philosophy.  This  shrewd  and 
subtle  reasoner  opened  a  new  direction 
to  philosophical  research,  turning  it  to 
the  study  of  human  nature,  and  of  the 
laws  of  psychology  and  ethics  instead  of 
barren  speculations  and  theories.  With- 
out leaving  any  written  record  of  his 
genius,  he  is  known  at  the  present  day 
by  tlie  affectionate  and  beautiful  memo- 
rials which  have  been  consecrated  to  his 
character  in  the  productions  of  his  disci- 
jiles.  Among  these,  Plato  was  pre-emi- 
nent by  the  force  and  comprehensiveness 
of  his  reason,  the  marvellous  keenness  of 
his  insight  in  the  region  of  transcenden- 
tal ideas,  the  vigor  and  acuteness  of  his 
logical  faculties,  and  the  winning  sweet- 
ness and  grace  of  expression,  which  lend 
a  charm  to  his  writings  that  has  never 
been  equalled  in  philosophical  literature. 
The  masterly  conversations  of  Socrates, 
in  which  he  expounded  the  principles  of 
his  philosophy  in  the  streets  and  market- 
place of  Athens,  are  reproduced  with  ad- 
mirable dramatic  eflect,  in  the  glowing 
pages  of  hi?  eloquent  disciple. 

The  progress  of  history  kept  pace  in 
Grecian  cultivation  with  the  development 
of  philosophy.  Among  the  oldest  histori- 
cal prose  writers,  are  Cadmus,  Dionj'sius, 
and  Ilecataius  of  Miletus,  Hellanicus  of 
Mitylene,  and  Pberecydes  of  Scyros. 
After  them  appears  Herodotus,  who  htts 
received  the  name  of  the  Homer  of  his- 
tory, lie  was  followed  hy  Thueydides, 
the  grave,  condensed,  and  philosophical 
historian  of  the  Peloponnesian  AVar. 
Strongly  contrasted  with  his  sternness 
and  energy,  is  Xenophon,  whose  lirapiil 
narrative  flows  on  with  the  charming 
facility  of  a  graceful  stream,  presenting 
a  delightful  specimen  of  the  tranquil 
beauty  of  (xreek  prose  in  its  most  simple 
form.  These  three  historians  distin- 
guished the  period  from  550  to  500  B.C., 
during  which  time  we  have  to  notice  the 
introduction  of  a  new  class  of  poetical 
creations. 

The  popular  festivals,  which  were 
celebrated  after  the  vintage,  with  rude 
songs  and  dances,  led  to  the  gradual  cre- 
ation of  the  drama.  A  more  artistic 
form  was  given  to  the  wild  choruses  in 
honor  of  B:icchus  ;  the  recitation  of  Ta- 
bles by  an  intermediate  speaker  was  in- 
troduced into  the  performances ;  and 
soon  the  games  of  the  vintage  festival 
were  repeated  on  other  occasions.  The 
spirit  of  the  drama  was  thus  cherished, 
until   the  appearance  of  ^Eschylus,  who 


may  be  deemed  the  author  of  the  dra- 
matic art  in  Greece,  lie  divided  the  sto- 
ry into  different  portions,  substituted  the 
dialogue  for  recitation  by  a  single  per- 
son, and  assigned  the  various  parts  to 
skilful  actors.  The  three  groat  tragic 
writers  are  ^schylus,  Sophocles  and 
Euripides,  while  the  most  distinguished 
rank  in  comedy  is  held  by  Cratinus, 
Eupolis,  Crates,  and  especially  Aristo- 
phanes. 

During  this  period  we  find  several 
didactic  and  lyric  poets,  while  the  sister 
art  of  eloquence  was  illustrated  by  the 
names  of  Lysias,  Demosthenes,  .lEschines, 
Antiphon,  Gorgias,  and  Isocrates. 

The  succeeding  period,  which  is  usu- 
ally called  the  Alexandrine,  was  char- 
acterized by  the  prevalence  of  a  critical 
spirit  ;  the  luxuriant  bloom  of  the  ear- 
lier Greek  literature  had  passed  away ; 
and  the  fresh  creative  impulses  of  ge- 
nius were  made  to  yield  to  the  love  "f 
speculation  and  the  influence  of  erudi- 
tion. The  glowing  imaginative  philos- 
ophy of  Plato  was  succeeded  by  the 
more  rigid  system  of  Aristotle,  who 
founded  the  Peripatetic  school,  and  gave 
or<kr  and  precision  to  the  principles  of 
reasoning.  With  the  passion  for  subtle 
analysis,  which  was  the  characteristic  of 
his  mind,  he  drew  a  sharp  line  of  distinc- 
tion between  logic  and  rhetoric,  ethics 
and  politics,  physics  and  metaphysics, 
thus  enlarging  I'he  boundaries  of  philos- 
ophy, and  establishing  a  system  which 
exercised  an  undisputed  supremacy  for 
ages.  The  dogmatic  tendencies  of  Aris- 
totle found  their  counterpart  in  the 
skeptical  principles  of  which  Pyrrho  of 
Elis  was  the  most  distinguished  advocate. 
The  same  principles  prevailed  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  in  the  Middle  and  New  Acad- 
emies founded  by  Arcesilaus  and  Car- 
ncades,  while  the  Socratic  philosophy 
was  modified  by  the  disciples  of  the  Stoic 
school,  established  by  Zeno,  and  of  the 
Epicurean,  which  bears  the  name  of  its 
celebrated  founder.  At  length  the  intel- 
lectual sceptre  which  had  been  so  long 
wielded  by  the  philosophers  and  poets  of 
Greece,  passed  from  Athens  to  Alexan- 
dria; the  nation  itself  was  absorbed  in 
the  progress  of  Roman  conquest  ;  Greek 
literature  ceased  to  give  birth  to  original 
productions  ;  and  its  brilliant  career  be- 
came the  subject  of  history. 

Htbrexc  Literature. — The  language 
and  literature  of  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
apart  from  its  religious  character  and 
claims,  presents  a  curious  and  important 
subject  of  investigation.     It  is  the  oldest 


.•^60 


CV('L()ri:i)IA     OK     I.ITF.rtAHliE 


[lit 


literature  of  which  any  remains  have 
conie  down  to  modern  times.  With  a 
rich  poetical  coloring,  a  j)rof()und  senti- 
ment of  humanity,  and  a  lofty  religious 
faith,  it  sustains  a  most  intimate  relation 
to  the  devolo]nuent  of  the  intellect  and 
the  moral  and  political  history^  of  the 
race.  The  Hebrew  language  is  one  of  the 
oldest  branches  of  the  numerous  family 
of  languages  which  have  received  the 
name  Shemitic,  on  account  of  the  sup- 
posed descent  of  the  nations  by  which 
they  were  spoken,  from  Shem,  the  son 
of  Noah.  These  are  the  Chaldaic,  the 
Aramaean,  the  Hebrew,  the  Syriac,  the 
Arabic,  the  Phoenician,  and  the  Ethio- 
pian. The  history  of  the  language  has 
been  divided  by  many  critics  into  four 
periods.  I.  From  Abraham  to  Moses. 
II.  From  Moses  to  Solomon.  III.  From 
Solomon  to  Ezra.  IV.  From  Ezra  to 
the  end  of  the  age  of  the  Maccabees, 
when  it  was  gradually'  lost  in  the  modern 
Ararajean  and  became  a  dead  language. 
The  diiferences,  however,  which  can  be 
traced  in  the  language  are  so  slight,  that 
a  sounder  division  wouM  bo  into  only  two 
periods,  the  first  extending  from  the  time 
of  Moses  to  the  reign  of  Hczekiah,  and 
.Ihe  second  from  the  reign  of  llezekiah  to 
lift-  final  extinction  as  a  spoken  language. 
The  written  characters  or  letters,  which 
date  from  the  time  of  Solomon,  were  the 
same  as  the  Phoenician.  During  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  the  Hebrews  re- 
ceived from  the  Chaldccs  the  square 
character  in  common  use,  and  in  the 
time  of  Ezra,  the  old  Hebrew  manu- 
scripts were  copied  in  these  characters. 
The  punctuation  of  the  language  was  not 
settled  until  after  the  seventh  century  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  accents,  vowels, 
points,  and  divisions  into  words,  were  also 
introduced  at  a  later  period. 

The  poetical  and  religious  sentiment 
was  the  foundation  of  Hebrew  literature. 
Lyric  poetry  received  a  rich  development 
under  David,  to  whom  are  ascribed  sev- 
eral noble  specimens  of  song  and  elegy. 
The  fragments  of  didactic  poetry  which 
boar  the  name  of  Solomon  are  stamped 
with  a  character  of  practical  wi.sdom,  and 
often  exhibit  an  energy  of  expression, 
which  authorize  us  to  class  them  among 
the  most  extraordinary  productions  of 
ancient  literature.  After  the  division  of 
the  kingdom,  the  jtrophets  became  the 
great  teachers  of  the  (leoiile,  and  have  left 
various  collections  of  their  writings,  none 
of  which  have  come  down  to  us  with  com- 
pleteness. Upon  the  return  of  the  exiled 
people    from    the    Babylonish  captivity. 


the  remains  of  Hebrew  literature  were 
collected  by  a  college  of  learneil  men  un- 
der the  direction  of  Ezra,  and  from  their 
labors  we  have  received  the  books  -f  the 
Old  Testament  in  their  present  form. 

Roman  Literature. — The  language  of 
the  ancient  Romans  is  usually  called 
Latin,  for  though  Rome  and  Latium 
were  originally  separate  communities, 
they  always  appear  to  have  spoken  the 
same  language.  The  Latins,  as  far  as 
we  can  decide  on  such  a  question  at  the 
present  day,  seem  to  have  formed  a  part 
of  that  great  race  which  overspread  both 
Greece  and  Italy  under  the  name  of  Pe- 
lasgians.  It  is  supposed  that  the  Pelas- 
gians  who  settled  in  Italy  originally 
spoke  the  same  language  with  the  Pelas- 
gians  who  settled  in  Greece.  The  Greek 
and  Latin  languages  accordinglj'  have 
many  elements  in  common,  though  each 
has  its  own  distinctive  character. 

The  history  of  Roman  literature  may 
be  divided  into  four  periods.  I.  From 
the  earliest  times  till  Cicero.  II.  To 
the  death  of  Augustus,  a.d.  14.  III.  To 
the  death  of  Trojan.  IV.  To  the  con- 
quest of  Rome  by  the  Goths.  During 
the  first  five  hundred  years  of  the  Roman 
history,  scarcely  any  attention  was  paid 
to  literature.  Its  earliest  attempts  were 
translations  and  imitations  of  the  Greek 
models.  The  Odyssey  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Livius  Andronicus,  a  Greek 
captive  of  Tarentum,  and  the  earliest 
writer  of  whom  we  have  anv  account. 
His  tragedies  and  comedies  were  taken 
entirely  from  the  Greek.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Nncvius,  who  wrote  an  historical 
poem  on  the  first  Punic  war,  by  the  two 
tragic  writers  Pacuvius  and  Attius,  and 
by  Ennius,  b  c.  239,  the  first  epic  ]ioet, 
and  who  may  be  regarded  as  the  fovinder 
of  Roman  literature.  Being  a  Greek  by 
birth,  he  introduced  the  study  of  his 
native  language  at  Rome,  and  had 
among  his  pupils  Cato,  Seipio  Af'ricanus, 
and  other  distinguished  citizens  of  that 
day.  At  the  same  time,  he  taught  the 
Romans  the  art  of  easy  and  graceful 
writing  in  their  own  language,  and  helped 
to  inspire  them  with  a  love  of  liternture 
by  his  refined  taste  and  elegant  cultiva- 
tion. Contemporary  with  Knnius  was 
Plautus,  whose  dramatic  pieces,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  later  comedy  of  the  Greeks, 
were  remarkable  for  their  vivacity  of 
expression  and  their  genuine  comic  hu- 
mor. He  was  followed  by  Cecilius  and 
Terence,  of  whom  the  latter  has  left 
several  admirable  comedies,  fully  im- 
bued with  the  Grecian  spirit.     The  first 


Lir] 


AND    HIE    FINE    ARTS. 


3G1 


prose  writers  were  Qiiintus  Fabius  Pictor 
and  Lucius  Cincius  Alimontus,  who  lived 
in  tlio  time  of  tiie  .«eci>nil  I'unic  war,  and 
wrote  !i  complete  history  of  Romu.  Their 
style  was  meagre  and  insipid,  aiming 
only  at  brevit}',  and  entirely  destitute  of 
ornament  or  grace. 

With  the  age  of  Augustus,  in  which 
some  earlier  writers  are  usually  reckoned, 
a  new  spirit  is  exhibited  in  Roman  litera- 
ture. In  didactic  poetry,  Lucretius  sur- 
passed his  Grecian  masters,  by  the  force 
of  thought  and  the  splendor  of  diction, 
which  characterize  his  great  philosophical 
poem  on  the  origin  of  the  universe.  Ca- 
tullus attempted  various  styles  of  poetry, 
in  all  of  which  he  obtained  eminent  suc- 
cess. His  lyric  and  elegiac  poems,  his 
epigrams  and  satires,  are  marked  by 
singular  versatility  of  feeling,  frequent 
flashes  of  wit,  and  rare  felicity  of  e.\- 
pression.  Among  the  elegiac  poets,  of 
whose  genius  we  still  possess  the  remains, 
the  highest  distinction  was  gained  by  Ti- 
ballus.,  Prcpertius  and  Ovid.  The  former 
of  these  poets  was  pronounced  by  Quinc- 
tiiian  to  be  the  greatest  master  of  elegiac 
verse  ;  Ovid  possessed  an  uncommon  fer- 
tility of  invention  and  ease  of  versifica- 
tion ;  while  Propertius  tempers  the  vo- 
luptuous cast  of  his  writings  with  a 
certain  dignity  of  thought  and  vigorous 
mode  of  expression.  The  great  lyric 
poet  of  the  Augustan  age  is  Horace, 
whose  graceful  and  sportive  fancy,  com- 
bined with  his  remarkable  power  of  deli- 
cate and  effective  satire,  continues  to 
make  him  a  favorite  with  all  who  have 
the  slightest  tincture  of  cla.<sical  learning. 
The  noblest  production  of  this  period, 
however,  is  the  iEneid  of  Virgil,  which, 
with  his  elaborate  poem  on  rural  affairs, 
the  Georgics,  and  his  sweet  and  tender 
pastorals,  or  Eclogues,  fairly  entitles  him 
to  the  position  which  has  been  given  him 
by  universal  consent,  of  the  most  gifted 
epic  and  didactic  poet  in  Roman  litera- 
ture. 

The  prose  writings  of  the  Latin  authors, 
taken  as  a  whole,  betray  a  higher  order  of 
genius  and  cultivation  than  the  works  of 
the  poets.  In  this  department,  the  pre- 
eminence belongs  to  Cicero,  whose  vari- 
ous productions  in  eloquence,  philosophy, 
and  criticism,  are  among  the  most  valu- 
able treasures  of  antiquity.  In  history, 
Cesar,  Sallust,  and  Livy.  are  the  most 
prominent  names,  who,  each  in  his  own 
peculiar  style,  have  left  models  of  his- 
torical composition,  which  have  been  the 
admiration  of  every  subsequent  age. 
The   literature  of  the   Augustan  period 


;  jiartook  of  the  general  character  of  the 
Roman  people.  Devoted  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  practical  objects,  with  slight  ten- 
dencies to  the  ideal  aspect  of  things,  and 
absorbed  in  the  e.\citing  game  of  politics 
and  war,  the  Romans  had  little  taste 
either  for  abstract  speculation  or  for  the 
loftiest  flights  of  poetical  fancy.  Hence 
no  new  system  of  philosophy  was  pro- 
duced in  their  literature;  their  byst 
poets  were  essentially  imitative;  and  of 
all  branches  of  study,  those  connected 
with  popular  eloquence  were  held  in  tho 
greatest  esteem. 

With  the  death  of  Augustus  com- 
menced the  decline  of  Roman  litei  nture. 
Among  the  poets  of  this  period,  are  Phte- 
drus,  an  ingenious  fabulist,  the  satirists, 
Juvenal  and  Persius,  whose  works  are 
more  important  for  their  illustraticjiis  of 
the  manners  of  the  age.  than  fur  their 
poetical  merit,  and  Lucan,  who  describes 
the  wars  of  Cesar  and  Pompey  in  an  in- 
sipid historical  epic.  In  prose,  we  have 
the  sombre,  but  condensed  and  powerful 
histories  of  Tacitus,  and  the  quaint  and 
artificial  treatises  on  ethics  and  philosophy 
by  Seneca.  Subsequent  to  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  we  meet  with  no  writers,  who 
have  any  claim  upon  our  attention,  and 
the  literature  of  Piome,  after  a  brief  in- 
terval of  splendor,  during  the  golden  age 
between  Cicero  and  Augustus,  passes  into 
unimportance  and  obscurity. 

Sanscrit  fjitcralure. — iTntil  the  close 
of  the  last  century,  the  Sanscrit  literature 
was  almost  wholly  unknown  to  the  learned 
of  Europe.  The  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries in  India.,  had,  to  a  certain  e.v- 
tent,  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guage at  an  earlier  period,  but  it  is  only 
since  the  year  1790,  that  it  has  attracted 
the  attention  of  eminent  scholars.  Among 
thfise  who  have  given  an  impulse  to  the 
study  of  Sanscrit,  and  who  have  them- 
selves pursued  it  with  distinguished  suc- 
cess, are  Sir  William  Jones,  Wilkins, 
Forster,  Colebrooke,  AYilson.  Flaughton, 
Rosen,  Chezy,  Burnouf,  A.  W.  Schlegel, 
and  Bopp.  We  are  indebted  to  their 
labors  for  a  knowledge  of  this  rich  and 
curious  literature,  which,  on  many  ac- 
couuts,  may  bo  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  products  in  the  history 
of  intellectual  culture. 

The  Sanscrit  language  is  a  branch  of 
the  Indo-Germanic  family  of  languages, 
and  is  supposed  to  bear  the  greatest  re- 
semblance to  the  primitive  type.  In  its 
construction,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree 
ingenious  and  elaborate,  and  the  variety 
and  beauty  of  its  forms  are  well  adapted 


3G2 


(•VCI.OPEDI.V    OF    I.ITKKAiri; 


jUT 


to  illustrate  the  la,ws  of  the  formation  of 
language.  It  is  the  sacreil  language  of 
the  Braiuins,  an^l  contains  the  Vclas,  the 
oldest  records  of  their  religion.  The  last 
century  before  the  Christian  era,  was  the 
period  of  its  richest  blossoming,  although 
it  e.xtends  b:ick  to  a  far  more  remote 
antiquity.  It  appears  in  its  most  ancient 
form  in  the  VeJas,  which  date  from  the 
thirteenth  century  before  Christ,  and  in 
that  state  exhibits  many  striking  analo- 
gies with  the  Zenil,  the  ancient  language 
of  Persia.  These  writings  are  the  foun- 
d  ition  of  Sanscrit  literature,  and  diffuse 
their  influence  through  the  whole  course 
of  it.s  development. 

The  Vedas  are  divided  into  four  classes, 
the  first  being  in  poetry,  the  second  in 
prose,  the  third  consisting  of  lyrical 
prayers,  and  the  fourth  of  devotional 
pieces,  intended  to  be  used  in  sacrifices 
and  other  religious  oflices.  Each  Veda 
is  composed  of  two  parts,  the  prayers  and 
the  commandments.  The  Sanscrit  pos- 
sesses a  variety  of  other  works  in  sacred 
literature,  which  contain  not  only  a  co- 
pious e,xposition  of  religious  doctrines, 
but  numerous  discussions  of  philosophi- 
cal and  scientific  subjects,  and  an  e.Kten- 
sive  collection  of  poetical  legends. 

The  two  oldest  and  most  interesting 
epic  poems  are  "  The  Ramayana,"  de- 
scribing the  seventh  great  incarnation  of 
Vishnu,  and  "  The  Mahabharata,"  devo- 
ted to  the  wars  of  two  rival  lines  descend- 
ed from  the  ancient  Indian  monarch, 
Bharata.  An  episode  from  this  work 
called  "Bhagavat  Gita"  has  been  trans- 
haed  by  Wilkins,  Herder,  Schlegel  and 
others,  and  has  e.xcited  no  small  interest 
as  an  illustration  of  the  early  Oriental 
philosophy. 

A  now  character  was  given  to  Sanscrit 
poetry  about  one  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  by  tiie  introduction  of 
themes  connected  with  courts  au'i  princes. 
It  lost  the  popular  and  national  ten- 
dency which  a])pears  in  the  two  great 
epics,  alluded  to  above,  and  assumed  a 
more  artificial  form.  With  a  manifest 
improvement  in  the  mere  externals  of 
style,  the  new  poetry  shows  a  degeneracy 
in  point  of  tliouglit,  and  an  entire  ab- 
sence of  orijrinal  invention.  In  the 
{irincipal  works  of  this  class  we  find  la- 
bored descriptions  of  natural  objects,  and 
many  curious  artifices  of  composition, 
but  tlicy  are  destitute  both  of  brilliancy 
of  imagination  and  depth  of  reflection. 
The  most  I'ertilc  autiior  of  the  new  schocd 
is  undoubtedly  Calidasa,  who  attempted 
almost  every  species  of  poetical  composi- 


tion, and  whose  epic,  lyric,  an<l  dramatic 
productions,  must  "be  allowed  to  possess 
considerable  merit.  His  best  descriptive 
poem,  entitled  '"  Meghaduta,"  is  a  model 
of  simplicity  and  elegance.  It  exhibits 
a  highly  iiieal  character,  tracing  out  the 
spiritual  significance  of  visible  phenome- 
n»i.  and  striving  to  penetrate  into  the 
hidden  life  of  the  universe.  The  drama 
called  'Sacontala"  or  the  "Fatal  Ring," 
by  this  luthor,  has  received  the  warm- 
est commendation  from  modern  critics. 
"  ."^11  its  scenes,"  says  the  genial  Herder, 
'•  are  connected  by  flowery  bands,  each 
grows  out  of  the  subject  as  naturally  as 
a  beautiful  plant.  .V  multitude  of  sub- 
lime as  well  as  tender  ideas  are  found  in 
it,  which  we  should  look  for  in  vain,  in  a 
Greeiiin  drama."  A  valuable  translation 
of  this  poem  has  been  made  by  Sir  Wil- 

•  liam  Jones. 

'  The  influence  of  religious  speculation 
in  India  early  gave  birth  to  numerous 
piiilosophical  writings.  AVith  the  love 
of  contemplation,  to  whicli  the  natives 
are  so  strongly  inclined,  and  tiie  progress 
of  thought  in  opposition  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Vedas,  a  variety  of  philosophical 
systems  was  the  natural  consequence. 
The  oldest  of  these  is  called  the  "Sank- 
h3'a."  It  teaches  the  duality  of  matter 
aad  spirit,  which  are  essentially  different 
in  their  nature,  though  found  in  such 
intimate  union.  The  problem  of  life,  is 
the  emancipation  of  the  soul  from  the  do- 
minion of  the  senses,  and  the  attainment 
of  blessedness  by  the  supremacy  of  the  in- 
tellect. Another  system  of  transcenden- 
tal speculation  is  named  the  '"  Nyaya.'" 
This  is  constructed  from  strict  logical 
deductions,  which  it  applies  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  nature,  and  arrives  at  a 
theory  of  materialism,  the  reverse  of  the 
Sankhya  ideality.  The  Nyaya  school 
has  produced  a  multitude  of  writings. 
Opposed  to  each  of  these  systems  is  the 
"  Jlimansa,"  which  maintains  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Vedas  in  their  original 
strictness,  and  strives  to  reconcile  them 
with  the  suggestions  of  philosophy. 

The  Sanscrit  literature,  moreover, 
abounds  in  works  on  various  other 
branches  of  learning.  Its  idiilological 
treatises,  especially,  are  of  great  value. 
The  Indian  grammarians  surpass  those 
of  any  other  ancient  people.  No  less 
important  are  the  Sanscrit  works  on 
rhetoric,  criticism,  music,  astrcmomy,  and 
jurisprudence.  They  well  deserve  the 
attention  of  the  sciiolar,  not  only  on 
account  of  their  intrinsic  character,  but 
as  precious   memorials  of  the  early  de- 


AND    THE    FfNE    ARTS. 


303 


velopmcnt  of  the  intellect,  and  significant 
illustrations  of  the  history  of  the  race. 

II.    !M0DERN    LlTERATl'HE. 

An  interval  of  eight  centuries  separates 
the  period  of  the  decline  of  lloinan  litera- 
ture from  that  of  the  first  dawn  of  modern 
literature  in  Europe.  The  successive 
invasion.s  of  the  barbariiins  during  the 
rapid  dismemberment  of  the  ancient  em- 
pire of  Rome,  for  a  time  destroyed  all 
languages,  and  centuries  elapsed  before 
the  new  tongues  were  sufficiently  ma- 
tured for  the  cultivation  of  letters.  In 
the  Eastern  Empire,  during  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  centuries  after  Christ, 
nothing  was  produced  except  some  works 
of  theology,  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Church. 
The  Arabs  first  began  to  cultivate  litera- 
ture in  the  si.xth,  and  the  Persi;ins  in  the 
ninth  century  after  Christ.  Tiie  Pro- 
vencal, or  language  of  the  Troubadours, 
in  the  south  of  France,  first  attained  a 
.stable  character  towards  the  close  of  the 
ninth  century,  and  the  Lansrue  d' Oil,  or 
Komance-tongue  of  Normandy,  about  fifty 
years  later.  Nearly  all  of  the  living 
languages  of  Europe  date  the  first  be- 
ginnings of  their  literature  as  far  back 
as  the  tenth  century,  though,  e.xcept  to 
gratify  a  philological  taste,  there  is  little 
that  will  repay  the  student  of  modern 
literature  for  going  beyond  the  twelfth 
century.  The  following  sketches  of  the 
literature  of  civilized  nations,  since  the 
decline  of  classic  literature,  have  been 
arranged  nearly  in  the  order  of  time  : 

Arabic  Lilcrnlure. — Literature,  after 
its  final  decay  and  extinction  in  the  East- 
ern and  Western  Roman  Empires,  revived 
first  among  the  Arabic  tribes  in  the  East. 
Even  before  the  era  of  Jlahomet,  there 
were  renowned  poets  and  story-tellers  in 
Arabia.  In  the  fifth  century,  during  the 
great  fairs  of  Mecca,  poetical  contests 
frequently  took  place,  the  victorious  pro- 
ductions being  lettered  with  gold  and 
hung  up  in  the  Caaba.  Among  the  most 
renowned  poets  of  this  period  were 
Amralkeis,  Tharafa,  and  Antar.  Their 
works  are  distinguished  by  imaginative 
power,  richness  of  illustration,  an<l  great 
skill  in  depicting  the  passions  of  love 
and  revenge.  With  Mahometcommenced 
a  men'.orable  epoch  in  Arabic  literature. 
Through  the  Koran,  which  was  arranged 
from  Mahomet's  teachings,  by  Abubekr, 
the  first  caliph,  the  method  of  writing 
and  the  literary  style  of  the  nation  were 
determined.  The  reigns  of  llaroun  Al- 
Raschid  and  Al-Mamun  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries,  were  the  most  en- 


lightened period  of  the  Arabic  dominion, 
though  for  two  centuries  afterwards  the 
nation  produced  many  eminent  geogra- 
phers, iihilosophers,  jurists  and  histori- 
ans. Under  the  government  of  Al-Ma- 
mun, excellent  universities  were  estab- 
lished at  Bagdad,  Bussora  and  Bokhara, 
and  extensive  libraries  in  Alexandria, 
Bagdad  and  Cairo.  The  dyn:isty  of  the 
Abbassides  in  Bagdad  emuluteil  that  of 
the  Ommanides  in  Spain  ;  during  the  tenth 
century  the  University  of  Cordova  was 
almost  the  only  refuge  of  literature  in 
Europe.  The  labors  of  the  Arabic  schol- 
ars and  travellers  contributed  greatly  to 
the  spread  of  geographical  knowledge. 
Ibn  Batuta,  who  in  the  thirteenth  century 
visited  Africa,  India,  China,  and  Russia, 
ranks  with  Marco  Polo  and  Rubruquis. 
In  the  twelfth  century  Abu'l  Kaseiu 
wrote  the  history  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain  ; 
Bohaeddin,  a  biography  of  Sultan  Sala- 
din ;  Ibn  Arabschah  described  the  ex- 
ploits of  Tamerlane,  and  Iladji  Khalfa, 
in  later  times,  has  produced  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish 
literature.  The  style  of  the  Arabian 
historians  is  clear,  concise,  and  unincum- 
bered with  imagery.  The  most  renowned 
philosopher  was  Avicenna,  who  flourished 
in  the  eleventh  century.  Averrhoes, 
whose  name  is  also  familiar  to  scholars, 
was  famous  as  an  expounder  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Aristotle.  In  the  departments 
of  medicine,  astronomy,  geometry,  and 
arithmetic,  there  are  many  Arabic  works 
which  exhibit  great  research  und  scien- 
tific knowledge. 

The  number  and  variety  of  the  works 
produced  by  the  Arabian  poets,  is  most 
remarkable,  and  their  influence  on  the 
modern  literature  of  Europe  was  greater 
than  is  generally  suspected.  In  pic- 
turesque narration  they  have  rarely  been 
excelled,  and  the  "Thousand  and  One 
Nights."  which  first  appeared  in  its  col- 
lected form  during  the  reign  of  Caliph 
Mansur  in  the  ninth  century,  has  been 
naturalized  in  all  modern  languages 
Only  half  of  this,  however,  is  Arabic ; 
the  remainder  having  been  translated 
from  the  Sanscrit  and  Persian.  The 
Arabian  poets  left  many  poetic  chron- 
icles, the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  : 
'•  The  Deeds  of  Antar,"  "  The  Deeds  of 
the  Warriors,"  and  "The  Deeds  of  tho 
Heroes."  Of  late  years,  several  eminent 
French  and  (lerman  scholars  have  given 
their  attention  to  the  study  of  Arabic 
literature,  the  best  works  of  which  aro 
now  accessible  through  their  translations 

Persian  lAterature. — The  modern  lit 


3G4 


CVCLOrEUIA    OF    UTEUATUUE 


u 


ernture  of  Persia  succeeded  tliat  of  Arabia. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
caliphs,  about  tlie  middle  of  the  seventh 
century,  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the 
Arabs,  together  with  the  religion  of  Ma- 
homet, were  trans]ilanted  upon  Persian 
soil,  but  the  fruits  of  this  new  culture  did 
not  appear  for  several  succeeding  genera- 
tions. The  first  Persian  books,  both  of 
poetry  and  history,  were  written  in  the 
early  part  of  the  tenth  century,  and  for 
several  centuries  there  was  no  interrup- 
tion in  the  list  of  renowned  authors. 
Literature  was  encouraged  and  rewarded, 
whatever  might  be  the  political  convul- 
sions that  affected  the  empire.  Persian 
poetry  consists  for  the  most  part  of  small 
lyrics,  arranged  in  dii-ans,  or  collections. 
There  are  also  several  voluminous  histori- 
cal, romantic,  and  allegorical  poems,  be- 
sides legends  and  narratives  told  in  a  mix 
ture  of  prose  and  verse.  The  first  Persian 
poet  is  Rudegi,  who  flourished  about  the 
year  952.  Firdusi,  the  great  epic  poet 
of  Persia,  died  in  the  year  1030,  at  the 
age  of  seventy,  lie  wrote  the  '^  Schah- 
nameh,"  or  "Kings'  Book,"  describing 
the  deeds  of  the  Persian  rulers,  from  the 
creation  of  the  world  to  the  downfall  of 
the  Sassanide  dj'nasty  in  632.  He  was 
thirty  years  in  the  composition  of  this 
work,  which  contains  si.vty  thousand 
verses.  The  most  celebrated  portion  is 
that  recounting  the  adventures  of  the 
bero  Rustem.  Nisami,  at  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  extensive  romantic 
poems,  the  most  remarkable  of  which 
were  "  Medjnoun  and  Leila,"  and  "  Is- 
kander-Nameh,"  an  epic  on  Alexander 
the  Great.  Chakani  was  a  celebratoil 
writer  of  odes  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Sa.idi,  one  of  the  most  cebdirated  Persian 
authors,  was  born  in  lIT.'j,  and  lived  till 
1263.  His  poems  are  principally  moral 
and  didactic,  but  ricii  with  the  experience 
of  a  fruitful  life,  and  written  in  a  very 
simple  and  graceful  style.  His  best 
works  are  the  Gulistan.  or  "Garden  of 
Roses,"  i\w\  i\\Q  Bostan,  or  •' Garden  of 
Trees."  Hafiz,  the  Oriental  poet  of  love, 
wa.s  born  at  Schira/,,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  where  he  lived  as 
a  dervish  in  willing  poverty,  resisting  the 
invitations  of  the  caliphs  to  reside  in 
Bagdad.  In  the  year  1383,  ho  had  an 
interview  with  Tamerlane,  by  whoTii  he 
was  treated  with  much  honor.  His  jioems 
consisted  of  odes  and  elegies,  which  have 
been  collected  into  a  "Divan."  His 
lyrics,  devr»ted  to  the  praise  of  lovo  and 
wine,  are  full  of  fire  and  melody. 

Dja;ni,  who  died  in   1492,  was  one  of 


the  most  prolific  of  Persian  writers.  Ilia 
life  was  spent  at  Herat,  where,  in  the 
hall  of  the  great  mosque,  he  taught  the 
jieople  the  precepts  of  virtue  and  religion. 
He  left  behinil  liim  forty  works,  theologi- 
cal, poetical,  and  mystical.  .Seven  of  his 
principal  poems  were  united  under  the 
title  of  "The  .Seven  Stars  of  the  Bear." 
His  history  of  mysticism,  entitled  "The 
Breath  of  Man,"  is  his  greatest  prose 
work.  Among  the  later  Persian  poems 
are  the  Schehinscheh-Namch,  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Book  of  King.s,  and  the  George- 
Xamch,  an  account  of  the  conquest  of 
India  by  the  British.  The  Persian  is 
the  only  Mahometan  literature  contain- 
ing dramatic  poetrj'.  Its  dramas  stri- 
kingly resembk  the  old  French  myste- 
ries. Of  the  collections  of  tales,  legends, 
and  fairy-stories,  the  most  celebrated  are 
the  Aincdri  sohcili,  or  •'  Lights  of  the 
Canopy,"  and  the  Beharl  danisch,  or 
"Spring  of  Wisdom."  The  historical 
works  in  the  Persian  language  are  very 
numerous  and  valuable.  They  embrace 
the  history  of  the  Mohammedan  races, 
from  Mongolia  to  Barbary.  The  princi- 
pal works  are  the  Chronicle  of  Wassaf,  a 
history  of  the  successors  of  Genghis  Khan, 
which  appeared  in  1333;  the  "Marrow 
of  the  Chronicles,"  by  Khaswini,  in  1370, 
and  the  Ilnuset  Essafa,  a  great  universal 
history,  of  which  modern  liistorians  have 
made  good  use.  It  was  written  by  Mir- 
chond,  about  the  year  H.'SO.  In  the  de- 
])artments  of  ethics,  rhetoric,  theology, 
and  medicine,  the  Persian  scholars  are 
only  second  to  the  Arabic.  They  also 
excelled  in  translation,  and  have  repro- 
duced in  Persian,  nearly  the  entire  lit- 
erature of  India. 

Italian  Literature. — The  Italian  lan- 
guage assumed  a  regular  and  finished 
character  at  the  court  of  Roger  I.,  King  of 
Sicily,  in  the  twell'th  century.  Several 
poets  arose,  wlm,  liorrowing  the  forms  of 
verse  from  the  Provencal  troubadours, 
gave  the  people  songs  in  their  native 
language  in  place  of  the  melodies  of  the 
Moors  an<l  .Vrabians.  The  Italian  soon 
became  the  court  language  of  Italy,  ami 
Malcsjiina's  History  of  Florence,  which 
was  written  in  the  year  1280,  is  scarceJy 
inferior,  in  elegance  and  i)urity  of  style 
to  any  Italian  ])rose  works  which  have 
since  been  ]iroduccd.  The  first  genuine 
poet  f)f  Ital.v,  however,  was  her  greatest, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  time 
Dante  commenced  his  great  poem  of  the 
"  Divina  Commedia"  in  the  year  1304, 
just  before  bis  exile  from  Florence,  and 
completed  it  during  his  many  years  of 


lit] 


AND    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


365 


wandering  from  one  court  of  Italy  to 
another.  Out  of  the  rude  and  imperfect 
materials  within  his  roach,  he  constructed 
an  epic  which  places  his  name  beside  tliat 
of  him  whom  he  humbly  called  his  mas- 
ter—Virgil. Taking  the  religious  f:iith 
of  his  time  ns  the  material,  he  conducts 
the  reader  through  the  sad  and  terrible 
circles  of  Hell,  the  twilight  region  of 
Purgatory,  and  the  fnir  mount  of  Para- 
dise, showing  him  all  forms  of  torture 
and  punishment  for  the  vile,  all  varieties 
of  supreme  happiness  for  the  pure  and 
good.  The  poem  takes  a  fierce  and 
gloomy  character  from  the  wrongs  and 
persecutions  which  the  poet  e-ndured  in 
his  life.  Dante  died  in  1321,  at  which 
time  Petrarch,  who  was  born  in  1304,  had 
commenced  those  studies  which  led  to  the 
restoration  of  classic  literature  to  Italy. 
As  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  antiquity, 
he  imparted  to  his  contemporaries  that 
passion  for  the  study  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  authors  which  preserved  many 
of  their  masterpieces  at  a  moment  when 
they  were  about  to  be  lost  to  the  world. 
His  songs  and  sonnets,  most  of  which 
were  inspired  by  his  unfortunate  love  for 
Laura  de  Sade,  give  him  a  worthy  place 
after  Dante,  in  Italian  literature.  lie 
died  in  1374.  Contemporary  with  Pe- 
trarch was  the  great  master  of  Italian 
prose — Boccaccio,  who  was  born  in  1313. 
He  early  devoted  his  life  to  literature, 
and  in  1341,  assisted  at  the  oelebrated 
examination  of  Petrarch,  previous  to  his 
coronation  in  the  capitol.  His  principal 
work  is  the  Dccamerone,  a  collection  of 
one  hundred  tales,  which,  notwithstand- 
ing the  impurities  with  which  they  are 
disfigured,  are  models  of  narration,  and 
exhibit  the  most  varied  powers  of  ima- 
gination and  invention.  Boccaccio  is 
conridered  as  the  inventor  of  romances 
of  lov'e — a  branch  of  literature  which  was 
wholly  unknown  to  antiquity. 

For  a  century  following  the  death  of 
Boccaccio,  the  literature  of  Italy  shows  no 
great  name,  though  several  scholars  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  attain- 
ments and  the  aid  which  they  rendered  to 
the  cause  of  classic  literature.  The  most 
noted  of  these  were  John  of  Ravenna,; 
Lionardo  Aretino,  who  wrote  a  history  of 
Florence  in  Latin  ;  Poggio  Bracciolini,  a 
most  voluminous  writer,  who  enjoyed  the 
patronage  of  Cosmo  de' Medici,  at  Flo- 
rence; Francesco  Fileflo  and  Lorenzo 
Valla,  both  men  of  great  erudition,  whose 
labors  contributed  to  bring  on  a  new  era 
of  Italian  literature.  Lorenzo  de' Medici, 
oiillod  the  Magnificent,  towards  the  close 


of  the  fifteenth  century,  gave  the  first  im- 
pulse to  the  cultivation  of  the  Italian 
tongue,  which  had  been  lost  sight  of  in  the 
rage  for  imitating  Latin  poets.  Besides 
being  the  author  of  many  elegant  songs 
and  sonnets,  his  court  was  the  home  of  all 
the  authors  of  that  period.  Among  these 
were  Politiano,  who  wrote  OrJ'eo,  a  fable 
formed  on  the  myth  of  Orpheus,  which  was 
])erformed  at  the  court  of  Mantua,  in 
1483  ;  Luigi  Pulci,  the  author  of  Mor- 
gante  Maggiore,  and  Boiardo,  author  of 
the  Orlando  Jiinamorato.  Both  the  last- 
named  poems  are  chivalrous  romances, 
written  in  the  ottava  rima,  and  full  of  a 
quaint  humor,  which  before  that  time  had 
only  appeared  in  the  prose  of  Boccaccio. 
But  the  master  of  the  gay  and  sparkling 
poetic  narrative  was  Ariosto,  wh'  was 
born  in  1474,  and  first  appeared  as  a  i  au- 
thor about  the  year  1500.  Five  years 
later  he  commenced  his  Orlando  Furioso, 
which  was  not  completed  till  1516.  This 
is  a  romantic  poem  in  forty-six  cantos, 
celebrating  the  adventures  of  Roland,  the 
nephew  of  Charlemagne.  It  is  one  of  the 
classics  of  Italy,  and  has  been  translated 
into  all  modern  languages.  After  the 
death  of  Ariosto  in  1533,  no  literary  work 
of  any  prominence  appeared  until  Tor- 
quato  Tasso  published  his  Jerusalem  De- 
livered, in  1581.  Alamanni,  Trissino  and 
Bernardo  Tasso  flourished  in  the  interval 
and  produced  labored  poems,  which  are  no 
longer  read.  The  subject  of  Tasso's  poem 
is  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  from 
the  Moslems,  by  the  Crusaders,  under 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  The  wrongs  and 
persecutions  heaped  upon  Tasso  clouded 
his  mind  and  shortened  his  days  ;  he  died 
in  Rome,  in  1595,  on  the  day  before  that 
appointed  for  his  coronation.  Three  other 
Italian  auth(U's  of  the  sixteenth  century 
are  worthy  of  mention  :  Cardinal  Bembo, 
the  most  finished  scholar  of  his  day,  and 
author  of  a  history  of  Venice;  Nicolo 
Machiavelli,  whose  name  has  become  sy- 
nonymous with  all  that  is  sinister  and  un- 
scrupulous in  politics,  from  his  treatise 
entitled  "  The  Prince,"  for  which,  after 
his  death,  an  anathema  was  pronounced 
against  him  ;  and  Pictro  Aretino,  one  of 
the  most  infamous  and  dissolute  men  of 
his  time.  Machiavelli  wrote  an  admira- 
ble History  of  Florence,  which  is  still  a 
standard  work. 

In  the  h;ilf-century  following  the  death 
of  Tasso,  there  are  but  two  poets  who 
have  attained  any  renown  ;  Guarini,  tho 
author  of  Pasfor  Fido,  and  Tassoni.  who 
wrote  the  Secchia  Kapita  (Rape  of  tho 
Bucket.)   Filieaja,  whose  impassioned  ly 


3G6 


CVCLOl'EUIA     OK     I-IIKK  A  I  L  l;K 


[lit 


rics  are  still  the  revolutionary  inspiration 
of  Italy,  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century;  he  died  in  1707. 
After  another  long  interval  arose  Frugo- 
ri.  a  lyric,  poet  of  some  celebrity,  who 
died  in  17G8,  and  Metastasio,  the  auth(jr 
of  plays,  operas  and  ballets  innumerable, 
lie  is  remarkable  for  his  wonderful  com- 
mand of  the  language,  and  the  free  and 
spirited  movement  of  his  dialogue.  lie 
died  in  Vienna,  in  the  year  1782.  During 
this  same  period,  Italian  dramatic  litera- 
ture received  a  new  accession  in  (Joldoni, 
whoso  comedies  are  still  the  glory  of  the 
Italian  stage.  He  had  a  rival  in  Count 
Gazzi,  whose  works,  nevertheless,  are  far 
inferior  to  Goldoni's  In  humor  and  bril- 
liancy. What  Goldoni  did  for  comedy,  Al- 
fieri  accomplished  for  Italian  tragedy. 
This  author  justly  stands  at  the  head  of 
modern  Italian  literature.  His  tragedies, 
odes  and  lyrics  exhibit  an  eloquence  and 
fervor  of  thought  which  is  scarcely  reach- 
ed by  any  other  author.  His  principal 
works  are  Saul,  Mijrrha,  Octaria,  Bru- 
tus the  Second,  and  Philip  II.  Since  the 
commencement  of  this  century,  Italy  has 
not  been  barren  of  authors.  Pindemonte, 
who  has  published  several  volumes  of  dra- 
matic poetry ;  Ugo  Foscolo,  author  of  a 
poem  called  "The  Sepulchres  ;"  .Jlanzoni, 
who  wrote  1  Promessi  Sposi,  (The  Be- 
trothed,) a  charming  romance  -of  life  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Como ;  Silvio  Pellico, 
whose  Le  Mie  Prigione  is  a  narrative  of 
his  sufferings  in  the  prison  at  Spielberg, 
and  Niccolini,  equally  celebrated  as  a 
poet  and  prose  writer.  jNIazzini,  Trium- 
vir of  Rome  during  the  brief  period  of 
the  Republic,  and  Gioberti,  are  the  most 
distinguished  Italian  authors  of  the  pres- 
ent generation. 

Spanish  Lileraturc. — The  earliest  es- 
say in  Spanish  literature  is  the  Chron- 
icle of  the  Cid,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  written  about  the  niiildlc  of  the 
twelfth  century.  In  form  the  ))oem  is 
sufficiently  barbarous,  tliough  the  lan- 
guage is  remarkably  s|)irited  and  pictur- 
esque. It  has  been  the  fount  of  number- 
less songs  and  legends,  through  the  later 
centuries.  It  narrates  the  ailventures  of 
Ruy  Diaz  de  Rivar,  the  Cid  Cauipeador. 
In  the  following  century,  Gonzales  de 
Berceo,  a  monk,  wrote  nine  voluminous 
poems  on  the  lives  of  the  saints.  Alfonso 
X.  of  Castile,  whose  reign  terminated  in 
1284,  was  the  author  of  a  poem  entitled 
The  Philosopker\i  Stone,  besides  several 
prose  works.  The  first  author  of  the 
fourteenth  century  was  Prince  Don  Jolin 
Manuel,  who  wrote  a  prose  work  entitled 


Count  Lucanor,  a  collection  of  tales  era- 
bodying  lessons  of  policy  and  morality. 
He  was  f(dlowed  by  Pedro  Lopez  d« 
Ayala,  and  -Mendoza,  Marquis  de  San- 
tillana;  though  the  latter  belongs  prop- 
erly to  the  ne.xt  century.  He  produced 
a  number  of  works,  both  prose  and  poetry, 
all  of  which  were  remarkable  for  the 
erudition  they  displayed.  Some  of  hip 
lighter  poems  are  very  graceful  and  me 
lodious. 

Under  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  Spanish 
literature  first  reached  its  full  develop- 
ment. After  the  union  of  Arragon  and 
Castile  and  the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  the 
government  to  Madrid,  the  Castilian  be- 
came the  court  language,  and  thus  re- 
ceived a  new  polish  and  elegance.  The 
first  author  of  this  period  was  Bos- 
can,  an  imitator  of  Petrarch  in  some  re- 
spects, but  a  poet  of  much  native  fervor 
and  passion.  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  the 
friend  of  Boscan,  surpasses  him  in  the 
sweetness  of  his  verses  and  in  their  sus- 
ceptibility and  imagination.  He  was  a 
master  of  pastoral  poetry,  and  his  ec- 
logues are  considered  models  of  that 
species  of  writing.  His  life  was  actively 
devoted  to  the  profession  of  arms.  He 
fought  under  the  banner  of  Charles  XI.  in 
Tunis,  Sicily,  and  Provence,  and  was 
finally  killed  while  storming  the  walls  of 
Nice.  Don  Diego  de  Mendoza,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  politicians  and  generals 
of  that  period,  is  generally  awarded  a 
place  ne.xt  to  Garcilaso.  He  was  a  patron 
of  classical  literature,  and  the  author 
of  a  history  of  the  Moorish  Revolt  in 
the  Alpuxarra,  and  a  History  of  the 
War  of  Grenada,  but  a  man  of  cruel 
and  tyrannical  character.  Montemayor, 
Avho  flourished  at  the  same  time,  attain- 
ed much  celebrity  from  his  pastoral 
of  Diana.  These  authors  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  V.  gave  Spanish  poetry 
its  most  graceful  and  correct  form,  and 
have  since  been  regarded  as  models  of 
classic  purity.  The  great  masters  of 
Spanish  literature,  however,  were  re- 
served for  the  succeeding  generation. 
Herrera  and  Ponce  de  Leon,  lyrical 
poets,  fill  the  interval  between  the  ago 
of  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  and  Cervanti-s. 
Herrara  is  considered  the  first  purely 
lyrical  poet  of  S])ain.  Ponce  de  Leon, 
who  was  imprisoned  five  years  by  the 
Inquisition  for  having  translated  the 
song  of  Solomon,  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral volumes  of  religious  poetry. 

Two  of  the  brightest  stars  of  Spanish 
literature,  Cervantes  and  Lope  de  Vega, 
were  contemporaries,  and  were  followed 


LIl] 


AND     llllO    FIXE    ARTS. 


367 


in  the  next,  generation,  bj-  tlio  tliinl,  Cal- 
deron.  Ccrvantea  was  born  in  1549.  He 
travelled  tlirough  Italy,  lost  a  hand  at 
the  battle  of  Lc[)anto,  and  was  five  j'ears 
a  slave  in  Barbary.  Jle  commenced  his 
literary  career  by  the  writing  of  come- 
dies and  tragedies,  the  first  of  which, 
Galatea,  was  published  in  1584.  Thirty 
of  his  comedies  have  been  entirely  lost. 
His  great  work,  Bon  Qui.vote,  was  pub- 
lished in  1G05,  and  was  immediately 
translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Eu- 
rope. From  this  time  until  his  death  in 
1616,  he  wrote  many  novels  and  comedies. 
The  tragedy  of  Numanlia,  and  the  com- 
edy of  Life  in  Algiers,  are  the  only  two 
of  his  plays  which  have  been  preserved. 
To  this  same  period  belongs  Don  Alonzo 
de  Ercilla,  whose  epic  of  La  Aracuana 
was  written  during  the  hardships  of  a 
campaign  against  the  Aracua'nian  In- 
dians in  Chili.  Lope  de  Vega  was  born 
in  1562,  and  after  a  life  of  the  most  mar- 
vellous performances  died  in  1635.  He 
was  a  prodigy  of  learning,  imagination, 
and  language.  Ont  of  eighteen  kuridi-ed 
dramas  which  he  wrote,  one  hundred 
were  each  produced  in  the  space  of  a 
single  day.  Ilir  detached  poems  have 
been  printed  in  27  volumes  in  quarto. 
Very  few  of  his  plays  are  now  read  or 
performed.  The  only  remaining  authors 
of  eminence  during  this  period  are  Que- 
vedo,  who  wrote  several  moral  and  reli- 
gious works  and  throe  volumes  of  lyrics, 
pastorals,  and  sonnets  ;  Villegas,  an  ana- 
creontic poet;  and  the  Jesuit  Mariana, 
author  of  a  History  of  Spain.  The  life 
of  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  the  illustrious 
head  of  the  Spanish  drama,  extended 
from  1600  to  1687.  His  i)lays  are  of  four 
kinds :  sacred  dramas,  iVoui  Scriptural 
sources  ;  historical  dramas  ;  classic  dra- 
mas ;  and  pictures  of  society  and  man- 
ners. The  most  celebrated  are  Tlie  Con- 
stant Prince,  El  Secreto  a  Voces  and  EL 
Magico  prodigiosu.  A  number  of  small 
dramatists  were  ccmtemporary  with  Cal- 
deron, but  with  his  death  Spanish  litera- 
ture declined,  and  has  since  produced  few 
eminent  names.  Luyando,  counsellor 
of  state,  published  two  tragedies  in  1750, 
and  in  1758  appeared  The  Life  of  Friar 
Gerund,  by  Salazar — a  work  in  the  style 
of  Don  Quixote,  but  directed  against  the 
clergy  instead  of  the  chivalry.  It  abounds 
with  wit  and  satire,  and  is  perhaps  the 
best  Spanish  prose  work  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. Towards  the  close  of  the  century 
Huerta  achieved  considerable  reputa- 
tion by  his  attempts  to  revive  the  Spanish 
drama.     Tomas  de  Vriartc  i)ublisliL'J  in 


!  1782  his  Literary  Fables,  and  a  few  3'eara 
I  later  Melendez  appeared  as  the  author 
of  two  volumes  of  idyls  and  pastorals. 
1  Both  of  these  authors  display  considera- 
I  ble  lyric  genius  ;  but  since  their  death, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
j  Spain  has  produced  no  new  name  in  lit- 
j  erature. 

1       Portuguese  Literature. — Portugal  first 
'  acquired  its  position  as  an  independent 
kingdom  after  the  battle  of  Ourigue,  in 
113!J.     The  date  of  the  origin  of  its  lite- 
I  rature  is  nearly  coeval  with  that  of  the 
monarchy,     llermiguez  and  Moniz,  two 
knights  who  flourished  under  Alfonso  I., 
I  wrote  the  first  ballads.     King  Dionysius, 
I  who  reigned  from   1279  to  1325,  and  his 
son,  Alfonso  IV.  were  both  renov..-ed  as 
poets,  but  few  vestiges  of  their  writings 
remain.     It  was  not  until  the  fifteenth 
century,  however,  that  Portuguese  litera- 
ture   attained    any   considerable    merit. 
Macias,  a  Portuguese  knight  engaged  in 
the  wars  with  the  Moors  of  Grenada,  was 
called  El  Enamorado,  on  account  of  the 
tender  and  glowing  character  of  his  ama- 
tory poems.     The  first  distinguished  poet 
of  the  country   was  Bernardin  llibeyro, 
who  flourished  under  the   reign  of  Em- 
manuel the  Great,  in  the  beginning  of 
the    sixteenth   century.     His   most  cele- 
brated productions  are  his  eclogues,  the 
i  scenes  of  which  are  laid  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tagus  and  the  sea-shores  of  Portugal. 
His  lyrics  of  love,  the  origin  of  which  iti 
attributed  to  an  unholy  passion  for  the 
king's   daughter,  are  wonderfully  sweet 
and  melodious.     The  first  prose  work  in 
Portuguese  worthy  of  note,  is  a  romance 
entitled    T/ie  Innocent   Girl,   which  ap- 
peared  about  this  period.      Saa  de  Mi- 
randa, who  also  attained  celebrity  as  a 
Spanish  author,  was  born  in  Coimbra  in 
1495,  ana  wrote  many  sonnets,  lyrics  and 
eclogues  in  his  native  tongue.     He  also 
wrote  a  series  of  poetical  epistles,  after 
the  manner  of  Horace.    Antonio  Ferreira, 
1  who  was  born  in  1528,  followed  the  ex- 
ample   of   Miranda   in    his   sonnets    and 
]  eclogues,  but  surpassed  him  in  entering 
I  the    field   of  dramatic    literature.       Ilis 
j  Inez  de   Castro,    founded   on    the    tragic 
story  of  that  lady,  displays  much   power 
I  and  pathos  in  the  delineation  of  the  char- 
'  acters.     The  other  poets  of  this  genera- 
•  tion  were  Andraie  Caminha,  I^iego  Ber- 
I  nardes  and  Rodriguez  de  Castro,  all  of 
j  whom  wrote  lyrics,  sonnets  and  pastorals, 
lew  of  which  have  survived  them. 

The  sole  star  of  Portuguese  literature, 
who  is  now  almost  its  only  representative 
t(j  other  nations,  was  Luis  de  Cnmoens, 


368 


CVCLOl'KUIA    OK    LITKRATLUE 


■who  was  born  in  1525.  After  studying 
at  Coimbni,  where  he  was  coldly  treated 
by  Ferreira,  lie  embraced  the  prufe^'sion 
of  arms,  and  lost  an  eye  in  the  siege  of 
Ceuta.  Sailing  for  India  in  15133,  he 
reached  Goa  in  safety,  participated  in  an 
expedition  against  the  king  of  Cochin- 
China,  spent  a  winter  in  the  islands  of 
Urmuz,  and  afterwards,  on  account  of  a 
satire  entitled  Follies  in  India,  directed 
against  the  Portuguese  governor,  was  ban- 
ished to  Macao,  on  the  coast  of  China. 
l>uring  his  residence  of  five  j-cars  in  that 
jilace,  he  wrote  his  great  epic  of  TlicLu- 
tiiad,  devoted  to  celebrating  the  passage 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Vasco  de 
(Jama,  and  the  triumph  of  Portuguese 
arms  and  commerce  in  the  Orient.  On 
his  return  to  Portugal  he  was  shipwreck- 
ed on  the  coast  of  Cambodia,  and  escaped 
by  swimming,  with  the  Lusiad  in  his 
hand,  held  above  the  waves.  lie  died  in 
great  poverty,  in  1579.  lie  left  behind 
him  many  sonnets,  songs  and  pastorals, 
but  most  of  them  are  penetrated  with  a 
vein  of  deep  and  settled  melancholy. 
Among  the  successors  of  Caraocns,  the 
most  noted  are  Gil  Vicente,  a  dramatic 
writer,  who  is  supposed  to  have  served  as 
a  model  to  Lope  de  Vega  and  Calderon  ; 
and  Rodriguez  Lobo,  who  was  at  one  time 
considered  a  rival  of  Camoens.  lie  wrote 
the  Winter  Nights,  a  series  of  philosoph- 
ical conversations,  Spring,  a  romance, 
and  numberless  pastorals.  Cortereal  also 
described  in  a  ponderous  epic  the  adven- 
tures of  Manuel  de  Sousa  Sepulveda,  a 
distinguished  Portuguese. 

The  age  of  Camoens  also  gave  rise  to  a 
new  branch  ')f  literature.  John  de  I'arros, 
born  in  14'J6,  is  esteemed  by  his  coun- 
trymen as  the  Livy  of  Portugal.  He 
commenced  his  career  by  a  romance  en- 
titled Tlic  Emperor  Clarimond,  but  after 
his  return  from  service  on  the  coast  of 
(juinea,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  prepa- 
ration of  a  grand  historical  work  on  the 
Portuguese  empire.  Only  one  fourth  of 
this,  entitled  I'orlugutse  Asia,  which  was 
juiblishcd  in  155"2,  appeared.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  comprehensive,  accurate  and 
interesting  historical  works  of  that  age. 
.Mfoiiso  ])' Albuquori|iic,  one  of  the  most 
distinguisiied  cniitciniiciraries  of  Parros, 
wrote  a  series  of  Commentaries,  and 
C'outo  and  Castanhoda  undertook  to  com- 
plete the  work  which  I'arros  had  left  un- 
finished. I'ornardo  do  liiito,  born  in 
1570,  designed  to  give  a  universal  History 
of  Portugal,  but,  commencing  with  the 
Creation,  ho  iliod  by  the  time  ho  reached 
tho   Christian   Era.    Usorio,    Uishop   of 


Sylvez,  who  died  in  1580,  wrote  the  His- 
tory of  King  Kmmanuel,  describing  tho 
religious  troubles  of  that  time  in  a  most 
liberal  and  enlightened  spirit.  Jlanuel 
de  Faria,  born  in  1590,  almost  rivalled 
L(,^ie  de  Vega  in  the  amount  of  his 
works  ;  his  dissertations  on  the  art  of 
poetry  are  held  in  most  value.  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  Portugal  and  a  Com- 
mentary on  Camoens.  After  the  subju- 
gation of  Portugal  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
the  liteniture  of  the  country  declined, 
and  presents  no  distinguished  name  for 
nearly  a  century  following.  The  tirst 
author  of  the  last  century  is  the  Count  of 
Ericej'ra,  born  in  1G73.  He  was  a  gene- 
ral in  tt-?  army,  and  a  scholar  of  splendid 
attainments.  His  chief  work  was  the 
Ilenriqueide,  a  epic  poem,  describing 
the  adveiitures  of  Henry  of  Burgundy, 
the  founder  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy 
Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
Antonio  Garjao  and  the  Countess  de  Vi- 
uiieiro  acquired  some  celebrity  by  their 
dramatic  productions.  The  only  Portu- 
guese authors  of  note,  whom  the  present 
century  has  brought  forth,  are  Antonio 
da  Cruz  e  Silva,  who  imitated  Pope  and 
other  English  poets,  and  J.  A.  da  Cunha, 
an  eminent  mathematician  and  elegiac 
poet.  The  Portuguese  colonies  have  pro- 
duced a  few  writers,  the  most  noted  of 
whom  are  Vascencellos  and  Clauuio  Man- 
uel da  Costa. 

French  Literature. — The  literature  of 
France  was  later  in  its  development  than 
that  of  the  other  nations  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope. It  was  necessary  to  wait  the  de- 
cline of  the  two  romance-tongues  of  Nor- 
mandy and  Provence  before  the  language 
could  take  a  settleil  form,  and  a  still  fur- 
ther time  ela])sed  before  it  was  sutliciently 
matured  for  the  purposes  of  the  scholar 
and  the  author.  During  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  the  V.ingdoni 
produced  many  romances,  in  which  the 
induenco  of  the  literature  of  tin;  Trou- 
vcres  and  'J'roubadoiirs  was  manifest, 
(iilbortde  Montrcuil,  Castellan  de  Coney 
and  some  others  were  noted  for  this  spe 
cies  of  composition  ;  many  sacred  dramas 
and  mysteries  were  written  in  tho  north 
of  I'Vancc,  and  about  the  middle  of  tho 
fifteenth  century,  several  romantic  epics 
ajipcared.  The  only  remarkable  name 
of  this  early  period  is  the  renowned 
chronicler,  Froissart,  who  was  born  in 
Vi'M,  anil  in  the  course  of  his  travels 
and  sojourn  at  all  the  courts  of  Europe, 
was  witness  of  many  of  the  chival- 
rous events  ho  describes  in  his  "Chron- 
icles of  France,   Spain,   Italy.   England 


lit] 


AND    THE    FINE    AUTS. 


360 


and  Germany."  Philip  de  Coniines,  who 
died  in  1509,  pntiscd  his  life  in  the  ser- 
vice of  Louis  IX.,  and  left  behin<l  him 
the  "  Memoirs"  of  his  time.  The  latter 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century  produced 
many  small  writers  of  satires,  odes,  songs, 
Ac.,  among  whom,  Charles,  I)uke  of  Or- 
leans, takes  the  first  rank.  The  sacred 
mysteries,  the  first  attempt  at  theatrical 
representation,  gradually  gave  place  to 
a  rude  form  of  drama  and  comedy,  and  a 
very  successful  comedy  of  French  life  ap- 
peared in  1475. 

With  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  the  study 
of  the  classics  became  popular  in  France, 
and  from  that  time  till  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  the  progress  of  Frencli  literature 
was  rapid  and  uninterrupted.  The  six- 
teenth century  produced  a  few  great 
names.  Scaliger  and  Casaubon  were  re- 
nowned for  their  scholastic  acquirements  ; 
Clement  Marot  and  Theodore  Beza  cul- 
tivated poetry  under  Francis  I.,  whose  sis- 
ter, Margaret  of  Valois,  published  a  col- 
lection of  novels,  called  the  Ileptameron ; 
Ronsard  was  the  first  French  poet  who 
showed  strong  original  genius,  and,  with 
Regnier,  gave  the  national  poetry  a  freer 
and  more  characteristic  tone.  The  drama 
was  improved  by  Etienne  Jodelle,  who 
imitated  the  (ireek  tragedians;  Claude 
de  Sej'ssel  wrote  the  History  of  Louis 
XII. ;  and  Ijrantume  and  Agrippa  d' Au- 
bigne  left  behind  them  many  memoirs  and 
historical  essays.  But  the  boast  of  the 
age  is  the  names  of  Malherbe,  Rabelais 
and  Montaigne.  Malherbe,  born  in  1554, 
is  considered  the  first  French  classic,  in 
poetry ;  his  language  is  most  inflexibly 
pure  and  correct.  Rabelais  was  born  in 
1483,  and  his  romance  of  "Gargantua 
and  Pantagruel"  was  first  published  in 
1533.  Notwithstanding  its  grossness  it  is 
one  of  the  most  lively,  humorous  and  bril- 
liant books  in  the  language.  It  satirizes 
the  clerical  and  political  characters  of  his 
time.  Montaigne,  whose  life  extended 
from  1533  to  1592,  wrote  three  volumes  of 
Essays,  on  moral,  political  and  religious 
subjects,  which  on  account  of  their  elegant 
style  no  less  than  the  treasures  of  thought 
they  contain,  have  always  held  their 
place  among  French  classics. 

The  seventeenth  century  is  the  glory  of 
French  literature.  Under  the  auspices 
of  Richelieu,  Colbert  and  Louis  XIV.  all 
departments  of  letters,  science  and  art 
reached  a  height  unknown  before.  The 
French  Academy  was  founded  by  Riche- 
lieu in  1635,  and  the  language,  at  that 
time  unrivalled  in  clearness,  perspicacity 
and  flexibility,  gradually  became  the  po- 
24 


lite  tongue  of  Europe.  Dramatic  poetry; 
especially,  founiled  on  the  principles  of 
the  Greek  theatre,  attained  a.  character 
it  has  never  since  reached.  Corneille, 
born  in  1606,  was  the  father  of  the  classic 
French  drama.  His  first  play.  The  Cid, 
belongs  rather  to  the  romantic  drama,  but 
through  the  influence  of  the  Academy  his 
later  works,  the  most  eminent  of  which 
are  Les  Horaces,  Cinna,  I'olyeuc'e  and 
Mort  de  Fompce  are  strictly  classical. 
His  dramatic  works  amount  to  thir'y- 
three  Racine,  who  was  born  in  1639, 
brought  the  classic  drama  to  perfection. 
His  language  is  the  most  elegant  and 
melodious  of  all  French  dramatists,  while 
he  is  inferior  to  none  in  his  knowledge  of 
nature  and  his  command  of  the  senti- 
ments and  passions.  His  plays,  though 
constructed  on  the  classic  model,  are  not 
confined  strictly  to  classic  subjects.  The 
most  celebrated  are  :  Andromaque,  Baja- 
zet,  Mithridate,  Phedre,  Esther  and 
Athalic.  After  these  two  authors  ranks 
Moliere,  the  father  and  master  of  French 
comedy.  His  Turtuffe  has  a  universal 
celebrity.  Ho  died  in  1673.  Crebillon, 
sometimes  called  the  French  yEschylus, 
was  a  writer  of  tragedies.  Legrand,  Reg- 
nard,  and  Scarron  distinguished  them- 
selves as  dramatists  of  secondary  note. 
To  this  age  belong  Le  Sage,  the  author 
of  Gil  Bias ;  La  Fontaine,  the  greatest 
fabulist  since  Esop  ;  and  Boileau,  the  sat- 
irist and  didactic  poet,  whose  Art  pocti- 
que  and  Lutriii  or  "  Battle  of  the  Books" 
have  been  made  classic.  Mademoiselle 
de  Scudery  wrote  many  chivalrous  ro- 
mances, and  Perrault's  fairy  tales  soon 
became  household  words.  The  Telcma- 
que  of  Fenelon  was  also  produced  during 
this  period.  This  author,  with  Bourda- 
loue,  Bossuet  and  Massillon,  were  cele- 
brated as  theological  writers  and  pulpit 
orators.  Madame  de  Sevigne's  letters 
are  unsurpassed  as  specimens  of  graceful, 
polished  and  spirited  epistolar}'  writing. 
As  historians,  Rollin  is  the  most  dis- 
tinguished, but  Mezeray,  author  of  the 
national  Chronicles,  the  Jesuit  D'Orleans, 
author  of  Histories  of  Revolutions  in  Eng- 
land and  Spain,  and  Bossuet's  theological 
histories,  are  worthy  of  notice. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
the  literature  of  Spain,  Italy  and  Portu- 
gal were  on  the  decline,  and  England  and 
Germany  remained  stationary,  France 
still  maintained  her  supremacy.  In  1694 
was  born  Voltaire,  who  in  the  course  of 
his  life  made  himself  master  of  nearly 
every  department  of  literature.  His  first 
play,  CEdipc,  was  successfully  performed 


370 


CYCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITKKATURE 


[l  IT 


in  1718,  though  his  epic  of  the  Henriade, 
written  at  the  same  tin>e,  was  not  pub- 
lished till  1729.  Many  of  his  succeeding 
plays  were  unsuccessful,  and  his  satires 
and  philosophical  essays  produced  only 
banishment.  His  principal  plnys  are 
Zaire,  Ah  ire,  JJ  rutin;,  Oreste,  Mahomet 
and  Tancrt'de.  After  his  return  from 
Germany,  he  settled  at  Ferney  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  where  for  twenty  j-cars 
he  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
principal  works  are  :  Ilistonj  nf  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  ;  llistori/  of  Ruasia  under 
Peter  the  Great;  Fyrrkonisme  de  I'hia- 
toire,  Droits  de  fhomme  and  the  Diction- 
naire  Pkilosophique.  Jean  Jaques  Rous- 
seau, born  in  1712,  exercised  scarcely  less 
influence  on  French  literature,  than  Vol- 
taire. His  first  work,  a  dissertation  on 
Modern  Music,  appeared  in  Paris  in  1743, 
about  which  time  he  wrote  several  come- 
dies and  tragedies  and  composed  an  opera. 
His  romance  entitled  Nouvelle  Hcloisc, 
was  published  in  1760.  and  his  Contrdt 
Social  and  Emile  m  1762.  His  most  re- 
markable work,  the  Confessions,  was  com- 
pleted in  1770,  and  he  died  in  1778.  As 
bold  and  independent  as  Voltaire  in  his 
philosophical  views,  he  had  nothing  of  his 
cynicism.  His  works,  the  style  of  which 
is  absolutely  fascinating,  e.\i)ress  a  sin- 
cere sympathy  with  humanity.  Montes- 
quieu, whose  Spirit  of  Lines  is  a  stand- 
ard work  on  jurisprudence,  belongs  to 
the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Auiong  the  historians  eontemiiorary  with 
Voltaire  were  Condorcct.  author  of  a  His- 
tory of  Civilization,  and  Barthclomy,  who 
also  wrote  the  Voyage  du  jenne  Anachar- 
sis.  La  Bruyere,  La  Ilarpe  and  .Madame 
d'Epinay  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  didactic  and  ejiistolary  writings. 
The  most  noted  novelists  were  Marmon- 
tel,  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre,  author  of 
Paul  and  Virginia,  and  Louvet.  Mari- 
vau.K  attained  distinction  as  a  writer  of 
comedies,  and  Beaumarchais  as  a  drama- 
tist and  writer  of  operas.  The  well-known 
Barber  of  Seville  is  from  his  pen.  France 
produced  few  lyric  poets  during  the  last 
century.  Lebrun,  Delille  and  Joseph 
Chcnier  are  the  most  worthy  of  mention, 
but  the  Marseillaise  of  Kouget  de  Lisle 
is  the  finest  lyric  of  the  century,  if  not  of 
all  French  literature.  Mirabeau,  Bar- 
nave,  Sieyes  and  the  loaders  of  the  Rev- 
olution gave  a  new  and  splendid  charac- 
ter to  French  oratory,  towards  the  close 
of  the  century. 

Chateaubriand,  de  Stai-I  and  Bcranger 
connect  the  age  of  Rnusseau  and  Voltaire 
witli    the    niodeni    literature    of    Franco. 


Chateaubriand  was  born  in  1769,  and 
published  his  first  work,  the  Essay  on 
Revolutions,  in  London,  in  1797,  while  in 
exile.  His  Atala,  the  subject  of  whivh 
was  derived  from  his  adventures  among 
the  Natchez,  tribe  of  Imlians,  on  the  .Mis- 
sissippi, appeared  in  ISOl,  and  his  Gatie 
du  Christianisme  in  1802.  He  also  pub- 
lished Les  Martyrs  in  1SU7,  and  an  ac- 
count of  his  travels  in  the  East.  Ho 
filled  many  diplomatic  stations  under  the 
Bourbons,  and  was  made  peer  of  France. 
After  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1848, 
his  autobiography  was  published,  under 
the  title  of  Memoires  d'outre  Tombe. 
Madame  de  Stael,  the  daughter  of  M. 
Neckar,  afterwards  minister  under  Louis 
XVI.,  was  born  in  1766,  and  first  appear- 
ed as  an  author  in  1788,  when  she  pub- 
lished a  series  of  letters  on  the  life  and 
writings  of  Rousseau.  During  the  French 
Revolution  she  remained  in  Switzerland 
and  England,  where  she  wrote  several  po- 
litical pamphlets,  dramas,  and  essays  on 
life  and  literature.  Her  romance  of  Co- 
rinne  was  published  in  1807,  and  her  De 
V Allemagne,  which  directed  nttention  to 
the  literature  of  Germany,  ir.  1810.  Her 
work  entitled  Ten  Years  of  Exile,  was 
written  in  Sweden  ;  she  died  in  Paris  in 
1817.  Beranger,  who  still  lives  at  Passy, 
near  Paris,  is  the  first  song-writer  of 
France.  Many  of  his  lyrics  and  ballads 
have  become  household  words  with  the 
common  people.  Casimir  Delavigne,  who 
died  in  1843,  was  among  the  first  restor- 
ers of  that  lyric  school,  which  Lamartine, 
Victor  Hugo  and  Alfred  de  Musset  have 
since  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. The  most  renowned  names  in  co- 
temporary  French  literature,  are,  as  po- 
ets :  Alphonse  de  Lamartine,  author  of 
Meditations  Poclitjues,  Harmonies  Po- 
ctiques  and  ha  Chute  d' un  Ange  ;  Victor 
Hugo,  author  of  three  volumes  of  lyrical 
romances  and  ballads  ;  Alfred  de  Musset ; 
Jean  Reboul,  .a  disciple  of  Lamartine; 
and  Auguste  Barbier,  who  mingle.-!  with 
his  poems  a  vein  of  keen  satire.  Jasmin, 
a  barber  of  Agen,  has  obtained  much  ce- 
lebrity by  his  poems  in  the  Gascon  dia- 
lect. The  new  school  of  French  romance 
has  infected  the  modern  literature  of  all 
countries.  Balzac,  who  died  in  13)0,  is 
unequalled  as  a  painter  of  society  and 
manners  ;  Eugene  Sue,  whose  Mysteries 
of  Paris  and  Wandering  Jew  have  been 
so  widely  read,  delights  in  cxeiliiig  sub- 
jects and  the  most  intricate  and  improba- 
ble ]ilots;  Alexander  Dumas,  best  known 
by  his  Count  of  Monte  Christo,  and  hia 
romances  of  travel,  is  a  master  of  pietur- 


Lir] 


AND     llIK     riNE     ARTS. 


371 


esquo  narrative ;  Victor  Hugo  is  best 
known  as  a  novelist  by  his  Notre  Dame 
dc  Paris,  a  brilliant  historical  fiction, 
and  Paul  de  Kock,  as  a  lively  thouajh 
unscrupulous  painter  of  Parisian  life, 
enjoys  a  remarkable  popularity.  The 
most  striking  and  original  writer  of  fic- 
tion is  Madame  Dudevant,  better  known 
as  "  George  Sand,"  whose  Andrc^  Lettres 
d'  unVoijageur  and  Consuelo,  have  placed 
her  in  the  first  rank  of  French  authors. 
As  dramatists.  Scribe,  Leon  Gozlan,  Eti- 
enne  Arago,  Germain  Delavigne  and  Fe- 
lix Pyat  have  distinguished  themselves.  { 
The  most  prominent  historical  and  politi- 
cal writers  are  Lamartine,  Thiers,  Miche- 
let,  Guizot,  Louis  Blane  and  Thibau- 
deau  ;  while  Cousin  and  Comte  are  the 
founders  of  the  new  schools  of  philosophy,  j 
French  oratory  now  occupies  a  higher 
position  than  ever  before  ;  its  most  illus- 
trious names  are  Guizot,  Thiers,  Berryer, 
Lamartine,  Odilon  Barrot  and  Victor 
Hugo. 

German  Literature. — The  first  period 
of  German  literature  commenced  with 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne  in  the  eighth 
century,  and  extends  to  the  time  of  the 
Suabian  emperors,  at  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century.  The  first  learned  so- 
ciety was  instituted  by  Alcuin,the  great- 
est scholar  of  Charlemagne's  time.  In 
the  succeeding  period,  Einhard,  Kithard, 
and  Lambert  von  Aschaffenburg  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  historical  and 
theological  writers.  About  this  time  also 
originated  those  epic  ballads  and  frag- 
ments which  were  afterwards  collected 
under  the  title  of  the  Niebeluugen-Licd, 
or  '"Lay  of  the  Nibelungen,"  and  the 
"Song  of  Hildebrand."  The  Ncibeliin- 
gen-Leid,  which  has  been  called  the  Ger- 
man Iliad,  received  its  present  form 
about  the  year  1210.  Its  subject  is  the 
history  of  Siegfried,  son  of  the  King 
of  the  Netherlands,  his  marriage  with 
Chriemhild.  sister  of  Giinther,  King  of 
the  Burgundians,  and  the  revenge  of 
Brunhild,  Queen  of  Ireland,  who  married 
Giinther. 

.  The  second  period  terminates  with  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  includes 
the  Minnesingers,  or  German  Trouba- 
dours, who  were  the  result  of  the  inter- 
course of  Germany  with  Italy  and  France, 
■which  male  German  scholars  aequainted 
with  the  amatory  literature  of  Provence. 
The  most  renowned  Minnesingers  were 
AVolfram  von  Eschenbaeh,  who  wrote 
Parcival,  Walter  von  der  Vogelweide, 
the  most  graceful  and  popular  of  all,  and 
Iteinrich    von    Oftcrdingen.      Otto    von 


Friesingen  achieved  renown  for  his  his- 
tories, which  were  written  in  Latin. 

The  third  period,  dating  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fifteenth  century,  at 
which  time  the  German  language  was 
fully  developed  and  subjected  to  rule,  ex- 
tends to  the  present  time.  It  has  been  sub- 
divided by  German  critics  into  three  parts, 
viz.:  1.  to  the  commencement  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  ;  2.  to  Klopstock  and  Lessing ; 
3.  to  our  own  day.  The  progress  of  the 
Reformation  in  the  fifteenth  century  ope- 
rated very  favorably  upon  Gsrman  lite- 
rature. Melancthon,  Luther,  Ulric  von 
Hutten  and  the  other  leaders  of  the 
movement  were  also  distinguished  schol- 
ars. The  celebrated  Paracelsus,  the  natu- 
ralist, Gesner,  the  painter,  Albert  Ddrer, 
and  the  astronomers  Kepler  and  Coper- 
nicus, flourished  also  in  the  fifteenth  ten- 
turj'.  The  most  distinguished  poet  of 
this  period  was  Hans  Sachs,  the  shoe- 
maker poet  of  Nuremberg.  He  was  the 
master  of  a  school  or  guild  of  poetry, 
which  was  then  considered  as  an  elegant 
profession.  In  the  number  of  his  works 
lie  rivals  Lope  de  Vega,  as  he  is  said  to 
have  written  6048,  203  of  which  were 
comedies  and  tragedies.  He  died  in  1576. 
Martin  Opitz,  who  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  a  new  era  in  German  poetry, 
was  born  in  1597.  He  first  established  a 
true  rhythm  in  poetry,  by  measuring  the 
length  of  the  syllables,  instead  of  merely 
counting  them,  as  formerly.  His  princi- 
pal poems  are  Vesuvius,  Judith,  and  a 
number  of  lyrics.  He  was  followed  by 
Paul  Flemming  and  Simon  Dach.  who 
wrote  in  the  low  German  dialect.  As 
prose  writers  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
Puffendorf,  a  writer  on  jurisprudence  and 
international  law,  Leibnitz,  the  distin- 
guished philosopher  and  the  Brothers 
Baumgarten,  are  most  prominent.  There 
is  no  great  name  in  German  literature, 
however,  from  Opitz  till  the  middle  of 
the  last  century,  when  Gellert,  (iessner, 
Klopstock  and  Ilagedorn  were  the  inau- 
guration of  a  new  life.  Under  these  au- 
thors, and  others  of  less  note,  the  Ian 
guage  attained  a  richness  of  expression, 
a  flexibility  of  style,  and  a  harmony  of 
modulation  which  it  never  possessed  be- 
fore. Gellert,  born  in  1715,  is  distin- 
guished for  his  "  Spiritual  Songs  and 
Odes,"  his  letters  and  his  romance  of 
The  Sicedish  Countess,  which  is  the  first 
domestic  novel  written  in  the  German 
language.  Gessner  is  best  known  through 
his  idyls,  in  which  he  followed  the  classio 
models.  Ilagedorn,  who  died  in  1754, 
wrote   many  poems ;  he  is  supposed   to 


372 


CVCLOI'EUIA    OF     Lnr.UATlIlK 


[lit 


hare  exercised  considerable  inQuenco  on 
Klopstock  in  his  earlier  years.  As  prose 
writers,  Forstcr,  ^Meink'tssohn.  the  jiliilos- 
opher,  anil  Musaus,  who  luade  a  collec- 
tion of  German  legends  and  traditions, 
are  worthy  of  note. 

With  Klopstock  commenced  the  golden 
age  of  German  literature,  and  the  list  of 
renowned  names  continues  unbroken  un- 
til the  present  time.  Klopstock  was  born 
in  1724.  In  his  odes  and  lyrical  poems 
he  struck  out  a  new  and  bold  path,  cast- 
ing aside  the  mechanical  rules  of  the 
older  schools  of  German  poetry.  His 
greatest  work  is  the  Messias,  a  sacred 
epic,  which  was  commenced  in  1745,  and 
finished  in  1771.  Lessing,  born  in  1729, 
stands  by  the  side  of  Klopstock  as  a  poet, 
while  he  is  also  distinguished  as  a  prose 
writer.  He  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  successful  German  dramatist,  his 
plays  of  Emilia  Galotti,  Minna  ron 
Barnhelm,  and  Nathan  the  Wise,  still 
keeping  their  place  on  the  stage.  As  a 
critical  writer  on  all  branches  of  the  Fine 
Arts,  he  is  also  distinguished.  Wieland 
follows  ne.xtin  the  list  of  German  classics. 
Born  in  1733,  he  is  the  link  between 
the  age  of  (iellert  and  Klopstock,  and 
that  of  Schiller  and  Goethe,  lie  died  in 
1813.  His  principal  works  are  The  Ncw 
Amadis,  which  illustrates  the  triumph 
of  spiritual  over  phj'sical  beauty,  the 
heroic  epic  of  Obe.ron.  a  romance  of  the 
middle  ages,  the  drama  of  Alceste,  the 
History  of  the  Abder-ites,  a  satirical  ro- 
mfince,  besides  many  letters,  satires,  and 
criticisms  on  literature  and  art.  Herder, 
his  cotemporary,  in  aildition  to  his  fame 
as  a  poet,  is  celebrated  for  his  philosoph- 
ical and  theological  writings,  and  his 
Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  He  died  in 
1803.  At  the  commcnccinent  of  this 
century,  Wielaml,  Herder,  (Joetlie,  and 
Schiller,  were  gathered  together  at  the 
Court  of  Weimar — the  most  illustrious 
congregation  of  poets  since  Shakspeare, 
Spenser.  IJen  John.sou,  and  I'lutclier,  met 
together  in  Lomlon.  (ioethe  was  born  in 
1749,  and  from  his  Ixjylinod  displayed  a 
remarkable  talent  fur  literature,  science, 
and  art.  His  first  romance.  The  Sor- 
rows of  Werler,  ]iroduced  a  great  sensa- 
tion throughout  all  Europe.  His  tragedy 
of  GiUz  roa  JJerlichinL^cn,  written  at  the 
age  of  22,  established  his  fame  as  a  poet. 
After  his  settlement  at  WeiiTiar,  in  1776, 
his  works  followed  each  other  rii.pidly. 
He  produced  I  lie  tragedies  of  Iphigenia, 
E^mont,  Tufiso,  and  Olavis^o,  the  pasto- 
ral epic  of  JLerinann  und  Dorothea,  the 
philiisophical  romances  of  Wilkcbn  Mcis- 


ter  and  Die  IVahlvericandschaften,  the 
Wcst-Osttiche  Diran,  a  collection  of 
poems  founded  in  his  studies  of  Oriental 
litarature,  and  the  first  part  of  his  great- 
est work,  Fauxt.  He  also  published  nar- 
ratives of  travel  in  France  and  Italy,  and 
Wahrheit  wd  Dichtung,  an  autobiogra- 
phy of  his  life.  His  philosophic  and  sci- 
entific writings,  especially  his  theory  of 
color,  are  scareel3'  less  celebrated  than' 
his  literary  works.  He  is  equally  a  mas- 
ter in  all  departments  of  literature,  and 
is  generally  acknowledged  as  the  greatoiit 
author  since  Shakspeare.  He  died  in 
1832.  Schiller,  born  in  1759,  exercised 
scarcely  less  influence  on  German  litera- 
ture, than  Goethe.  His  tragedy  of  the 
Robbers  produced  nearly  as  great  a  revo- 
lution as  the  Sorrows  of  Werter.  On 
account  of  this  and  other  works  he  was 
obliged  to  fly  from  his  native  Wurtem- 
berg,  and  after  many  vicissitudes,  settled 
in  Weimar,  with  his  great  colleagues. 
After  a  brief  but  inteii-se  and  laborious 
life,  he  died  in  ISO'S.  After  the  Robbers, 
he  wrote  the  following  dramatic  works  : 
Fiesco,  Cabal  and  Lore,  Don  Carlos, 
The  Maid  of  Orleans,  Marie  Stuart, 
William  Tell,  The  Bride  of  Messina, 
and  Wallenstein .  The  last  is  the  great- 
est drama  in  the  German  language. 
His  lyrical  poems  are  unsurpassed.  His 
principal  prose  works  are  the  History  of- 
t.'ie  Netherlands  and  History  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  This  period,  so 
glorious  for  German  literature,  produced 
also  the  poets,  B'drger,  author  of  Lenore 
and  The  Wild  Huntsman  ;  Count  Stol- 
berg  ;  Voss,  author  of  Luise  ;  Sails  and 
iMali'hisson,  elegiac  poets;  Tiedge,  au- 
thor of  Urania;  and  the  hero  Kiirner, 
the  TyrtKus  of  the  wars  of  1812  and 
1813.  The  department  of  prose  was  filled 
by  many  distinguished  writers  of  jiliilo.so- 
phy,  history,  and  romance,  some  of  whom 
are  still  living.  Kant,  who  lived  from 
1724  to  1804,  is  the  father  of  modern 
(ierman  philosophy,  and  exercised  a  great 
influence  on  all  his  cotemporaries.  Schle- 
gel,  in  the  department  of  literary  criti- 
cism, and  Winckelmann,  in  that  of  art, 
are  renowned  names.  Hegel  and  Fiehto 
succeeded  Kant  as  philosophers,  and  Al- 
exander von  Humboldt  became  the  lead 
er  of  a  new  and  splendid  company  of 
writers  on  cosmical  science.  The  name 
of  Tieck  heads  the  school  of  modern  Ger- 
man romance.  He  was  born  in  1773,  and 
early  attracted  attention  by  his  Blue- 
beard and  Puss  ia  Boots.  In  addition  to 
a  great  number  of  plays,  romances,  and 
poems,  he  produced,  in  conjunction  with 


LITJ 


AM)    'irilC     FINK     AIMS. 


37;j 


Schlegel,  a  German  translation  of  Sliak- 
speare,  which  is  the  most  remarkable 
work  of  its  kind  in  all  literature.  Jean 
Pai;l  Riehter,  the  most  original  and  pe- 
culiar of  all  German  authors,  was  born 
in  1763,  and  died  in  IR'25.  His  first  work 
was  a  humorous  and  satirical  production, 
entitled  The  G-reenlandic  Liiicsuit,  fol- 
lowed by  ^^  Selections  from  the  Dtril's 
papers."  llis  works  are  distinguished 
by  a  j^reat  knowledge  of  human  nature, 
a  bewildering  richness  of  imagination, 
and  a  style  so  quaint  .and  involved,  as 
almost  to  form  a  separate  dialect.  His 
best  works  are  Titan,  Hesperus,  Die  un- 
sichtbare  Loge,  and  Floicer,  Fruit  and 
Thorn  Pieces.  E.  T.  A.  Hoffman  is 
scarcely  less  original,  in  his  romances, 
which  have  a  wild,  fantastic,  and  super- 
natural character  Among  other  Ger- 
man authors,  the  brothers  Grimm  are 
celebrated  for  their  Kinder  und  Hans 
Mdhrchen,  the  notorious  Kotzebue  for 
his  plays,  and  Wolfgang  Meutzel  for  his 
History  of  Germany  and  German  litera- 
ture. 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century  Germany  has  been  prolific  of 
authors,  but  the  limits  of  this  sketch 
prohibit  us  from  much  more  than  the 
mere  mention  of  their  names.  Baron  de 
la  Motte  Fouque  is  known  as  the  author 
of  Undine,  one  of  the  most  purely  poet- 
ical creations  of  fiction,  Sintram  and 
Thiodolf,  the  Icelander.  Borne  attained 
celebrity  as  a  .satirist,  critic,  and  political 
writer.  Uhland  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
modern  generation  of  poets.  His  bal- 
lads, romances,  and  his  epic  of  Ludwig 
der  Baier,  are  among  the  best  German 
poems  of  the  day.  After  him  rank 
Riickeri,  also  renowned  as  an  Oriental 
scholar;  Hauff,  a  lyric  poet,  and  author 
of  the  romance  of  TAchtenstein ;  Gustav 
Schwab,  Justinus  Kernor,  author  of  the 
Seeress  of  Prevorsl  ;  Arndt,  author  of  the 
German  Fatherland,  the  national  lyric; 
Anastasius  Griin.  (Count  Auersperg,) 
author  of  the  l]f>'ff  von  Kahlenberg ; 
Nicholas  Lenau,  author  of  Savonarola ; 
Ferdinand  Freiligrath,  a  vigorous  politi- 
cal poet ;  Heinrich  Heine,  author  of 
many  popular  songs  and  ballads;  Cha- 
misso,  who  also  wrote  the  romance  of 
Peter  Schlemihl;  Gutzkow,  distinguished 
as  a  dramatist ;  Halm,  also  a  dramatist, 
and  author  of  Der  Sohn  der  Wildniss ; 
and,  as  lyric  poets,  Ilerwogh,  Geibel,  and 
Beck.  Among  the  distinguished  pro.^e 
writers  are  Schlosser,  author  of  a  Uni- 
versal History ;  Neander,  author  of  a 
History  of  the    Church,   and  a  Life  of 


Christ;  Prince  Piickler-Muskau  and  the 
Countess  Ilahn-Hahn,  critics  and  tour- 
ists; Zschokke,  (a  Swi.<s.)  distinguished 
a.s  a  novelist,  and  Feuerbaeh;  Sclielling, 
as  a  philosopher;  Strauss,  author  of  a 
Life  of  Christ  and  headOf  tlie  German 
"  Rationalists  :"  Miiller,  as  a  historian, 
and  Krummacher,  a  writer  of  fables  and 
parables.  As  historians,  Rotteck,  Nie- 
buhr,  and  Ranke,  are  among  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  present  century. 
One  of  the  most  popular  living  prose 
writers  is  Adalbert  Stifter,  whose  Stu- 
dien  are  unsurpassed  for  e.xquisite  purity 
and  picturesqueness  of  style. 

Scandinavian  Literature. — Under  this 
head  we  have  grouped  the  literature  of 
the  three  nations  of  Scandinavian  origin. 
— Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  The 
old  Scandinavian  Eddas,  or  hymns  of 
gods  and  heroes,  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  seventh  or  t  "ghth  century.  The 
earlier  Edda,  which  was  collected  and 
arranged  by  Siimund  in  the  year  1100, 
con.sists  of  legends  of  the  go(ls,  most  of 
which  were  probably  written  in  the  eighth 
century.  The  latter  Edda,  collected  by 
Snorre  Sturleson  in  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  centurj',  contains  fragments 
of  the  songs  of  the  Skalds  who  flourished 
in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  espe- 
cially in  the  latter,  when  their  genius 
reached  its  culmination  in  Norway  and 
Iceland.  Among  the  most  renowned 
works  of  the  Skalds  were  the  Eiriksmal, 
the  apotheosis  of  King  Eric,  who  died  in 
952,  and  the  Ilakonarmal,  describing  the 
fall  of  Jarl  Haco.  A  celebrated  Skald 
was  Egill  Skalagrimsson,  who  wrote  three 
epic  poems,  and  two  drapas,  or  elegiac 
poems.  The  power  of  the  Skalds  declined 
through  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centu- 
ries, and  after  the  fourteenth,  when  the 
Christian  element  first  began  to  appear 
in  Icelandic  poetry,  wholly  disappeared. 
Many  sagas  were  written  in  prose,  and 
the  Heimskringla  of  Snorre  Sturleson, 
who  died  in  Iceland  in  1238,  contains  the 
chronicles  of  Scandinavian  history  from 
its  mythic  period  to  the  year  1177. 

Previous  to  the  establishment  of  the 
University  of  Upsala,  in  1476,  the  only 
literature  of  Sweden  was  a  few  rh3'med 
historic  legends.  The  two  centuries  suc- 
ceeding this  period  have  left  no  great 
names,  and  few  distinguished  ones.  Saxo- 
Grammaticus  made  a  collection  of  le- 
gends in  the  fifteenth  century;  Glaus 
Magni  wrote  a  history  of  the  North  in 
Latin  ;  Messenius,  who  died  in  1637, 
wrote  comedies  and  a  historical  work  en- 
titled   Scandia   illustrala ;    4xol   Oxen- 


374 


CYCI.OrKDIA    OF    LIIEK.VTUKE 


LLir 


Btierna.  the  celebrated  minister,  was  also 
a  theologist  and  patron  of  literature  ; 
Olof  Kudbeck.  a  distingui.-Sied  scholar, 
published  in  1675  his  Allantica,  wherein, 
from  the  study  of  the  old  Sagas,  he  en- 
deavored to  show  that  Sweden  was  the 
Atlantis  of  the  ancients.  George  Stjern- 
hjelm,  who  died  in  1672,  was  the  author 
of  a  poem  called  Hercules,  whence  he  is 
named  the  father  of  Swedish  poetry. 
Swedenborg,  the  most  striking  character 
in  Northern  literature,  was  born  in  1688. 
After  several  years  of  travel  in  England 
and  on  the  continent,  he  established  him- 
self in  Sweden,  where  he  devoted  his  at- 
tention to  science,  and  produced  a  number 
of  works  on  natural  philosophy,  miner- 
alog}',  zoology,  and  other  kindred  sub- 
jects. The  close  of  his  life  was  entirely 
occupied  with  his  religious  studies,  and 
the  production  of  his  Arcana  Cwlestia. 
which  contains  his  revelations  of  the  fu- 
ture life,  and  his  theory  of  the  spiritual 
universe.  These  writings  gave  rise  to  a 
new  religious  sect,  the  numbers  of  which, 
in  the  I'nited  States,  are  supposed  to 
number  about  6000.  He  professed  to  be 
visited  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  his  works 
are  considered  by  his  disciples  as  equally 
inspired  with  those  of  the  Apostles.  He 
died  in  London  in  1772.  Dalin  and  Mad- 
ame Nordenflycht,  were  the  first  noted 
poets  of  the  last  century.  They  were 
succeeded  by  a  multitude  of  lyric  and 
didactic  poets;  but  Swedish  poetry  did 
not  attain  a  high  character  before  the 
commencement  of  the  present  centurj'. 
Among  the  authors  most  worthy  of  note 
are  Lidner,  Bellman,  and  Thorild.  A 
grand  history  of  Sweden,  by  Professors 
Geijer,  Fryxell,  and  Strumbolm,  is  nearly 
completed.  The  present  century  pro- 
duced Atterbom  and  Dahlgren,  poets  of 
considerable  celebrity,  and  Tegner,  the 
first  of  Swedish  poets,  whose  Frithiof's 
Saga  has  bbcn  translated  into  English, 
French,  and  German.  Longfellow  has 
translated  his  Children  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  In  the  glow  of  his  imagination, 
his  fine  artistic  feeling  and  his  wonderful 
command  of  rhythm,  Tegner  ranks  among 
the  firs*,  of  modern  poets.  Ho  died  in 
1830.  'ieijcr  and  Runeberg  are  at  the 
head  c^  the  living  poets  of  Sweden.  As 
writr/S  of  fiction,  Count  Sparre.  author 
of  Aiulf  Findllnis,  Fredrika  IJremor, 
whoje  fame  as  a  painter  of  Swedish  life, 
hai  extended  over  both  hemispheres, 
and  Aladanie  Flygare-Carlen,  autlior  of 
the  Rose  of  Thistle  Island,  have  at- 
tained an  honorable  place.  The  most 
celebrated   works   of    Miss   Bremer   arc 


The  Neighbors,  The  Home,  and  Strife 
and  Peace. 

There  are  few  names  in  Danish  litera- 
ture before  the  last  century.  Ludwig 
von  Holberg,  born  in  16S5,  was  the  first 
who  achieved  a  permanent  reputation  as 
poet  and  historian.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  last  century,  Denmark  prciluce  1 
many  distinguished  scholars  and  men  of 
science,  llafn  and  Finn  Maguuseu  res- 
cued the  old  Icelandic  sagas  from  obliv- 
ion, and  established  the  fact  of  the  dis- 
covery of  New  England  by  Bjdrne  in  the 
tenth  century ;  Petersen  became  re- 
nowned as  a  classical  scholar  and  critic; 
Oersted  is  a  well-known  name  in  science 
and  philosophy;  and  Miiller  ancl  Allen 
successfully  labored  in  the  department 
of  history.  Nearly  all  these  authors  first 
became  known  in  the  present  century. 
At  the  head  of  Denmark's  poets  it  Q5h- 
lenschliiger,  who  died  in  13.50.  His  na- 
tional tragedies,  epics,  and  lyrics  were 
written  partly  in  German  an<l  partly  in 
Danish.  He  is  considered  the  originator 
of  the  artist-drama,  of  which  his  Cureg- 
gio  is  a  masterpiece.  Baggesen,  who 
commenced  his  career  in  the  last  century, 
is  one  of  the  first  Danish  lyric  poets. 
Ileiberg  devoted  himself  to  vaudeville 
.and  the  romantic  drama,  and  llauch  to 
tragedy,  in  which  he  is  justly  distin- 
guished. Hertz  is  known  through  his 
King  Rene's  Daughter,  which  has  been 
successfully  produced  on  the  English 
stage.  One  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
modern  Danish  authors  is  Hans  Chris- 
tian Andersen,  known  alike  as  p<5ct,  nov- 
elist, and  tourist.  His  romances  of  Da- 
nish life  are  tlie  most  characteristic  of 
his  works,  though  he  is  better  known  out 
of  his  native  country  by  his  Iinprovisa- 
tore  and  The  True  Story  of  my  Life. 

Russian,  Literature — The  first  frag- 
ments of  Russian  Literature  belong  to 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries.  They 
consist  principally  of  rude  .vongs  and  le- 
gends, the  hero  of  which  is  Wladimir  the 
Great,  who  first  introduced  Christianity 
into  the  country.  Nestor  a  monk  in  the 
monastery  of  Kiev,  who  died  in  the  year 
1116,  loft  behind  him  a  collection  of 
annals,  beginning  with  852,  which  throw 
much  light  on  the  early  history  of  Russia. 
After  the  empire  was  freed  from  the 
Mongolian  rule  by  Ivan  I.  in  1478,  the 
progress  of  literature  and  the  arts  was 
more  rapiil.  The  first  printing-press  wa.'f 
established  in  ^loscow  in  1.564,  thoug'i 
the  Academy  in  that  city  was  not  foun  It- 1 
until  a  century  later.  Peter  the  Great 
devoted   much  attention  to  the  Rus. ian 


lit] 


AND     IIIK    FINK    ARTS. 


37i 


language  and  literature.  At  his  com- 
mand, the  characters  used  in  printing 
were  greatly  simplified  and  improved. 
The  first  Russian  newspaper  was  printed 
in  1705,  in  this  character. 

From  1650  to  1750,  Russia  produced 
several  authors,  but  principally  among 
the  clergy,  and  their  works  are  disserta- 
tions on  theology  or  lives  of  the  saints. 
Tatitschev  wrote  a  History  of  Russia, 
which  still  retains  some  value.  The  only 
poet  of  this  period  was  Kanterair,  son  of 
the  Ilospodar  of  Moldavia,  who  entered 
the  Russian  service,  devoted  himself  to 
study,  and  obtained  much  reputation 
from  his  satires.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  last  century,  and  especially  during 
the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  Catharine  II. 
the  establishment  of  universities  and 
academies  of  science  and  art,  contributed 
greatly  to  the  development  of  the  lan- 
guage and  the  encouragement  of  litera- 
ture. The  distinction  between  the  old 
Slavic  and  modern  Russian  dialects  is 
strongly  exhibited  in  the  works  of  Lomo- 
nosow,  and  the  predominance  of  the  latter 
was  still  further  determined  by  Sumara- 
kow,  the  first  Russian  dramatist,  whose 
plays  were  performed  on  the  stage. 
Cheraskow,  who  belongs  to  the  last  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  wrote  a  long 
epic  poem  on  the  Conquest  of  Kazan,  and 
another  on  Wladimir  the  Great.  He  was 
considered  the  Homer  of  his  time,  but  is 
now  never  read.  Among  his  cotemporary 
poets  were  Prince  Dolgoruki,  who  wrote 
philosophic  odes  and  epistles,  and  Count 
Chvostow,  the  author  of  some  of  the  best 
lyric  and  didactic  poetry  in  the  language. 

The  first  Russian  poet  whose  name  was 
known  beyond  the  borders  of  the  empire, 
was  Derzhavin,  who  was  born  at  Kazan 
in  1743,  and  after  filling  important  civil 
posts  under  the  Empress  Catharine,  died 
in  1816.  Many  of  his  most  inspired 
odes  were  addressed  to  his  imperial  patro- 
ness. His  ode  "  To  God,"  has  been  trans- 
lated into  nearly  all  languages,  and  a 
Chinese  copy,  printed  in  letters  of  gold, 
hangs  upon  the  walls  of  the  palace  at  Pe- 
kin.  The  prose  writers  of  this  period 
were  Platon,  Lewanda  and  Schtscherba- 
tow.  who  wrote  a  History  of  Russia. 
Under  Alexander  I.  in  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century',  Russian 
literature  made  rapid  advances.  Karam- 
sin,  who  stood  at  tb.3  head  of  Russian  au- 
thors during  this  period,  first  freed  the 
popular  style  from  the  fetters  of  the  clas- 
sic school,  and  developed  the  native  re- 
sources of  the  language.  Prince  Alexan- 
der Schakowski  wrote  many  comedies  and 


comic  operas,  and  Zukowski,  following  in 
the  path  of  Karamsin,  produced  some 
vigorous  and  glowing  poetry.  Count 
Puschkin.  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Rus- 
sian authors,  was  born  in  1799.  His  first 
poem  published  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
attracted  so  much  attention  that  he  re- 
solved to  devote  himself  to  literature. 
An  "Ode  to  Freedom,"  however,  procur- 
ed him'  banishment  to  the  south  of  Rus- 
sia, where  his  best  poems  were  written. 
His  works  are  :  Russian  and  Ljudinilla, 
a  romantic  epic  of  the  heroic  age  of  Rus- 
sia ;  the  Mountain  Prisoner,  a  story  of 
life  in  the  Caucusus  ;  the  Fountains  of 
Baktscki-^sarai,  and  Boris  Godunoff,  a 
dramatic  poem.  In  his  invention,  the 
elegance  c''  his  diction  and  the  richness 
of  his  fancy,  Puschkin  excels  all  other 
Russian  authors.  He  was  killed  in  a 
duel,  in  1837.  His  cotemporary  Baratyn- 
ski.  who  stood  nearest  him  in  talent, 
died  in  1844.  Other  poets  of  the  present 
generation  are  Lermontow,  Podolinski 
and  Baron  Delwig.  Russian  romance  is 
not  yet  fairly  developed.  The  first  names 
in  this  department  are  Bestuzew,  who 
suffered  banishment  in  Siberia  and  met 
death  in  the  Caucusus,  where  his  best 
work,  Amalcth-Beg,  was  written — and 
Bulgarin,  author  of  Demetrius  and 
Mazeppa.  The  only  histories  written  in 
Russia  are  Histories  of  Russia.  The  best 
of  these,  which  have  been  produced  by 
the  present  generation  of  authors,  are 
those  of  Ustrialow,  Pogodin,  Polewoi  and 
Gen.  Michailowski-Danilewski. 

Polish  Literature. — The  Polish  lan- 
guage has  received  a  more  thorough  de- 
velopment and  boasts  a  richer  literature 
than  any  other  language  of  Slavic  origin. 
It  first  reached  a  finished  and  regular 
form  in  the  sixteenth  century,  though  a 
fragment  of  a  hymn  to  the  Virgin  re- 
mains, which  was  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  St.  Adalbert,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  first  bloom  of  Polish  litera- 
ture happened  during  the  reigns  of  Sigis- 
raund  I.  and  Augustus,  from  1507  to 
1572.  Michael  Rey,  the  father  of  Polish 
poetry,  was  a  bold,  spirited  satirist.  He 
died  in  1586,  and  was  followed  by  the 
brothers  Kochanowski,  Miaskowski  and 
Szymonowicz,  who,  for  his  Latin  odes, 
was  called  the  Latin  Pindar.  Bielski 
wrote  the  Kronika,  a  collection  of  Polish 
legends,  and  Gornicki,  Secretary  to  Sigis- 
mund,  a  History  of  the  Crown  of  Poland. 
Orzechowski,  one  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed orators  of  his  day,  wrote  in  the  Latin 
language,  the  Annates  Polonice. 

After  the  commencement  of  the  seven- 


SVG 


CYCLOTEDIA    OF    LIlEUATl.- RE 


[lit 


teenth  century,  Polish  letters  declined, 
and  as  the  kingdom  came  under  the  as- 
cendency of  the  Jesuits,  a  corresponding 
change  came  over  the  character  of  the 
literature.  Kochowski,  who  died  in  1700, 
was  historiographer  to  King  John  So- 
bicski,  and  accompanied  him  against  the 
Turks.  Upalinski,  the  Woiwode  of  I'osen, 
published  in  1652  his  Satijres,  a  lively 
and  characteristic  work,  and  a  number  of 
Jesuit  historians  undertook  histories  of 
the  country,  in  which  few  of  them  were 
successful. 

Through  the  influence  of  French  au- 
thors, Polish  literature  made  another  ad- 
vance, at  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the 
last  century.  The  first  poet  who  served  to 
concentrate  the  scattered  elements  of 
Polish  poetry,  was  Krasicki,  who  was 
born  in  1734,  and  in  1767  was  made 
Bishop  of  Ermeland.  He  wrote  a  mock- 
heroic  poem,  Mijszeis,  (The  Mousead,) 
an  epic  entitled  M'byn.a  Ckoclmska.  (The 
War  of  Chocim,)  and  many  fables  in 
verse.  The  most  prominent  of  the  later 
poets  are  Godebski,  Wezyk,  author  of  ro- 
mances and  dramas,  Felinski,  author  of 
Barbara  Radziiclll,  and  Gen.  Kropinski, 
who  wrote  Ludgarda.  Tropinski,  who 
died  in  1825,  was  the  author  of  many  ad- 
mirable lyrics  and  idyls,  and  a  tragedy 
ca\\<n\  Judijta.  Nieracewicz.  his  contem- 
porary, wrote  the  Historical  Lives  of 
Poland,  a  History  of  the  reign  of  Sigis- 
mund  III.,  and  a  romance  :  Johann  v. 
Tcnczijn.  The  university  of  ^Vilna, 
which  in  1815  was  the  seat  of  Polish  learn- 
ing, witnessed  a  revolution  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  literature.  .Several  young  au- 
thors, with  Mickiewicz  at  their  head,  de- 
termined to  free  themselves  from  the 
classic  spirit  of  the  language,  and  imi- 
tate the  later  English  and  German 
schools.  From  this  time  Polish  fiction 
took  a  freer,  bolder  and  more  varied  form. 
Mickiewicz,  born  in  1798,  published  his 
first  volume  of  poetry  in  1822.  Banished 
to  the  interior  of  Russia,  on  account  of 
political  troubles,  he  wrote  a  scries  of 
sonnets  which  attracted  the  attention  of 
Prince  Galizin,  under  whose  auspices  his 
epic  poem,  Koiirad  Wallcnrod,  was  pub- 
lished in  1S28.  He  is  now  Professor  of 
Slavic  literature  in  the  College  of  Franco. 
His  polish  epic  of  Pan  Tadeusz  first  ap- 
peared in  Paris,  in  1834.  Among  his  con- 
temporary authors,  the  most  noted  arc : 
Odyniec,  author  of  the  drama  of  Jzora  : 
Korsak,  a  lyric  and  elegiac  i)oet;  (Jarcz- 
ynski,  who  wrote  many  fiery  battle-songs  ; 
and  Czajkowski,  a  noted  writer  of  Slavic 
romances.    The   later   prose   writers  of 


Poland  are  the  histcical  Lelewol,  and 
Count  Plater.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  Po- 
lish literature  will  expire  with  the  pres- 
scnt  generation. 

linglish  Literature. — The  English  lan- 
guage, like  other  composite  modern 
tongues,  such  as  the  French  and  Italian, 
passed  through  several  phases  before 
reaching  its  present  form  and  character. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  tongue,  from  the  fifth  century  to 
the  Norman  conquest,  England  boasted 
several  authors,  whose  names  and  works 
have  in  part  descended  to  us.  The  ven- 
erable Bede,  born  in  Northumberland, 
in  672,  is  distinguished  for  his  scholar- 
ship. He  left  an  Ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  Angles,  which  forms  the  basis  of 
early  English  history.  The  monk  Ca;d- 
mon,  who  flourished  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, wrote  a  paraphrase  of  (Jenesis  and 
some  fragments  which  are  supposed  to 
have  given  Milton  the  first  idea  of  "  Para- 
dise Lost."  The  song  '/  Beowulf,  which 
belongs  to  the  eighth  ci  itury,  is  a  spirited 
and  stirring  heroic.  King  Alfred's  poems 
belong  to  the  best  specimens  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature.  The  Norman  conquest 
introduced  the  French  language  and  the 
literature  of  the  Trouveres,  while  the 
Anglo-Saxon  was  left  to  the  peasants  and 
thralls.  Out  of  these  elements,  howev- 
er, the  English  language  was  gradually 
formed,  and  under  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  was  made 
the  language  of  the  court.  It  then  as- 
sumed a  character  which  is  intelligible 
to  the  eilucated  English  of  the  present 
day,  and  that  period,  therefore,  may  be 
considered  as  the  first  age  of  English  lit- 
erature. 

The  earliest  English  author  is  Chaucer, 
"  the  morning-star  of  English  song,"  who 
was  born  in  1323,  and  produced  his  first 
poem,  Tiie  Court  of  Z^orc,  in  1347  Dur- 
ing his  life  ho  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Ed- 
ward III.  and  his  son,  John  of  Gaunt. 
He  filled  various  diplomatic  stations, 
among  others  that  of  ambassador  to 
Genoa.  During  his  residence  in  Italy, 
he  became  familiar  with  the  works  of 
Dante,  Boccaccio,  and  Petrarch,  and  i? 
supposed  to  have  visited  the  latter.  Ho 
also  wrote  Troilus  and  Cressida,  The 
House  of  Fame,  and  The  Canterbury 
Tales,  his  most  famous  work,  an  imita- 
tion, in  poetry,  of  the  Decameron.  He 
(lied  in  1400.  The  first  prose  works  in 
flic  English  language  were  translations 
of  the  gospels  and  of  some  of  the  classics. 
Wicklifie,  the  Hoforinor,  who  first  made 
an  English  version  of  the  Bible,  was  a 


i.It1 


AND    T[IE     FINE     AliPS. 


377 


contcinporary  of  Chaucer.  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt,  and  llenrj'  Howard,  E;irl  of  Sur- 
rey, who  tldurished  under  the  reign  of 
Henry  \'1I1.,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  are  the  next  English 
poets  of  note.  They  wrote  principally 
songs  and  odes.  Surrey  was  beheaded 
on  charge  of  treason  in  1547. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth,  at  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  the  golden  age 
of  English  literature.  Shakspeare,  Spen- 
ser, Raleigh,  Sidney,  Ben  Jonson,  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher,  formed  a  constella- 
tion of  poets  and  dramatists,  such  as  no 
other  age  or  country  ever  produced. 
Spenser,  born  in  1553,  became  early  as- 
sociated with  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  to  whom, 
in  1579,  he  dedicated  his  first  work,  the 
Shepherd's  Calendar,  a  pastoral.  From 
1586  to  1598,  he  was  sheriff  of  the  county 
of  Cork,  in  Ireland,  and  resided  at  Kil- 
colman  Castle,  where  his  greatest  work, 
The  Faery  Queen,  was  composed  This 
is  an  allegory  in  12  books,  written  in 
stanza  of  his  own  invention,  (modelled, 
however,  on  the  Italian  ottava  rima,) 
and  which  now  bears  his  name.  He  died 
in  1599.  Sidney,  who  was  born  in  1554, 
is  best  known  as  the  author  of  Arcadia, 
a  pastoral  romance,  and  the  Defence  of 
Poetry.  He  is  the  first  writer  who  gave 
an  elegant  and  correct  form  to  English 
prose.  Shakspeare,  the  greatest  dramat- 
ic poet  of  any  age.  was  born  in  1564. 
He  commenced  his  career  by  preparing 
for  the  stage  the  plays  of  some  of  his  pre- 
decessors, and  this  fact  has  thrown  some 
doubt  about  the  authenticity  of  two  or 
three  of  the  play.s  included  among  his 
works.  The  order  in  which  his  own  plays 
appeared  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained.  The  following,  however, 
are  known  to  have  been  written  before 
1598  :  The  Tiro  Gentlemen  of  Verona; 
Love's  Labor  Lost;  The  Comedy  of  Er- 
rors; Midsummer  Night's  Dream; 
Borneo  and  Juliet ;  Merchant  of  Venice; 
Richard  IL;  Richard  111.;  Henry  IV., 
and  King  John.  The  Tempest,  which 
appeared  in  1611,  is  believed  to  be  his 
last  dramatic  work.  He  also  wrote  the 
jtoonis  of  Venus  and  Adonis,  and  Tlie 
Riipc  of  Lucrece.  a  lyric  called  The 
Passionate  Pilgrim,  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  sonnets,  some  of  which  are  the  fin- 
est in  the  language.  He  died  in  1616. 
Ben  Jonson  was  born  in  1574,  and  pub- 
lished his  first  dramatic  work,  the  com- 
edy of  Every  Man  in  his  Humor,  in 
1596.  In  addition  to  other  comedies,  the 
best  of  which  are  Volpone,  the  Fox,  and 
The  Alchijmisl,  ho  wrote  many  ex(iuisite 


songs  and  madrigals.  Sir  Walter  Ral- 
eigh is  more  distinguished  as  a  gallant 
knight  and  daring  adventurer  than  as 
an  autiior,  yet  his  lyrics  and  his  History 
of  the  World,  written  during  twelve 
years'  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  give 
him  full  claim  to  the  latter  title.  He 
was  born  in  1552  and  was  beheaded  by 
order  of  James  I.  in  1617.  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  contemporaries  and  in  some 
degree  imitators  of  Shakspeare,  deserve 
the  ne.Kt  place  after  him,  among  the  dra- 
matists of  that  period.  IJeaumout  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  inventive  genius 
of  their  plays,  and  Fletcher  to  have  sup- 
plied the  wit  and  fancy.  The  Faithful 
Shepherdess  is  the  work  of  Fletcher 
alone.  Many  dramatists  flourished  dur- 
ing this  and  the  succeeding  generation, 
whose  works  are  now  but  little  read,  but 
who  would  have  attained  eminence  but 
for  the  greater  lights  with  which  they 
are  eclipsed.  The  most  noted  of  them 
are  Marlowe,  Marston,  Chapman,  Decker, 
Webster,  Ford  and  Massinger. 

Between  Shakspeare  and  Milton,  the 
only  name  which  appears  in  English  lit- 
erature is  Cowley,  the  author  of  the 
Davideis,  a  forgotten  epic.  Milton  was 
borne  in  1608,  and  in  his  early  boyhood 
exhibited  the  genius  which  afterwards 
made  hitu  the  first  English  poet,  and  one 
of  the  great  masters  of  English  prose. 
His  Hymn  on  the  Nativity,  was  written 
in  his  twenty-first,  and  his  mask  of  Co- 
mas, in  his  twenty-third  year.  L' Alle- 
gro, 11  Penseroso,  and  Lycidas  soon  af- 
terwards appeared.  After  his  return 
from  Italy,  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
theology  and  politics.  His  treatise  on 
Marriage  was  published  in  1643,  his 
Areopagitica  in  1644,  and  his  famous  re- 
ply to  Salmasius  in  1651.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  lost  his  sight,  and  was  obliged 
to  retire  from  public  service.  His  Para- 
dise Lost  appeared  in  1665,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Paradise  Regained  in  1671, 
and  Samson  Agonistes.  He  died  in  1674. 
l)ryden,  who,  born  in  1631,  was  known  as 
a  poet  during  Milton's  life,  introduced  a 
new  school  of  poetry — the  narrative  and 
didactic.  His  first  noted  poem,  the  An- 
nus ]\Iirabilis,  was  produceil  in  1666, 
his  satire  of  Absalom  and  Achilophel  in 
1681,  and  shortly  afterwards  his  Hind 
and  Panther,  a  religious  satire,  lie  also 
wrote  several  rhymed  tragedies  and  an 
Essay  on  Dramatic  Poesy.  Defoe,  born 
in  1663,  wrote  the  world-renowned  nar- 
rative of  Robinson  Crusoe,  which  was 
first  ])ul)lished  in  1719.  The  seventeenth 
century  was  also  an  important  epoch  for 


SIS 


CVCLOTKUIA     OF     LIIEUATIUE 


[lit 


English  philo:!ophical  literature.  Lord 
Biuon,  born  in  1561,  published  his  JJe 
dig  litate  et  auginentis  l>'cie»taruni  in 
1(J05,  and  iiis  celebrated  yunnn  Urgu- 
num  in  1620.  The.se,  altlic)iij;;h  written  in 
Latin,  are  the  mu.-it  important  philosoplii- 
cal  woiks  which  have  ever  emanated  tVoin 
an  English  author.  Ilobbes,  a  writer  on 
politics,  jurisprudence  and  moral  phi- 
losDpliy,  died  in  1679.  JiOckc,  born  in 
1632,  first  published  his  Essay  uii  the 
lluinan  Understanding,  in  1690. 

The  commencement  ot'  the  last  century 
brings  us  to  a  group  of  authors  of  very 
ditterent  character.  The  influence  of 
French  literature  began  to  be  felt,  and 
the  characteristics  of  the  English  writers 
of  this  period  are  elegance  and  grace. 
This  is  properly  the  age  of  English  prose, 
which  was  enriched,  successively,  by  Ad- 
dison, Horace  Walpole,  Swift,  Sterne. 
Richardson,  Smollett,  Fielding,  Hume. 
Gibbon,  Chesterfield,  and  Robertson.  The 
first  poet  who  rose  to  eminence  in  the  last 
century,  was  Pope,  who  was  born  in  1688, 
and  published  his  Essay  on  Criticism  in 
17 IL  His  most  celebrated  poetical  works 
are  the  Rape  of  the  Lock,  the  Essay  on 
Man,  and  The  JDunciad.  Thomson,  au- 
thor of  IVie  Seasons  and  the  Castle  of 
Indolence,  lived  and  died  in  the  first  half 
of  the  century.  Gay,  a  contemporary 
poet,  is  distinguished  for  his  Fables. 
Gray  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  lyric  po- 
ets of  England.  The  few  odes  he  has  left, 
and  his  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard, 
belong  to  the  classics  of  the  language, 
(ioldsmith  was  born  in  1728,  and  died  in 
1774.  His  poems  of  The  Traveller,  and 
The  Deserted  Village,  and  his  romance 
of  the  Vicar  of  Wakejidd,  will  live  as 
long  as  his  native  tongue.  Cowper  closes 
the  list  of  the  poets  of  the  last  century. 
Ho  died  in  1800,  after  a  life  darkened  by 
religi<ius  melancholy.  His  Task,  Table- 
talk,  and  ballad  oi  John  Gilpin,  are  his 
best  poetical  works.  Returning  to  the 
prose  writers,  Addison  is  first  in  point  of 
time,  having  been  born  in  1672.  His  best 
works  are  his  essays,  contributed  to  The 
^'/)ct7u<or,  which  he  established  in  1711, 
in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Steele. 
His  English  has  rarely  been  excelled  for 
purity  and  elegiince.  Chesterfield,  Lady 
Montague,  and  Horace  Walpole,  are  dis- 
tinguished as  epistolary  writers.  Dean 
Swift,  born  in  1067,  was  a  pcditician  and 
satirist,  but  is  now  best  known  by  his 
Tale  of  a  Tub,  iiubli.'^hed  in  1701.  and 
Gulliver's  Travels,  in  1726.  Sterne,  i;-i 
his  Tristram  Shandy  and  The  Senti- 
mental  Journey,  displayed  a  droll  min- 


gling of  wit  and  pathos,  in  a  style  exceed- 
ingly lively  and  flexible.  Richardson, 
one  of  the  first  English  romance-writers, 
was  born  in  16S9.  His  principal  novels, 
which  are  of  immense  length,  are  Fa- 
mela,  Clarissa  JIarlo ire,  and  Sir  Charles 
(Jrandison.  SnioUelt,  his  successor,  pub- 
lished his  Roderick  Random,  in  1748, 
and  JImnp/irey  Clinker,  his  last  work,  in 
1771.  Hume,  in  addition  to  political  and 
liliihisopliical  works,  wrote  the  History 
of  EnL'lund,  from  the  invasion  of  Co'sar 
to  the  rebellion  of  1688,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1673-4.  Smollett  wrote  four 
volumes  in  continuation  of  the  history. 
Gibbon,  born  in  1737,  completed,  after 
twenty  years'  labor,  his  History  of  the 
Decline  and  Rail  of  the  R  lan  Empire, 
which  appeared  from  1782  to  1788.  Rob- 
ertson, the  contemporary  of  Gibbon,  pub- 
lished his  History  of  Scotland  in  1759, 
and  his  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles 
V.  in  1769.  Dr.  Johnson,  whose  Rasselas, 
Lives  of  the  Poets,  and  contributions  to 
The  Rambler,  exercised  such  a  salutary 
infiuence  on  the  popular  taste  of  his  time, 
died  in  1784.  His  Dictioiiury  of  the 
English  Language,  was  first  published 
in  1755.  Edmund  Burke,  one  of  the  most 
finished  and  powerful  of  English  orators, 
published,  in  1756,  his  Essay  on  the  Sub- 
lime and  Beautiful,  which  is  a  model  of 
philosophical  writing.     He  died  in  1797. 

With  the  present  century  commenced 
a  ;iew  era  in  English  literature.  The 
reign  of  the  drama  and  the  epic  were 
over  ;  the  reign  of  romance,  in  both  prose 
and  poetry,  and  the  expression  of  a  high- 
er and  m(;re  subtle  range  of  imagination, 
now  commenced.  The  language  lost 
something,  perhaps,  of  its  classic  polish 
and  massive  strength,  but  became  more 
free  and  flowing,  more  varied  in  style, 
and  richer  in  epithet.  The  authors  in 
whom  this  change  is  first  aj>parent,  are 
Coleridge  and  Wordsworth,  in  poetry, 
and  Scott  in  prose.  Nearly  coeval  with 
the  two  former,  but  dift'erent  in  charac- 
ter, were  Byron  and  iMoore ;  the  latter 
are  the  poets  of  passion,  the  former  of 
imagination.  Scott,  in  his  Waverley  nov- 
els, first  developed  the  neglected  wealth 
of  English  romance.  Burns,  although  his 
best  songs  are  in  the  Scottish  dialect, 
stands  at  the  head  of  all  English  song- 
writers. Campbell,  in  the  true  lyric  in- 
spiration of  his  poems,  is  classed  with 
(iray.  Rogers  and  Sonthey  can  scarcely 
bo  ranked  among  those  poets  who  assisted 
in  developing  the  later  English  litera- 
ture. The  former  imitates  the  old  mod- 
els ;  the  latter,  more  daring  in  his  forms 


LIT 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


379 


of  verse,  and  more  splendid  in  his  iraairi- 
nation,  has  never  been  able  to  touch  the 
popular  heart.  Coleriilgc's  prose  works 
contain  probably  the  most  important 
contributions  to  English  philosophic;!! 
literature,  since  the  time  of  Bacon.  The 
department  of  history  has  been  amply 
filled  by  Scott,  Alison,  author  of  a  Ilis- 
tonj  of  Europe,  (rillies  and  Grote,  cele- 
brated for  their  Histories  of  Greece,  Na- 
pier, in  his  llislonj  of  the  Peninsular 
War,  llaliam,  in  his  History  of  the  Mid- 
dle Asres,  and  ]\Iac:iulay  in  his  History 
of  En'j^liind.  Most  of  these  writers  are 
now  (1331)  living.  Those  who  have  died 
since  the  beginning  of  the  century,  are 
Keats,  in  1S20 ;  Shelley,  in  1822  ;  Byron, 
in  1824:  Scott,  in  1832;  Coleridge,  in 
1834  ;  Southev,  in  1843 ;  Campbell,  in 
1844;  Thomas  Hood,  in  1848;  and 
Wordsworth,  in  1850.  Rogers  and  Moore 
are  still  living,  at  an  advanced  age ; 
Leigh  Hunt,  the  author  of  The  Eimini, 
survives  his  friends,  Shelley  and  Keats. 
The  field  of  historical  romance,  opened 
by  Sir  Walter  Seott,  has  been  success- 
hiWy  followed  by  Sir  Edward  Bulwer 
Lytton  and  Gr.  P.  R.  James.  As  novelists 
of  English  life  ami  society,  under  all  its 
aspects,  Dickens  and  Thackeray — and  of 
late  3'ears,  Miss  Bronte,  author  of  Shir- 
ley and  Jane  Eyre — stand  preeminent. 
As  essa3'i-^ts  and  critics,  the  names  of 
Lords  Jeffrey  and  Brougham,  Sidney 
Smith,  Macaulay,  Professor  Wilson,  De 
Quineey,  Carlyle  and  Stevens,  surpass 
even  the  group  who  produced  The  Taller 
and  the  Spectator.  Carlyle,  in  his  Sartor 
Resartus,  Past  and  Present,  and  Heroes 
and.  Hero- Worship,  has  made  ui-e  of  an 
idiom  of  his  own — a  broken,  involved, 
Germanesque  diction,  which  resembles 
that  of  no  other  English  author.  The 
in-'ist  prominent  living  English  poets,  are 
Thomas  Moore,  Leigh  llunt,  Roggrs, 
Alfred  Tennyson,  the  present  poet-lau- 
reate, Milnes,  Barry  Cornwall,  Robert 
Browning,  a  lyric  and  dramatic  poet,  his 
Avife,  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning,  prob- 
ably the  most  impassioned  and  imagina- 
tive of  English  female  authors,  Walter 
Savage  Landor,  Mary  Howitt,  R.  H. 
Home,  author  of  Orion,  Croly,  Philip 
James  B.iiley,  author  of  Festus,  and  T. 
N.  Talfourd,  author  of  the  tragedy  of 
Jon.  As  prose  writers,  there  still  remain 
Hallam,  Macaulay,  Gn.te,  Professor  Wil- 
son, Brougham,  Bulwer,  Dickens,  Thack- 
eray, Miss  Bronte,  Miss  Martineau, 
James,  Howitt,  Stevens,  and  a  number 
of  others.  All  English  works  of  any 
merit  are  now  immediately  ro(>rinted   in 


this  country,  and  the  English  literature 
of  the  present  century  is  as  familiar  to 
most  Americans  as  their  own. 

American  Literature. — The  literature 
of  the  United  States  belongs  almost  e.K- 
clusively  to  the  present  centurj'.  The 
language  being  that  of  England,  and  all 
the  treasures  of  English  literature  the 
common  inheritance  of  our  countrymen, 
whatever  American  authors  produce  is 
necessarily  measured  by  the  English 
standard.  The  language  comes  to  us' 
finished  and  matured,  while  the  means 
of  intellectual  cultivation — until  a  com- 
paratively recent  period — have  been 
limited,  and  our  abundant  stores  of  le- 
gend and  history  are  still  too  fresh  to  be 
made  available  for  the  purposes  of  poetry 
and  fiction.  The  present  generation, 
however,  has  witnessed  the  growth  of  a 
national  literature,  if  not  peculiarly 
American  in  language,  at  least  in  style 
and  the  materials  it  has  chosen.  Our 
most  eminent  poets  and  prose  writers  are 
still  living,  and  almost  every  year  adds 
to  the  list  of  younger  authors,  and  to  the 
regard  in  which  American  literature  is 
held  abroad. 

The  seventeenth  eentury  boasted  two 
or  three  authors,  but  none,  we  believe, 
native  to  the  soil.  Mrs.  Anne  Bradstreet, 
wife  of  a  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
published  in  1640,  a  poem  on  the  Four 
Elements,  smoothly  versified,  but  of  little 
poetical  merit.  Cotton  Mather,  born  in 
1663,  is  almost  the  only  prose  writer 
worthy  of  note.  His  "  Magnalia"  con- 
tains some  valuable  historical  matter. 
The  last  century  produced  some  distin- 
guished prose  writers  and  some  accom- 
plished versifiers,  though  no  poet  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  title.  Franklin,  born  in 
1706,  was  master  of  a  singularlj'  clear, 
compact,  and  vigorous  style.  Jonathan 
Edwards,  who  flourished  during  the  last 
century,  wrote  a  celebrated  treatise  on 
the  Will,  which  is  one  of  the  first  meta- 
phj'sical  works  in  the  language.  The 
Revolutionary  struggle,  and  the  circum- 
stances which  preceded  and  succeeded  it, 
produced  a  number  of  bold  and  brilliant 
writers  and  speakers,  among  whom  were 
Jefferson,  Hamilton,  the  Adamses,  Rich- 
ard Henry  Lee,  and  Patrick  Henry.  The 
diplomatic  correspondence  of  the  Revolu- 
tion has  rarely  been  surpassed.  Philip 
Freneau,  who  has  been  called  the  first 
American  poet,  wrote  many  patriotic 
songs,  which  were  sung  during  the  strug- 
gle, but  none  have  retained  their  original 
vitality.  Trumbull  was  the  author  of  a 
Hudibrastic  poem  entitled  McFingal,  in 


seo 


CYCLuPEDIA     OF    LITEKATURE 


which  thfl  Tories  were  held  up  to  ridicule  ; 
the  first  part  was  published  in  1775. 
Joel  Barlow,  who  aspired  to  the  rank  of 
an  epic  poet,  published  in  1787,  his 
"  Vision  of  Columbus,"  which,  in  1808, 
was  expanded  into  the  "  Coluinbiad," 
and  printed  in  wiiat  was  then  a  style  of 
unusual  uingnificence. 

Dana,  Uryant,  Washington  Irving, 
Cooper,  Paulding  and  Everett,  all  born 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  are 
still  living.  l)ana  may  be  considered  as 
the  first  genuine  poet  the  United  States 
has  produced.  His  "Buccaneer"  is  a 
picturesque  and  striking  poem,  founded 
on  a  legend  of  the  pirates  who  formerly 
frequented  the  American  coast.  Irving's 
"Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York" 
appeared  in  1809,  and  instantly  gave 
him  a  position,  as  a  writer  of  the  purest 
style  and  of  e.tquisite  humor  and  fancy. 
Ilis  latest  production,  a  Biography  of 
Goldsmith,  to  whom  he  has  been  com- 
pared, was  published  in  1819.  iMnny  of 
his  works — among  them  the  "Sketch 
Book,"  "  Bracebr'idgc  Hall,"  "The  Al- 
hambra,"  and  the  "  Life  of  Columbus," 
were  first  published  in  England,  where 
he  lived  many  years.  Cooper's  first  essay 
in  literature  was  a  novel  of  society  enti- 
tled "Precaution,"  but  he  subsequently 
confined  himself  to  the  two  fields  in  v/hich 
he  has  earned  his  best  fame — the  forest 
and  the  ocean.  His  most  successful 
novels  are  :  "The  Spy."  the  "Pioneers," 
the  "  Deerslayer,"  the  "Pilot,"  and  the 
"  Pathfinder.'"  Bryant  first  attracted 
noticed  by  his  poem  of  '•  Thanatopsis," 
written  in  his  nineteenth  year.  His  first 
volume,  "The  Ages,"  was  published  in 
1825.  The  most  distinguished  authors 
who  have  died  since  the  commencement 
of  the  century  are  Dr.  Channing,  whose 
essays,  criticisms,  and  moral,  r(digious, 
and  political  writings  have  won  him  much 
celebrity  as  a  prose  writer;  AVilliam 
Wirt,  author  of  the  "British  Spy,"  a 
collection  of  letters  written  in  a  chaste 
and  eleg.ant  style;  Charles  Brockden 
Brown_  the  earliest  American  novelist, 
author  of  "  Wieland  :"  llicliard  Henry 
Wilde,  author  of  a  '■  Life  of  Tasso ;" 
(,'liief  .Justice  Marshall,  who  compiled  a 
voluminous  "  1/ife  of  Washington  ;"  Hen- 
ry \Vhoaton,  autiior  of  standard  works  on 
law  and  ])oiitical  economy  ;  Judge  Story, 
author  of  several  celebrated  legal  works; 
Edgar  A.  Poe,  a  most  original  and 
strongly  marked  character,  who  wrote 
the  jxiem  of  "The  llavon,"  and  a  num- 
ber of  weird  and  fantastic  prose  stories  ; 
Margaret  Fuller,  a  lady  of  remarkable 


acquirements,  who  has  left  behind  her 
much  admirable  descriptive  and  criti- 
cal writing;  and  of  poets  of  lesser  note, 
Robert  C.  Sands,  author  of  "  Yamoyden  ;" 
J.  G.  C.  Brainard;  Pinckney,  a  very 
graceful  song-writer;  P.  P.  Cooke,  au- 
thor of  the  "  Froissart  Ballads;"  and 
Mrs.  Osgood,  a  female  writer,  who  gave 
evidence  of  possessing  a  brilliant  an<i  in- 
exhaustible fancy.  The  most  eminent 
living  authors,  many  of  whom  are  still 
young,  and  have  scarcely  reached  the 
maturity  of  their  powers,  are  Irving, 
Cooper,  Bryant,  Dana,  Paulding,  author 
of  a  number  of  humorous  stories  ;  Miss 
Sedgwick,  who  chose  for  the  objects  of 
her  fictions  the  early  history  of  Xew 
England;  N.  P.  AVillis,  whose  poems, 
stories,  ant,  ecords  of  travels  in  Europe 
and  the  East,  are  unsurpassed  in  point 
and  brilliancy;  Longfellow,  the  most 
popular  poet  of  the  country  ;  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson,  the  essayist  and  poet,  and  the 
founder  of  a  new  school  of  pliilosophy  ; 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  author  of  the 
"  S«arlet  Lc.'fer"  and  the  "  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  ;"  E.  P.  Whipple,  an  essay- 
ist and  critic;  W.  Giluiore  Simnis,  J.  P. 
Kennedy,  and  Dr.  Bird,  .all  (jf  whom  have 
written  novels  relating  to  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  South  ;  Ilalleck,  the  author 
of  the  magnificent  poem  of  Marco  Bozza- 
ris  ;  Prescott,  the  historian,  author  of  the 
"Conquest  of  Me.xico,"  "Coiu|iiest  of 
Peru,"  iind  "Lives  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella;"  Bancroft,  who  is  now  engaged 
in  publishing  a  complete  history  of  the 
United  States  ;  Herman  .Melville,  author 
of  "  Tvpee,"  "Omoo,"  and  "  AVIiitcjack- 
ct;"  Mrs.  Kirkland,  arrl  C.  F.  HolVman, 
both  of  whom  have  admirably  sketched 
the  wild  life  of  the  West,;  AVhittier.  a 
fiery  and  earnest  poet,  who  strikes  un- 
hesitatingly at  what  he  deems  oppres- 
sic-n  ;  Lowell,  one  of  the  youngest  and 
most  encouraging  of  American  poets; 
and  Donald  C.  Mitchell,  who  has  lately 
achieved  an  honorable  reputation  as  n 
prose  writer.  It  is  unnecessary  to  carry 
the  enumeration  further,  since  all  the 
remaining  authors  are  young,  anl  every 
day  adds  something  to  their  intellectual 
stature  and  relative  positions. 

LITHOG'llAPHY,  the  art  of  tracing 
letters,  figures,  or  other  designs  on  stone, 
anil  of  transferring  them  to  i)a|)(M-  by  im- 
pression ;  an  art  invenlcd  in  1793  !)y  A. 
Sennefelder  at  iMunich,  in  Bavaria.  The 
principles  upon  which  this  art  is  founded, 
arc — 1.  The  quality  which  a  compact 
granular  limestone  has  of  imbibing  grease 
or  moisture  ;  and  2.  The  decided  antipa- 


LOC] 


AM)    'iriK     nXK    AKTS. 


381 


thy  of  grease  and  water  for  cncti  ntlicr. 
A  (Irawiiii;  being  inaili^  ii]miii  \\\v.  stiuio 
with  an  ink  or  evayon  iif  a  greasy  compo- 
sition, is  washed  over  witli  water,  whieh 
sinks  into  all  parts  of  the  stone  not  de- 
fended by  the  drawing.  A  cylindrical 
roller,  charged  with  printing  ink  is  then 
passed  all  over  the  stone,  and  the  draw- 
ing receives  the  ink,  whilst  the  water  de- 
fends the  other  parts  of  the  stone  from  it 
on  account  of  its  greasy  nature.  Impres- 
sions of  the  drawing  may  then  be  taken 
upon  paper,  by  means  of  a  lithographic 
press.  The  most  convenient  and  useful 
way,  however,  of  proceeding,  is  to  write 
■with  proper  ink  on  a  prepared  paper, 
and  then  transfer  the  writing  to  the  stone 
by  passing  it  through  the  press. 

LIT'URGY,  an  office  at  Athens,  by 
■which  persons  of  considerable  property 
were  bound  to  perform  certain  public  du- 
ties, or  supply  the  commonwealth  with 
necessaries  at  their  own  expense.  The 
persons  on  whom  this  office  was  imposed 
were  usually  among  the  richest  inhabit- 
•ants;  and  if  any  one  selected  to  fill  it 
could  find  another  more  wealthy  than 
himself  who  was  exempt  from  public 
duty,  he  could  insist  on  being  released 
from  his  charge,  which  then  devolved  on 
the  party  denounced.  This  obnoxious  in- 
stitution was  abolished  on  the  proposition 
of  Demosthenes.  It  is  from  this  term 
that  the  English  liturs;]/^  in  ecclesiastical 
meaning,  has  been  derived ;  the  sense 
having  been  contracted  from  public  mia- 
istry  or  service  in  general  to  the  ceremo- 
nies of  religious  worship. — Liturgy,  the 
ritual  according  to  which  the  religious 
services  of  a  church  are  performed.  In 
the  writings  of  the  ancients,  the  name  is 
restricted  to  the  service  of  the  Eucharist, 
which  afterwards  came  to  be  distinguish- 
ed in  the  Western  church  by  the  term  of 
missa,  or  mass.  There  still  exist  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  some  Oriental  lan- 
guages, various  rituals  by  which  the  Eu- 
charist was  celebrated  in  very  early  ages. 
Some  have  supposed  that  all  these  may 
be  referred  to  one  original  liturgy,  which 
may  have  been  universally  a/iopted  in 
the  primitive  church.  Paliser,  the  latest 
English  writer  on  this  subject,  conceives 
that  the  number  of  original  liturgies  may 
be  reduced  to  fcuir,  but  not  lower.  These 
Le  entitles  the  great  Oriental  liturgy,  the 
Alexandrian,  the  Roman,  and  the  (Jalli- 
"an  ;  each  of  which  was  extensively  used 
from  the  Apostolic  age  in  the  quarters 
from  which  he  assigns  them  their  names, 
and  became  the  parents  of  many  other 
rituals,  such  as  were  used,  with  constant- 


ly diverging  yariations,  in  the  different 
p:ilriarcliatos  of  the  em[iire.  The  earli- 
est period  at  wliicli  any  liturgical  forni.'l 
were  consigned  to  writing  is  the  end  of 
the  third  or  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury; at  least  the  liturgy  called  of  St. 
Basil  can  be  traced  as  high  as  the  latter 
period.  This  practice,  iilso,  seems  fre- 
quently to  have  been  applied  only  to  cor- 
t;xin  parts  of  the  service.  We  fiml,  thei^o- 
fore,  great  difi"erences  in  the  MSS.  which 
now  exist;  and  it  becomes  very  difllcult 
to  ascertain  what  the  contents  of  the 
primitive  rituals  were,  and  trace  the  pe- 
riods at  whieh  many  rites  and  ceremonies 
have  been  introduced  into  the  service. 
The  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England  is 
a  liturgy  in  the  wider  and  more  usual 
acceptation  of  the  term,  comprehending 
the  whole  of  the  various  services  used  Bn 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  oecasi  ns 
throughout  the  year. 

LIV'ERY,  a  suit  of  clothes  made  of 
different  colors  and  trimmings  by  which 
noblemen  and  gentlemen  have  their  ser- 
vants distinguished;  Supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  practice  followed  by 
cavaliers  at  tournaments,  who  used  to 
distinguish  themselves  by  wearing  the 
livery  or  badge  of  their  mistresses.  Per- 
sons of  distinction  formerly  gave  liveries 
to  persons  unconnected  with  their  own 
household  or  family,  to  engage  them  in 
their  quarrels  for  the  time  being.  The 
Romish  church  has  also  liveries  for  con- 
fessors, virgins,  apostles,  martyrs,  peni- 
tents, &c.  A  particular  dress  or  garb, 
appropriate  or  peculiar  to  particular 
times  or  things ;  as,  the  livery  of  Maj'  • 
the  livery  of  autumn.  Livery  of  seisin. 
in  law,  signifies  delivering  the  possession 
of  lands,  &q.  to  him  who  has  a  right  to 
them. 

LIVERYMAN,  a  freeman  of  the  city 
of  London,  admitted  member  of  some 
one  of  the  city  companies,  by  which  ho 
enjoys  certain  powers  and  privileges. 
From  among  their  number  are  elected 
the  common  council,  sheriff,  and  other 
superior  officers  of  the  city. 

LLOYD'S  LIST,  a  London  periodical 
publication,  in  which  the  shipping  news 
received  at  Lloyd's  coffee-house  is  pub- 
lished. On  account  of  the  extensive  in- 
formation whicli  it  contains,  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  merchants.  JJoyd's  Cqf-* 
fee-house  has  long  been  celebrated  as  the 
resort  of  eminent  merchants,  under-wri- 
ters,  merchants,  insurance  brokers,  Ac, 
and  the  books  kept  there  are  replete  with 
valuable  maritime  intelligence. 

LO'CUM     TE'NENS,    a     deputy    or 


382 


rVCI.OPKDIA     OF    IIIKItAllliK 


[l.UQ 


Bubstilute;  one  wlio  supplies  the  place  of 
another,  or  executes  his  otlice. 

LOCUS  IX  QUO,  in  law.  the  place 
where  anything  is  alleged  to  be  done  in 
pleadings,  .tc. —  Lucm-  partitus,  a  di- 
vision made  between  two  towns  or  coun- 
ties, to  make  trial  where  the  land  or  place 
in  question  lies. 

LODGE,  in  architecture,  a  small  house 
situated  in  a  park  or  domain,  subordinate 
to  the  mansion;  also,  the  cottage  situ- 
ate at  the  gate  of  the  avenue  that  leads 
to  the  mansion. 

LODGMENT,  in  military  affairs,  is  a 
work  raised  with  earth,  gabions,  fiiseines, 
ka ,  to  cover  the  besiegers  from  the  ene- 
m3's  fire,  and  to  prevent  their  losing  a 
place  which  they  have  gained,  and  are 
resolved,  if  possible,  to  keep. 

LOG'IC,  various  definitions  have  been 
given  of  logic,  some  including  too  little, 
and  others  too  much.  Logic  has  been 
called  the  Art  of  Reasoning;  this  defini- 
tion has  been  properly  amended  by  call- 
ing it  the  Scien'\e  as  well  as  the  Art  of 
Reasoning:  meaning  by  the  former,  the 
analysis  of  the  mental  process  which 
takes  place  whenever  wl-  reason  ;  and,  by 
the  latter,  the  rules  grounded  upon  that 
analj'sis  for  conducting  the  process  cor- 
rectly. But  the  word  Reasoning,  again, 
is  ambiguously  used.  In  one  of  its  ac- 
ceptations it  means  syllogizing,  or  that 
mode  of  inference  which  may  be  called 
concluding  from  generals  to  particulars. 
The  better  definition  of  this  term,  how- 
ever, and  that  which  accords  more  with 
the  general  usage  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, makes  it  signify  the  inferring  of 
any  assertion  from  assertions  already  ad- 
mitted. Dut  the  province  of  logic  is 
wider  than  reasoning  even  in  this  e.vten- 
sive  sense,  for  it  •.indouUtedly  includes, 
for  instance,  precision  of  language  and 
accuracj'  of  classification  ;  in  other  words, 
definition  anil  division.  These  various 
operations  might  be  brought  within  the 
compass  of  the  science,  by  defining  logic 
as  the  science  which  treats  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  human  understanding  in  the 
pursuit  of  truth.  This  definition,  how- 
ever, includes  too  much.  Truths  are 
known  to  us  in  two  ways  :  .some  are  known 
directly  and  of  themselves;  some  through 
the  medium  of  other  truths.  It  is  only 
with  the  latter  that  logic  has  to  do. 
Logic  is  not  the  science  of  belief,  but  the 
t^cience  of  proof  Rut  as  the  far  greatest 
portion  of  our  knowledge,  whether  of 
general  truths,  or  of  particular  facts,  is 
RViMvedly  matter  of  inference,  our  defini- 
tion of  logic  is  in  danger  of  including  the 


whole  fiehl  of  knowledge;  unless  wo 
qualify  it  bj'  some  further  limitation, 
showing  where  the  domain  of  the  other 
arts  and  sciences,  and  of  common  pru- 
dence ends,  and  that  of  logic  begins.  The 
distinction  is,  that  the  jcienie  or  knowl- 
edge of  the  particular  subject  matter 
furnishes  the  evidence,  while  logic  fur- 
nishes the  principles  and  rules  of  the  esti- 
mation of  evidence  :  logic  points  out  what 
relations  must  subsist  between  data,  and 
whatever  can  be  concluded  fnnu  them. 
'■  Logic,  then,  is  the  science  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  understanding  which  are  sub- 
servient to  the  estimation  of  evidence  : 
both  the  process  itself  of  proceeding  from 
known  truths  to  unknown,  and  all  intel- 
lectual operations  au.\iliary  to  this." 
Logic  was  highly  valued,  perhaps  over- 
valued, among  the  ancient  philosophers. 
The  Stoics  in  particular  were  celebrated 
for  their  applic:ition  of  its  principles  to 
their  own  favorite  metaphysical  discus- 
sions. From  the  abuse  of  logical  knowl- 
elge  arose  the  celebrated  fallacies  of  the 
Sophists.  Zeno  is  called  the  father  of 
logic  or  dialectics;  but  it  was  then  treated 
with  particular  reference  to  the  art  of 
disputation,  and  soon  degenerated  into 
the  minister  of  sophistry.  It  is  to  Aris- 
totle, however,  that  the  science  owes,  not 
only  its  first  e.xjiosition,  but  its  complete 
development.  His  lo-rieal  writings  were 
called  Organon  in  later  ages,  and  for 
almost  two  thousand  years  after  him 
maintained  authority  in  the  schools  of 
the  philosophers,  and  in  the  middle  ages 
it  became  the  foundation  of  the  scholas- 
tic philosophy,  which  was  little  better 
than  a  revival  under  another  form,  of  the 
logic  of  the  Athenian  Sophists. 

LOtilS'T.E,  in  antiquity,  Athenian 
magistrates,  ten  in  number,  whose  office 
it  was  to  receive  and  pass  the  accounts 
of  magistrates  when  they  went  out  of 
ollice. 

LOGOG'KAPIIY,  a  system  of  taking 
down  the  words  of  an  orator  without 
having  recourse  to  short-hand,  which  was 
put  in  pr.actice  during  the  French  revo- 
lution. Twelve  or  fourteen  reporters 
were  seatecl  rovind  a  table.  Each  had  a 
long  slip  of  paper,  numbered.  The  writer 
of  No.  1  took  down  the  first  three  or  four 
words,  and  as  soon  as  (liey  were  spoken 
gave  notice  to  his  neighbor  by  tou(tliing 
his  elbow,  or  some  other  sign  ;  No.  2 
passed  the  sign  to  No  3,  and  so  on,  until 
the  first  line  of  each  slip  was  filled;  No.  1 
then  began  the  second  line:  thus  all  the 
12  or  11  slips,  when  filled,  being  arranged 
parallel  to  each  other,  formed  a  single 


loo] 


ANU     I  UK     FINK     AUTS. 


583 


page.  This  mode  required  great  atten- 
tion and  quickness,  and  was  not  found  to 
answer  well  in  practice.  It  was  intro- 
duced in  tlic  National  Assembly  in  Octo- 
ber, 1790,  the  expenses  being  paid  by  the 
civil  list;  and  continue  I  until  the  lOlh 
of  August,  1792,  when  Louis  XVI.  and 
his  family,  takino;  refuge  from  insurrec- 
tion in  the  a''5Cinoly,  occupied  the  ho.K  of 
the  logographe.  After  that  time  it  was 
not  used. — Lui;os:rapk]/  is  also  used  to 
denote  a  method  of  j)rinting  in  which 
whole  words  in  type  are  used  instead  of 
single  letters.  This  method  was  at  one 
time  introduced  into  the  printing  of  a 
d;iily  London  newspaper;  but  after  a 
short  trial  was  abandoned  as  incon- 
venient. 

LOG'OGRIPH,  a  kind  of  riddle,  which 
consists  in  some  allusion  or  mutilation  of 
words,  being  of  a  miildle  nature  between 
an  enigma  and  a  rebus.  The  word  is 
used  by  Ben  Jonson. 

L  0  K,  in  Northern  mythology,  the 
name  of  a  malevolent  deity  ;  correspond- 
ing to  the  Ahriman  of  the  Persians,  who 
is  represented  to  be  at  war  with  both 
gods  and  men,  and  originating  all  the 
evil  with  which  the  universe  is  desolated. 
In  the  Edda  (the  gre:it  poem  of  the 
Norwegian  nations)  he  is  described  as 
the  great  serpent  which  encircles  the 
earth  (supposed  to  be  emblematical  of 
sin  or  corruption,)  and  as  having  given 
birth  to  llela,  or  JJeath,  the  queen  of  the 
infernal  regions. 

LOL'LAKD.5,  a  class  of  persons  in 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  who  pro- 
fessed, in  the  14th  century,  to  undertake 
spiritual  offices  in  behalf  of  the  sick  and 
dead,  and  succeeded  in  attracting  the 
attention  an  I  love  of  the  mass  of  tlie 
people  when  they  weje,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, alienated  fr-om  the  secular  and  regu- 
lar clergy  by  their  general  indilference 
and  neglect.  The  origin  of  the  name  has 
been  much  disputed;  but  the  inquiries 
of  Mosheim  seem  to  lead  to  the  result 
that  it  is  compounded  of  the  German 
words  lalleii  (identical  with  the  lallare  of 
the  Romans,  and  the  lull  of  our  own  lan- 
guage, signifying  to  sing  in  a  murmuring 
strain)  ond  hard,  a  common  affi.x,  as  in 
the  somewhat  similar  word  beghard.  A 
Lollard,  therefore,  meant  one  in  the 
habit  of  singing  to  the  praise  of  God,  or 
funeral  dirges  and  the  like,  as  was  the 
custom  of  the  early  pruiessors  of  this  holy 
manner  of  life.  The  Lollards,  however, 
were  accused — probably  through  the  envy 
and  spite  of  the  mendicant  friars  and 
others    whose   neglected   duties   they  so 


zealously  performed — of  holding  many 
heretical  opinions.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  there  might  have  been  some  degree 
of  enthusiasm  mixed  up  with  so  ardent 
and  unworldly  a  devotion;  but  the 
charges -of  violent  reforming  views,  still 
more  those  of  praetical  vice,  appear  to 
rest  upon  no  authentic  grounds.  In  pro- 
cess of  time  the  term  was  applied  by  the 
partisans  of  the  church  to  the  heretics 
and  schismatics  of  the  day  generally; 
and  the  followers  of  'Wiclifle  in  England 
are  frequently  stigmatized  under  the 
name  of  Lollards. 

LOMBARD,  a  term  anciently  used  in 
England  for  a  banker  or  money-lender. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Italian 
merchants,  the  great  usurers  or  money- 
lenders of  the  middle  ages,  principally 
from  the  cities  of  Lombardy,  who  are  said 
to  have  settled  in  London  in  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  and  to  have  taken  up 
their  residence  in  a  street  in  the  city 
which  still  bears  their  name. 

LONGEVITY,  length  or  duration  of 
life,  generally  designating  great  length 
of  life.  Lord  Bacon  observes,  that  the 
succession  of  ages,  and  of  the  generation 
of  men  seems  no  way  to  shorten  tbo 
length  of  human  life,  since  the  age  of  man 
from  the  time  of  Moses  to  the  present  has 
stood  at  about  eighty  years,  without  grad- 
ually declining,  as  one  might  have  ex- 
pected ;  but  doubtless  there  are  times 
wherein  men  live  to  a  longer  or  shorter 
age  in  every  country  ;  and  it  has  been 
remarked  that  those  generally  prove 
longest-lived  who  use  a  simple  diet,  and 
take  most  bodily  e.\erci>e;  and  shortest- 
lived  wuo  indulge  in  lu.xury  and  ease  ; 
but  these  things  have  their  changes  ami 
revolutions,  whilst  the  succession  of  man- 
kind holds  on  uninterrupted  in  its  course. 
There  are,  however,  several  essential 
circumstances  which  must  combine  to  give 
any  individual  a  chance  of  exceeding  the 
usual  period  assigned  to  human  exis-tence. 
These  may  be  comprehended  under  the 
following  heads  :  a  proper  configuration 
of  body  ;  being  born  of  healthy  parents  ; 
living  in  a  healthy  climate  and  good  at- 
mosphere ;  having  the  command  of  a  suf- 
ficient sup|)ly  of  food  ;  constant  exercise  ; 
a  due  regulation  of  sleep  ;  a  state  of  mar- 
riage ;  and  due  command  of  the  passions 
and  temper. 

LOOP'iIOLE.5,  in  fortification,  aper- 
tures formerly  made  in  the  battlements 
or  in  the  walls  of  fortified  places,  for  dis- 
charging arrows  and  javelins  against  the 
assailants.  Since  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder and  the  substitution  of  cannon  for 


.384 


CYCLOIEIJIA    OF    LITERATURE 


LOU 


such  missiles,  loopholes  have  necessarily 
been  (liscontiuuiul  in  the  constructiou  of 
fortresses,  the  assailants  of  which  are 
now  sought  to  be  driven  back  by  guns 
fired  through  ai)ertures  of  a  ditFcrent 
character,  designated  embrasures,  which 
see. 

LCRA'mUS,    in    antiquity,    one    who 
stimulated  the  gladiators  to  continue  the  j 
fight    by    exercising    the    scourge    upon  j 
thera.      Also,    a    slave    who    bound    and  1 
scourged  others  at  his  master's  pleasure.  | 

LORD,  a  title  of  courtesy  given  to  all 
British  and  Irish  noblemen,  from  the 
baron  upwards ;  to  the  eldest  sons  of 
earls  ;  to  all  the  sons  of  marquesses  and 
dukes ;  and,  as  an  honorary  title,  to  cer- 
tain official  characters  ;  as  the  lord  mayor 
of  London,  the  lord  chamberlain  of  the 
king's  liousehold,  the  /ortZ  chancellor,  the 
lord  chief  justice,  &c.  Lord  is  also  a 
general  term,  equivalent  with  peer. — 
Lord,  in  law,  one  who  possesses  a  fee  or 
manor.  This  is  the  primitive  meaning  of 
the  word  ;  and  it  was  in  right  of  their  feofs 
that  lords  ca,me  to  sit  in  parliament. — In 
Scripture,  a  name  for  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing. When  LORD,  in  the  Old  Testament, 
is  printed  in  capitals,  it  is  the  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  word  for  Jehovah,  and 
might  with  great  propriety  bo  so  render- 
ed. It  is  also  applied  to  Christ,  to  the 
Holy  Spirit,  to  kings,  ami  to  prophets. 

LORDS,  House  of,  is  composed  of  the 
five  orders  of  nobilit}',  vi/.. — dukes,  mar- 
quesses, earls,  v-'scounts,  and  barons,  who 
have  attained  the  age  of  21  years,  and 
labor  under  no  disquali-lication  ;  of  the  16 
representative  peers  of  Scotland;  of  the 
28  representative  peers  of  Ireland;  of  2 
English  archbishops  and  24  bishops,  and 
4  representative  Irish  bishops. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  a  cei'emony  among 
Christians  by  which  they  commemorate 
the  death  of  Christ,  and  make  at  the 
same  time  fi  profession  of  their  faith. 
The  blessed  founder  of  our  religion  in- 
stituted this  rite  when  he  took  his  last 
meal  with  his  disciples ;  breaking  the 
l)read,  after  the  oriental  manner,  as  a  fit- 
ting symbol  of  his  body,  which  was  soon 
to  be  broken,  while  the  wine  was  signifi- 
cant of  that  blood  which  was  about  to  bo 
shed. 

LORI'CA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  cui- 
rass, a  brigandine,  or  coat  of  mail,  which 
was  made  of  leather,  and  set  with  plates 
of  various  forms,  or  rings  like  a  chain. 

LOTOPirA(;i,  a  name  given  to  a  peo- 
ple of  ancient  Africa  who  inh:ibited  the 
Regio  Syrtica,  so  called  from  the  lotus 
berry  forming  their  principal  food.  They 


were  represented  as  a  miM,  hospitable 
race  of  men.  The  food  with  whicii  they 
were  nourished,  among  other  peculiar 
qualities,  is  said  to  have  liad  the  power 
of  obliterating  all  remembrance  of  one's 
native  country. 

LOTTERY,  a  game  of  hazard  in  which 
small  sums  are  ventured  for  the  chance 
of  obtaining  a  larger  value,  either  in  mo- 
ney or  other  articles.  In  general,  lotte- 
ries consist  of  a  certain  number  of  ticketfi 
drawn  at  the  same  time  with  a  correspond- 
ing number  of  blanks  and  prizes,  by 
which  the  fate  of  the  tickets  is  determin- 
ed. This  species  of  gaming  has  been  re- 
sorted to  at  different  periods  by  most  of 
the  European  governments,  as  a  means 
of  raising  money  for  public  purposes. 
Both  state  and  private  lotteries  were  en- 
tirely abolished  in  England  in  1823,  on 
the  ground  that  thej'  tended  to  foster  a 
spirit  of  gambling  in  the  great  body  of  the 
people,  and  gave  rise  to  many  delusive 
and  fraudulent  schemes.  In  1836  they 
were  suppressed  in  France.  They  have 
been  prohibited  in  most  of  the  United 
States,  but  still  exist  in  several  of  the 
states  of  Germany. 

LOUIS-D'OR,  a  French  gold  coin, 
which  received  itsname  from  Louis  XIII.. 
who  first  coined  it  in  1631.  The  value  of 
the  old  Louls-d'or  was  equal  to  21  francs  ; 
the  new  Louis  'at  of  the  value  of  20  francs. 

LOU'IS,  St.,  Knights  or,  the  name  of 
a  military  order  in  France  instituted  by 
Louis  XlV.  in  1693. 

LOU'VRE,  ono  of  the  most  ancient 
palaces  of  France.  It  existed  in  the  time 
of  Dagobert  as  a  hunting  seat,  the  woods 
then  extending  all  over  the  actual  site  of 
the  northern  jjortion  of  Paris  clown  to  the 
banks  of  the  Seine.  The  origin  of  its 
najno  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. It  was  formeil  into  a  stronghold 
by  Philip  Augustus,  who  surrounded  it 
with  towers  and  fosses,  and  converted  it 
into  a  state  prison  for  confining  the  re- 
fractorj'  vassals  of  the  crown.  It  was  then 
without  the  walls  of  Paris  ;  but,  on  their 
extension  in  the  latter  part  of  the  14;h 
century,  it  was  included  within  their  cir- 
cuit. Charles  V.  made  n<lditi(Mis  to  it. 
That  part  of  tb.e  palace  now  called  the 
Vieu.v  Louvre  w;is  commenced  under  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.,  after  the  designs  of 
Pierre  L'Escot,  abbot  of  Clugny.  When 
Charles  IX  resided  in  the  I^ouvre,  ho 
began  the  long  gallery  which  connects  it 
with  the  Tuilleries,  and  in  which  is  now 
deposited  the  celebrated  collection  of  pic- 
tures. It  was  finished  under  Henry  IV. 
Louis  XIV.,  from  the  designs  of  Lemer- 


LUS] 


AND     I  UK    FINE    A  It  IS. 


38r. 


cier,  erecteil  the  peristyle  which  forms 
the  entrance  to  the  A'ieux  Louvre  from 
the  side  of  the  Tuillcrics.  That  monarch 
also  gave  a  beginning  to  the  remainder 
of  the  present  modern  edifice,  from  the 
de.-iigns  of  Claude  I'errault.  The  edifice 
has  never  been  tinished;  though,  under 
the  reigns  of  succeeding  monarchs,  and 
especially  during  that  of  Napoleon,  it  has 
s  iwly  advanced  towards  completion.  The 
eastern  front,  though  not  tinished  even 
now,  exhibits  a  faf  aiie  of  sur])assing  beau- 
ty— perhaps,  in  its  kind,  never  equalled. 
The  quadrangle  of  the  Louvre  is  a  per- 
fect .-square  on  the  jdan.  Three  of  its 
sides  were  from  the  designs  of  Perrault, 
above  mentioned.  Besides  the  gallery 
above  adverted  to,  which  contains  some 
of  the  finest  pictures  in  the  world,  the 
Louvre  contains  a  museum  of  sculpture, 
antiquities,  and  other  specimens  of  art, 
equally  valuable. 

LOVE,  an  affection  of  the  mind  excited 
by  beauty  and  worth  of  any  kind,  or  by 
the  qualities  of  an  object  which  commu- 
nicate pleasure,  sensual  or  intellectual. 
It  is  opposed  to  hatred.  Love  between 
the  sexes,  is  a  compound  affection,  con- 
sisting of  esteem,  benevolence,  and  ani- 
mal desire.  Love  is  excited  by  pleasing 
qualities  of  any  kind,  as  by  kindness,  be- 
nevolence, charity,  and  by  the  qualities 
which  render  social  intercourse  agreea- 
ble. In  the  latter  case,  love  is  ardent 
friendship,  or  a  strong  attachment  spring- 
ing from  good- will  and  esteem,  and  the 
pleasure  derived  from  the  company,  civ- 
ilities, and  kindnesses  of  others.  Be- 
tween certain  natural  relatives,  love 
seems  to  be  in  some  cases  instinctive. 
Such  is  the  love  of  a  mother  for  her  child, 
which  manifests  itself  toward  an  infant, 
before  any  particular  qualities  in  the 
child  are  unfolded.  This  affection  ie  ap- 
parently iis  strong  in  irrational  animals 
as  in  human  beings.  AVe  speak  of  the 
love  of  amusement,  the  love  of  books,  the 
love  of  money,  and  the  love  of  whatever 
contributes  to  our  pleasure  or  supposed 
profit.  The  love  of  God  i.*  the  first  duty 
of  man,  and  this  springs  from  just  views 
of  his  attributes  or  excellencies  of  his 
character,  which  afford  the  highest  de- 
light to  the  pious  heart.  Esteem  and 
reverence  constitute  ingredients  in  this 
iiff(!ction,  and  a  fear  of  offending  him  is 
its  inseparable  effect. 

LU'DI,  in  antiquity,  the  shows  or  pub- 
lic exhibitions  which  were  made  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  for  the  display 
of  skill  and  the  entertainment  of  the 
people. 

25 


LI'KE,  or  Gospclof  t>l.  Lu/:c,  a  canon- 
ical book  of  the  New  Testament,  distiu> 
guished  for  fulness,  accuracy,  and  triices 
of  extensive  information.  Some  think  it 
was  properly  St.  Paul's  gospel,  and  when 
that  apostle  speaks  of  his  gospel,  he 
means  what  is  called  St.  Luke's.  Ire- 
na'us  says,  that  St.  Luke  digested  into 
writing  what  St.  Paul  preacheii  to  the 
gentiles;  and  Gregory  Na/.ianzen  tells 
us,  that  St.  Luke  wrote  with  the  assist- 
ance of  St.  Paul. 

LU'NACY,  a  species  of  insanity  or 
madness,  supposed  to  be  influenced  by 
the  moon,  or  periodical  in  the  month. 
In  law,  strictly,  the  condition  of  an  in- 
sane person  who  has  lucid  intervals  ;  but, 
for  convenience,  the  term  is  commonly 
used  as  embracing  the  condition  of  all 
those  who  are  under  certain  legal  disa- 
bilities on  account  of  mental  deficiency; 
such  as  idiots,  fatuous  persons,  itc. ;  in 
short,  all  who  are  of  unsound  mind.  By 
the  law  of  England,  the  sovereign  haa 
the  custody  of  lunatics.  This  is,  in  prat 
tice,  delegated  to  the  keeper  of  the  greak 
seal,  to  whom  applications  for  a  commis- 
sion of  lunacy  are  directed. 

LUPERCA'LIA,  a  Roman  fe.stival  itt 
honor  of  Pan,  celebrated  in  February ; 
when  the  Luperci  ran  up  and  down  the 
city  naked,  having  only  a  girdle  of  goat's 
skin  round  their  waist,  and  thongs  of  the 
same  in  their  hands,  with  which  they 
struck  those  they  met,  particularly  mar- 
ried women,  who  were  thence  supposed 
to  be  rendered  prolific.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  lupus,  a  wolf;  because  Pan 
protected  cattle  from  that  animal.  The 
indecencies  and  (3xcesses  attending  the 
processions  of  the  Lupercals,  which  had 
degenernte<l  from  high  religious  rites 
to  vulgar  superstitions,  provoked  the  in- 
dignation of  Christians  in  the  4th  and  5th 
centuries. 

LLPER'CI,  the  Roman  priests  of  Pan, 
and  most  ancient  religious  order  in  the 
state,  having  been  instituted,  according 
to  tradition,  by  Evander,  king  of  Pallan- 
tium,  a  town  that  occupied  the  Palatine 
Hill  before  Rome  was  built.  There  were 
three  companies  of  them;  viz.  the  FaW- 
ani,  Quintiliani,  and  Julii — the  last  of 
whom  were  founded  in  honor  of  Juliuii 
Cajsar. 

LU'SIAD,  the  name  given  to  the  great 
epic  poem  of  Portugal,  written  by  Ca- 
mocns,  and  published  in  157L  The  sub- 
ject of  this  poem  is  the  establishment  of 
the  Portuguese  empire  in  India;  but 
whatever  of  chivalrous,  great,  beautiful, 
or  n  ble,  could  be  gathered  from  the  tra- 


S8C 


CYCI.OIEMA    OF    I.ITKHATUHK 


[.MAb 


ditions  of  his  country,  has  been  intcr- 
■woven  into  the  story-  Among  all  the 
heroic  poets,  either  of  ancient  or  modern 
times,  there  has  never,  since  Homer,  been 
any  one  so  intensely  niitional,  or  so  loved 
or  honored  by  his  countrymen,  ns  Ca- 
moens.  It  seems  as  if  the  national  feel- 
ings of  the  Portuguese  had  centered  id 
reposed  themselves  in  the  person  of  tnis 
poet,  whom  tliey  consider  as  worthy  to 
supjily  the  jilace  of  a  whole  host  of  poets, 
and  as  being  in  himself  a  complete  liter- 
ature to  his  country.  The  great  defect 
of  the  Lusiad  consists  in  its  preposterous 
mythological  machinery,  and  its  clumsy 
nuuiat^einent  ;  hut  in  all  the  qualities  of 
versification  and  beauty  of  language  it  is 
perfect,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
"  well,  pure  and  undefileil,"  of  the  Por- 
tuguese language.  Few  modern  poems 
have  been  so  fiequcntly  translated  as  the 
Lusiad.  Mr.  Adamson,  in  his  Memoirs 
of  the  IJfe  and  Wri/iiws  of  Cumuens, 
entices  one  Hebrew  translation  of  it,  five 
jatin,  six  Spanish,  four  Italian,  tliree 
French,  four  German,  and  two  English. 
Of  the  two  English  versions  one  is  that 
of  Sir  R.  Fanshawe,  written  during  Crom- 
well's usurpation,  and  distinguished  for 
its  fidelity  to  the  original;  the  other  is 
that  of  JViiclde,  who,  unlike  the  former, 
took  great  liberties  with  the  original,  but 
whose  additions  and  alterations  liavo  met 
with  great  approbation  from  all  critics — 
except,  as  indeed  was  to  be  expected, 
from  the  Portuguese  themselves. 

M. 

M,  the  thirteenth  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  is  a  liquid  and  labial  consonant, 
pronounced  by  slightly  striking  the  under 
lip  against  the  upper  one.  It  is  some- 
cimes  called  a  semi-vowel,  as  the  articu- 
lation or  compression  of  the  lips  is  ac- 
companied with  a  humming  sound  tiiroiigh 
the  nose.  M.  as  a.  numeral  stands  for 
rtiille,  a  thousand  ;  and  with  a  dash  over 
it.  1,000,000.  M.  A.  mas^ister  artium  : 
M.  T).  medirina;  doctor  :  MA.  inanusc^ipt, 
and  MSS.  inaiiu.scri/)fs.  M.  also  stands 
for  noon,  from  the  Latin  meridies :  hence 
P.M.  post  meridiem  (afternoon  ;)  and 
A.M.  ante  meridiem  (morning.)  M,  in 
French,  stands  for  Monsieur ;  MM.  for 
Messienrs. 

MAB,     in     nortliern    mythology,    the 

?[ueen  of  the  imaginary  beings  called 
airies  ;  so  fancifully  described  by  the 
sportive  imagination  of  Shakspeare,  in 
Romeo  and  Juliet. 


MACARONIC  or  MACARONIAN, 
an  appellation  given  to  a  burlesque  kind 
of  poetry,  made  up  of  a  jumble  of  words 
of  difierent  languages,  of  l>atin  words 
modernized,  or  of  native  words  ending  in 
Latin  terminations.  Drummond's  Pole- 
mo-Middiiiia,  a  Scottish  burlesque,  is, 
perhaps,  the  best  known  macaronic  form 
of  our  language. 

MACCABEES,  two  apocryphal  books 
of  Scripture,    containing   the    history   of 
!  Judas  and  his  brothers,  and  their  wars 
!  against  the  Sj-rian   kings  in   defence  of 
their  religion   and  liberties.      The   first 
book   is  an  excellent  history,  and  comes 
nearest   to  the  style  of  the  sacred  histo- 
rians.   The  second  book  of  the  Maccabees 
j  begins  with   two  epistles  sent  from  the 
\  Jews  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Jews  of  Egypt 
:  and  Alexandria,  to  exhort  them  to  observe 
the  feast  of  the  dedication  of  the  new  altar 
erected   by   Judas   on    his  purifying  the 
temple. 

MACIUAVELISM,  the  principles  in- 
culcated by  Machiavelli,  an  Italian  writer, 
I  secretary  and  historiographer  to  the  re- 
public of  Florence.  Hence  the  word 
3Iachiarelian  denotes  political  cunning 
and  artifice,  intended  to  favor  arbitrary 
;  power. 

MACHICOLA'TIOXS,  in  architecture, 
openings  made  through  the  roofs  of  por- 
tals to  the  floor  above,  or  in  the  floors 
of  projecting  galleries,  for  the  purpose 
of  defence,  by  pouring  n 
through  them  boiling  lead,  '  ' 
pitch,  itc,  upon  the  enemj'. 
In  the  galleries  they  are 
formed  by  the  parapet  or 
breast-work  B  being  set 
out  beyond  the  face  of 
the  wall  C  on  corbels  D  ; 
the  spaces  E  between 
the  corbels,  being  open 
throughout,  are  the  ma- 
chicolations. L.^- 

iMAC  ROCOSM.  the  universe,  or  the 
visible  system  of  worlds  ;  opposed  to 
viirrocosm,  or  the  world  of  man. 

M.ADON'NA,  a  term  of  compellation, 
equivalent  to  •niudam.  It  is  given  to  the 
Virgin  Mary;  and  pictures  of  the  Italian 
schools,  representing  the  Virgin,  are 
generally  called  madonnas. 

MADNESS,  a  dreadful  kind  of  delir- 
ium, without  fever,  in  which  the  patient 
raves  or  is  furious.  .Melancholy  and  mad- 
ness may  very  justly  be  c(msidered  as 
diseases  nearly  allied  ;  for  they  have  both 
the  same  origin,  that  is,  an  excessive  con- 
gestion of  blood  in  the  brain  :  they  only 
differ  in  degree,  and  with  respect  to  the 


^ 


r 


\ 


mag] 


AND    TIIK    FINE    AHTS. 


n87 


time  of  appearing  ;  melancholy  beins;  tlie 
primary  disease,  of  which  madness  is  the 
augmentation. 

MADRIGAL,  one  of  the  lesser  kind 
of  poems,  usually  consisting  of  fewer  ver- 
ses than  ;^ie  sonnet  or  roundelay.  In  its 
composition  the  fancy  and  convenience  of 
the  poet  are  not  subjected  to  very  strict 
rules,  rhymes  and  versos  of  diflerent 
species  being  often  intcrmi.xod.  The  sub- 
jects are  mostly  of  a  tender  and  gallant 
nature  ;  the  character  often  quaint,  the 
expression  marked  with  great  simplicity. 
Grassineau,  in  his  Musical  Dictionary, 
describes  the  niadrigal  as  "  a  little  piece 
of  poetry,  the  verses  whereof  arc  free 
and  easy,  usually  unequal  :  it  borders  on 
a  sonnet  and  an  epigram,  but  has  not  the 
briskness  of  the  one,  nor  the  poignancy 
of  the  other." 

M.ESTO'SO,  in  music,  an  Italian  word 
signifying  majestic,  and  useii  as  a  direc- 
tion to  play  the  part  with  force  and 
grandeur. 

MAGAZINE',  in  literature,  a  pam- 
phlet periodically  published,  containing 
miscellaneous  papers  or  compositions. 
The  first  publication  of  this  kind  in  Eng- 
land, was  the  Geittlcinaii^s  Mas^azine, 
which  first  appeared  in  1731,  under  the 
name  of  Sijlvaniis  Urban,  by  Edward 
Cave,  and  which  is  still  continued.  A 
magazine  ditfers  from  a  newspaper  and 
review  ;  the  peculiar  province  of  a  news- 
paper is  to  communicate  information  on 
politics  and  passing  events,  both  foreign 
and  domestic;  and  that  of  the  review  is 
to  communicate  information  on  literary 
and  scientific  subjects,  and  to  give  a  crit- 
ical survey  of  these.  The  magazine, 
while  it  embraces  all  the  features  of  the 
newspaper  and  review,  is  of  a  more  mis- 
cellaneous character,  containing,  in  the 
form  of  tales,  sketches,  poetry,  &c.,  a 
great  variety  of  matter  of  an  original 
character  which  would  be  foreign  to  the 
others. 

M  AGGIO'RE,  in  music,  an  Italian  epi- 
thet signifying  srreater. 

MA'GI,'  or  MA'GIANS,  an  ancient 
religious  sect  in  Persia,  and  other  eastern 
countries,  who  maintained  that  there  were 
two  principles,  the  one  the  cause  of  all 
good,  the  other  the  cause  of  all  evil;  and, 
abominating  the  adoration  of  images, 
worshipped  God  only  by  fire,  which  they 
looked  upon  as  the  brightest  and  most 
glorious  symbol  of  the  Deify.  This  re- 
ligion was  reformed  by  Zoroaster,  who 
maintained  that  there  was  one  supreme 
independent  being;  and  under  him  two 
principles  or  angels,   one  the  angel   of 


goodness  and  light,  and  the  other  of  evil 
and  darkness.  The  priests  of  the  Magi 
were  the  most  skilful  mathematiciiins 
and  philosophers  of  the  ages  in  which 
they  lived,  insomuch  that  a  learned  man 
and  a  magician  became  synonymous 
terms. 

MAG'IC,  properly  signifies  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Magi;  but  the  Magi  beiKg 
supposed  to  have  acquired  their  extra- 
ordinary skill  from  familiar  spirits  or 
other  supernatural  information,  the  woid 
magic  acquired  the  signification  it  now 
bears,  viz.  a  science  which  teaches  to 
perform  wonderful  and  surprising  acts, 
by  the  application  of  certain  nieiins, 
which  procure  the  assistance  and  inter7 
position  of  demons.  The  magicians  of 
antiquity  were  generally  acquainted  with 
certain  secret  powers,  properties  and 
affinities  of  bodies,  and  were  hence  ena- 
bled to  produce  surprising  effects,  to  as- 
tonish the  vulgar  ;  and  these  surprising 
effects,  produced  by  natural  causes,  pro- 
cured them  the  credit  in  their  pretensions 
to  supernatural  and  miraculous  power  — 
Astrology,  divination,  enchantments  and 
witihcraft,  were  parts  of  this  fanciful 
science;  which,  from  being  truly  respec- 
table once,  as  having  had  for  its  object 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  by 
those  means  became  contemptible,  its 
professors  opprobrious,  its  productions 
ridiculous,  and  its  illusions  mere  jug- 
gler's tricks. 

MAGISTRATE,  a  public  civil  officer, 
invested  with  the  executive  government 
or  some  branch  of  it.  In  this  sense,  the 
president  of  the  United  States  is  the 
highest  or  first  magistrate.  But  the  word 
is  more  particularly  applied  to  subor- 
dinate officers,  to  whom  the  executive 
power  of  the  law  is  committed,  either 
wholly  or  in  part ;  as,  governors,  mayors, 
justices  of  the  peace,  and  the  like. 

MAGNA  CIIARTA,  the  Great  Char- 
ter of  Liberties,  obtained  by  the  English 
barons  from  king  John,  in  I'il.'S.  The 
barons  consisted  of  the  whole  nobility  of 
England  ;  their  followers  comprehended 
all  the  yeomanry  and  free  peasant r)-, 
and  the  accession  of  the  capital  was  a 
pledge  of  the  adherence  of  the  citizens 
and  burgesses.  John  had  been  obliged 
to  yield  to  this  general  uniim,  and  con- 
ferences were  opened,  on  the  plain  called 
Runnymede,  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames, 
near  Staines,  in  sight  of  the  forces  of 
each  other.  At  length  the  preliminaries 
being  agreed  on,  the  barons  presented 
heads  of  their  grievances  and  means  of 
redress  ;  and  the  king  directed  that  the 


388 


CVCI.OI'EUIA    OF    I.ITEKATLRE 


MAI 


articles  should  he  rciluccd  to  the  form  of 
a  charter,  in  which  state  it  issued  as  a 
royal  grant.  To  secure  the  execution  of 
this  ciiartcr,  John  was  coiupellod  to  sur- 
render the  city  and  Tower  of  London,  to 
be  temporarily  heM  by  the  barons,  and 
consented  that  tlie  barons  should  choose 
twenty-five  of  their  number,  to  be  guar- 
dians of  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom,  with 
power,  in  case  of  any  breach  of  the  char- 
ter, or  denial  of  redress,  to  make  war  on 
the  king,  to  seize  his  castle  and  lands, 
and  to  distress  and  annoy  him  in  every 
possible  way  till  justice  was  done.  Many 
parts  of  the  charter  were  pointed  against 
the  abuses  of  the  power  of  the  king  as 
lord  paramount;  the  tyrannical  exercise 
of  the  forest  laws  was  checkeil,  and  many 
grievances  incident  to  feudal  tenures 
were  mitigated  or  abolished.  But  besides 
these  provisions,  it  contains  many  for  the 
benefit  of  the  people  at  large,  and  a  few 
ma.\ims  of  just  government,  applicable 
to  all  places  and  times. 

MAGNATES,  in  Hungary  at  this  day, 
and  formerly  also  in  Poland,  the  title  of 
the  noble  estate  in  the  national  represen- 
tation. The  Hungarian  magnates  are 
divided  into  greater  and  lesser;  certain 
high  state  officers  belonging  to  the  first 
class,  the  counts  and  barons  of  the  king- 
dom to  the  second.  The  title  is  of  Latin 
derivation. 

MAGNIF'ICO,  the  title  given  by  cour- 
tesy to  a  nobleman  of  Venice. 

MAGNIL'OQUENCE,  a  lofty  manner 
of  speaking;  tumid,  pompous  words  or 
Btyle  ;  language  expressive  of  pretensions 
greater  than  realities  warrant. 

MAHA'BAKATA,  the  name  of  one 
of  the  great  Indian  epic  poems,  the  sub- 
ject of  which  is  a  long  civil  war  between 
two  dynasties  of  ancient  India,  the  Kurus 
and  Pandus.  This  poem  embraces  the 
whole  circle  of  Indian  mythohigy  ;  but  it 
is  still  more  valuable  as  embudying  an 
immense  number  of  historical  fragments, 
which  will  be  of  great  importance  to  the 
future  historian  of  In<Iia.  Many  episodes 
from  the  Mctliabarala  have  been  ably 
tran.slated  by  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
Orientalists;  and  parts  of  the  original 
have  been  published  at  different  periods 
in  fierinany.  The  period  at  which  the 
Mahabaratn  was  written  is  wholly  un- 
known, and  it  has  no  less  Ijafllod  all  the 
researches  of  the  learned  to  discover  the 
date  at  which  it  assumed  its  present  me- 
thoilical  form. 

MA'HADO,  a  name  of  one  of  the  In- 
dian deities,  from  whom  the  sacred  Gan- 
ges is  fabled  to  spring. 


MAHOMETANS,  or  MOHAMME- 
DANS, believers  in  the  doctrines  and  di- 
vine mission  of  Mahomet,  the  warriot 
and  prophet  of  Arabia,  whose  creed  main- 
tains that  there  is  but  one  (^lod,  and  that 
Mahomet  is  his  prophet,  and  td'^'hes  cere- 
monies by  prayer,  with  washings,  &c , 
almsgiving,  fasting,  sobrietv,  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  Ac.  Besides  these  they  have 
some  negative  precepts  and  institutions 
of  the  Koran,  in  which  several  things  are 
prohibited,  as  usury,  the  drinking  of  wine, 
all  games  that  depeml  upon  chance,  the 
eating  of  blood  and  swine's  Hesh,  and 
whatever  dies  of  itself,  is  strangled,  or  is 
killed  by  a  blow  or  by  another  beast. 
These  doctrines  and  practices  Mahomet 
established  by  tlie  sword,  by  preaching, 
and  by  the  alcoran  or  koran,  which  con- 
tains the  principles  of  his  religion  ;  and 
he  and  his  followers  met  with  such  suc- 
cess, as  in  a  few  years  to  subdue  half  the 
known  world. 

MA'lIOUND,  formerly  a  contempt- 
uous name  for  Mohammed  and  the  devil, 
and  thence  aj)plied  to  any  character  of 
seeming  power  and  groat  wickedness.  In 
Scoihuiil  Mahoun  was  formerly  used,  as 
moaning  Satan. 

MAI'A,  in  Grecian  mythology;  1, 
the  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  one 
of  the  Pleiads,  who  became  mother  of 
]SIercury  by  Jupiter:  2,  a  daughter  of 
the  god  Faunus,  and  wife  of  Vulcan  ;  fre- 
ciuontly  confounded  by  raythologists  with 
the  former  personage. 

MAIN'PRIZE,  in  law,  the  receiving  a 
person  into  friendly  custody  who  might 
otherwise  l)c  committed  to  prison,  on  se- 
curity given  for  his  forthcoming  on  a  day 
appointed. 

MAINTENANCE,  in  law,  is  an  un- 
lawful maintaining  or  sujiporting  a  suit 
between  others,  by  stirring  up  quarrels, 
or  interfering  in  a  cause  in  which  the 
person  has  no  concern.  Thus  if  any  per- 
s<in  disinterested  in  a  cause  ofiiciously 
gives  evidence,  without  being  called  upon 
for  that  purpose,  or  nets  the  part  of  coun- 
sel by  s|>eaking  in  the  cause,  or  retains 
an  attorney  for  the  jiarty.  he  is  guilty  of 
maintenance,  and  is  liable  to  be  prosecu- 
ted by  indictment.  But  it  is  no  mainte- 
nance, where  a  person  gives  a  poor  man 
money  out  of  charity  to  carry  on  a  suit. 

M.\lX'TKNAN(iE,  CAP  OF,  a  cap  of 
dignity,  anciently  belonging  to  the  rank 
of  a  duke  ;  termed  by  the  French  bonnet 
ducal. 

MAJESTY,  this  title  of  honor  is  deriv- 
ed from  the  Romans,  among  whom  it  stood 
for  the  collective  power  and  dignity  of  the 


manJ 


AND    TIIK     KINK     A  I!  TS. 


389 


sovereign  body  ;  as  majestas  pojntii  Ro- 
ma7)i.  Ilcnco  treason  was  teruietlcn'me/i. 
lcEs<B  majesiatis,  an  injury  offered  to  maj- 
esty. Majesty  was  the  attribute  of  con- 
suls, pnvtors,  ite.,  only  as  representing 
the  jiuhlic  ;  and  hence,  in  later  times, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  the  emperors 
along  with  the  sovereign  power,  inferior 
magistrates  were  entitled,  in  ceremonial 
language,  by  the  appellation  of  dignitas. 
Majesty  is  now  the  conventional  title  of 
European  emperors  and  kings. 

MAJOR,  the  title  of  several  military 
officers,  as  major-general,  major  of  a  bri- 
gade, major  of  a  regiment,  &c. — In  logic, 
the  Major  term  is,  in  a  syllogism,  the 
jiredii-ate  of  the  conclusion.  The  major 
}iretnise  is  that  which  contains  the  major 
term.  In  hypothetical  syllogi-sms,  the 
hypothetical  premise  is  called  the  major. 
— In  music,  an  epithet  applied  to  the 
modes  in  wliich  the  third  is  four  semi- 
tones above  the  tonic  or  key-note,  and 
to  intervals  consisting  of  four  semitones. 
The  major  mode  takes  a  major  or  sharp 
3d,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  that 
having  a  minor  or  flat  one.  The  major 
mode  has  always  a  greater  3d,  that  is,  a 
third  consisting  of  two  tones,  and  the 
minor  mode  has  always  a  minor  third  ; 
that  is,  a  3d  consisting  of  a  tone  and  a 
semitone. 

]\IAJORAT',  in  modern  legal  phrase- 
ology, as  employed  by  several  European 
nations,  the  right  of  succession  to  prop- 
erty according  to  age. 

MAJORITY,  in  law,  in  the  United 
States,  the  age  of  twenty-one,  at  which 
time  tlie  male  citizen  is  allowed  to  exer- 
cise the  right  of  suffrage. — In  politics,  the 
age  at  which  the  sovereign,  in  hereditary 
monarchies,  becomes  capable  of  exercising 
supreme  authority. 

MALADMINr'STRA'TION,  bad  man- 
agement of  public  affairs,  or  a  misde- 
meanor in  public  employments,  particu- 
larly of  executive  and  ministerial  duties, 
prescribed  by  law. 

MA'LUM"  in  SE,  (Latin.)  in  law,  an 
offence  at  common  law,  in  distinction  from 
malum  prohibitum  ;  such  as  playing  at 
unlawful  games,  &c.,  which  are  only 
mala  prohibita  under  certain  circum- 
stances. 

MALVEKSA'TIOX,  in  law,  misbehav- 
ior in  an  office,  employ,  or  commission, 
as  breach  of  trust,  extortion,  itc. 

MAM'ELI'KE,  (Arabic,  niemalik,  a 
Slave,)  a  name  applied  to  the  male  slaves 
imported  from  Circassia  into  Egypt  by 
the  master  of  that  country.  In  the  13th 
centurv    when  the  countries  in  the  vicin- 


ity of  Mount  Caucasus  were  ravaged  bj 
(lenghis  Khan,  Nojmedilen,  sultan  of 
Egypt,  purchased  several  thousands  of 
tho  natives  of  those  regions,  especially 
Tui'ks,  and  formed  them  into  an  armed 
body  of  guards.  These  guards,  or 
Mamelukes,  in  the  sequel,  seized  on  all 
the  power  of  the  country,  murdered  the 
sultan,  Touran  Shah,  a.d.  1258,  and  made 
Ibeg,  one  of  their  own  number,  his  suc- 
cessor. After  that  period  the  Mame- 
lukes, whose  numbers  were  continually 
enriched  by  importations  from  their  own 
country,  governed  Egypt  263  years. 
This  military  sovereignty  was  destroyed 
by  Selim  I.,  the  Turkish  sultan,  who  took 
Cairo  in  1.517.  Nevertheless,  the  j\Iame- 
lukes,  under  their  24  beys,  continued  for 
200  years  more  to  exercise  a  power 
scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  Turkish 
pachas,  whom,  in  the  18th  century,  they 
reduced  to  mere  ciphers  in  the  govern- 
ment. Their  power  was  again  consider- 
ably broken  by  the  French  invasion  under 
Bonaparte,  to  which  they  offered  a  de- 
termined opposition.  After  the  abandon- 
ment of  Egypt  by  the  French,  the  struggle 
between  the  beys  and  the  pachas  was 
renewed:  finally,  in  1811,  the  present 
pacha,  Mohammed  Ali,  having  invited 
the  principal  leaders  of  the  Mamelukes 
to  a  banquet,  slew  470  of  them  by  treach- 
ery, and  compelled  the  remainder  to 
submission. 

MAMMON,  in  the  Syriac  language, 
signifies  riches.  It  is  used  Matt  vi.  24, 
and  Luke  xvi.  13,  and  is  there  called  the 
mammon  of  unrighteousness,  intimating 
that  riches  are  frequently  the  instruments 
of  iniquity,  or  acquired  by  unrighteous 
means. 

MAN,  mankind  ;  the  human  race  ;  the 
whole  species  of  human  beings ;  beings 
distinguished  from  all  other  animals  by 
the  powers  of  reason  and  speech,  as  well 
as  by  their  shape  and  dignified  aspect. 
When  opposed  to  iroman,  man  some- 
times denotes  the  male  sex  in  general. 
It  sometimes  bears  the  sense  of  a  male 
adult  of  some  uncommon  qualifications  ; 
particularly,  the  sense  of  strength,  vigor, 
bravery,  virile  powers,  or  magnanimity, 
as  distinguished  from  the  weakness, 
timidity,  or  impotence  of  a  boy,  or  from 
the  narrow-mindedness  of  low-bred  men 
So,  in  popular  language,  it  is  said,  he  is 
no  ?)if/;i.  Play  your  part  like  a  man. 
lie  has  not  the  spiri.t  of  a  man.  An  in- 
dividual of  the  human  species.  Under 
this  phraseology,  females  may  be  com- 
prehended. So  .a  law  restraining  man, 
or   crcri/   man    from    a    particular    act, 


390 


CYCl.OI'EDIA    OK    LIlEHAllKK 


[m; 


comprehends  women  and  children,  if  of 
competent  age  to  be  the  sulijccts  of  law. 
One  who  is  master  of  his  menial  powers, 
or  who  conducts  himself  with  his  usual 
judgment,  we  say,  he  is  not  his  own  7/ia/i. 
It  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely,  with- 
out reference  to  a  particular  individual ; 
any  person  ;  one.  This  is  as  much  as  a 
war.  can  desire. 

MANDA'MUS,  in  law,  a  writ  issued 
from  a  court  of  law,  and  directed  to  any 
person,  corporation,  or.  inferior  court, 
commanding  the  performance  of  some 
special  thing. 

MANDARIN',  the  magistrates  and 
governors  of  provinces  in  China,  who  are 
chosen  out  of  the  most  learned  men,  and 
whose  government  is  always  at  a  great 
distance  from  the  place  of  their  birth. 

MAN'DUCI,  in  antiquity,  hideous  fig- 
ures introduced  at  the  public  representa- 
tions of  the  Romans,  which  served  as 
bugbears. 

MAN'EGE,  the  art  of  breaking  in  and 
riding  horses,  or  the  place  set  apart  for 
equestrian  e.Kercises. 

MA'NES,  in  the  pagan  system  of  the- 
ology', a  general  name  for  the  infernal 
deities.  The  ancients  comprehended  un- 
der the  term  manes  not  only  Pluto,  Pros- 
erpine, and  Minos,  but  the  souls  of  the 
deceased  were  likewise  included.  It  was 
usual  to  erect  altars  and  oBcr  libations 
to  the  manes  of  deceased  friends  and  re- 
lations, for  the  superstitious  notion  that 
the  spirits  of  the  departed  had  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  good  or  bad 
fortune  of  the  living,  made  people  very 
cautious  of  offending  them.  AVhen  it  was 
not  known  whether  a  corpse  had  been 
buried  or  not,  a  cenotaph  was  erected, 
and  the  manes  were  solemnly  invited  to 
rest  there,  from  fear  that  otherwise  they 
would  wander  about  the  world,  territying 
the  living,  and  seeking  the  body  which 
they  had  once  inhabited. 

MAN'GONEL,  an  engine  formerly 
used  for  throwing  stones  and  battering 
walls. 

MAN'IIOOD,  the  state  of  one  who  is  a 
man,  of  an  adult  male,  or  one  who  is  ad- 
vanced beyond  puberty,  boyhood,  or 
childhood;  virility.  The  qualities  of  a 
man;  courage;   bravery;   resolution. 

MANICIIEE.S',  in  church  histury,  a 
sect  of  Christian  heretics  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, the  followers  of  Manes,  who  made 
his  appearance  in  the  reign  of  the  empe- 
ror Probus  ;  j)retciiding  to  bo  the  Com- 
forter whom  our  Saviour  ])romised  to 
send  into  the  world.  He  taught  that 
there  are  two  principles,  or  gods,  coctcrnal 


and  independent  of  each  other;  the  first 
principle,  or  litrht,  the  author  of  all  good: 
the  second  principle,  or  darkness,  the 
author  of  all  evil — a  doctrine  which  he 
borrowed  from  the  Persian  magi. 

M  AN'I1'"E.ST,  an  invoice  of  a  cargo  of 
goods,  imported  or  laden  for  e.\]iort,  to 
be  exhibited  at  the  custom-house  by  the 
master  of  the  vessel,  or  the  owner  or 
shipper. 

MANIFES'TO,  in  polities,  a  declara- 
tion of  motives  publicly  issued  by  a  bel- 
ligerent state,  or  by  a  general  acting  with 
full  powers,  previously  to  the  commence- 
ment of  hostilities.  They  are  in  the  form 
of  letters,  with  a  supcrscrii)tion  or  head- 
ing addressed  to  the  public  in  general, 
and  signed  with  the  name  of  the  authority 
who  sends  them  forth.  The  usage  of 
issuing  manifestoes  is  said  to  date  so  far 
back  as  the  14th  century.  The  term  is 
probably  derived  from  the  Latin  words 
"  manifestum  est,"  with  which  such  docu- 
ments usually  commenced. 

^MANIP'ULUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
body  of  infantrj',  consisting  of  two  hun- 
dred men,  and  constituting  the  third  part 
of  a  cohort. 

MAN'NER,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  peculi- 
arity of  treating  a  subject,  or  of  e.xecut- 
ing  it,  by  which  individual  artists  are 
distinguished :  the  latter  arising  out 
of  a  particular  mode  of  using  the  media 
and  implements  of  art,  the  former  out 
of  a  singular  method  of  observing  na 
ture. 

MAN'OR,  an  ancient  r03'alty  or  lord- 
ship, formerly  called  a  barony,  consisting 
of  demesnes,  services,  and  a  court-baron  ; 
and  comprehending  in  it  messuages,  lands, 
meadow,  pasture,  wood,  rents,  an  ailvow- 
son.  Ac.  It  may  contain  one  or  more 
villages,  or  hamlets,  or  only  a  great  part 
of  a  village,  etc.  In  these  days,  a  manor 
rather  signifies  the  jurisdiction  and  roy- 
alty incorporeal,  than  the  land  or  site ; 
for  a  man  may  have  a  manor  in  gross,  as 
the  law  terms  it,  that  is,  the  right  and 
interest  of  a  court-baron,  with  the  per- 
quisites thereto  belonging.  Some  estates 
in  the  United  States  still  retain  the  name 
of  manor,  from  the  times  of  the  colonies. 

MANSARD-ROOF,  in  architecture,  a 
roof  of  peculiar  construction,  named  after 
its  first  prncticer  Julius,  or  as  some  say, 
Francis  Mansard,  who  used  it  upon  all 
his  principal  buildings,  liefore  the  time 
of  either  of  these  architects,  however, 
this  kind  of  roof  was  employed  by  the 
Abbe  do  Clugny  in  the  old  palace  of  the 
Louvre. 

MANSLAUGHTER,    in     a    general 


mar] 


AND    'niE    FINE    A  UTS. 


391 


sense,  the  killing  of  a  man  or  of  men  ; 
destruction  of  the  human  species;  mur- 
der. In  law,  the  unlawful  killing  of  n, 
man  without  malice,  express  or  implied. 
This  may  be  voluntary,  upon  a  sudden 
heat  or  excitement  of  anger;  or  invol- 
untary, but  in  the  commission  of  some 
unlawful  act.  Manslaughter  differs  from 
murder  in  not  proceeding  from  malice 
prepense  or  deliberate,  which  is  essential 
to  constitute  murder.  It  differs  from 
homicide  excusable,  being  done  in  conse- 
quence of  some  unlawful  act,  whereas 
excusable  homicide  happens  in  conse- 
quence of  misadventure. 

MANTELET,  in  fortification,  a  kind 
of  movable  parapet,  or  wooden  penthouse, 
used  iu  a  siege.  Mantelets  are  cased  with 
tin  and  set  on  wheels,  so  as  to  be  driven 
before  the  pioneers,  to  protect  them  from 
the  enemy's  small  shot. 

^MANTLE,  in  architecture,  the  piece 
Ij'iug  horizontally  across  from  one  jamb 
of  a  chimney  to  the  other.  In  mala- 
cology, the  external  fold  of  the  skin  of 
the  moll  asks. 

ilAX'UAL,  was  applied  originally  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  service  book,  from  its 
convenient  size,  (oeing  such  as  might  be 
carried  in  the  hand  ;)  but  it  now  signifies 
any  small  work  used  chiefly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reference.  ' 

MAXL'MIS'SIOX,  among  the  Romans, 
the  solemn  ceremony  by  which  a  slave  i 
was  emancipated,  or  liberated  from  per- 
sonal bondage. 

MANTSCRII'TS,  literally  writings  of 
any  kind,  whether  on  paper  or  any  other 
material,  in  contradistinction  to  such  as 
are  printed.  Books  were  generally  writ- 
ten upon  vellum,  after  the  papyrus  used 
in  classical  times  had  become  obsolete, 
until  the  general  introduction  of  pajier 
made  from  rags,  about  the  1.5th  centurv 
after  Christ;  and  the  finest  and  whitest 
vellum  is  generally  indicative  of  great 
age  in  a  manuscript.  Tiie  dearness  of 
this  material  gave  rise  to  the  practice 
of  using  old  manuscript  books  on  which 
the  writing  had  been  erased,  and  also  to 
that  of  abbreviations.  These  were  carried 
to  excess  in  the  lith  century,  anil  from 
that  time  until  the  invention  of  printing; 
and  for  a  long  period  subsequent  to  that 
invention,  abbreviations  were  still  in  com- 
mon use  :  in  Irreek  printing  they  were 
usual  until  within  the  List  fifty  years. 
Of  Latin  M.?S..  tiiose  prior  to  the  riMgn 
of  Charlemagne  (a.d.  800)  are  consid- 
ered ancient.  Manuscripts  of  the  early 
classical  age  were  written  on  sheets  rolled 
together. — lUuminatcd  niannnrrijily  are 


such  as  are  embellished  with  ornaments, 
drawings,  emblematical  figures,  &c.,  il- 
lustrative of  the  text.  This  practice  waa 
introduced  at  a  very  early  period  ;  for 
we  find  the  works  of  Varro.  Pomponius 
Atticus,  and  others  adorned  by  illumina- 
tions. But  it  was  chiefly  employed  in  the 
breviaries  and  prayer-book  of  the  early 
Christian  church.  The  colors  most  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  were  gold  and 
azure.  Illuminations  were  in  a  high 
state  of  perfection  between  the  5th  and 
10th  centuries;  after  which  they  seemed 
to  have  partaken  of  the  barbarism  of  the 
middle  ages,  which  threw  their  chilling 
influence  over  every  description  of  art. 
On  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries  many  excellent  perform- 
ances were  produced  ;  but  the  art  did  not 
take  deep  root,  and  became  extinct  with 
the  invention  of  printing. 

^lAP,  a  delineation  of  a  country  ac- 
cording to  a  scale,  in  which  the  prop,  r- 
tion,  shape,  and  position  of  places  are 
exactly  preserved.  The  top  is  usually 
the  north,  and  the  right  hand  the  east, 
and,  when  otherwise,  distinguished  by  a 
Jleur  de  lis  pointing  to  the  north.  It  is 
called  a  universal  map  when  it  repre- 
sents the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  or 
the  two  hemispheres;  and  a  particular 
map  when  it  only  represents  particular 
regions  or  countries.  A  map  is  properly 
a  representation  of  land,  as  distinguished 
from  a  chart,  which  only  represents  tli" 
sea  or  sea-coast.  In  maps,  three  thing- 
are  essentially  requisite :  1,  that  all 
places  have  the  same  situation  and  dis- 
tance from  the  great  circles  therein,  as  on 
the  globe,  to  show  their  parallels,  longi- 
tudes, zones,  climates,  and  other  celestial 
appearances;  2,  that  their  magnitudes 
be  proportionable  to  their  real  magnitudes 
on  the  globe  ;  3,  that  all  places  have  the 
same  situation,  bearing  and  distance,  as 
on  the  earth  itself  The  degrees  of 
longitude  are  always  numbered  at  top 
and  bottom,  and  the  degrees  of  latitude 
on  the  east  and  west  sides. 

MAR  ABUTS,  or  MAR'ABOOTS,  in 
Northern  Africa,  among  the  Berbers,  a 
kind  of  saints  or  sorcerers  who  are  held 
in  high  estimation.  They  distribute  amu- 
lets, affect  to  work  miracles,  and  are 
thought  to  exercise  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
They  live  with  a  good  deal  of  pomp,  and 
maintain  a  numerous  train  of  wives  and 
concubines.  They  iiialie  no  pretensions 
to  al)stinence  or  self-denial. 

MARAXA'TIIA,  amongst  the  Jews, 
was  a  form  of  threatening,  cursing,  or 
anathematizing,  anii  was  looked  upon   as 


.3!>2 


CVCI.Ol'F.PIA     OF    LIlKKATLMiE 


[M.. 


the  most  severe  denunciation  thpy  h;i'l. 
The  word  is  said  to  signify  the  Lord  com  es, 
or  is  come :  which  tal<cn  as  a  curse  or 
threat  may  be  thus  paraphrased,  "the 
Lord  come  quickly  to  take  vengeance  on 
thee  for  thy  crimes." 

MARCH,  the  third  month  of  the  year, 
according  to  the  calendar  of  Numa  and 
Julius  Cscsar;  but  in  the  calendar  of 
Romulus  it  stood  first,  in  honor  of  his  re- 
puted father,  Mars.  This  month  seems 
to  has'c  ii  strong  claim  to  the  first  place 
iu  the  series,  because  in  March  the  sun 
enters  into  the  sign  Aries,  which  is  reck- 
oned the  first  sign  of  the  zodiac. — March, 
in  music,  a  military  air,  played  b}' 
inflatile  and  pulsatile  instruments,  to 
regulate  the  steps  and  to  animate  the 
minds  of  soldiers.  The  march,  however, 
has  long  been  adapted  to  every  species  of 
musical  instrument,  and  some  of  the  most 
celebrated  couipositions  of  the  greatest 
masters  are  in  this  style  ;  as  the  March  of 
the  Priests  in  Mozart's  Zauber-flote,  the 
Peasant's  March  in  Weber's  Freischutz, 
and,  above  all,  Beethoven's  Funeral 
Marches.  In  most  Dictionaries  of  musi- 
cal terms,  it  is  trulj^  said  that  a  march 
should  always  be  composed  in  com- 
mon time,  with  an  odd  crotchet  or 
quaver  at  the  beginning.  It  is  usually 
quick  for  ordinary  marching,  and  slow 
for  grand  occasions  ;  but  no  general  rules 
can  be  laid  down  for  its  composition. 
— March  of  the  Deities. — The  ancients, 
in  all  their  representations  of  the  super- 
human powers,  and  even  of  heroic  men 
or  demigods,  paid  great  attention  to  their 
step  or  gait.  They  held  a  grave,  steady, 
and  at  the  same  time  light  step  to  be  in- 
dicative of  dignity  and  even  of  a  spiritual 
nature.  Occasionally,  as  on  a  medal  of 
Antoninus  representing  the  advance  of 
Mars  to  Sylvia,  the  figure  appears  rather 
to  glide  over  the  surface  of  the  earth 
than  to  tread  upon  it.  The  Belvidere 
Apollo  has  a  similar  character  of  step  or 
walk.  The  foot  of  the  deity  scarcely 
l)rcsses  the  ground. 

MARCHES,  borders  orconfiiies,  partic- 
ularly the  boundaries  between  England 
iinil  Wales.  The  office  of  "  lords  marchers" 
was  originally  to  guard  the  frontiers. 

.MARCO'StANS,  n  sect  of  Christian 
lieretics  in  the  second  century,  so  called 
from  their  leader  Marcu«,  who  represent- 
ed the  I)city  as  consisting  not  of  a 
trinity,  but  a  quaternitv,  rfr.  the  Tneffa-  I 
ble.  Silence,  the  Father^  and  Truth.  j 

MAR'OrN,  in  printing,  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  j)ages  in  a  sheet  at  proper  j 
distances  from  each  other,   according  to  | 


the  size  of  the  paper;  so  that  when  the 
sheet  is  printed  and  folded,  the  border  of 
white  paper  round  them  shall  be  regular 
and  uniform  in  every  leaf  of  the  book. 
In  architecture,  that  jiart  of  the  upjier 
side  of  a  course  of  slates  which  appears 
uncovered  by  the  next  superior  course. 

MAR'GRAVE,  or,  more  properlv, 
MARKCRAVE,  a  title  of  rank  formerly 
used  in  Germany,  and  equivalent  to  the 
English  marquis.  Both  words  spring 
from  a  common  origin. 

MARI'A  THERE'SA,  ORDER  OF,  a 
military  order  of  Austria,  ccmsisting  of 
grand  ero.-:sos.  commanders,  and  knights; 
founded  in  \~'u. 

MAKIN  ES',  a  corps  of  men  enlisted  to 
serve  as  soldiers  on  board  of  ships-of-war 
in  naval  engagements,  and  on  shore  un- 
der certain  circumstances.  They  some- 
times assist,  particularly  in  the  British 
service,  in  performing  some  naval  duties 
on  board  of  ship. 

MAR'ITIME  LAAV,  signifies  the  laws 
relating  to  harbors,  ships,  and  sailors. 
It  forms  an  important  branch  of  the  com- 
mercial law  of  all  trading  nations,  and 
embraces  an  infinite  variety  of  subjects, 
most  of  which  have  been  defined  under 
their  respective  heads.  The  most  cele- 
brated codes  of  maritime  law  have  been, 
in  classical  times,  that  of  Rhodes ;  in 
modern  times,  the  Consolato  del  3Iarc,  a 
compilation  supposed  to  have  been  framed 
at  Barcelona  as  early  as  the  9th  century  ; 
the  laws  of  the  Isle  of  Oleron,  in  the  time 
of  Richard  I.  of  England ;  the  laws  of 
Wisby,  in  the  island  of  (Sothland,  to 
which  some  northern  Jurists  have  assigned 
an  earlier  origin  than  the  laws  of  Oleron. 
but  which  there  can  be  little  doubt  were 
n.erely  a  comiiilation  from  those  above 
specified.  ]')Ut  by  far  the  most  comiik'te 
and  well-digested  system  of  mariliiuc 
jurisprudence  that  lias  over  appeared  is 
that  comprised  in  the  Ordonnaiice  de  la 
Marine,  issued  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1681, 
by  which  maritime  law  was  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  a  regular  system,  and  has 
formed  the  basis  of  many  of  the  subse- 
quent decisions  of  American,  English, 
and  foreign  courts.  This  e.xcoUont  code 
was  compiled  under  the  direction  of 
M.  Colbert,  by  individuals  of  groat  talent 
and  learning,  after  a  careful  revision  of 
all  the  ancient  sea  laws  of  Franco  and 
other  countries,  and  upon  consultation 
with  the  different  parliaments,  the  cmirts 
of  admiralty,  anil  the  chambers  of  com- 
merce of  the  different  towns.  It,  com- 
bines whatever  exjierience  and  the  wisdom 
of  ages  had  shown  to  bo  best  in  the  Roman 


m.vr] 


AND    TUB    FINE    AIMS. 


303 


laws,  and  in  the  institutions  of  the  modern 
maritime  slates  of  Europe. 

MARK,  or  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  ii 
canonical  boolt  of  the  New  Testament, 
the  second  in  order.  8t.  Marli  wrote  his 
gospel  at  Rome,  where  lie  accompanied 
St.  Peter,  in  the  year  of  Christ  44.  Ter- 
tuUian,  and  others,  pretend  that  St.  Mark 
was  no  more  than  an  amanuensis  to  St. 
Peter,  who  dictated  this  gospel  to  him; 
others  assert  that  he  wrote  it  after  St. 
Peter's  death.  Nor  are  the  learned  less 
divided  iis  to  the  language  this  gospel 
was  written  in;  some  affirming  it  to 
have  been  in  Greek,  and  others  in  Latin. 
It  however  seems  plainly  intended  for 
Christian  converts  from  paganism,  and 
is  distinguished  from  the  other  evangeli- 
cal writings  by  its  brevity,  passing  over 
much  that  relates  to  the  character  of 
Chris',  as  Messiah. 

MAROONS',  the  name  given  to  re- 
volted negroes  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
in  some  parts  of  South  America.  In 
many  cases,  by  taking  to  the  forests  and 
mountains,  they  have  rendered  them- 
selves formidable  to  the  colonies,  and 
sustained  a  long  and  brave  resistance  to 
the  white  population. 

MARQUE,  letter  of,  a  power  granted 
by  a  state  to  its  subjects,  to  make  re- 
prisals on  the  subjects  of  a  state  with 
whom  it  is  at  war. 

MAR'QUETRY,  in  architecture,  inlaid 
work  consisting  of  different  pieces  of 
divers  colored  woods  of  small  thickness 
glued  on  to  a  ground  usually  of  oak  or 
fir,  well  dried  and  seasoned,  which,  to 
prevent  casting  and  warping,  is  composed 
of  several  thicknesses.  The  early  Italian 
builders  used  it  in  cabinet  work,  and  John 
of  Vienna,  and  others  of  his  period,  by  its 
means  represented  figures  and  land- 
scapes ;  but  in  the  present  day  it  is 
chiefly  confined  in  its  use  to  floors,  in 
which  the  various  pieces  of  wood  are 
usually  disposed  in  regular  geometrical 
figures,  and  are  rarely  of  more  than 
three  or  four  specie.^. 

MAR'QUIS,  or  MAR'QUESS,  a  title 
of  honor,  next  in  dignity  to  that  of  duke, 
first  given  to  those  who  commanded  the 
marches,  or  borders  and  frontiers  of  a 
kingdom.  Marquises  were  not  known 
in  England  till  Richard  II.  in  the  year 
1337,  created  Robert  de  Vere  marquis  of 
Dublin.  The  marquis's  coronet  is  a  cir- 
cle of  gold  set  round  with  four  strawberry 
leaves,  and  as  many  pearls  on  pyramidal 
points  of  equal  height  alternate. 
,  MAR'RIAGE,  the  act  of  uniting  a  man 
and  woman  for  life ;  wedlock  ;  the  state 


or  condition  of  being  married ;  the  legal 
union  of  a  man  and  woman  for  life. 
Marriage  is  regarded  by  the  law  as  a 
civil  contract  binding  the  parties  to  cur- 
tain reciprocal  obligations,  and  the  gen- 
eral principle  of  law  respecting  this,  ms 
well  as  other  civil  contracts,  is,  that  it  is 
to  be  held  valid  according  to  the  usage 
of  the  country  wherein  it  is  made.  Al- 
though among  protestants  marriage  has 
ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a  sacrament,  yet 
in  most  protestant  countries  the  entrance 
into  the  married  state  has  continued  to 
be  accompanied  with  religious  observ- 
ances. These  are  not,  however,  in  the 
eye  of  the  law,  essential  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  a  valid  marriage,  any  fu.  ther 
than  the  legislative  power  may  nave 
seen  it  proper  to  annex  them  to  and  in- 
corporate them  with  the  civil  contract. 
The  laws  concerning  marriage  are  difi'er- 
ent,  in  the  separate  states  of  the  Union. 
By  the  laws  of  most  of  the  states,  as  well 
as  that  of  Scotland,  a  marriage  is  valid, 
when  contracted  by  any  form  of  ceremony 
without  the  proclamation  of  banns,  or  the 
aid  of  a  clergyman, 'provided  the  parties 
on  the  occasion  express  a  solemn  accept- 
ance of  each  other  as  man  and  wife.  It 
is  also  contracted  by  the  writing  of  the 
parties  without  any  ceremony,  provided 
the  writing  express  their  acceptance  of 
each  other  as  man  and  wife.  Also  by  a 
verbal  acceptance  of  each  other  as  man 
and  wife  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  or 
by  a  promise  followed  by  intercourse. 

MARSEILLAISE  HYMN,  the  name 
popularly,  though  erroneously,  given  to 
the  national  anthem  of  the  French.  The 
origin  of  this  song,  which  has  pla3'ed  so 
important  a  part  in  the  revolutions  not 
only  of  France  but  other  continental 
states,  was  long  involved  in  obscurity ; 
but  the  following  statement  respecting 
it  may  be  relied  on  as  authentic :  The 
Marseillaise  Hymn  was  the  production 
of  Rouget  de  Lille,  a  French  officer  of  en- 
gineers, who  was  quartered  at  Strasburg 
in  the  year  1791,  when  Miirshal  Luckner 
commanded  the  army,  at  that  time  en- 
tirely composed  of  young  conscripts. 
The  marshal  was  to  march  the  following 
morning  of  a  certain  day ;  and,  late  in 
the  evening  previous,  he  inquired  if  there 
were  any  men  of  a  musical  or  poetical 
genius  in  the  army  who  could  compose  a 
song  to  animate  his  young  soldiers. 
Some  one  mentioned  Captain  Rouget  de 
Lille,  who  was  immediately  ordered  into 
the  presence  of  the  marshal  to  receive 
his  commands  on  the  subject ;  which 
having  been  given,  and  a  promise  made 


394 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[mar 


by  De  Lille  that  a  song  would  be  ready 
the  following  morning,  he  went  to  his 
quarters,  and  during  the  night  he  not 
only  wrote  the  song  in  question,  but  also 
fet  it  to  music;  and  next  morning  the 
army  marched  to  its  tune,  and  carried 
everything  before  it  with  an  enthusiasm 
only  to  be  equalled  by  absolute  phrensy. 
The  song  is  said  to  have  been  styled  the 
Marseillaise  llijmn  from  <a  body  of  troops, 
on  their  march  from  ^Marseilles,  having 
entered  Paris  playing  that  tune  at  a  time 
when  it  was  little  known  in  the  capital. 
The  original  of  the  Marseillaise  is  said 
to  be  in  the  possession  of  Louis  Philippe. 

MAKS,  or  MA'VOllS,  the  Latin 
names  of  the  deity  called  by  the  Greeks 
Ares.  He  was  fabled  to  be  the  son  of 
Juno,  conceived  by  means  of  the  virtue 
of  a  certain  plant;  and  was  worshipped 
as  the  God  of  War.  At  Rome  he  was 
honored  as  the  progenitor  of  Romulus, 
the  founder  of  the  city,  of  which  he  was 
held  to  be  the  protector;  and  it  was  to 
the  honor  of  this  divinity  that  the  Latin 
husbandmen  used  to  otfer  up  a  peculiar 
sacrifice,  called  suovetaurilia,  which,  as 
the  derivation  of  the  word  implies,  con- 
sisted of  a  pig,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull. 

MAR'SIIAL,  a  title  of  honor  in  many 
European  countries,  applied  to  various 
dignities  and  high  offices.  The  deriva- 
tion of  the  word,  and  its  early  use,  are 
extremely  uncertain.  The  title  of  Mar- 
shal of  England  is  now  hereditary  in  the 
family  of  the  Dukes  of  Norfolk.  William 
Fitz-Osborn  and  Roger  de  Montgomery 
arc  said  to  have  been  marshals  to  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror.  The  earl  marshal 
is  eighth  in  rank  among  the  great  officers 
of  state  in  England.  Ho  has  the  same 
jurisdiction  over  the  court  of  chivalry 
which  was  formerly  exercised  by  the  con- 
stable and  marshal  jointly.  Marshal  of 
France  is  the  highest  military  rank  in 
the  French  army  This  officer  appears 
first  in  history  under  the  reign  of  Philip 
Augustus,  as  coinra.nnder-in-chief  of  the 
royal  armies.  The  number  of  marshals 
was  increased  by  several  successive  sove- 
reigns :  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV'.  the 
states  of  Blois  limited  it  to  four,  but  this 
restriction  was  not  observed  ;  and,  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  there  were  at  one 
period  no  less  than  twenty.  After  the 
deposition  of  Louis  XVL  the  dignity  of 
marshal  ceased;  but  was  revived  by  Na- 
poleon, with  the  title  of  Marshal  of  the 
Empire. 

MARTEL'LO  TOWERS,  the  name 
given  to  the  circular  buildings  of  mason- 
ry  which   wore    erected   along   dififcrcnt 


parts  of  the  British  coasts  at  ;he  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century,  in- 
tended as  a  defence  against  the  meditated 
invasion  of  Napoleon.  The  origin  of  the 
name  is  usually  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  a  fort  in  Mortella  (Myrtle)  Bay, 
Corsica,  which,  after  a  determined  resist- 
ance, was  at  last  captured  by  the  British 
in  1794.  These  towers  were  {resided 
with  vaulted  roofs,  and  consisted  of  two 
stories — the  lower  for  the  reception  of 
stores,  the  upper,  which  was  shell-proof, 
for  the  easement  of  troops  ;  and  the  wall 
of  the  building  terminated  in  a  parapet, 
which  secured  the  men  in  working  the 
pieces  of  artillery,  which,  besides,  were 
constructed  on  moving  pivots,  so  as  to  be 
fired  in  any  direction.  In  most  places  of 
England  these  towers  have  been  dis- 
mantled; those  that  remain  either  serve 
as  stations  for  the  coast  blockade  force, 
or,  like  that  near  Leith,  are  not  employed 
for  any  purpose. 

MARTINET',  a  cant  phrase  for  a  se- 
vere military  disciplinarian  :  probably 
derived  from  a  certain  Colonel  Martinet, 
who  served  in  the  French  ariiiy  under 
Louis  XIV  ,  who  wns  the  inventor  of  a 
peculiar  whip,  culled  by  his  name,  for  the 
purpose  of  military  punishment,  and  also 
(if  Voltaire  may  be  believed)  of  the 
bayonet. 

MAR'TYR,  any  innocent  person  who 
suffers  death  in  defence  of  a  cause,  rather 
than  abandon  it.  In  the  Christian  sense 
of  the  word,  it  is  one  who  lays  down  his 
life  for  the  gospel,  or  suffers  death  for  the 
sake  of  his  religion.  The  Christian  church 
has  abounded  in  martyrs,  and  history  is 
filled  with  surprising  accounts  of  their 
singular  constancy  and  fortitude  under 
the  most  cruel  torments  human  nature 
was  capable  of  suffering.  The  primitive 
Christians  believed  that  the  martyrs  en- 
joyed very  singular  privileges  :  that 
upon  their  death  they  were  immediately 
admitted  to  the  beatific  vision,  while  other 
souls  waited  for  the  completion  of  their 
happiness  till  the  day  of  judgment;  and 
that  God  would  grant  chiefly  to  their 
prnyers  the  h;istening  of  his  king'lom, 
and  shortening  the  times  of  persecution. 
The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are  of  very 
ancient  date,  and  may  be  carried  back  at 
least  till  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  about  the  year  of 
Christ  UiS.  On  these  days  the  Christians 
met  at  the  graves  of  the  martyrs,  and 
offered  prayers  and  thanksgivings  to 
God  for  the  exam|ilos  they  had  alforded 
them  ;  tlicy  celebrated  the  eucharist,  and» 
gave  alms  to  the  poor ;  which,  together 


mas] 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


395 


with  a  panegyrical  oration  or  sermon, 
aud  reading  the  acts  of  the  martyrs, 
were  the  spiritual  exercises  of  these  an- 
niversaries. 

MARTYROL'OGY,  a  catalogue  or  list 
of  martyrs,  including  the  history  of  their 
lives  and  sufferings. 

MA'aOXS,  or  Free  and  Accepted 
Masons,  a  terra  applied  to  a  fraternity 
of  great  antiquity,  and  so  called  probably 
because  the  first  founders  of  that  society 
were  persons  of  that  craft  or  occupation. 
It  is  generally  understood  that  they  are 
bound  by  an  oath  of  secresy  not  to  reveal 
anything  that  passes  within  the  society, 
and  the  members  throughout  the  whole 
world  are  known  to  each  other  by  certain 
secret  signs. 

MAS'URA,  a  Hebrew  work  on  the 
bible,  by  several  Rabbins.  It  is  a  collec- 
tion of  remarks,  critical,  grammatical, 
and  excgetieal,  on  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  by  the  Jewish  doctors  of  the 
third  and  succeeding  centuries.  It  is  di- 
vided into  the  great  and  little  ;  the  for- 
mer contains  the  whole  collection  in  sepa- 
rate books;  the  little  is  an  extract  from 
the  observations  which  were  written  in 
the  margins  of  the  biblical  manuscripts. 

MASQUE,  or  MASK,  a  species  of 
drama.  It  originated  from  the  custom  in 
processions,  and  other  solemn  occasions, 
of  introducing  personages  in  masks  to  rep- 
resent imaginary  characters.  Many  of 
these  characters,  even  in  the  religious 
shows  of  Italy,  &c  ,  were  of  a  grotesque 
description,  and  the  performance  often 
intermixed  with  dancing  and  buffoonery. 
By  degrees,  in  England,  something  of 
a  dramatic  character  was  added  to  these 
exhibitions.  At  first,  as  in  the  well- 
known  progresses  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
monologues  or  dialogues  in  verse  were 
put  into  the  mouths  of  the  masked  per- 
formers ;  and  in  the  reign  of  James  I., 
they  had  ripened  into  regular  dramat- 
ic performances  ;  sometimes,  as  in  the 
Tempest  of  Shakspeare,  introduced  by 
way  of  interlude  in  regular  plays;  at 
other  times  acted  as  separate  pieces, 
v/ith  much  machinery  and  decoration. 
Ben  Jonson  was  the  first,  and  indeed 
aluif)st  the  only  classic.il  English  writer 
(with  the  exception  of  Milton,  in  the  soli- 
tary and  noble  specimen  of  Comus)  who 
devoted  much  labor  and  taste  to  this 
department  of  the  drama.  His  mas(jues 
were  represented  at  court ;  the  Queen  of 
James  I.,  and  after  her  the  accomplished 
Queen  Henrietta  ISIaria,  did  not  disdain 
to  take  part,  at  least  as  silent  dramatis 
persona;,  in  some  of  these  pageants.    The 


taste  for  them  died  away  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  and  after  the  interruption 
given  to  the  progress  of  dramatic  art  and 
literature  by  the  civil  wars,  they  were 
not  again  brought  into  fashion. 

MASQUERADE',  (Ital.  mascherata,) 
an  amusement  practised  in  almost  every 
civilized  country  of  modern  times,  con- 
sisting of  a  ball  and  other  festivities  in 
which  only  those  who  are  masked  or  di.-- 
guised  can  participate.  This  species  of 
amusement  had  its  origin  in  Italy,  where, 
according  to  Mali's  Chronicle,  they  had 
become  fashionable  so  early  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century. 

MASS,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  the 
prayers  and  ceremonies  used  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist;  or,  in  other 
words,  consecrating  the  bre?d  and  wine 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  (.nrist,  and 
offering  them  so  transubstantiated,  as  an 
expiatory  sacrifice  for  the  quick  and  the 
dead.  As  the  mass  is  believed  to  be  a 
representation  of  the  passion  of  our 
blessed  Saviour,  so  every  action  of  the 
priest,  and  every  particular  part  of  the 
service,  is  supposed  to  allude  to  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  his  passion  and 
death.  It  consists  of  three  parts :  the 
offertorium,  or  offering  the  elements  on 
the  altar ;  the  consecration,  by  which 
they  are  supposed  to  undergo  the  tran- 
substantiation  into  the  real  body  and 
blood  of  Christ;  and  the  sumption,  or 
actual  participation  in  them  by  the  com- 
municants. These  ceremonies  are  ac- 
companied by  the  recitation  of  various 
prayers ;  and  the  priest  goes  through 
numerous  evolutions,  which  are  supposed 
to  represent  the  circumstances  attending 
the  passion  of  our  Lord.  The  general 
division  of  masses  consists  in  high  and 
low  ;  high  viass  is  sung  by  the  choristers, 
and  celebrated  with  the  assistance  of  a 
deacon  and  sub-deacon  ;  loio  masses  are 
those  in  which  the  prayers  are  barely  re- 
hearsed without  singing.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  different  or  occasional 
masses  in  the  Romish  church,  many  of 
which  have  nothing  peculiar  but  the 
name  :  as  the  masses  of  the  saints,  &c. 

MAS'SIVE,  in  architecture,  sculpture, 
<tc  ,  heavy,  full,  solid.  This  term  is  one 
of  commendation,  or  otherwise,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  work  respecting 
which  it  is  used.  Thus  in  speaking  of 
an  abutment,  a.  wall,  the  pier  of  a  bridge, 
&c..  the  architect  is  complimented  by  the 
application  of  this  term  ;  whereas,  the 
precise  contrary  is  generally  the  case, 
when  it  is  employed  in  speaking  of  a 
portico,  an  arch,  column,  or  a  roof- 


396 


CVCLOrKDIA     OK     I.l  1  KKATf  KK 


[mac 


MASTER,  a  man  who  rules,  governs, 
or  directs  either  men  or  business.  A  man 
who  has  servants  is  their  inasler ;  he  who 
has  apprentices  is  their  master,  as  he  has 
the  government  and  direction  of  them. — 
In  commercial  7iarii^atlun,  ttie  person 
intrusted  with  the  care  and  navigation 
of  a  ship;  otherwise  called  captain. — In 
ships  of  irar,  an  officer  who  takes  rank 
immediately  after  the  lieutenants,  and 
navigates  the  .ship  under  the  direction  of 
the  captain. — The  director  of  a  .=chool ;  a 
teacher;  and  instructo'r.  In  this  sense 
the  word  is  giving  place  to  the  more  ap- 
propriate words,  teacher,  instructor,  and 
preceptor. — A  title  of  dignit.y  or  a  degree 
in  colleges  and  universities ;  as,  Master 
of  Arts.  In  the  American  and  English 
universities  this  degree  follows  that  of 
Bachelor ;  it  is  the  highest  in  the  faculty 
of  arts,  but  subordinate  to  that  of  doctor 
of  divinity. — Tn  all  t/ie  arts.  A  professor 
of  either  of  the  fine  arts,  who  gives  lec- 
tures thereon  to  students.  In  another, 
and  more  general  sense,  any  distinguish- 
ed practiser  of  art,  whose  works  are 
sufficiently  excellent  to  have  attained 
liim  an  undying  reputation,  and  to  ren- 
der his  performances  referred  to  as  mo- 
dels for  style  and  execution  by  the  young 
.artist.  Without  the  existence  of  the 
works  of  the  great  masters,  the  arts 
would  still  be  in  their  infancy. 

MA'STER-SING'ERS,  a  class  of  poets 
who  flourished  in  Germany  during  the 
1.5th  and  part  of  the  16th  century.  They 
were  confined  to  a  few  imperial  towns, 
and  their  chief  seat  was  the  city  of  Nu- 
remberg. They  were  generally  of  burg- 
her extraction  ;  and  formtsd  regular  cor- 
porations, into  which  j)roficients  were 
admitted  by  the  ordinary  course  of  ap- 
prenticeship. Their  poetry  (generally 
confined  to  devotional  or  scriptural  pieces, 
legendary  tales,  with  some  admixture  of 
satire  and  amatory  lyrics)  was  subjected 
to  a  peculiar  and  pedantic  code  of  laws, 
both  composition  and  versification;  and 
a  board  of  judges  (styled  morker)  assem- 
bled to  hear  the  jioerns  recited,  and  mark 
the  faults  wlii<h  might  be  committed  in 
either  particular  :  he  who  had  the  fewest 
faults  received  the  prize.  Hans  Sachs, 
the  famous  cobbler  of  Nuremberg,  was  a 
member  of  these  societies ;  althi>ugh  his 
genius  was  of  too  independent  a  charac- 
ter to  submit  to  the  trammels  of  their 
poetical  regulations. 

MAT'ADUU,  in  Spanish  bull-fights, 
the  name  given  to  the  person  who  gives 
the  death  wound  to  the  bull.  .After  the 
bandcriUqros  have  goadeil  the  animal  to 


madness  by  fastening  squibs  upon  him 
and  discharging  them,  the  matador  (el 
matador,  the  killer,)  advances  with  a 
naked  sword  and  aims  a  fatal  blow  at 
him.  If  this  is  etfectual,  the  slaughtered 
animal  is  dragged  away  and  another  is 
brought  frrward. 

MATERIALISM,  the  doctrine  held 
by  those  who  maintain  that  the  sou!  t'f 
man  is  not  a  spiritual  substance  distinct 
from  matter,  but  that  it  is  the  result  or 
effect  of  the  organization  of  matter  in  tho 
body.  This  tlieorv,  however,  does  not 
explain  how  matter  can  think,  and  hov.' 
physical  motion  can  produce  mental 
changes,  which  we  do  not  observe  in  sc 
many  organic  beings.  In  decided  oppo- 
sition to  materialism,  is  our  consciousness 
of  the  identity  and  liberty  of  man,  which 
would  be  annihilated  by  it,  because  mat- 
ter is  governed  by  the  necessity  of  nature, 
and  free  will  therefore  excluded. 

MATINS,  the  first  part  of  the  daily 
service,  particularly  in  the  Romish 
church. 

MATRA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  a  Roman 
festival  celebrated  by  the  matrons,  in 
honor  of  the  goddess  !Mater  Matula,  on 
the  third  of  the  ides  of  June. 

MATRICULATE,  to  enter  or  admit 
to  membership  in  a  body  or  society,  par- 
ticularly in  a  college  or  university,  by 
enrolling  the  name  in  a  register. 

MATRONA'LIA,  a  Roman  festival 
instituted  by  Romulus,  and  celebrated  on 
the  calends  of  March,  in  honor  of  Mars. 
It  was  ke])t  by  matrons,  to  whom  pres- 
ents were  made  by  the  men,  as  by  hus- 
bands to  their  wives,  itc.  IJachelors  were 
entirely  excluded  from  any  share  in  the 
solemnity. 

MAT"! HEW,  or  aospel  of  5^  Mat- 
their,  a  canonical  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. St.  Matthew  wrote  his  gospel  in 
Judea,  at  the  request  of  those  he  had 
converted,  and  it  is  thought  he  began  it 
in  the  year  41,  eight  years  after  Christ's 
resurrection.  It  was  written,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  all  the  ancients,  in 
the  Hebrew  or  Syriac  language,  which 
was  then  common  in  Juilen  :  bat  tho 
Greek  version  of  it,  which  now  passes  for 
tho  original,  is  ns  old  as  the  apostolical 
times.  St.  Matthew's  view  in  writing  hia 
gospel,  was  chiefly  to  show  the  ro3'al  de- 
scent of  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  represent 
his  life  am]  conversation  among  men. 

MAUN'DAY  THURSDAY,  the  Thurs- 
day in  passion-week,  or  next  before  Gooit 
Friday.  The  word  is  s\i)iposod  by  somo 
to  bo  derived  from  the  Saxon  mand,  a 
basket ;  because  on  that  day  princes  used 


meaJ 


ANU    TIIK    FINK    AKTS. 


397 


to  givo  alms  to  the  poor  from  their  bas- 
ket?. Ofliers  think  it  was  cmIIcI  Mauii- 
daij  or  'Mamhitt  Thursday,  IVoin  the  dits 
mandati,  (the  day  of  coiiiiiiand.)  the  com- 
mand which  Christ  gave  his  disciples  to 
commemorate  him  in  the  Lord's  supper, 
which  he  this  day  instituted  ;  or  from  the 
new  commandment  that  he  gave  them  to 
love  one  another,  after  he  had  washed 
their  feet  as  a  token  of  his  love  to  them. 

MAUR,  SAINT,  CONGREGATION 
OF,  a  learned  body  of  religious  of  the 
Benedictine  order  ;  so  called  from  a  vil- 
lage near  Paris,  where  they  were  estab- 
lished in  1618.  On  the  request  of  Louis 
XIII.,  Gregory  XV.  gave  this  order  his 
approval  by  au  apostolic  brief,  dated  17th 
of  May,  1621  ;  and  it  obtained  new  priv- 
ileges from  Urban  VIII.,  by  a  bull  dated 
21st  of  January,  1627.  The  fame  of  this 
body  attracted  the  attention  of  many 
other  religious  orders,  several  of  which 
■were  induced  to  submit  to  its  rules  ;  and 
at  last  it  numbered  upwards  of  a  hundred 
religious  houses.  The  literary  world  owes 
to  them  a  series  of  very  valuable  eilitions 
of  ancient  Greek  authors,  chiefly  fathers, 
during  the  17th  century.  Among  the 
most  eminent  of  its  members  during  that 
period  may  be  mentioned  Jean  Mabillon, 
Thierri  Kuinart,  Hugh  ^Menard,  and  Ber- 
nard de  Montfaucon,  lic.  &c.  (.See  Mo- 
sheim,  Eccl.  Hist.,  vol.  v.) 

MAUSOLE'UM,  a  general  designation 
of  any  superb  and  magnificent  monument 
of  the  dead,  adorned  with  rich  sculpture, 
and  inscribed  with  an  epitaph.  In  a 
more  confined  acceptation  it  signifies  the 
pompous  monument  in  honor  of  some  em- 
peror, prince,  or  very  illustrious  person- 
age ;  but  it  properly  and  literally  signi- 
fies that  particular  monument  built  by 
Artemisia,  to  the  memory  of  her  husband 
Mausolus,  king  of  Caria,  whence  it  de- 
rives its  name.  This  monument  was  so 
superb  that  it  was  reckoned  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world. 

MAX'IM,  an  established  proposition 
or  principle  ;  in  which  sense,  according  to 
popular  usage,  it  denotes  nearly  the  same 
as  axiom  in  philosophy  and  mathematics. 
Maxims  are  self-evident  propositions, 
and  the  principles  of  all  science  ;  for  on 
these,  and  definitions,  all  demonstrative 
knowledge  depends — In  music,  the  long- 
est note  formerly  used,  equal  to  two  longs, 
or  four  breves. 

MAY,  the  fifth  month  of  our  year,  but 
the  third  of  the  Roman.  The  name  is 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  Maia,  the 
mother  of  Mercury,  to  whom  the  Roman.s 
oflFered  sacrifices  on  the  first  day  of  the 


month  ;  bat  various  other  derivations 
have  been  assigned  to  it. —  See  Calendar. 

MAY-DAY.  The  1st  of  May  is  usually 
so  called  in  England,  by  waj'  of  eminence, 
in  commemoration  of  the  festivities  which 
from  a  very  early  jieriod  were  till  recent- 
ly, and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  are 
still  observed  on  that  day.  It  would  be 
out  of  place  in  this  work  to  give  any  de- 
tailed account  of  them,  as  they  are  uni- 
versally known  ;  but  a  few  words  as  to 
their  origin  may  not  be  out  of  place.  In 
looking  at  the  nature  of  these  rites,  which 
are,  to  a  certain  extent,  common  to  every 
place  in  which  they  are  observed,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  they  had  their  origin  in  the  hea- 
then observances  practised  in  honor  of  the 
Latin  goddess  Flora;  but  it  is  impossible 
to  fix  with  accuracy  the  precise  period  at 
which  they  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land. The  earliest  notice  of  the  celebra- 
tion of  May-day  may  be  traced  to  the  Dru- 
ids, who  on  May-eve  were  accustomed  to 
light  large  fires  on  eminences  in  gratitude 
and  joy  for  the  return  of  Spring.  At  a 
later  period  the  observance  of  this  day 
appears  not  to  have  been  peculiar  to  any 
class  of  society,  for  the  most  e.xalted  as 
well  as  the  lowest  persons  took  part  in  it. 
In  his  Court  of  Love  Chaucer  says,  that 
on  this  day  "forth  goeth  all  the  Court, 
most  and  least,  to  fetch  the  flowers  fresh, 
and  braunch  and  bloom  ;"  and  it  is  well 
known  that  Henry  VIII.  and  Katherine, 
and  all  the  court  partook  in  their  diver- 
sion. The  custom  has  been  but  partially 
introduced  into  the  United  States. 

MAY'HEM,  in  law,  awound  or  hurt,  by 
which  a  man  loses  the  use  of  any  member. 
It  originally  applied  to  such  corporeal 
injuries  as  rendered  a  man  less  fit  for  war. 

MAYOR,  (Lat.  major,  meaning  the 
first  or  senior  alderman.)  the  title  of 
the  chief  municipal  officer  of  a  borough, 
to  whom  it  appears  to  have  been  first 
given  by  charters  granted  some  time 
after  the  conquest.  In  France,  the  first 
municipal  oflicer  of  each  commune,  ac- 
cording to  a  general  system  established 
by  the  law  of  14th  December,  1789,  which 
created  municipalities.  The  maire  has 
one  or  more  adjuncts  or  assessors,  accord- 
ing to  the  population  of  the  commune, 
chosen  in  the  same  manner. 

MEASURE,  in  music,  the  interval  or 
space  of  time  between  raising  and  de- 
pressing the  hand  in  a  movement ;  being 
the  same  as  bar.  The  measure  is  regula- 
ted according  to  the  different  values  of  the 
notes  of  a  piece,  by  which  the  time  as- 
signed to  each  note  is  expressed.  Semi- 
breves,  for  instance,  occupy  one  rise  and 


398 


CVCLOl'F.DlA     OF     LITKRATLRR 


MED 


one  fall,  called  a  whole  measure.  In 
■poetry  the  measure  or  metre  is  the  man- 
ner of  ordering  and  combining  the  quiin- 
tities,  or  the  long  and  short  syllables. 
Thus  he.\ametcr,  pentameter,  iambic, 
Sapphic  verses,  Ac  ,  consist  of  different 
measur  es. — In  dancing,  the  interval  be- 
tween steps,  corresponding  to  the  interval 
between  notes  in  the  music. 

MED'AL,  a  piece  of  metal  in  the  form 
of  a  coin,  intending  to  convey  to  posterity 
the  portrait  of  some  great  person,  or  the 
memory  of  some  illustrious  action.  The 
parts  of  a  medal  are  the  two  sides,  one 
of  which  is  called  the  face  or  head,  and 
the  other  the  reverse.  On  each  side  is 
the  area,  or  field,  which  makes  the  middle 
of  the  medal;  the  rim,  or  border;  and 
the  exergue,  or  plain  circular  space  just 
within  the  edge  :  and  on  the  two  sides 
are  distinguished  the  type,  or  the  figure 
represented,  and  the  legetid,  or  inscrip- 
tion. Egyptian  medals  are  the  most 
ancient ;  but  the  Grecian  medals  far  excel 
all  others  in  design,  attitude,  strength, 
and  delicacy.  Those  of  the  Romans  are 
beautiful,  the  engraving  fine,  the  inven- 
tion simple,  and  the  taste  exquisite. 
They  are  distinguished  into  consular  and 
imperial ;  the  consular  medals  are  the 
most  ancient,  though  the  copper  and  silver 
ones  do  not  go  farther  back  than  the 
484th  year  of  Rome,  and  those  of  gold 
no  farther  than  the  year  54(5.  Among 
the  imperial  medals,  a  distinction  is  made 
between  those  of  the  upper  and  lower  em- 
pire. The  first  commenced  under  Julius 
Caesar,  and  continued  till  a.d.  260  :  the 
lower  empire  includes  a  space  of  nearly 
1200  years,  and  ends  with  the  taking 
of  Constantinople.  The  use  of  medals  is 
very  considerable  :  they  often  throw  great 
light  on  history,  in  confirming  such  pas- 
sages as  are  true  in  old  authors,  in 
reconciling  such  as  are  variously  narra- 
ted, and  in  recording  such  as  have  been 
omitted.  In  this  case  a  cabinet  of  medals 
may  be  said  to  be  a  body  of  history.  It 
was,  indeed,  an  excellent  way  to  perpetu- 
ate the  memory  of  great  actions,  thus  to 
coin  out  the  life  of  an  emperor,  and  to 
put  every  exploit  into  the  mint — a  kind 
of  printing  before  the  art  was  invented. 
Nor  are  medals  of  less  use  in  architec- 
ture, painting,  jioetry,  Ac.  ;  for  a  cabinet 
of  medals  is  a  collection  of  pictures  in 
mini.iture,  and  by  them  tlie  plans  of 
many  of  the  most  considerable  buildings 
of  anliquitv  are  preserved. 

MEDAL'LIONS,  are  medals  of  a 
larger  size,  and  supposed  to  have  been 
struck  by  the  different  emperors  for  their 


friends,  or  for  foreign  princes  and  ambas- 
sadors. That  the  smallness  of  the  niun- 
ber  of  these,  however,  might  not  put  to 
hazard  the  loss  of  the  devices  they  bore, 
the  Romans  generally  rook  care  to  stamp 
the  subjects  of  them  upon  their  ordinary 
coins.  Medallions,  in  respect  to  othet 
coins,  resembled  what  modern  medals, 
properly  so  speaking,  are  in  respect  to 
money,  having  had  no  current  value,  but 
merely  an  arbitrary  one. 

ME'DIANT,  in  music,  the  chord  which 
is  a  major  or  minor  third  higher  than  the 
key  note,  according  as  the  mode  is  major 
or  minor. 

ME'DIATIZA'TION,  the  annexation 
of  the  smaller  German  sovereignties  to 
larger  contiguous  states,  which  took  place, 
on  a  large  scale,  after  the  dissolution  of 
the  German  empire  in  1806.  The  same 
thing  had  been  done  on  various  occasions 
during  the  continuance  of  the  empire: 
and  the  dominions  so  annexed  were  said 
to  be  mediatized,  i  c,  made  mediately 
instead  of  imniodiatcly  dependant  on  the 
empire.  The  term  was  retained  when 
the  abolition  of  the  German  union  had 
rentlereil  it  in  strictness  inappropriate. 
A  few  more  were  mediatized  after  the 
peace  of  181.o. 

MEDIA'TOR,  a  term  applied  to  Jesus 
Christ,  iis  interceding  between  God  and 
man.  and  obtaining  for  the  latter  the  re- 
mission of  the  punishment  due  to  original 
and  contracted  sin.  The  divinity  of  our 
Saviour  is  argued  from  his  mediatorial 
character:  it  seeming  impossible  that  a 
mere  man  could  efficaciously  intercede  by 
the  sacrifice  of  himself  for  the  sins  of  his 
fellow-men.  Those  reasoncrs,  therefore, 
who  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
mere  humanity  of  Christ,  either  express- 
ly deny  or  essentially  modify  the  idea  of 
his  mediatoriiil  character. 

.AIED'ICIXE,  the  art  which  treats  of 
the  means  of  preserving  health  when 
present,  and  of  restoring  it  when  lost :  an 
art  that  assists  nature  in  the  preservation 
of  health  by  the  use  of  proper  remclies. 
It  is  founded  on  the  study  of  man's  jihysi- 
cal  and  moral  nature,  i'n  health  and  in 
disease.  It  has  struggled  at  all  times, 
and  continues  to  struggle,  with  favorite 
theories  ;  and  has,  with  the  slowness 
which  marks  all  the  important  advance- 
ments of  mankind,  but  lately  emerged 
from  some  of  the  prejudices  of  many 
centuries,  and  will  doubtless  longcontinuo 
suVjject  to  others.  Hippocrates,  who  lived 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 
before  the  Christian  era,  is  the  earliest 
author  on  medicine  whose  writings  tave 


mem] 


AND    THK    FINE    ARTS. 


309 


been  preserved.  lie  was  a  man  of  very 
superior  medical  acquirements,  and,  by 
tlie  consent  of  posterity,  he  has  been 
styled  the  Father  of  Medicine. 

"medietas  LIX'GU.E,  in  law,  a 
jury  consisting  of  half  natives  and  half 
foreigners,  which  is  impanelled  in  cases 
where  the  partv  to  be  fried  is  a  foreigner. 

MEDIE'VAL,  relating  to  the  middle 
ages. — Medieval  arcldtccture,  the  archi- 
tecture of  Europe  during  the  middle  ages, 
including  the  Norman  and  early  Gothic 
styles. 

MEDIUM,  in  philosophy,  the  space  or 
region  through  which  a  body  in  motion 
passes  to  any  point,  in  logic,  the  mean 
or  middle  term  of  a  syllogism,  being  an 
argument  or  reason  for  which  we  affirm 
or  c'eny  anything. — Medium  also  denotes 
the  means  or  instrument  by  which  any- 
thing is  accomplished,  convej-ed.  or  car- 
ried on.  Thus  money  is  the  medium  of 
commerce  ;  bills  of  credit  or  bank-notes 
are  often  used  as  mediums  of  trade  in 
the  place  of  gold  and  silver  ;  and  intelli- 
gence is  communicated  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  press. 

MEDU'SA,  in  mythology,  the  chief  of 
the  Gorgons  ;  according  to  Hesiod.  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Celo  and  the  sea-god 
Phorcus.  Various  stories  are  related  of 
this  mythological  personage ;  but  her 
chief  peculiarity  was  the  power  she  pos- 
sessed of  turning  all  who  looked  upon  her 
into  stone.  She  was  slain  by  Perseus, 
who  placed  her  head  in  the  shield  of 
Minerva,  where  it  continued  to  retain  the 
same  petrifving  power  as  before. 

MEGALE'SIAN  GAMES,  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  of  the  Roman  exhibi- 
tions of  the  circus  ;  in  honor  of  Cybele,  the 
mother  of  the  gods. 

MEGA'RIAN  SCHOOL  OF  GREEK 
PHILOSOPHY,  founded  at  Megara  by 
the  disciples  of  Socrates,  who  retired 
thither  after  his  death,  and  distinguished 
in  later  times  by  its  logical  subtlety.  Its 
most  celebrated  names  were  those  of 
Euclides,  Euhulides,  and  Stilpo. 

MEL'ODRAME.  or  MEL'O-DRAMA, 
a  dramatic  performance  in  which  music 
is  intermixed  ;  or  that  species  of  drama 
in  which  the  declamation  of  certain  pas- 
sages is  interrupted  by  music.  If  only 
only  one  person  acts,  it  is  a  monodrama ; 
if  two,  a  duodrama.  It  differs  from  the 
opera  and  operetta  in  this,  that  the  per- 
formers do  not  sing,  but  declaim,  and  the 
music  only  fills  the  pauses,  either  prepar- 
ing or  continuing  the  feelings  expressed 
by  the  actors.  Melo-dramas  are  gene- 
rally romantic  and  extravagant. 


MEL'ODY,  in  music,  the  agreeable 
eflfect  of  different  sounds,  ranged  and  dis- 
posed in  succession ;  so  that  melody  is 
the  effect  of  a  single  voice  or  instrument, 
by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  harmo- 
ny. "  Melody,"  says  an  eminent  French 
musician,  "  is  for  music,  what  thought  is 
for  poetry,  or  drawing  for  painting." 

MELPO'MENE,  the  muse  who  pre- 
sides over  tragedy  ;  represented  usually 
with  a  mask  in  one  hand,  a  club  or  dagger 
in  the  other,  and  with  buskins  on  her  feet. 

MELUSI'NE,  in  the  mediaeval  my- 
thology of  France,  a  beautiful  nymph  or 
fairy,  whose  history  occupies  a  large 
space  in  the  popular  superstitions  of  that 
country.  She  is  represented  as  the 
daughter  of  Helmas,  king  of  Albania, 
and  the  fairy  Persine ;  and  as  having 
married  Raymund,  count  of  Toulouse, 
who  built  her  the  magnificent  castle  ot 
Lusignan  (originally  called  Lusineem, 
the  anagram  of  Melusine).  Like  most 
of  the  fairies  of  that  period,  she  wa£ 
doomed  to  a  periodical  metamorphosis, 
during  which  the  lower  part  of  her  bodj 
assumed  the  form  of  a  fish  or  a  serpent. 
On  these  occasions  she  exerted  all  her 
ingenuity  to  escape  observation  ;  but  hav- 
ing been  once  accidentally  seen  by  her 
husband  in  this  condition,  she  swooned 
away,  and  soon  afterwards  disappeared, 
none  knew  whither.  But  her  form  is  said 
to  be  seen  from  time  to  time  on  the  tower 
of  Lusignan,  clad  in  mourning,  and  ut- 
tering deep  lamentations ;  and  her  ap- 
pearance is  universally  believed  to  indi- 
cate an  impending  calamity  to  the  roj'al 
family  of  France. 

MEMBER,  a  limb  :  a  part  appendant 
to  the  body.  We  say  of  a  figure,  in  the 
arts  of  design,  that  its  different  members 
are  exact  and  well  proportioned. — In  ar- 
chitecture, this  word  is  applied  to  each 
of  the  diflerent  parts  of  a  building,  to 
each  separate  portion  of  an  entablature, 
or  to  each  different  moulding  of  a  ucrnice. 

MEM'OIRS,  a  species  of  history,  writ- 
ten by  persons  who  had  some  share  in  the 
transactions  they  relate ;  answering  to 
what  the  Romans  called  commentfirii 
(commentaries.)  They  furnish  the  reader 
with  interesting  individual  anecdotes,  and 
often  expose  the  most  secret  motives,  or 
disclose  the  whole  character  of  events, 
which  may  be  barely  hinted  at  in  books 
of  general  history.  These  qualities,  when 
the  writer  is  to  be  relied  on  for  his  vera- 
city and  judgment,  give  them  an  advan- 
tage over  the  other  kinds  of  historical 
writings,  since  they  satisfy  the  mere 
reader  for  amusement  as  well  as  the  stu- 


400 


CVCLOTEDIA    OF    Lirp:RATURE 


[mem 


dent.  The  Froncli  were  the  earliest. 
and  have  always  been  by  far  the  most 
successful  writers,  in  this  branch  of 
literature.  Their  historical  memoirs, 
partly  autobiographical,  and  partly  the 
works  of  authors  who  had  access  to  the 
papers  and  memorials  of  those  whose 
lives  they  illustrated,  form  a  complete 
series  from  the  si.xteentli  century  to 
the  present  time,  and  throw  the  great- 
est light  on  some  portions  of  history ; 
while  their  memoirs  of  celebrated  indi- 
viduals in  the  ranks  of  literature  and 
fashion  are  still  more  numerous  and 
interesting.  In  the  last  century,  this 
branch  of  literature  became  so  popular, 
that  any  distinguished  individual  who 
did  not  leave  authentic  memoirs  of  him- 
self was  sure  to  become  the  subject,  after 
his  death,  of  fabricated  memoirs,  pub- 
lished under  his  name  ;  and  this  ^pecies 
of  falsification,  of  which  Voltaire  then 
complained,  appears  to  be  now  carried  on 
as  e.xtensively  as  at  any  former  period. 
.The  collections  of  historical  memoirs  re- 
cently edited  in  Paris  contain  three  series 
of  liistorical  memoirs  relating  to  French 
history,  and  one  of  English  memoirs, 
translated,  illustrating  the  period  of  the 
civil  war  and  revolution.  The  bitter  un- 
dertaking was  conducted  by  M.  Guizot. 

MEMORABIL'IA,  things  remarkable 
and  worthy  of  remembrance. 

MEMO'RIAL,  in  diplomacy,  a  species 
of  informal  state  of  paper  much  used  in 
negotiation.  Memorials  are  said  to  be 
of  three  classes.  1.  Memorials  in  the 
form  of  letters,  subscribed  by  the  writer, 
and  speaking  in  the  second  person  as  ad- 
dressed to  another.  2.  Memorials  proper, 
or  written  representations,  subscribed  by 
the  writer,  and  with  an  address,  but  not 
speaking  in  the  second  person.  3.  Notes, 
in  which  there  is  neither  subscription  nor 
address.  Species  of  the  first  class  of  me- 
morials are,  circulars  from  the  bureau 
of  foreign  affairs  sent  to  foreign  agents ; 
answers  to  the  memorials  of  ambassadors ; 
and  notes  to  foreign  cabinets  and  ambas- 
sadors. 

MEM'ORY,  is  defined  to  bo  the  power 
or  capacity  of  having  what  was  once  pres- 
ent to  the  senses  or  the  understanding 
suggested  again  to  the  mind,  accompa- 
nied by  a  distinct  consciousness  of  past 
e.Kistenco.  The  terra  is  also  employed, 
though  more  rarely,  to  denote  the  act  or 
operation  of  remembering,  or  the  pecu- 
liar state  of  the  mind  when  it  exercises 
this  faculty,  ii\  contradistinction  to  the 
faculty  itself.  Various  opinions  have 
been   propounded  by  metaphysicians  re- 


specting the  nature  and  origin  of  the 
faculty  of  memory.  Upon  this  point, 
however,  it  is  not  our  intention  to  enter 
into  any  details,  as  this  question  is  so 
mi.xed  up  with  that  of  other  faculties  of 
the  mind,  such  as  perception  and  associa- 
tion, and  such  metaphysical  questions,  as 
personal  identity,  xb  ,  as  to  be  insepara- 
ble from  them;  and  to  these  heads  wc 
must  refer  the  reader  for  information. 
AVe  may,  however,  remark,  that  the  an- 
cient Platonists  and  Peripatetics  ascribed 
the  faculty  of  memory  to  the  common 
theory  of  ideas  ;  that  is,  of  images  in  the 
brain  or  in  the  mind,  of  all  tlic  objects  of 
thought;  and  in  this  opinion  they  were 
supported,  with  slight  modifications,  by 
many  other  philosophers  of  antiquity. 
But  Dr.  Reid,  who  has  examined  this 
question  with  great  aeutencss  has  satis- 
factorily deraonstrateil  the  thc^jry  of  the 
ancients  to  be  very  defective.  The  more 
modern  theories  of  Locke,  Hume,  and 
other  philosophers,  also  meet  with  little 
consideration  from  the  same  acute  meta- 
physician, who,  after  exposing  their  fal- 
lacies, sums  up  in  these  words  :  "  Thus, 
when  philosophers  have  piled  one  suppo- 
sition on  another,  as  the  giants  piled  the 
mountains  in  order  to  scale  the  heavens, 
it  is  all  to  no  purpose — memory  remains 
unaccountable ;  and  we  know  as  little 
how  we  remember  things  past  as  how  we 
are  conscious  of  the  present."  The  word 
memory  is  not  employed  uniformly  in 
the  same  precise  sense,  but  it  always 
expresses  some  modification  of  that  fac- 
ulty which  enables  us  to  treasure  up, 
and  preserve  for  future  use  the  knowledge 
which  we  acquire  ;  a  faculty  which  is  ob- 
viously the  groat  foundation  of  all  intel- 
lectual improvement.  The  word  memory 
is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  capacity 
of  retaining  knowledge,  and  sometimes  a 
power  of  recalling  it  to  our  thoughts 
when  we  have  occasion  to  apply  it  to  use. 
The  latter  operation  of  the  mind,  how- 
ever, is  more  properly  called  recollection. 
Hence  a  distinction  is  made  between  mc»i- 
ory  and  recollection.  Memory  retains 
past  ideas  without  any,  or  with  little 
effort;  recollection  implies  an  effort  to 
recall  ideas  that  are  past.  .Memory  de- 
pends upon  attention,  without  wdiich  even 
the  objects  of  our  perceptions  make  no 
impression  on  the  memory,  and  the  per- 
manence of  the  impression  which  any- 
thing leaves  in  the  memory  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  degree  of  attention  which 
was  originally  given  to  it.  There  is  also 
a  strong  connection  between  memory  and 
the  association  of  ideas. 


mer] 


/4ND    THE     FINK    ARTS. 


401 


MEM'PIIIAX,  pertaining  to  Mem- 
phis ;  a  term  expressive  of  soinetliing  very 
obscure  :  ii  sense  borrowed  from  the  intel- 
lectual darliness  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of 
Moses. 

MENDICANTS,  a  term  applied  to 
several  orders  of  monks  who  live  on  alms, 
or  besj  from  door  to  door. 

MENXONITES,  or  MEXNONISTS, 
a  sect  founded  by  a  German,  named  Simon 
Menno,  in  1645,  the  leading  tenet  of 
which  is,  that  Jesus  Christ's  nature  did 
not  partake  of  that  of  his  mother. 

MENOL'OGY,  in  the  Greek  church,  a 
brief  calendar  of  the  lives  of  the  saints,  or 
a  simple  remembrance  of  those  whose 
lives  are  not  written. 

MEN'SA,  in  archasology,  denotes  all 
patrimony  or  goods  necessary  for  a  liveli- 
hood. 

MENSA'LIA,  in  law,  such  parsonages 
or  spiritual  livings  as  were  united  to  the 
tables  of  religious  houses,  called  by  the 
canonists  mensal  benefices. 

MENSA'RII,  in  Roman  antiquity,  of- 
ficers appointed  to  manage  the  public 
treasury. 

MENSO'RES,  in  antiquity,  those  offi- 
cers who  were  sent  onward  to  provide 
lodgings  for  the  Roman  emperors  in  their 
routes,  and  to  the  domestics  who  waited 
at  table. — Mensores  frumentarius^  dis- 
tributors of  the  corn. 

ME'NU,  INSTITUTES  OF,  the  name 
given  to  the  most  celebrated  code  of  In- 
dian civil  and  religious  law ;  so  called 
from  Menu,  Menou,  or  Manu,  the  son  of 
Brama,  by  whom  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  revealed.  The  Hindoos  themselves 
ascribe  to  this  system  the  highest  anti- 
quity ;  and  many  of  the  most  learned 
Europeans  are  of  opinion  that  of  all 
known  works  there  is  none  which  carries 
with  it  more  convincing  proofs  of  high 
antiquity  and  perfect  integrity.  Sir  W. 
Jones  assigns  the  date  of  its  origin  some- 
where between  Homer  and  the  Twelve 
Tables  of  the  Romnns ;  and  Schlcgcl  as- 
serts it  as  his  belief  that  it  was  seen  by 
Alexander  the  (Jreat  in  a  state  not  ma- 
terially dilTercnt  from  that  in  which  we 
possess  it.  The  Institutes  of  Menu  are  of 
a  most  comprehensive  nature:  they  em- 
brace all  that  relates  to  human  life  ;  the 
history  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and 
man  ;  the  nature  of  God  and  spirits  ;  and 
a  complete  system  of  morals,  government, 
and  religion.  The  work,  says  Sir  W. 
Jones,  contains  iihundance  of  curious  mat- 
ter, interesting  both  to  speculative  law- 
yers and  antiquaries,  with  many  beauties 
which  need  not  to  be  pointed  oui,  and  with 


many  blemishes  which  cannot  be  justified 
or  palliated  :  it  is  a  system  of  despotism 
and  priestcraft ;  both,  indeed,  limited  by 
law,  hut  artfully  conspiring  to  give  mutu- 
al sujijiort. 

MERCA'TOR'S  CHART,  a  chart,  in 
which  the  parallels  of  latitude  and  the 
meridians  are  represented  by  straight 
lines. 

MER'CHANT,  one  who  exports  the 
produce  of  one  country,  and  imports  tho 
produce  of  another  ;  or,  according  to  popu- 
lar usage,  any  trader  who  deals  wholesale. 

MER'CY-SE.\T,  in  scripture  antiqui- 
ties, a  table,  or  cover,  lined  on  both  sides 
with  plates  of  gold,  and  set  over  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  on  each  side  of  which  was 
a  cherubim  of  gold  with  wings  spread  over 
the  mercy-seat. 

MER'CURY,  the  1  ^tin  name  of  tho 
Grecian  Hermes.  lie  was  the  son  of  Ju- 
])iter  and  Maia,  and  discharged  the  office 
of  the  messenger  of  the  gods.  Part  of  his 
duty  was  also  to  conduct  the  shades  of  the 
dead  to  the  infernal  regions.  He  presides 
over  eloquence,  profit,  good  fortune,  and 
(heft ;  in  which  he  was  himself  so  great  a 
proficient  that,  on  the  day  of  his  birth,  ho 


stole  fifty  kine  from  the  herds  of  Apollo, 
whom  he  repaid  by  the  gift  of  his  inven- 
tion, the  lyre. 

MEU'GER.  in  law,  is  tho  destruction 
of  a  lesser  estate  in  lands  and  tenements 
by  the  acquisition  of  a  greater  estate  in 
the  same  immediatelj'  sueceeiUng  by  the 
same  party  and  in  the  same  right.  Thus 
an  estate  for  years  is  said  to  merge,  or 
sink,  in  an  estate  for  life,  if  there  be  no 
other  estate  vested  in  another  person  in- 
tervening between  the  two  ;  and  an  estate 


402 


CYCLOPEDIA     OK    LITERATCHE 


MES 


for  life  in  an  estate  of  inheritance.  There 
is  no  merger  of  an  estate  tail. 

iMER'LOX,  in  fortification,  is  that  part 
of  a  ])ariipet  which  is  terminated  by  two 
enilirasures  of  a  liattery- 

^MERMAID,  an  imaginary  or  fabulous 
creature,  whioh  seamen  have  described  as 
having  the  head  and  body  of  a  woman, 
with  the  tail  of  a  fish.  Mermen  also  have 
been  seen,  if  we  might  trust  the  same 
authority.  It  is  not,  however,  any  recent 
fiction  ;  ancient  writers  having  given  full 
credence  to  it. 

ME.S'MERISM,  the  doctrine  of  animal 
magnetism,  so  named  from  its  author, 
Frederic  Anthony  Mesmer,  a  (Jernian 
physician.  In  1778,  Mesmer  propounded 
a  theory,  according  to  which  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  life  are  referred  to  the  motion 
and  agency  of  a  certain  universal  mag- 
netic fluid,  which  admits  of  being  influ- 
enced by  e.xternal  agents,  and  especially 
by  magnetic  instruments.  Womlerful 
effects  were  said  to  have  been  produced 
by  him  and  others  who  co-operated  with 
him,  upon  animal  bodies,  and  many  cures 
perlormed  by  the  agency  of  a  certain 
magnetical  apparatus.  The  use  of  mng- 
netic  instruments  is  now  quite  exploded, 
and  the  principal  means  used  to  jiroduce 
the  effects  of  mesmerism  are  such  as 
touching  and  stroliing  with  the  hands, 
according  to  rule,  breathing  on  a  person, 
fixing  the  eye  upon  him,  Ac.  The  mes- 
merized person  must  always  be  of  a 
weaker  constitution  than  the  mesmerizer, 
and,  if  possible,  of  a  different  se.x,  and 
must  also  believe  devoutly  in  the  science. 
The  effects  produced  upon  the  person  to 
whom  mesmerism  is  communicated,  or 
the  mesmeree,  as  he  is  called,  consist 
partly  in  bodily  sensations,  as  chilliness, 
heaviness,  flj'ing  pains,  &c. ;  partly  in  a 
diminished  activity  of  the  external  sen- 
ses; partly  in  fainting,  convulsions,  sleep, 
with  lively  dreams,  in  which  the  mesme- 
ree is  transported  to  higher  regions,  ob- 
serves the  internal  organization  of  his 
own  body,  prophesies,  gives  medical  pre- 
scriptions, receives  inspired  views  of  heav- 
en and  hell,  purgatory,  &c. ;  reads  sealed 
letters  laid  on  his  stomach,  and  when 
awakened  is  totally  unconscious  uf  what 
he  has  experienced.  Six  stages  or  de- 
grees of  mesmerism  have  been  enume- 
rated, viz — the  ualkin^  stasre,  the  stage 
of  half-slee]>,  mcxmcric  sleep  or  stupor, 
somnambulism,  si  If -contemplation  or 
clairvoyance,  unircrsal  illumination,  in 
which  the  patient  knows  what  is  going  on 
in  distant  regions,  and  all  that  has  hap- 
pened or  will   hajipen  to  those   persons 


with  whom  he  is  brought  into  mesmeric 
relation,  and  so  forth.  More  latterlj 
mesmerism  has  been  associated  with 
phrenology,  so  that  by  touching  certain 
organs,  the  patient,  when  mesmerized,  is 
made  to  d.ince,  sing,  fight,  or  steal,  &c. 

JMESNE,  in  law,  a  lord  of  a  manor  who 
has  tenants  holding  under  him,  though 
he  holds  the  manor  of  a  superior. — J\Ies,ie 
process,  an  intermediate  process  which 
issues  pending  the  suit,  upon  some  col- 
lateral interlocutory  matter.  Sometimes 
it  is  put  in  contradistinction  tojinal  pro- 
cess, or  process  of  execution,  and  then  it 
signifies  all  such  processes  as  intervene 
between  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  suit. 

JNIESS,  in  military  language,  denotes 
a  sort  of  ordinary,  or  public  dinner,  for 
the  maintenance  of  which  every  officer, 
who  takes  his  meals  there,  gives  a  certain 
proportion  of  his  pay.  In  a  British  mili- 
tary mess-room  the  young  subaltern  and 
the  veteran  field-officer  meet  on  equal 
terms,  a  soldierlike  frankness  prevails, 
and  the  toils  of  service  are,  as  they  ought 
to  be,  forgotten  during  the  moments  de- 
voted to  social  hilarity. — In  naval  lan- 
guage, the  mess  denotes  a  particular 
companj'  of  the  officers  or  crew  of  a  ship, 
who  eat,  drink,  and  associate  together  : 
hence  the  term  jnessmate  is  applied  to 
any  one  of  the  number  thus  associated. 

JIES'SAtiE,  an  ofiicial  communication 
sent  by  a  President  or  King  to  the  con- 
gress of  the  nation. 

MESSENGERS,  certain  officers  em- 
ployed in  the  secretary  of  state's  depart- 
ment to  convey  despatches,  either  at 
home  or  abroad. 

MESSI'AD,  the  name  given  to  the 
only  modern  epic  poem  of  Germany  ;  the 
subject  of  which  is,  as  the  name  implies, 
the  sufferings  and  triumphs  of  the  Mes- 
siah. It  is  written  in  hexameter  verse, 
for  which,  as  we  have  elsewhere  observed, 
the  German  is  better  fitted  than  any 
modern  language,  and  consists  of  20 
books.  The  publication  of  this  poem 
procured  for  its  author  unbounded  repu- 
tation ;  but  posterity  does  not  appear  to 
sanction  the  high  award  pronounced  on  it 
by  contemporaneous  writers.  Sehlegel, 
indeed,  maintains  that  the  modern  liter- 
ature of  Germany  may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  M  ess  lad  ;  but  this  high  praise 
must  be  understood  as  referring  chiefly 
to  its  having  been  among  the  first  pro- 
ductions in  which  the  ])Owcr  and  resources 
of  the  German  language  were  developed, 
rather  than  to  its  innate  merits  as  an 
epic  poem,  or  to  the  influence  it  has 
exercised   over   the    national    poetrj    of 


mxt] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


403 


Germany.  The  reputation  of  Klopstock 
among  his  own  countrymen  rests  chiefly 
on  his  Odes;  ami  it  must  be  admitted 
that  in  all  those  parts  of  his  epic  into 
which  a  lyric  spirit  ould  he  infused — in 
other  words,  whenever  the  feelings  or  the 
sj'mpathies  were  to  be  excited — there  are 
few  poets,  either  ancient  or  modern,  to 
whom  he  deserves  to  be  postponed  :  but. 
on  the  otiier  liand,  the  dignity  and  sub- 
limity of  his  sentiments  are  not  unfre- 
quently  disfigured  by  the  pedantry  and 
affectation  of  his  style,  and  the  tedious- 
ness  of  his  episodes. 

MESSI'AII,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
the  anointed;  a  title  whi':h  the  Jews 
gave  to  their  unexpected  great  deliverer, 
whose  coming  they  still  wait  for  :  and  a 
name  which  Christians  apply  to  Jesus 
Christ,  in  whom  the  prophecies  relat- 
ing to  the  Messiah  were  accomplished. 
Among  the  Jews,  anointing  was  the  cere- 
mony of  consecrating  persons  to  the 
highest  offices  and  dignities ;  kings, 
priests,  a"nd  sometimes  prophets  were 
anointed  :  thus  Aaron  and  his  son  re- 
ceived the  sacerdotal,  Elisha  the  prophetic, 
and  David,  Solomon,  and  others,  the 
royal  unction.  The  ancient  Hebrews 
being  instructed  by  the  prophets,  had 
very  clear  notions  of  the  Messiah  ;  these, 
however,  were  changed  by  degrees  ;  inso- 
much that  when  Jesus  Christ  appeared 
in  Judea,  they  were  in  e.xpectation  of  a 
temporal  monarch,  who  should  free  them 
from  their  subjection  to  the  Romans. 
Hence  they  were  greatly  offended  at  the 
outward  appearance,  the  humility,  and 
seeming  weakness  of  our  Saviour  ;  which 
prevented  their  acknowledging  him  to  be 
the  Christ  they  expected. 

MES'SUAGE,  in  law,  is  said  to  be 
properly  a  dwelling-house  with  a  small 
portion  of  land  adjacent,  or  the  site  of  the 
manor.  It  is  now  one  .of  the  general 
words  used  in  the  legal  description  of 
dwelling-houses  with  the  land  attached. 

MESTI'ZO,  in  Spanish  America,  the 
child  of  a  Spaniard  or  Creole  and  a  native 
Indian. 

METAB'ASIS,  in  rhetoric,  transition  ; 
a  passing  from  one  thing  to  another. 

METACAR'PUS,  in  anatomy,  that 
part  of  the  hand  between  the  wrist  and 
the  fingers.  The  inner  part  of  the  meta- 
carpus is  called  the  palm,  and  the  other 
the  biick  of  the  hand. 

METACU'RONISM.  an  error  in  chro- 
nology, by  placing  an  event  after  its  real 
time. 

METALEP'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  the  con- 
tinuation of  a  trope  in  one  word  through 


a  succession  of  significations,  or  the  union 
of  two  or  more  tropes  of  a  different  kind 
in  one  word,  so  that  the  several  grada- 
tions or  intervening  senses  come  between 
the  word  expressed  and  the  thing  intend- 
ed by  it. 

METAMOR'PHOSIS,  the  }hanging  of 
something  into  a  different  form  ;  in 
which  sense  it  includes  the  transform- 
ation of  insects,  as  well  as  the  mj'tholo- 
gical  changes  related  by  the  poets  of 
antiquity. 

METAPHOR,  in  rhetoric,  is  the  ap- 
plication of  a  word  in  some  other  than  its 
ordinary  use,  on  account  of  some  appli- 
cability or  resemblance  between  the  two 
objects  :  thus,  if  vre  call  a  hero  a  lion  ;  a 
shrewd,  crafty  fellow,  a  fox ;  a  minister, 
a  pillar  of  the  state,  &c.,  we  speak  meta- 
phoricaUy.  Brevity  and  power  are  the 
characteristic  excellencies  of  the  meta- 
phor ;  novelty  shows  the  original  wit : 
but  metaphors  indulged  in  merely  for  the 
sake  of  unexpected  contrast,  frequently 
prove  more  allied  to  the  ridiculous  than 
the  sublime,  and  ought  to  be  but  rarely 
used.  Metaphors  have  been  divided  by 
writers  on  rhetoric  into  several  classes  ; 
but  the  most  appropriate  are  those  which 
are  termed  analogical,  and  which  derive 
their  force,  not  from  any  actual  resem- 
blance between  two  objects,  but  from  a 
resemblance  between  the  relations  which 
they  bear  respectively  to  certain  other 
objects.  Thus  "the  sea  of  life"  is  a  com- 
mon and  appropriate  metaphor  ;  not  from 
any  resemblance  between  the  idea  of  the 
visible  sea  and  the  complex  notion  of 
that  abstraction  which  we  term  human 
life,  but  because  there  is  a  fancied  simi- 
larity between  the  position  of  navigators 
in  an  uncertain  voyage  and  that  of  human 
beings  engaged  in  the  manifold  scenes  of 
life 

METAPH'RASIS,  a  bare  or  literal 
translation  out  of  one  language  into 
another. 

METAPHYS'ICS,  that  branch  of  phi- 
losophy which  inquires  into  the  science 
of  the  mind,  or  spiritual  existence.  With 
respect  to  animals,  it  takes  them  up  where 
physiology  leaves  them  ;  and,  proceeding 
higher,  ventures  to  speak  of  Deity  itself. 
The  end  of  this  .science  is  the  search  of 
pure  and  abstracted  truth.  It  cnsts  a 
light  upon  all  the  objects  of  thought  and 
meditation,  by  ranging  every  being  with 
all  the  absolute  and  relative  perfections 
and  properties,  modes  and  attendants  of 
it,  in  proper  ranks  or  classes  ;  and  thereby 
it  discovers  the  various  relations  of  things 
to  each  other,  and  what  are  their  general 


404 


CYCLOrEUIA    OF    LlTKKATUliE 


[met 


or  special  differences  from  each  other ; 
wherein  a  great  part  of  human  knowledge 
consists.  It  has  been  very  pertinently 
remarked  that  "  a  man  who  contemns 
metaphysics  must  think  his  own  nature 
unworthy  of  examination.  Mctaplij'sical 
inquiries,  indeed,  iiave  often  been  disfig- 
ured with  overstrained  subtilty  and  revolt- 
ing sophistry,  and  too  often  arbitrary 
analogies,  l)old  comparisons,  and  unmean- 
ing mysticism  have  claimed  and  received 
homage  as  having  unlocked  the  long- 
hidden  truth-;  but  the  same  has  taken 
place  in  regard  to  religion  and  jiolitics, 
and  all  the  great  subjects  which  strongly 
stir  the  soul  of  man." 

MET'APLASM,  in  grammar,  a  trans- 
mutation or  change  made  in  a  word  by 
transposing  or  retrenching  a  syllable  or 
letter. 

METATIl'ESrS,  in  literature,  a  figure 
hy  which  the  letters  or  syllables  of  a 
word  are  transposed. — In  medicine,  a 
change  or  removal  of  a  morbid  cause, 
without  e.xpulsion. 

METEMPSYCilO'SIS,  the  doctrine  of 
transmigration,  which  supposes  that  the 
soul  of  man,  upon  leaving  the  body,  be- 
comes the  soul  of  some  other  animal. 
This  was  the  doctrine  of  Pythagoras  and 
his  followers,  and  such  is  still  the  prevail- 
ing doctrine  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  par- 
ticularly in  India  and  China.  The  Indian 
doctrine  of  metempsychosis  rests  on  the 
supposition  that  all  beings  derive  their  ori- 
gin from  God,  and  are  placed  in  this  world 
in  an  altogetlier  degraded  condition,  from 
which  they  all,  but  more  jiartieularly  the 
human  race,  must  cither  decline  into  still 
lower  ilegradation,  or  rise  gradually  to 
a  higher  state  more  accordant  with  their 
divine  original,  according  as  they  give 
ear  to  the  vicious  or  the  virtuous  sugges- 
tions of  their  nature.  It  must  be  re- 
marked, however,  that  the  Indians  make 
a  wide  distinction  between  the  future 
destiny  of  those  who  have  passed  through 
life  tainted  by  the  usual  vices  and  infirmi- 
ties of  liuman  nature,  and  those  whoso 
lives  have  been  spent  in  the  cimstant 
discharge  of  religious  <luties.  In  tiie 
latter  case,  the  soul  does  not  pass  through 
different  stages  of  e.xistonco,  "  but  pro- 
creeds  directly  to  reunion  with  the  Supremo 
Being,  with  which  it  is  iilentified,  as  a 
river  at  its  confluence  with  the  sea  merges 
therein  altogether.  His  vital  faculties, 
and  the  elements  of  which  his  body  eon- 
sists,  are  absorbe<l  completely  and  abso- 
lutely ;  both  name  and  form  cease  ;  and 
ho  becomes  immortal,  without  j)arts  or 
members." 


METEMP'TOSIS,  a  term  in  chronolo- 
gy  expressing  the  solar  equitation  neces- 
sary to  prevent  the  new  moon  from 
happening  a  daj'  too  late,  or  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  bissextile  once  in  134  years. 

METEOROM'AXCY,  a  species  of 
divination  by  thunder  and  lightning,  held 
in  high  estimation  by  the  Romans. 

METirOD,  a  suitable  and  convenient 
arrangement  of  things  or  ideas.  In  logio 
and  rlietoric,  the  art  or  rule  uf  disposing 
ideas  in  such  a  manner  that  they  maybe 
easily  compreheniled,  either  in  order  to 
discover  the  truth,  or  to  demonstrate  it  to 
others.  Method  is  essential  to  science; 
an<l  without  method,  business  of  any  kind 
will  fall  into  confusion.  In  studying  a 
science,  we  generally  mean  by  viethod,  a 
system  of  classification,  or  arrangement  of 
natural  bodies  according  to  their  common 
eharfe  »teristics ;  as  the  method  of  Ray, 
the  Linna-an  method.  The  difference  be- 
tween method  iinii  si/stcin  is  this  :  si/stem 
is  an  arrangement  founded,  tliroughout 
all  its  parts,  on  some  one  principle ; 
method  is  an  arrangement  less  fixed  and 
determinate,  and  founded  on  more  gener 
al  relations. 

METHODIC  SECT,  a  name  given  to 
certain  ancient  physicians,  who  conducted 
their  practice  by  rules  after  the  manner 
of  Galen  and  his  followers,  in  opposition 
to  the  c}npiric  sect. 

iMETH'ODISTS,  the  body  of  Chris- 
tians to  whom  this  name  is  chiefly  applied 
are  the  followers  of  the  late  John  Wesley, 
the  founder  of  this  numerous  sect  ;  hence 
called  Wesleyan  Methodists.  But  the 
term  bears  a  more  extensive  meaning, 
being  appliei]  to  several  bodies  or  sections 
of  Christians  wln^have  seceded  or  with- 
drawn from  the  Wesleyan  denomination. 
The  origin  of  the  Methodist  Society  took 
place  at  t>xfor<l  in  1729.  After  the  Revo- 
lution, when  the  principles  of  religious 
toleration  were  recognized  amid  the  pro- 
gress of  free  inquiry,  the  clergy  of  the 
Established  Church  were  thought  by  some 
to  have  sunk  into  a  state  of  comparative 
lukewarmness  and  indifference.  This 
alleged  degeneracy  was  observed  with 
I)ain  by  John  AVesley  ami  his  brother 
Charl(!s,  when  students  at  tlie  University 
of  Oxford  ;  and  being  joined  by  a  few  of 
their  fellow-students  who  wore  intended 
for  the  ministry  in  the  Established  Church, 
tlioy  formed  tiin  most  rigid  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  their  time  and  studies,  for 
reading  the  Scriptures,  for  self-examina- 
tion, and  other  religious  exercises.  The 
ardent  piety  and  rigid  observance  of 
system  in  everything  connected  with  tht 


MET 


AMI     IIIK     KINK     AIM'S 


405 


new  opinions  di;!pla3'eil  by  the  Woslcys 
and  their  adherents,  as  well  as  in  their 
college  studies,  which  they  never  neglect- 
ed, attracted  the  notice  and  excited  the 
jeers  of  various  ineuil)ers  of  the  Univer- 
sity, and  gained  for  them  the  appellation 
of  Methodists ;  in  allusion  to  the  metlio- 
dici,  a  class  of  physicians  at  Konio  who 
practised  only  by  theory. 

MEl'tE'Cl,  the  resident  aliens,  who 
formed  a  large  class  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Athens.  They  were  distinguished 
from  the  few  full  citizens  by  many  disa- 
bilities and  burdens.  Th"y  had  no  share 
in  the  administration  of  the  state,  and 
were  precluded  from  the  power  of  pos- 
sessing landed  estates.  Each  was  com- 
pelled to  purchase  the  shelter  he  receiv- 
ed from  the  state  by  the  payment  of  a 
small  annual  sum,  and  to  place  himself 
under  the  guardianship  of  a  citizen,  who 
was  his  formal  representative  in  the 
courts  of  law.  They  were  generally  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  and  mechanical  busi- 
ness. 

METON'IC  CYCLE,  in  chronology, 
the  period  of  nineteen  years,  in  which 
the  lunations  of  the  moon  return  to  the 
same  days  of  the  month ;  so  called  from 
its  discoverer  Aleton,  an  Athenian,  who 
lived  about  400  b.c.  From  its  great  use 
in  the  calendar,  this  is  called  the  golden 
number. 

METONYM'IA,  or  MET'ONYMY,  in 
rhetoric,  a  figure  of  speech  whereby  one 
thing  is  put  for  another,  as  the  cause  for 
the  effect,  the  part  for  the  whole,  and  the 
like  ;  as,  "  my  friend  keeps  a  good  table" 
instead  of  good  provisions ;  "that  boy 
has  a  clear  head,"  meaning  intellect. 

METO'PA,  in  architecture,  the  square 
space  in  the  frieze  between  the  triglyphs 
of  the  Doric  order.  It  is  left  either  plain 
or  decorated,  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
architect.  In  the  most  ancient  examples 
of  this  order,  the  metopa  is  left  quite 
open,  as  is  manifest  from  a  passage  al- 
luded to  in  the  art. 

METOPOS'COPY,  the  art  of  divina- 
tion by  inspecting  the  forehead,  treated 
of  especially  by  the  famous  Cardanus. 
The  signs  of  the  forehead  are  chiefly  its 
lines  ;  but  moles  and  spots  are  also  sup- 
posed to  have  their  particular  meaning. 
The  lines  are  under  the  dominion  of  their 
several  planets. 

!ME'T11E,  in  the  classical  sense  of  a 
word,  a  subdivision  of  a  verse.  The 
Greeks  measured  some  species  of  verses 
(the  dactylic,  choriambic,  antispastic, 
Ionic,  itc.)  by  considering  each  foot  as  a 
metro  ;  in  otbors  (the   iambic,  trochaic. 


I  and  anap-jestie,)  each  dipodia,  or  two  feet, 
formed  a  metre.  Thus,  the  dactylic  hex- 
ameter (the  heroic  verse)  contains  si.t 
dactyls  and  spondees  :  the  iambic,  ana- 
p;«stic,  and  trochaic  trimeter,  six  of  those 
feet  respectively.  A  line  is  said  to  be 
acatalectic  when  the  last  syllable  of  the 
last  foot  is  wanting;  brachycatalectic, 
when  two  syllables  are  cutoff  in  thesamo 
way;  kt/percatalectic,  when  there  is  ono 
superfluous  syllable. 

METKOMA'NIA,  a  rage  for  compos- 
ing verses,  which  is  said  (upon  the  au- 
thority of  a  respectable  medical  work)  to 
have  once  seized  a  person  in  a  tertian 
fever,  who  was  otherwise  by  no  means 
gifted  with  poetical  powers,  but  who, 
when  the  fit  was  off,  became  as  dull  and 
prosaic  as  the  most  unimaginative  of  hu- 
man beings  could  desire.  We  aj)prehend 
that  fits  of  this  kind  are  more  frequenii 
than  the  public  have  any  idea  of. 

MET'RONOME,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  musical  time.  It  is  contrived 
on  the  principle  of  a  clock,  having  a  short 
pendulum,  whose  bob  being  movable  up 
and  down  on  the  rod,  is  thus  capable  of 
increasing  or  decreasing  the  length  of  a 
note  or  bar  as  required  by  the  character 
of  the  music.  The  length  or  duration  of 
a  note  is  often  expressed  at  the  head  of  a 
piece  of  music  by  stating  that  a  pendulum 
of  a  given  length  in  inches  will  vibrate  a 
minim,  crotchet,  or  other  note,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

METROPOLIS,  the  capital  or  princi- 
pal city  of  a  country  or  province  :  as  Lon- 
don or  Paris.  The  term  metropolis  is 
also  applied  to  archiepiscopal  churches, 
and  sometimes  to  the  principal  or  mother 
church  of  a  city.  The  Roman  empire 
having  been  divided  into  thirteen  dioceses, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty  provinces, 
each  diocese  and  each  province  had  its 
metropolis,  or  capital  city,  where  the  pro- 
consul had  his  residence.  To  this  civil 
division,  the  ecclesiastical  was  afterwards 
adapted,  and  the  bishop  of  the  capital 
city  had  the  direction  of  affairs,  and  the 
pre-eminence  over  all  the  bishops  of  the 
province.  His  residence  in  the  metropo- 
lis gave  him  the  title  of  metropolitan. 

METROPOLITAN,  in  early  ecclesi- 
astical history,  was  a  title  applied  to  the 
archbishop,  or  chief  ecclesiastical  digni- 
tary, resident  in  a  city.  The  establish- 
ment of  motropcditans  took  place  at  the 
end  of  the  third  century,  and  was  con- 
firmed by  the  council  of  Nice.  In  some 
of  the  Protestant  states  of  Germany  the 
title  exists  to  the  present  time,  and  the 
person  in  possession  of  it.has  rank  equiv- 


406 


CVCI.Ol'EniA    OF    MTEKATrUF. 


MIL 


alent    to    the    bishofs    of    the    English 
church. 

MEZZANINE,  in  architecture,  an 
entresole,  or  little  window,  less  in  height 
than  in  breadth,  serving  to  give  light  to 
an  attic. 

MEZZO,  in  music,  an  Italian  word, 
signifying  half.  Thus  mezzo  forte,  mez- 
zo piano,  viezzo  voce,  imply  a  middle 
degree  of  piano  or  soft.  By  mezzo  sopra- 
no is  understood,  a  pitch  of  voice  between 
the  soprano  or  treble  and  counter-tenor. 

MEZZOTlN'TO,  a  particular  manner 
of  engraving,  so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  drawings  in  Indian  ink.  To 
perform  this,  the  smooth  surf^iee  of  the 
copper  or  steel  pliite  is  furrowed  all  over 
with  an  instrument  made  for  the  purpose, 
till  the  whole  is  of  a  regular  roughness 
throughout;  so  that  if  a  paper  were  to  be 
worked  off  from  it  at  the  copper-plate 
press  it  would  be  black  all  over.  When 
this  is  done,  the  plate  is  rubbed  with 
charcoal,  black  chalk,  or  black  lea  1,  and 
then  the  design  is  drawn  with  white  chalk  ; 
after  which  the  outlines  and  deepest 
shades  are  not  scraped  at  all,  the  ne.xt 
shades  are  scraped  but  little,  the  ne.xt 
more,  and  so  on,  till  the  shades  gr.adu- 
ally  falling  ofT,  leave  the  paper  white,  in 
which  places  the  plate  is  perfecth'  bur- 
nished. By  an  artificial  disposition  of  the 
shades,  and  different  parts  of  a  figure  on 
iilTerent  plates,  mezzotintos  are  printed 
in  colors,  so  as  to  represent  actual  paint- 
ings. 

MI'CAH,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  written  by  the  propiiet  Micah  ; 
in  which  the  writer  censures  the  reigning 
vices  of  Jerusalem  and  Siimaria,  and  de- 
nounces the  judgments  of  (Jod  against 
both  kingdoms.  The  birthpluce  of  our 
Saviour  is  thus  designated  by  him  :  "  But 
thou,  Bethlehem  Epliriita,  little  among 
*he  liiousands  of  Jiidah,  out  of  thee  shall 
come  forth  a.  ruler  in  Israel,  whoso  gene- 
ration is  (if  olil,  from  everlasting." 

MICII'AKL.MAS,  ur  Feast  of  St.  Mi- 
chael, a  festival  of  the  Romish  church, 
observed  on  the  29th  of  September.  In 
Engliind,  Michaelmas  is  one  of  the  regu- 
lar periods  for  settling  rents;  and  an  old 
custom  is  still  in  use  of  having  a  roast 
goose  for  dinner  on  that  day,  probably 
'jecause  geese  are  at  that  jteriod  most 
plentiful,  and  in  the  highest  perfection. 

MI  CItOCOS.M.  m;in  has  been  called  so 
by  some  fanciful  writers  on  natural  phi- 
loaophy  and  metaphysics,  by  reason  of  a 
Buppo.^ed  correspondence  between  the  dif- 
ferent parts  and  qualities  of  his  nature 
and  those  of  the  universe. 


MICROGRAPHY,  the  description  of 
objects  which  are  too  minute  to  be  seen 
without  the  help  of  a  microscoj)e. 

MIDDLE  AG  lis.  a  term  u.«ed  by  histo- 
rians to  denote  that  period  which  begins 
with  the  final  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  ends  with  the  revival  of  let- 
ters in  Europe,  or,  as  some  writers  have  it, 
with  the  discovery  of  America;  i.  e.  from 
the  eighth  to  the  fifteenth  century.  In  gen- 
eral, it  may  be  said,  the  middle  ages  em- 
brace that  period  of  history  in  which  the 
feudal  system  was  established  and  devel- 
oped, down  to  the  most  prominent  events 
which  necessarily  led  to  its  overthrow. 

MIDSHIPMAN.  Midshipmen  are 
young  gentlemen  ranking  as  the  highest 
of  the  class  of  petty  officers  on  board  a 
ship  of  war;  their  duty  is  to  pass  to  the 
seamen  the  orders  of  the  captain  or  other 
superior  officer,  and  to  superintend  the 
performance  of  the  duties  so  commanded. 

MIDSUMMER,  the  summer  solstice. 
The  24th  of  Juno  is  Midsummer-davj 
which  is  also  quarter  day. 

MILIEU.  (JUSTE,)  PARTY  OF  THE, 
a  French  party  nickname,  arising,  it  is 
said,  out  of  a  casual  expression  of  King 
Louis  Philippe,  but  which  has  obtained 
a  notoiicty  rather  greater  than  such 
ephemeral  phrases  usually  acquire.  It 
has  Served  to  denote  the  great  party  op- 
posed to  the  Carlists,  or  Legitimists,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  to  the  extreme  left 
section  of  the  ("hauiber  of  Deputies,  with 
its  allies  the  Republicans,  on  the  other. 
After  the  overthrow  of  the  feeble  ministry 
of  Lafitte.  in  March,  1831,  Oasimir  Perier 
was  authorized  to  form  a  new  cabinet; 
and  his  administration  seems  to  have  re- 
alized more  than  any  other  the  ideal  of 
a  government  of  the  Juste  Milieu.  After 
a  short  interval  he  was  succeeded  by 
Soult  ;  who  has  been  perhaps.  siiu>o  that 
time,  more  identified  with  the  Juste  Mi- 
lieu party  than  any  other  minister: 
Mole,  (Juizot,  Dupin,  Thiers,  Barrot,  the 
most  eminent  statesmen  of  France,  hav- 
ing each  of  them  adopted  a  line  and 
formed  to  a  certain  extent  a  party  of  his 
own,  alternately  aided  and  opposed  by 
the  great  body  of  the  partisans  of  the 
Juste  Milieu. 

MILI'TIA,  a  body  of  soldiers,  regu- 
larly enrolled  and  trained,  though  not  in 
constant  service  in  time  of  peace,  and 
thereby  distinguished  from  staiu/ins^  ar- 
7nies.  In  England  the  origin  of  this  na- 
tional force  is  generally  traced  back  to 
Alfred. 

MILLENA'RIANS,  or  CHIL'IASTS, 
a  name  given  to  those  who,  in  the  prim 


min] 


AND    XriK    FINK    ARTS. 


107 


itive  ages,  believed  that  the  saints  will 
one  day  reign  on  earth  with  Jesus  Christ 
a  thousand  years.  The  foruicr  appella- 
tion is  of  Latin  original,  the  latter  of 
Greek.  The  Millenarians  held,  that  af- 
ter the  coming  of  Antichrist,  and  the 
destruction  of  all  nations  which  shall  fol- 
low, there  shall  he  a  first  resurrection  of 
the  just  alone  ;  that  all  who  shall  be  found 
upon  earth,  both  good  and  bad,  shall  con- 
tinue alive — the  good,  to  obey  the  just 
who  are  risen  as  their  princes — the  bad 
to  be  conquered  by  the  ju.^^t,  and  to  l)e 
subject  to  them  ;  that  Jesus  Christ  will 
then  descend  from  heaven  in  his  glory  ; 
that  the  city  of  Jerusalem  will  be  rebuilt, 
enlarged,  embellished,  and  its  gates  stand 
open  night  and  d;iv. 

iMlLLEX'NIUM,  the  reign  of  Christ 
with  his  saints  upon  earth  for  the  space 
of  a  thousand  years ;  an  idea  derived 
from  a  passage  in  the  20th  chap,  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  not  uncommonly  enter- 
tained by  Christians  in  all  ages,  but  es- 
pecially in  the  times  of  the  primitive 
church.  The  opinion  seems  to  be  traced 
as  far  back  as  to  Papias,  a  father  of  the 
second  century.  It  is  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  among  the  writers  of  that  and 
the  succeeding  ages ;  was  maintained  by 
Justin  Martyr,  Irenreus,  Tertullian,  and 
many  others,  and  powerfully  refuted  by 
Origen. 

MIiME,  the  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  at  once  to  a  species 
of  dramatic  entertainment,  and  to  the 
authors  and  actors  by  whom  it  was  re- 
spectively composed  and  performed.  It 
consisted  chiefly  of  a  rude  representation 
of  common  life,  and  resembled  the  mod- 
ern farce  or  vauileville  in  its  character 
and  accompaniments.  Sophron  of  Syr- 
racuse,  who  lived  about  400  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  is  considered  the 
inventor  of  this  species  of  composition. 
His  pieces  were  read  even  with  pleasure 
by  Plato,  who  is  said  to  have  introduced 
this  kind  of  dramatic  entertainment  into 
Athens. 

MIME'SIS,  in  rhetoric,  imitation  of 
the  voice  and  gestures  of  another  person. 

MIXD,  the  intellectual  or  intelligent 
power  in  man.  "  When  the  mind,"  says 
Mr.  Locke,  "  turns  its  view  inward  upon 
itself,  thinking  is  the  first  idea  that  oc- 
curs ;  wherein  it  observes  a  great  variety 
of  modifications,  whence  it  frames  to  itself 
distinct  ideas.  Thus  the  perception  an- 
nexed to  any  impression  on  the  body  by 
an  e.xternal  object,  is  called  sensation; 
when  an  idea  recurs  without  the  presence 
of  the  object,  it  is  called  remembrance  ; 


when  sought  after  by  the  mind,  and  again 
brought  into  view,  it  is  recollection  ;  when 
the  ideas  are  taken  notice  of,  and,  as  it 
were,  registered  in  the  memory,  it  is  at- 
tention ;  when  the  mind  &xes  its  view  on 
any  one  i<lea,  and  considers  it  on  all  sides, 
it  is  called  study. 

MIXER'VA,  the  Latin  goddess  corres- 
ponding to,  and  confounded  witii,  the 
(irecian  Pallas  or  Athena.  She  was 
fabled  to  have  sprung  in  full  armor  from 
the  forehead  of  her  father  Jupiter.  Mi- 
nerva was  worshipped  as  th6  goddess  of 
wisdom,  and  the  patroness  of  industry 
and  the  arts.  Athens,  the  city  to  which 
she  gave  name,  was  her  favorite  spot ; 
and  there  her  worship  was  celebrated  with 
great  splendor,  and  the  magnificent  tem- 
ple, the  Parthenon,  erected  to  her  honor. 

MINERVA'LIA,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
festivals  celebrated  in  honor  of  Minerva, 
in  the  month  of  March;  at  which  time 
the  scholars  had  a  vacation,  and  usua'.'y 
made  a  present  to  their  masters,  called 
from  this  festival  minerral. 

MINIATURE,  a  representation  of  na- 
ture on  a  very  small  scale.  Miniature 
painting  is  generally  executed  on  ivorj'; 
and  is.  as  to  composition,  drawing,  and 
finishing,  subject  to  the  same  laws  as 
Painting. 

MIN'IM,  in  music,  a  note  equal  to  two 
crotchets,  or  half  a  semibreve. 

MIN'IMS,  a  religious  order  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  founded  by  St.  Francis 
de  Paula,  towards  the  end  of  the  15th 
century. 

MIN'ISTER,  the  pastor  of  a  church, 
duly  authorized  to  perform  religious  wor- 
ship in  public,  administer  the  sacraments, 
&a  — In  politics  one  to  whom  a  sovereign 
prince  intrusts  the  administration  of  the 
government ;  as,  a  minister  of  state  :  the 
prime  minister ;  or  n  foreign  minister. 
— In  the  llniterl  States,  no  minister  (or 
secretary,  in  the  language  of  our  govern- 
ment) can  be  chosen  either  representative 
or  senator. —  Foreign  minister,  a  person 
sent  from  one  government  to  another,  and 
accredited  to  the  latter,  in  order  to  trans- 
act public  business  in  the  name  of  his 
government 

MIN'NEIIOFE,  the  name  given  by 
the  Germans  to  the  courts  of  love,  so  fa- 
mous in  the  history  of  chivalry.  The  sub- 
jects brought  before  these  courts  were 
chiefly  connected  with  the  Romantic  gal- 
lantry of  the  period,  and  co-Asisted  either 
of  questions  proposed  with  th(!  view  to 
entrap  the  judges  into  some  awkward  de- 
cision ;  or  of  serious  complaints,  resulting 
from  affairs  of  the  heart  which  were  dis- 


40t> 


CVCI.()I'1;D1A     of     LIlKliAllKE 


[min 


cussed  and  decided  u|)i)n  willi  all  the  fur- 
mality  of  a  court  of  law.  These  minne- 
hole  were  fur  a  long  period  looked  u]ioii 
as  forming  an  indispensable  part  in  all 
chivalrous  exercises.  Knights,  ladies,  and 
poets  participated  alike  in  their  proceed- 
ings ;  and  large  collections  of  their  de- 
cisions are  still  extant.  A  certain  num- 
ber of  ladies,  remarkable  at  once  for  per- 
sonal and  mental  attractions,  acted  as 
judges  in  these  courts  :  the  fair  sex  also 
eonducted  the  proceedings  as  counsel,  at- 
torneys-general, and  solicitors-general, 
Ac. ;  and  they  were  attended  by  a  nume- 
rous train  of  nobles,  knights,  and  others, 
who  were  invested  by  the  court  with  gra- 
dations of  rank  and  precedency  analogous 
to  those  conferred  bv  the  sovereign. 

MIN'NESINGERS,  the  most  ancient 
school  of  German  poets,  whose  name  is 
derived  from  the  old  (ierinan  word  minne 
(lore.)  The  songs  and  fame  of  the  I'ro- 
vcnfal  troubadours  appear  to  have  pen- 
etrated into  Germany  under  the  first 
emperors  of  the  house  of  HohenstauiTen  ; 
in  whose  time  the  crusades  and  the  fre- 
quent Italian  wars  combined  to  bring 
their  nation,  seated  as  it  is  in  the  centre 
of  Europe,  to  closer  communication  with 
those  surrounding  it.  The  minnesingers 
imitated  in  German  the  strains  of  those 
early  poets,  and,  like  them,  made  love 
their  principal  subject ;  which  was  cele- 
*t)rated  with  much  of  pedantry  and  false 
•conceits,  but,  at  the  same  time,  not  with- 
out generous  and  chivalric  feeling.  The 
verses  of  the  minnesingers  are  in  the  old 
5wabian  dialect  of  tlie  high  German, 
which,  under  the  Hohenstautfens,  them- 
selves of  Swabian  race,  was  the  court  lan- 
guage. As  was  the  case  with  the  trouba- 
dours, the  minnesingers  belonged  to  two 
diiferent  classes  :  there  were  among  them 
many  knights,  princes,  and  even  sove- 
reigns ;  while  there  was  also  another  class 
of  more  professional  poets — wandering 
minstrels,  who  attached  themselves  to 
the  perscms  of  the  distinguished  chiefs,  or 
wandered  from  court  to  court.  The  oldest 
of  the  minnesingers  known  to  us  is  Henry 
of  Veldeck,  about  1170.  During  the  re- 
mainder of  tlie  12th  ami  first  half  of  the 
mth  century,  this  school  of  poets  flourish- 
ed ;  afterwarils  it  gradually  declined,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  less  chivalrous  and  \ 
homelier  school  of  the  master-singers,  j 
We  possess  the  names  of  more  than  300 
jioets,  and  pieces  of  the  composition  of  a 
large  ])roportion  of  them,  who  sang  during 
the  short  period  in  (|uestion.  1 

Afl'NOR,  in  law,  an  heir  male  or  fe-  , 
male,  under  the  age  of  twenty-one. — In  | 


logic,  the  second  proposition  of  a  regular 
syllogism. — In  music,  signifies /ess,  and  ia 
ap])lied  to  certain  concords  or  intervals 
which  <litrer  from  others  of  the  same  de- 
nomination by  half  a  tone. 

MI^'UK'lf  Y,  in  law,  a  state  of  being 
underage.  Also  the  smaller  number  of 
persons  who  give  their  votes  on  any  ques- 
tions, jjarticularly  in  parliament  :  oppos- 
ed to  majoritij. 

MI'KOS,  in  mythological  historj-,  was 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Europa,  and  king  of 
Crete,  and  so  celebrated  as  a  lawgiver  on 
earth  that  after  his  death  he  was  appoint- 
ed judge  of  the  infernal  regions,  in  which 
office  he  was  associated  with  iEacus  and 
Rhadamanthus. 

MIN'OTAUR,  afabled  monster  of  clas- 
sical antiquity,  half  man  and  half  bull, 
frequently  mentioned  by  the  poets. 

^IIN'STER,  was  anciently  applied  only 
to  the  church  of  a  monastery  or  convent ; 
and  forms  the  termination  of  the  name  of 
many  places  in  England  in  which  such 
churches  formerly  existed,  as  Westmin- 
ster, Leominster,  Ac,  It  is  sometimes, 
but  incorrectly,  used  in  common  language 
to  signify  a  cathedral  church. 

MIN'STRELS,  defined  by  Percy  ns  an 
order  of  men  in  the  middle  ages  who  sub- 
sisted by  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music, 
and  sang  to  the  harp  verses  composed  by 
themselves  or  others.  They  appear  to 
have  been  the  successors  of  the  minne- 
singers, scalds,  and  bards  of  different 
European  nations,  wiio,  even  after  the 
age  of  chivalry  had  passed,  attempted  to 
gain  a  subsistence  by  practising  those 
arts  which  at  an  earlier  period  had  pro- 
cured fame  and  honor  for  their  predeces- 
sors. In  the  jiiping  times  of  peace,  the 
minstrel  sang  of  mimic  war  to  the  dull 
barons  of  dungeon  castles,  who  had  ears, 
although  they  could  not  read ;  who, 
doubly  steeped  in  the  ennui  of  wealth 
and  want  of  occupation,  listened  greedily, 
like  other  great  men,  to  their  own  praises. 
Minstrelsy  sujiplicd  the  lack  of  a  more 
refined  intellectual  entertainment  and  of 
rational  conversation,  as  professional 
gentlemen  do  now  at  civic  banquets  : 
their  harpings  lulleil  the  rude  Sauls  to 
sleep,  which  is  now  ilone  by  quarto  epics. 
The  person  of  the  minstrel  was  sacred  ; 
his  profession  was  a  passport  ;  ho  was 
"high  placed  in  hall  a  welcome  guest;" 
the  assumption  of  his  character  became 
the  disguise  of  lovers  of  adventure. 

MIN'UET,  a  dance  in  slow  time  and 
with  short  measured  steps,  which  re- 
quires great  dignity  and  grace  of  car- 
riage. 


mis] 


AND    THE    FINK    A  UTS. 


409 


MIN'UTE,  an  architectonic  measure  ; 
the  lower  diameter  of  a  column,  being 
dividoiJ  into  sixty  parts,  each  part  is  call- 
ed a  minute. 

M ['QUE LETS,  in  modern  history,  a 
species  of  partisan  troops  raised  in  the 
north  of  Spain,  and  chiefly  in  Catalonia. 
The  iniquelets  became  tirst  known  in  the 
wars  between  Spain  and  France  in  the 
17th  cantury.  At  several  periods  (in 
1689,  1789,  and  again  in  the  wars  of  Na- 
poleon) the  French  have  endeavored  to 
organize  similar  corps,  to  oppose  to  the 
miquelets  in  the  mountain  warfare  of 
those  districts. 

MER'ACLE,  an  event  or  effect  produced 
in  a  manner  different  from  the  common 
an. I  regular  methol  of  Providence,  by  the 
interposition  either  of  God  himself,  or 
some  superior  agent  to  whom  lie  delega- 
te 1  the  power.  Lord  Bacon  observes, 
that  a  miracle  was  never  wrought  by 
(jrod  to  convert  an  atheist,  because  the 
light  of  nature  might  have  led  him  to 
c  jnfess  a  God  :  but  miracles,  says  he,  are 
dasigned  to  convert  idolaters,  and  the  su- 
pjrstitious,  who  have  acknowledged  a 
deity,  but  erred  in  the  manner  of  adoring 
him  ;  because  no  light  of  nature  extends 
so  far  as  fully  to  declare  the  will  and 
true  worship  of  God. 

5I[ll'Z.\,  the  common  style  of  honor  in 
Persia,  when  it  precedes  the  surname  of 
an  individual.  When  appended  to  the 
surname  it  signifies  prince. 

MISAN'TIIROPY  signifies  a  general 
dislike  or  aversion  to  man  and  mankind  ; 
in  contradistinction  to  philanthroptj,  which 
means  the  love  of  our  species. 

MfS'CELLANY,  a  word  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  collection  of  literary  works  or 
treatises.  The  most  celebrated  collection 
of  works  known  by  this  name  \sCon>itable''s 
Miscellany . 

MISCH'NA,  or  MIS'NA,  the  code  or 
collection  of  the  civil  law  of  the  Jews. 
The  Jews  pretend,  that  when  God  gave 
tlie  written  law  to  Moses,  he  gave  liim 
also  another  not  written,  which  was  pre- 
served by  tradition  among  the  doctors  of 
the  synagogue,  till  through  their  disper- 
sion they  were  in  danger  of  departing 
from  the  traditions  of  their  fathers,  when 
it  was  judged  proper  to  commit  them  to 
writing. 

MISDEMEAN'OR,  in  law,  a  minor 
oTence,  or  one  of  less  magnitude  than 
that  which  is  generally  designated  a 
crime,  the  latter  being,  in  common  usage, 
male  to  denote  an  offence  of  a  more 
atrocious  character. 

MISERE'RE,  the  50th  Psalm,  1th  of 


the  Penitential  Psalms,  is  that  designated 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  church  under  this 
word,  on  ncoount  of  its  first  words  (in 
the  Vulgate  tran.slation,  "miserere  mei 
Deus,  secundum  inagnam  miscricordiutii 
tuam.")  It  is  the  usual  psalm  appointed 
for  acts  of  penitence  and  mortification. 

MISNO'MER,  in  law,  a  misnaming  or 
mistaking  a  person's  name.  The  (chris- 
tian name  of  a  person  should  aUvays  bo 
perfect,  but  the  law  is  not  so  strict  in  re- 
gard to  surnames,  a  small  mistake  in 
which  will  be  overlooked. 

MISPRIS'ION,  in  law,  any  high  of- 
fence under  the  degree  of  capital,  but 
bordering  thereon. — Misprision  of  trea- 
son consists  in  a  bare  knowledge  and  con- 
cealment of  treason,  without  assenting  to 
it.  Misprisions  are  called  negative,  when 
they  consist  in  the  concealment  of  some- 
thing that  ought  to  be  revealed  ;  and 
positive,  when  they  consist  in  the  com- 
mission of  something  which  ought  not  to 
be  done. 

MIS'SAL,  in  the  Romish  church,  the 
book  which  contains  the  prayers  anrl 
ceremonies  of  the  Mass.  Some  early 
missals  are  beautifully  executed,  and  are 
objects  of  bibliomania. 

MISSA'LIA,  the  money  paid  to  a 
Catholic  priest  for  a  mass  read  for  the 
dead. 

MISSIL'IA,  in  antiquity,  were  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  largesses  thrown  among  the 
Roman  people,  such  as  small  coins  of 
gold  or  silver,  sweetmeats,  &c. 

MIS'SIO,  among  the  Romans,  was  ii 
full  discharge  given  to  a  soldier  after 
twenty  years'  service,  and  differed  from 
the  e.vaiictoratio.  which  was  a  discharge 
from  duty  after  seventeen  years'  service. 
—  Missi  also  signified  a  rescue  sent  by  the 
emperor  or  person  who  exhibited  the 
games,  to  a  wounded  gladiator. 

MISSIONARIES,  all  religious  com- 
munities, from  the  earliest  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity, have  endeavored  to  propagate 
their  tenets,  not  by  the  force  of  arms,  but 
by  the  persuasive  precepts  of  the  Gospel ; 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  corner  of  the 
habitable  globe  which  has  not  been  pene- 
trated by  men  expressly  sent  out  to  carry 
its  glad  tidings  to  pagan  nations.  Fore- 
most among  the  Protestant  countries 
which  have  thus  distinguished  themselves 
are  the  United  States  and  England. 

MIS'SIONS,  stations  of  missionaries 
in  infidel  countries.  In  geography,  the 
extensive  districts  formerly  under  the 
control  of  missionaries  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  on  the  borders  of  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  settlements  in  America,  were 


410 


C'YCI.OPKDIA    OF    LITERATI' KK 


MOD 


80  called  These  missionaries  chiefly 
belonged  to  the  orders  of  the  Ciipuchins, 
Doniiiiieans,  and  Jesuits  ;  but  the  latter 
were  the  most  celebrated  and  the  most 
successful.  Their  settlements  in  Para- 
guay comprehended  a  vast  province, 
which  they  governed  with  independent 
authority  :  in  IJrazil  they  had  also  exten- 
sive districts  urider  their  contnd.  The 
downfall  of  the  order  was  followed  by 
the  destruction  of  these  settlements. 

MlTilUAS,  the  grand  deity  of  the 
I'eisiaiis,  sujiposed  to  be  the  sun  or  god 
HI  tiie,  to  which  Ihey  paid  adoration  as  ihe 
juirest  emblem  of  the  divine  es.sence. 

JI  I'TIIA,  in  antiquity,  a  cap  or  cover- 
ing for  the  head,  worn  by  the  Roman 
ladies,  somctinics  by  the  men,  but  it  was 
looked  upon  as  a  mark  of  effeminiicy  in 
them,  especially  when  it  was  tied  upon 
their  heads.  Amongst  the  Greeks,  mitra 
was  a  piece  of  defensive  armor  made  of 
brass,  lined  with  wool,  and  worn  next  to 
the  skin,  under  the  coat  of  mail. 

Ml'TRE,  a  sacerdotal  ornnm en t  worn  on 
the  head  by  bishops  and  certain  abbots  on 
solemn  occasions;  being  a  sort  of  cap. 
pointed  and  cleft  at  top.  The  high  priest 
among  the  Jews  wore  a  mitre  or  bonnet 
on  his  head. 

MITTIMUS,  in  law,  a  precept  or  com- 
mand in  writing  under  the  hand  ami  seal 
of  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  other  proper 
officer,  directed  to  the  gaoler  or  keeper 
of  a  prison,  for  the  receiving  and  safe 
keeping  of  an  offender  charged  with  any 
crime  until  he  be  delivered  by  due  course 
of  law. 

MNEMON'ICS,  the  art  of  assisting 
the  memory — an  art  which,  when  founded 
on  a  simple  system,  is  of  incalculable 
use  to  all  persons,  but  more  especially  to 
those  who  wish  to  study  history  and  the 
sciences  to  advantage.  The  ancients 
were  well  acquainted  with  mnemonics; 
according  to  some,  the  science  came  from 
the  East  to  the  Greeks;  others  consider 
the  poet  Simonides  as  the  inventor  of 
thera. — The  principal  difficulty  in  attain- 
ing a  competent  knowledge  of  history, 
consists  in  retaining  the  dates  of  the 
several  epoehas,  eras,  Ac,  to  which  the 
principal  occurrences  in  history  belong  ; 
but  this  difficulty  is  considerably  obviated 
by  the  employment  of  modern  systems 
of  mnemonics. 

MXH.MOS'YNE,  in  classical  mytholo- 
gy, the  goddess  of  memory  :  daughter, 
according  to  the  genealogi.sts,  of  Uranus 
(Heaven)  and  Gaia  (Eiirtli,)  and  mother, 
by  Jupiter,  of  the  Nine  Muses.  Her 
statues  usually  ha\e  the  figure  enveloped 


in  long  and  ample  draper}-,  and  the  right 
hand  raised  towards  the  chin. 

MOAT,  a  ditch  made  round  the  old 
castles,  aniJ  iilled  with  water.  The  moat 
surrounding  a  military  fortress  of  modern 
construction  (or  the  ditch)  is  left  dr^' ; 
but  where  it  is  enpable  of  inundation  at 
pleasure,  this  circumstance  is  considered 
an  adv;intage  to  the  system  of  defence. 

!MOI)E,  a  term  uscl  by  Locke  to  de- 
note "such  complex  ideas,  which,  how- 
ever compounded,  contain  not  in  them 
the  supposition  of  subsisting  by  them- 
selves, but  are  considered  as  dependences 
on,  or  affections  of,  substances.  '  Of  these 
modes  there  are  two  kinds,  simple  and 
mixed.  Simple  modes  are  "only  varia- 
tions or  difllcrent  combinations  of  the 
same  simple  ide^i,  without  the  mixture 
of  any  other,  as  a  dozen  or  a  score,  which 
are  nothing  but  the  ideas  of  so  many 
distinct  units  added  together."  Mixed 
modes  are  those  "compounded  of  simple 
ideas  of  several  kinds  put  together  to 
make  one  complex  one — e.  g,  beauty ; 
and  consisting  of  a  certain  composition 
of  color  and  figure,  causing  delight  in  the 
beholder."  The  term  is  now  universally 
laid  aside  by  writers  on  mental  philoso- 
phy.— In  music,  a  regular  disposition  of 
the  air  and  accompaniments  relative  to 
certain  principal  sounds,  on  which  a 
piece  of  music  is  formed,  and  which  are 
called  the  essential  sounds  of  the  mode. 
In  the  earliest  Greek  music  there  were 
only  three  modes,  but  various  new  modes 
were  afterwarils  added.  The  moderns, 
however,  only  reckon  two  modes,  the 
major  and  minor.  The  major  mode  is 
that  division  of  the  octave  by  which  the 
intervals  between  the  third  and  fourth, 
and  seventh  and  eighth,  become  half- 
tones, and  all  the  other  intervals  whole 
tones.  The  minor  mode  is  that  division 
by  which  the  intervals  between  the  second 
and  third,  and  fifth  and  sixth,  become 
half-tones,  and  all  the  others  whole 
tones. — In  logic,  the  form  or  manner  of  a 
syllogism  with  respect  to  the  quantity 
and  (luaiit  V  of  its  constituent  propositions. 

MOD'EL,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  that  which 
is  an  object  of  imitation. — In  painting 
and  sculpture,  it  is  the  individual  whom 
the  artist  procures  for  getting  up  his 
proportions,  details,  pbiy  of  the  mus- 
cles, ifec. — Also  in  sculpture,  it  is  the  term 
applied  to  the  small  sketch  in  wax  or 
clay  for  a  work  of  art. — In  architecture, 
it  is  a  small  pattern  in  relief,  either  of 
wood,  plaster,  or  other  material,  of  the 
building  proposed  to  be  executed. 

MOD'ELLINQ,  in  the   Fine  Arts,  the 


mol] 


AM)    Till-:    FINE    AllTS. 


411 


art  of  making  a  mouM  from  which  works 
in  plaster  are  to  bo  ciiyt ;  also  used  for 
the  forming  in  clay  of  the  design  itself. 

MOD'EKATES,  the  name  given  to  a 
party  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  which 
arose  early  in  the  eighteenth  centurj', 
claimed  the  character  of  moderation  in 
doctrine,  discipline,  and  church  govern- 
ment, and  which  has  continued  to  exist 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  vigor  down 
to  the  present  time. 

MOD'ERATOR,  a  person  who  presides 
iit  a  public  assembly,  to  propose  ques- 
tions, preserve  order,  and  regulate  the 
proceedings. 

MODERNS,  those  who  have  lived  in 
times  recently  passed,  or  are  now  living; 
opposed  to  the  ancients.  The  term  is 
especially  applied  to  those  of  modern 
nations,  or  of  nations  which  arose  out  of 
the  ruins  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  em- 
pires, the  people  of  which  are  called 
the  .ancients. 

MODIFICA'TION,  ir.  philosophy,  that 
which  modifies  a  thing,  or  gives  it  this  or 
that  manner  of  being.  Quantity  and 
quality  are  accidents  which  modify  all 
bodies.  According  to  S])inosa's  system, 
all  the  beings  that  compose  the  universe 
are  only  so  many  different  modifications 
of  one  and  the  same  sub.stance  ;  and  it 
is  the  different  arrangement  and  situa- 
tion of  their  parts,  that  make  all  the 
difference  between  them. 

MODIL'LIOX,  in  architecture,  an  or- 
nament sometimes  square  on  its  profile, 
and  sometimes  seroll-sh.Tped,  with  the  in- 
tervention of  one  or  two  small  horizontal 
members  placed  at  intervals  under  the 
corona  in  the  richer  orders.  They  should 
stand  centrally  over  columns  when  the 
latter  are  employed.  They  are  simplest 
in  the  Ionic  and  Composite  orders,  more 
carving  being  bestowed  on  them  in  the 
Corinthian  onler. 

iMODULATIOX,  in  music,  the  art  of 
composing  agreeable  to  the  laws  pre- 
scribed by  any  particular  key,  or  of 
changing  the  mode  or  key.  Also  the  reg- 
ular progression  of  several  parts  through 
the  sounds  that  arc  in  the  harmonj' of  any 
particular  key,  as  well  as  the  proceeding 
naturally  and  regularly  from  one  key  to 
another.  In  pieces  of  a  mild  and  quiet 
character,  it  is  not  proper  to  modulate  so 
often  as  in  those  which  have  to  e.xpress 
violent  and  great  passions.  Where  every- 
thing relating  to  expression  is  considered, 
modulation  also  must  be  so  determined  by 
the  expression,  that  each  single  idea  in 
the  melody  shall  appear  in  the  tone  that 
ig  most  proper  for  it. 


MOD'ULES,  in  architecture,  a  meas- 
ure equal  to  the  semi-diameter  of  a  Doric 
column.  It  is  a  term  only  applied  in  the 
Doric  order,  and  consists  of  thirtj'  min- 
utes. 

MO'DUS  OPERAN'DI,  aLatin  phra.=c, 
signifying  the  way  or  method  by  which 
an  operation  or  performance  of  any  kind 
is  0 fftj c t  G d . 

MOGRA'BIANS,  or  MEN  OF  THE 
WEST,  a  name  formerly  given  to  a  spe- 
cies of  Turkish  infantry,  composed  of  the 
peasants  of  the  northern  parts  of  Africa, 
who  sought  to  ameliorate  their  conditi(jn 
by  entering  into  foreign  service. 

MOGUL.  GREAT,  the  name  by  which 
the  chief  of  lue  empire  so  called,  founded 
in  Ilindostan  by  Baber,  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury, was  known  in  Europe.  The  last 
person  to  whom  this  title  of  right  be- 
longed was  Shah  Allum  ;  and  the  Jlogul 
cmjiire  having  terminated  at  his  death  in 
1806,  his  vast  possessions  fell  chiefly  into 
the  hands  of  the  East  India  Company. 

MOLE,  a  mound  or  massive  work 
formed  of  massive  stones  laid  in  the  sea 
by  means  of  coffer-dams,  extended  in  a 
right  line  or  as  an  arch  of  a  circle,  before 
a  port,  which  it  serves  to  defend  from  the 
violent  impulse  of  the  waves  ;  thus  pro- 
tecting ships  in  a  harbor.  The  word  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  harbor  itself. 
Among  the  Romans,  a  kind  of  mausoleum, 
built  like  a  round  tower  on  a  square  base, 
insulated,  encompassed  with  columns,  and 
covered  with  a  dome. 

MO'LINISM,  in  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ology, a  system  of  opinions  on  the  sub- 
jects of  grace  and  predestination  some- 
what resembling  that  advocated  by  the 
Arminian  party  among  Protestants.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  Jesuit  Louis 
Molina,  professor  of  theology  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Evora  in  Portugal. 

MOL'LAH,  the  title  of  the  higher  order 
of  judges  in  the  Turkish  empire.  After 
the  three  first  magistrates  of  the  empire 
follow  fourteen  niollahs,  who  preside  over 
the  fourteen  principal  seats  of  justice  in 
the  empire;  among  these,  the  mollahs 
of  Mecca  and  Medina  have  the  highest 
rank. 

MO'LOCH,  the  name  of  the  chief  god 
of  the  Phoenicians,  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture  as  the  God  of  the  Ammon- 
ites, and  probably  the  same  as  the  Saturn 
of  the  Syrians  and  Carthaginians.  Hu- 
man sacrifices  were  offered  at  the  shrine 
of  this  divinity;  and  it  was  chiefly  in  the 
valley  of  Tophet,  to  the  e.ast  of  Jerusa- 
lem, that  this  brutal  idolatry  was  perpe- 
trated. 


412 


rVCI.Ol'KDIA    OF     I.irERATfUE 


[mo; 


MOLOS'SUS,  in  Greek  and  Latin  poe- 
trj',  a  foot  consisting  of  three  long  sylla- 
bles, as  churchyard-wall. 

MO  -MIEKS,  the  name  by  which  cer- 
tain religionists  of  the  so-called  Evangel- 
ical party  have  been  designated  in  Swit- 
zerland, and  some  parts  of  France  and 
Germany,  since  181S. 

MO'XAU,  in  metaphysics,  this  word 
has  been  used  by  Leibnitz  and  his  follow- 
ers, partisans  of  what  has  been  called  the 
Monadic  Theory.  "  After  studying," 
says  Stewart,  "  with  all  ])ossible  diligeuce 
what  Leibnitz  has  said  of  his  monads  in 
different  parts  of  his  works,  I  find  myself 
quite  incompetent  to  annex  an_v  jirecise 
idea  to  the  word  as  he  employed  it."  He 
then  quotes  the  following  as  "  some  of  his 
most  intelligible  attempts  to  explain  his 
meaning:"  "  A  simple  substance  has  no 
parts  :  a  compound  substance  is  an  aggre- 
gate of  simple  substances,  or  of  monads  " 
"  Monads,  having  no  parts,  are  neither 
extended,  figured,  nor  divisible.  They 
are  the  real  atoms  of  nature;  in  other 
words,  the  elements  of  things." 

M0N'ARC1£Y,  the  government  of  a 
single  person.  Monarch  and  monarchy 
are  equivalent  in  common  speech  to  king 
and  kingdom  :  so  that  we  often  read  of 
the  Spartan  monarchs,  &c.,  although  the 
government  of  Sparta  was  under  a  double 
race  of  kings  reigning  at  the  same  time. 
Monarchies  are  usually  said  to  be  of  four 
kinds — -absolute,  limited,  hereditary,  and 
elective,  which  are  self-explanatory  terms. 
The  only  elective  monarchy  in  Europe 
was  that  of  Poland.  All  absolute  and 
limited  monarchies  have  adopted  the 
hereditary  principle. 

MON'.iSTERY,  the  general  name  for 
those  religious  houses  appropriated  to 
the  reception  and  miinten  ince  of  monks 
and  nuns,  but  especially  of  the  firmer. 

MOX'DAY,  the  second  day  of  the  week 
is  so  called,  and  means,  literally,  the  day 
of  the  moon.  Its  equivalents  in  Fr.  and 
Germ,  are  respectively  Lundi  and  Mon- 
tag,  signifying  also  daij  of  the  moon. 

MON'EY,  in  political  economy,  the 
name  given  to  the  comiuodity  ailopted  to 
serve  as  the  universal  equivalent  of  all 
other  commodities,  and  for  which  individ- 
uals readily  exchange  tiieir  surplus  pro- 
ducts or  services. 

MOVK,  a  man  who  retires  from  the 
ordinary  temporal  concerns  of  the  world, 
an  I  devotes  himself  to  religion.  Monks 
usually  live  in  monasteries,  on  entering 
which  they  take  a  vow  to  observe  certain 
rules  Some,  however,  live  as  hermits  in 
Bolitudo^  and  others  have  lived  a  strolling 


life  without  any  fixed  residence.  Monks 
are  distinguished  by  the  color  of  their 
habits  into  black,  white,  gray,  &c. 

MON'OCIIORI),  a  musical  instrument 
originally  having  but  one  string  as  its 
name  imports ;  but  it  is  now  generally 
constructed  with  two,  by  means  of  which 
the  musician  is  better  enabled  to  try  the 
proportions  of  sounds  and  intervals,  and 
judge  of  the  harmony  of  two  tempered 
notes. 

MOX'OCHROME,  an  ancient  mode  of 
painting  in  which  only  one  color  ia 
used.  The  most  numerous  monument? 
existing  of  this  kind  of  painting  are  on 
terra  eotta. 

iSION'ODY,  a  species  of  poem  of  a 
mournful  character,  in  which  a  single 
mourner  is  supposed  to  bewail  himself; 
thus  distinguished  from  those  pastoral 
elegies  which  are  in  the  form  of  dia- 
logues. 

MOXOG'AMY,  the  state  or  condition 
of  those  who  have  only  been  once  mar- 
ried, and  are  restrained  to  a  single  wife. 

MON'OGR.^M,  in  archeology,  a  char- 
acter or  cipher  composed  of  one,  two,  or 
more  letters  interwoven,  being  an  abbre- 
viation of  a  name  ;  anciently  used  as  a 
seal,  badge,  arms,  &e.  Printers,  engrav- 
ers, &c.,  formerly  made  use  of  monograms 
to  distinguish  their  works. 

MON'OGRAPH,  a  treatise  on  a  single 
subject  in  literature  or  science. 

MON'OLITII,  a  term  recently  intro- 
duced into  the  language,  to  signify  a 
pillar  or  other  large  substance  consisting 
of  a  single  stone.  Some  remarkable 
monoliths  have  been  found  in  Egypt  ; 
of  these,  the  zodiac  of  Denderah,  and  the 
obelisk  of  the  Luxor,  both  of  which  have 
been  removed  to  Paris,  are  well-known 
e.vainples. 

MONOLOGUE,  a  dramatic  scene,  in 
which  a  person  appears  alone  on  the 
stage,  and  soliloquizes. 

MONO.UA'XIA,  the  name  given  by 
some  physicians  to  that  form  of  mania 
in  which  the  mind  of  the  patient  is  ab- 
sorbed by  one  idea. 

MONOPH'YSLTE,  one  who  maintains 
that  Jesus  Christ  had  but  one  nature,  or 
that  the  human  and  the. divine  nature 
wore  so  united  as  to  form  one  nature 
only. 

MOXOP'OLl'',  an  exclusive  right,  se- 
cured to  one  or  more  persons,  to  carry  on 
some  branch  of  trade  or  manufacture, 
or  the  sole  power  of  vending  any  species 
of  goods,  obtained  either  by  engrossing 
the  articles  in  market  by  purchase,  or  by 
a  license  from  the  government.  The  most 


mor] 


AND    TlIK     KINK     A  UTS. 


413 


frequent  inonopolies  formerly  granted, 
were  the  right  of  trading  to  certain  for- 
eign countries,  the  rij^ht  of  i'nporting  or 
exporting  certain  artiides,  and  that  of  ex- 
ercising ])articular  arts  or  trades.  There 
is,  however,  one  species  of  monopoly, 
sanctioned  by  the  laws  of  all  countries 
that  have  made  any  advances  in  the  arts — 
the  exclusive  right  of  an  invention  or  im- 
provement for  a  limited  number  of  years. 

MON'OTHEISM,  the  doctrine  or  be- 
lief of  the  existence  of  one  God  only  :  op- 
posed to  polijt'ieism,  or  a  plurality  of 
gods. 

MON'OTONE,  in  rhetoric,  a  sameness 
of  sound,  or  the  utterance  of  successive 
syllables  on  one  unvaried  key,  without 
infliction  or  cadence. 

MOXSEKJ'XEUR,  a  title  of  courtesy 
in  France,  which  was  prefixed  to  the  titles 
of  dukes  and  peers,  archbishops,  bishops, 
and  some  other  exalted  personages,  and 
used  in  addressing  them.  Monseigaeur 
simply  was,  before  the  Revolution,  the 
title  given  to  the  dauphin.  Monsieur  is 
now  the  common  title  of  courtesy  and 
respect  in  France. 

MONT  DE  PIETE,  the  name  given  on 
some  parts  of  the  Continent  to  certain 
benevolent  institutions,  established  for 
the  purpose  of  lending  money  to  the  poor 
at  a  moderate  rate  of  interest.  They 
originated  under  the  papal  government 
in  the  15th  centurj',  and  were  intended  to 
countervail  the  exorbitant  usurious  prac- 
tices of  the  Jews,  who  formed  at  that  pe- 
riod the  great  money-lenders  of  Europe. 

MONUMENT,  "in  architecture,  a 
building  or  erection  of  any  kind,  destined 
to  preserve  the  memory  or  achievements 
of  the  person  who  raised  it,  or  for  whom 
it  was  raised  ;  as  a  triumphal  arch,  a 
laausoleum,  a  pyramid,  a  pillar,  a  tomb, 

MOOD,  (sometimes  written  mode,)  in 
grammar,  the  manner  of  forming  a  verb, 
or  the  manner  of  the  verb's  inflections,  so 
as  to  express  the  different  forms  and  man- 
ners of  the  action,  or  the  different  inten- 
tions of  the  speaker. 

MOOT'-CASE,  or  MOOT'-POINT,  an 
unsettled  point  or  question  to  be  mooted 
or  debated. 

MORAL'ITY,  the  duties  of  men  in  their 
social  character  ;  or  that  rule  of  conduct 
which  promotes  the  happiness  of  others, 
and  renders  their  welfare  accordant  with 
our  own.  This  implies,  that  our  acts 
must  proceed  from  a  motive  of  obedience 
to  the  divine  will. — The  term  morcilities 
was  given  to  a  kind  of  allegorical  plays, 
fornierlv  in  vogoc.  iiiid  which  consisted  of 


moral  discourses  in  praise  of  virtue  and 
condemnation  of  vice.  They  were  oc- 
casionally exhibited  as  late  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  after  various  modi- 
fications, assumeil  the  form  of  the  masque, 
which  became  a  favorite  entertainment  at 
the  court  of  Elizabeth  and  her  successor. 

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,  the  science 
of  manners  and  duty;  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  nature  and  condition  of  man 
as  a  social  being,  of  the  duties  which  re- 
sult from  his  social  relations,  and  the 
reasons  on  which  they  are  founded.  It 
is  denominated  a  science,  as  it  <leduces 
the  rules  of  conduct  and  duty  from  the 
principles  and  connections  of  our  nature, 
and  pro-ves  that  the  observance  of  them 
is  productive  of  our  happiness.  It  is 
likewise  called  an  art  as  it  contains  a 
system  of  rules  for  becoming  virtuous 
and  happy;  and  whoever  practises  these 
rules  attains  an  habitual  power  or  facil- 
ity of  becoming  virtuous  and  happy.  It 
is  an  art  and  a  science  of  the  highest  dig- 
nity, importance,  and  use.  Its  object  is 
man's  dut}',  or  his  conduct  in  the  several 
moral  capacities  and  connections  which 
he  sustains.  Its  office  is  to  direct  our 
conduct,  to  show  whence  our  obligations 
arise,  and  where  they  terminate.  Its 
use  or  end  is  the  attainment  of  happiness, 
and  the  means  it  employs  are  rules  for 
the  right  conduct  of  our  moral  powers. 
Like  natural  philosophy,  it  appeals  to 
nature  or  faet  ;  it  <lepends  on  observa- 
tion, and  it  builds  its  reasonings  on  plain 
incontrovertible  experiments,  or  upon  the 
fullest  induction  of  particulars  which  the 
subject  will  admit.  The  terms,  moral 
philosoplnj,  moral  science,  and  viorals, 
are  synonymous,  though  some  writers 
have  employed  them  improperly  to  <le- 
note  the  whole  field  of  knowledge,  relat- 
ing primarily  to  the  mind  of  man,  thus 
giving  them  a  signification  co-extensive 
with  the  word  metaphysics. 

iMORAL  SENSE,  an  innate  or  natural 
sense  of  right  and  wrong ;  an  instinctive 
perception  of  what  is  right  or  wrong  in 
moral  conduct,  which  approves  some  ac- 
tions and  disapproves  others,  independent 
of  education  or  the  knowledge  of  any  pos- 
itive rule  or  law.  But  the  existence  of 
any  such  moral  sense  is  very  much 
doubted. 

MORA'YIANS,    otherwise    called 

IlEnNHUTTERS,   Or  UNITED    BRETHREN,    0. 

sect  of  Christians,  amimg  whom  social 
polity  makes  a  figure  as  conspicuous,  at 
least,  as  religious  doctrine.  The  United 
Brethren  are  much  attached  to  instru- 
I  mental  as  well  as  vocal  music;  celebrate 


414 


CVtI.OI  KlJlA     OF     LirEllATlUE 


[M 


MOT 


ngapae  or  love  feasts  ;  anil  c;i?t  luts,  to 
discover  the  will  of  the  Lord.  These 
people  live  in  eoraniunilies,  and  provide 
for  their  poor;  but  do  not  ni:ike  a  com- 
mon stock  of  their  property.  They  wear 
a  plain,  uniform  dress,  and  are  extremely 
methodical  in  all  their  concerns. 

MORBIDEZ'ZA,  delicacy  or  softness 
of  style,  as  opposed  to  anything  harsh, 
hard,  or  angular.  This  word  is  more 
particularly  applicable,  in  painting  and 
sculpture,  to  representations  of  human 
flesh  and  its  characteristics. 

MOR'DEXTE,  in  music,  a  grace  in 
use  by  the  Indian  school,  which  is  effected 
by  turning  upon  a  note  without  using 
the  note  below. 

MORESQUE',  in  painting,  a  species 
of  ornamental  painting,  in  which  foliage, 
fruits,  dowers,  &c.,  are  combined,  by 
springing  out  of  each  other,  without  the 
introduction  of  the  human  figure,  or  that 
of  any  animals ;  and  receiving  its  name 
from  having  been  much  used  by  the 
Moors,  who,  however,  were  not  the  in- 
ventors of  it. 

MORGANAT'IC  MAR'RIAGE, 
or  Left-handed  Marriage,  a  marriage  be- 
tween a  man  of  superior  and  a  woman  of 
inferior  rank,  in  which  it  is  stipulated 
that  the  latter  and  her  children  shall  not 
enjoy  the  rank  or  inherit  the  possessions 
of  her  husband.  Such  marriages  are  not 
uncommon  in  the  families  of  sovereign 
princes,  and  of  the  higher  nobility  in 
Germany  ;  but  they  are  restricted  to  per- 
sonages of  these  exalted  classes. 

MOR'ION,  a  kind  of  helmet  copied  by 
the  Spaniards  from  the  Moors. 

MOR'PHEUS,  in  ancient  mythology, 
the  god  of  dreams;  the  son  of  Somnus,  who 
presided  over  sleep,  with  whom  he  is  fre- 
quently confounded.  The  chief  distinc- 
tion between  them  appears  to  be  this  : 
Morpheus  had  the  power  of  assuming 
only  the  human  shape,  while  the  trans- 
formations of  Somnus  were  unlimited. 
He  is  generally  represented  as  a  beautiful 
youth,  with  a  bunch  of  poppies  in  his  hand, 
MORTALITY,  BILLS  OF.  Bills  of 
Mortality  are  extracts  from  official  regis- 
ters, showing  the  numbers  who  have  died 
in  some  fixed  perioil  of  time,  as  a  year,  a 
month,  or  a  week;  and  hence  they  are 
called  voarly,  monthly,  or  weekly  bills. 

MORT'G  AGE,  literally,  a  dead  pledge  ; 
the  grant  of  an  estate  in  fee  as  security 
for  the  p:iymotit  of  money,  and  on  the 
condition  tliat  if  the  money  shall  be  paid 
according  to  the  contract,  the  grant  shall 
be  void,  and  the  mortgagee  sliall  recon- 
vey  the  estate  to  the  mortgager. 


MORT'MAIN,  in  law,  an  alienation 
of  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments,  to 
any  corporation,  sole  or  aggregate,  guild, 
or  fraternity.  The  foundation  of  the 
statutes  of  mortmain  is  Magna  Charta; 
by  which  it  was  rendered  unlawful  for 
any  one  to  give  his  lands  to  a  religious 
house,  <tc.  in  order  to  take  them  back 
again  to  hold  of  the  same  house  ;  which 
was  extended,  by  interpretation,  so  as 
to  annul  gifts  of  lands  which  religious 
houses  did  not  give  back  to  the  donor 
to  his  own  use,  but  kept  in  their  own 
hands  after  taking. 

MOSA'IC,  in  painting,  a  species  of 
representation  of  objects  by  means  of 
very  minute  pieces  of  stones  or  pebble; 
of  different  colors,  carefully  inlaid  upon 
a  ground  generally  of  metal.  In  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome  are  to  be  seen  some 
works  of  this  sort  on  a  magnificent  scale. 
This  art  was  practised  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  was  re-introduced  to  Italy 
by  the  Byzantine  Greeks. 

iMOSQUE,  a  Mahometan  temple,  or 
place  of  religious  worship.  All  mosques 
are  square  buildings,  generally  construct- 
ed of  stone,  in  the  Moresque  or  Saracenic 
style  of  architecture.  Before  the  chief- 
gate  is  a  square  court  paved  with  white 
marble,  and  surrounded  with  a  low  gal- 
lery whose  roof  is  supported  by  marble 
pillars.  In  these  galleries  the  Turks 
wash  themselves  before  they  enter  the 
mosque. 

MOTET',  in  music,  a  composition  con- 
sisting of  from  one  to  eight  parts,  of  a 
sacred  character. 

MOTION,  in  painting  and  sculpture, 
the  change  of  place  or  position  which 
from  certain  attitudes  a  figure  seems  to 
be  making  in  its  representatiim  in  a 
picture.  It  can  be  only  im])lied  from  the 
attitude  which  prepares  the  animal  for 
the  given  change,  and  diflTers  from  action, 
which  see.  Upon  motion  in  art,  depends 
that  life  which  seems  to  pervade  a  picture 
when  executed  by  a  muster. — In  music, 
the  manner  of  beating  the  measure  so  as 
to  hasten  or  retard  the  pronunciation  of 
the  words  or  notes. 

MO'TION  IN  COURT,  in  law,  an 
occasional  application  to  the  court,  by 
the  parties  or  their  counsel,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  some  rule  or  order  of 
court  which  becomes  necessary  in  the 
progress  of  a  cause.  Motions  are  either 
of  a  criminal  nature,  as  motions  for  an 
attiichment  for  a  misbehaviiu- ;  or  of  a 
civil  nature.  Motions  are  accompanied 
by  affidavits  stating  the  facts  on  which 
they  arc  grounded,  and  generally  prcce 


mun] 


AND     rilE    FINE    ARTS. 


415 


Jed  by  a  notice  to  the  opposito  party. 
In  any  public  assembly,  the  proposing  of 
any  matter  for  the  consideration  of  those 
present. 

MOT'TO,  is  used  to  signify  a  woril  or 
sentence  added  to  a  device  ;  ami  when  put 
upon  a  scroll,  it  is  commonly  employed 
as  an  external  ornament  of  coat  armor. 
The  use  of  mottoes  for  this  purpose  is 
very  ancient.  The  term  motto  is  also 
applied  as  a  sentence  or  quotation  pre- 
fixed to  any  writing  or  publication. 

MOULUTNG.S,  in  architecture,  certain 
projections  beyond  the  bare  wall,  column, 
Ac,  an  assemblage  of  which  forms  a 
cornice,  or  other  decoration. 

MOUNT'ING,  the  act  of  straining  a 
print  or  drawing  upon  canvass,  or  of  pla- 
cing it  upon  an  ornamental  frame. 

MOVABLE  FEA.STS,  certain  festi- 
vals held  in  commemoration  of  different 
events  recorded  in  the  Gospel.?  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  connected  with 
the  personal  circumstances  of  Christ  du- 
ring the  last  year  of  his  earthly  life,  and 
after  his  death.  As  they  are  reckoned 
backward  and  forward  from  his  resur- 
rection, and  as  the  celebration  of  that 
day  depends  on  the  time  of  new  moon, 
which  varies  at  different  times  through 
the  space  of  a  month,  these  dependent 
festivals  also  vary  in  the  same  w.iy. 
Easter  is  always  the  first  Sunday  after 
the  first  new  moon  after  the  21st  of 
March;  and  from  thi:^  all  the  others  are 
reckoned  for  each  year. 

MOVE'MENT, 'in  politics,  an  expres- 
sion that  has  been  adopted  of  late  j-ears 
into  the  political  vocabulary  of  most  Eu- 
ropean nations,  signifying  that  party  in 
a  state  whose  principles  consist  in  a  rest- 
less endeavor  to  obtain  such  concessions 
in  favor  of  popular  rights  as  will  ulti- 
mately place  the  chief  functions  of  gov- 
ernment in  the  hands  of  the  people.  It 
is  opposed  to  the  Conservative  party. 

MUCK,  RUXXING  A,  a  phrase  Which 
has  been  adopted  into  the  English  lan- 
guage to  signify  an  indiscriminate  attack 
upon  friends  and  enemies.  This  expres- 
sion is  derive  1  from  the  Javan  word 
amok,  which  means  to  kill;  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Java,  and  many  other  of  the' 
Asiatic  islands,  being  romarkuble  for  an 
irresistible  phrnnsy  resulting  from  a  dc- 
site  of  vengeance,  which  leads  them  to 
aim  at  indiscriminate  destruction,  and  j 
thus  to  subject  themselves  to  be  treated 
like  wild  beasts  which  it  is  impossible  to 
take  alive. 

MI'EZ'ZIX,  or  MUED'DIN,  among  ' 
the  Mahometans,  the  crier  who  announces 


the  hour  of  prayer  from  the  minaret,  and 
reminds  the  faithful  of  their  duty. 

MUF'TI,  the  chief  priest  among  the 
Mussulman.*,  appointed  by  the  grand 
seignior  himself,  lie  is  the  oracle  in  all 
doubtful  questions  of  their  law. 

MUGGLETO'XIAXS,  a  religious  sect 
which  arose  in  England,  about  the  year 
1657;  so  denominated  from  their  lender 
Ludowic  Muggleton,  a  tailor,  who,  with 
his  associate  Reeves,  asserted  that  they 
were  the  two  last  witnesses  of  God  men- 
tioned in  the  Revelations. 

MULATTO,  a  term  in  general  use  in 
American  countries,  in  which  there  exists 
a  mixed  population  of  different  races  and 
colors,  for  the  offspring  of  a  union  be- 
tween a  white  and  a  negro. 

MUL'LIOX.  in 
architecture,  a  ver- 
tical division  be- 
tween the  lights  of 
windows,  screens, 
ifec,  in  Gothic  ar- 
ch'itL'cturc.  Mul- 
lions  are  rarely 
found  earlier  than 
the  early  Englisii 
style.  Their  mould- 
ings are  very  va- 
rious. Sometimes 
the  styles  in  wains- 
coting are  called 
mullions. 

MU'LIER,  in 
law,  a  married  wo- 
man, in  distinction  from  a  concubine. 
Also,  a  name  for  lawful  issue  born  in 
wedlock,  ft  ho  are  jireferred  before  an 
elder  brother  of  illegitimate  birth. 

MULTO'CA,  the'  name  given  to  the 
code  of  laws  by  which  the  Turkish  empire 
is  governed,  con.^isting  of  the  precepts 
contained  in  the  Koran,  the  oral  injunc- 
tions of  Mohammed,  and  the  decisions  of 
the  early  caliphs  and  doctors.  It  relates 
to  every  subject  of  life,  and  comprises 
various  matters  appertaining  to  govern- 
ment, the  sultan  being  the  sole  judge  of 
its  application  to  particular  cases. 

MUNl'CIPAL,  in  the  Roman  civil  law, 
an  epithet  which  signifies,  invested  with 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  Roman  citi- 
zens. Thus  the  municipal  cities  were 
those  whose  inhabitants  were  capable  of 
enjoying  civil  offices  in  the  city  of  Rome  ; 
though  the  greater  part  of  them  had  no 

suffrages  or  votes   there. In  modern 

times,  Municipal  law  pertains  solely  to 
the  citizens  ami  inhabitants  of  a  state, 
and  is  thu.s  distinguished  from  political 
law,  commercial  law,  and  the  laic  of  na- 


416 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF    LITKIIATU  HE 


[mD: 


tions.  And  those  are  called  municipal 
officers  who  are  elected  to  defend  the  in- 
terest of  citie.«,  to  maintain  their  rij^hts 
and  privileges,  and  to  preserve  order  mid 
harmony  among  the  citizens;  such  as 
mayors,  sheriffs,  aldermen,  &c. 

MU'NIMENTS,  in  law,  the  writings 
relating  to  a  person's  inheritance,  by 
which  he  is  enabled  to  defend  his  title  to 
his  estate  :  or,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
all  manner  of  evidences,  s.ich  as  charters, 
fcnfments,  releases,  Ac. 

MU'KAL  CROWN,  among  the  ancient 
Romans  a  golden  crown  or  circle  of  gold, 
indented  and  embattled,  bestowed  on  him 
who  first  mounted  the  wall  of  a  besieged 
place  and  there  planted  a  standard. 

MUR'DEll,  in  law,  the  wilful  and  felo- 
nious killing  a  person  from  premeditated 
malice  ;  provided  the  party  wounded  or 
otherwise  hurt,  die  within  a  year  and  a 
day  after  the  fact  be  committed.  To 
constitute  murder,  in  law,  the  person 
killing  another  must  be  of  sound  mind  or 
in  possession  of  his  reason,  and  the  act 
must  be  done  with  malice  prepense  and 
aforethought ;  but  malice  may  be  implied, 
as  well  as  expressed. 

MUR'ZAS,  the  name  given  to  the 
hereditary  nobility  of  the  Tartars,  or, 
more  strictly,  perhaps,  to  the  second  class 
of  their  nobility,  the  first  or  principal 
class  being  designated  beys. 

MU'SES,  in  the  poetry  of  the  ancients, 
personifications  of  the  various  branches 
of  delightful  exercises  in  which  human 
genius  displays  itself.  They  were  beau- 
tifully said  to  be  the  daughters  of  Jove 
and  Mnemosyne,  or  Memory;  and  they 
were  represented  as  companions  of  Apol- 
lo upon  Parnassus.  As  the  subject  was 
wholly  dependent  upon  the  fancy  of  the 
'poet,  it  was  not  always  treated  of 
alike.  Thus  according  to  some,  all  the 
functions  of  the  Muses  were  united 
in  three  persons ;  Mneme,  Aoede,  and 
Melete  ;  that  is,  Memory,  Song,  and 
Meditation;  but  it  was  more  usual  to 
reckon  nine,  and  to  name  them  as  follows  : 
Clio,  to  whom  thoy  attributed  the  inven- 
tion of  history  ;  Meljiomene,  the  inventor 
of  tragedy;  Thalia,  of  comedy  ;  Euterpe, 
of  the  use  of  the  Ihitc  ;  Tor|)siohore,  of 
the  harp;  Erato,  of  the  lyre  and  luti;; 
Calliope,  of  hcn-oic  verse  ;  Urania,  of 
astrology  ;  and  Polyhymnia,  of  rhetoric. 

Ml'SE'lJM,  a  place  sot  apart  as  a  re- 
pository for  curious,  valuable,  ami  inter- 
esting objects  connected  with  the  arts  and 
sciences,  more  especially  such  as  relate 
(o  natural  history.  TIk;  t(Min  was  origi- 
nally applied  to  a  r.tudy  or  a  place  set 


apart  for  learned  men  in  the  royal  palacti 
of  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy  Philadolphus 
who  founded  a  college,  and  gave  salaries 
to  the  several  members,  aiding  also  an 
extensive  library,  which  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  the  world. 

MU'SIC,  is  the  science  of  sounds,  con- 
sidered as  capable  of  producing  melody, 
and  agreeably  affecting  the  mind  by  a 
due  disposition,  combination,  and  propor- 
tion. It  treats  of  the  number,  time, 
division,  succession,  and  combination  of 
sounds.  It  is  divided  into  theoretical 
music,  which  inquires  into  the  properties 
of  concords  and  discords,  and  explains 
their  combinations  and  proportions  for 
the  production  of  melody  and  harmony ; 
and  practical  music,  which  is  the  art  of 
applying  the  theory  of  music  in  the  com- 
position of  all  sorts  of  tunes  and  airs. 
Music  is  also  either  vocal  or  instrumental. 
Vocal  music  is  the  meloily  of  a  single 
voice,  or  the  harmony  of  two  or  more 
voices  in  concert ;  instrumental  music  is 
that  produced  by  one  or  more  instru- 
ments. As  civilization  advances,  music, 
as  a  science,  gains  new  advocates;  and 
the  day  is  evidently  fast  approaching 
when  few  will  decry  music  on  the  ground 
that  its  effects  are  merely  sensual.  It  is 
addressed  to  the  ear,  indeed  ;  but  all  the 
influences  which  we  receive  from  without 
are  conveyed  through  the  medium  of  the 
senses ;  and  the  tones  of  music  often 
speak  a  language  to  the  soul  richer  in 
meaning  than  words  could  express. 
Nothing  is  merely  sensual  which  makes 
a  lasting  spiritual  impression  upon  ns ; 
and  those  who  deny  to  music  such  a 
power,  have  not  hearil  its  sublimest 
strains,  or  have  not  the  capacity  to  ap- 
preciate them.  With  regard  to  the  an- 
tiquity of  music,  it  appears  to  have  been 
almost  coeval  with  man.  Moses  tolls  us 
that  Jubal,  who  lived  before  the  flood, 
was  the  inventor  of  the  kinnor  and  the 
hugah,  i.  e.  the  harp  and  the  organ. 
The  Jews  were  fond  of  music  in  their  re- 
ligious ceremonies,  their  feasts,  their 
public  rejoicings,  their  marriages  and 
their  mournings.  Kings  and  great  men 
among  the  Jews  studied  music,  and  David 
iniide  a  very  great  proficiency  in  it.  In 
their  time,  indeed,  music  had  rcaehed 
its  highest  perfection  among  the  Hebrew 
nation,  and  part  of  their  religious  service 
consisted  in  chanting  solemn  psalms, 
with  instrumental  accompaniments. — 
The  invention  of  the  lyre  is  ascribed  to 
Hermes  Trismcgistus,  the  Mercury  of  the 
Egyptians,  which  is  a  proof  of  its  anti- 
quity ;  but  a  still  greater  proof  of  tho 


MYSJ 


AND    THE    FINE    A  UTS. 


417 


existence  of  musical  instruments  amongst 
them  at  a  very  early  period,  is  ilravvn 
from  the  figure  of  an  instrument  said  to 
be  represented  on  an  obelisk,  erected,  as 
's  supposed,  by  Sesostris  at  Heliopolis. 
The  Greeks,  we  know,  were  exceedingly 
fond  of  music.  It  had  a  considerable 
share  in  their  education  ;  and  so  great 
■was  its  influence  over  their  bodies  as  well 
as  their  minds,  that  it  was  thought  to  be 
a  remedy  for  many  disorders. 

MU'SICAL  GLASSES,  a  musical  in- 
strument consisting  of  a  number  of  glass 
goblets,  resembling  finger  glasses,  which 
are  tuned  by  filling  them  more  or  less 
with  water,  and  played  upon  with  the 
end  of  a  finger  damped. 

MIjS'SU'LMAN,  or  MOSLEM,  a  fol- 
lower of  Mahomet.  This  word  signifies, 
in  the  Turkish  language,  a  true  believer. 

MUSTER-ROLL,  a  specific  list  of  the 
officers  and  men  in  every  regiment,  troop, 
or  company,  made  out  by  the  adjutant, 
and  delivered  to  the  inspecting  field- 
officer  or  pay-master,  &c.,  by  which  they 
are  paid,  and  their  strength  and  condi- 
tion known. 

MUTE,  in  law,  a  person  that  stands 
speechless  when  he  ought  to  answer  or 
plead. — In  grammar,  a  letter  that  repre- 
sents no  sound.  Mutes  are  of  two  kinds  : 
the  pure  viutes  which  entirely  intercept 
the  voice,  as  k,  p,  and  t,  in  the  syllables, 
ek,  ep,  et :  and  the  impure  mutes,  which 
intercept  the  voice  less  suddenly,  as  b,  d, 
and  g,  in  the  syllables  eb,  ed,  eg. 

MUTES,  in  the  grand  seignior's  se- 
raglio, dumb  officers  who  are  sent  to  stran- 
gle, with  the  bow-string,  bashaws  or  other 
persons  who  fall  under  the  sultan's  dis- 
pleasure.^Jlfu^as,  among  undertakers, 
men  who  are  employed  to  stand  at  the 
door  of  the  deceased,  until  the  body  is 
carried  out. 

MU'TINY,  an  insurrection  of  soldiers 
or  seamen,  or  open  resistance  to  the  au- 
thority of  their  commanders.  Any  at- 
tempt to  excite  opposition  to  lawful  au- 
thority, or  disobedience,  of  commands,  is 
by  the  laws  of  most  nations  declared  to  be 
mutiny,  and  is  punishable  by  the  sentence 
of  a  court-martial. 

MU  ZARAB,  Christians  living  under 
the  government  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  ;  so 
called,  it  is  said,  from  an  Arabic  werd  signi- 
fying imitators  or  followers  of  the  Arabs. 

MYOLOGY,  the  doctrine  of  the  mus- 
cles. In  the  Fine  Arts,  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  a  description  of  the  muscles  of 
animals. 

MYRIORA'MA,  a  movable  picture, 
capable  of  forming  an  almost  endless  va- 
27 


riety  of  picturesque  scenes,  by  means  of 
several  fragments  or  sections  of  land- 
scapes on  cards,  which  may  be  placed  to- 
gether in  numberless  combinations. 

MYR'MIDONS,  in  classical  mytholo- 
gy, a  people  on  the  southern  borders  of 
Thessaly,  who  accompanied  Achilles  to 
the  Trojan  war. 

MYSTERY,  something  secret  or  con 
cealed,  impossible  or  difficult  to  compre 
hend.  All  religions,  true  or  false,  have 
their  mysteries.  In  the  religions  of  Pa 
gan  antiquity,  the  secret  rites  and  cer- 
emonies performed  by  a  select  few  in 
honor  of  some  divinity  were  so  called. 
"Each  of  the  Pagan  gods,"  says  Bishop 
Warburton,  "  had,  besides  the  public  and 
open,  a  secret  worship  paid  them,  into 
which  none  were  admitted  but  those  who 
had  been  selected  by  preparatory  ceremo- 
nies, called  initiation ;  and  this  secret 
worship  was  termed  the  mijsteries."  The 
first  mysteries  of  which  we  ha-^e  any  ac- 
count were  those  of  Isis  and  Osiris  in 
Egypt ;  whence  they  were  introduced  into 
Greece  and  Italy,  and  in  process  of  time 
disseminated  through  the  northern  and 
western  nations  of  Europe.  The  religion 
of  the  Jeics  was  likewise  full  of  myste- 
ries ;  their  laws,  nay,  their  whole  constitu- 
tion and  nation,  were  mysterious ;  but 
the  mysteries  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
generally  types  or  shadows  of  something 
in  the  New.  The  Christian  religion  has 
also  its  mysteries ;  but,  in  the  scripture 
language,  the  word  mystery  is  used  with 
some  latitude,  and  denotes  whatever  ia 
not  to  be  known  without  a  divine  revela- 
tion. 

MYS'TERIES,  in  modern  literature,  o 
species  of  dramatic  composition,  with 
characters  and  events  drawn  from  sacred 
history.  Saint  Gregory  Nazianzen  com- 
posed the  earliest  sacred  dramas  extant, 
on  the  model  of  the  Greek  tragedies,  but 
with  Christian  hymns  substituted  for  the 
ancient  chorus.  The  mysteries  of  the 
middle  ages  are  thought  by  some  to  have 
been  first  introduced  by  pilgrims  return- 
ing from  the  Holy  Land.  They  originated 
among,  and  were  probably  first  perform- 
ed by,  ecclesiastics. 

MYS'TICISM,  in  religion,  a  word  of 
very  vague  signification,  applied,  for  the 
most  part,  indiscriminately  to  all  those 
views  or  tendencies  in  religion  which  as- 
pire towards  a  more  direct  communica- 
tion between  man  and  God,  not  through 
the  medium  of  the  senses,  but  through 
the  inward  perception  of  the  mind,  than 
that  which  is  afforded  us  through  revela- 
tion. 


418 


CYCI.OI'F.DIA     OF     LMKIi.VTflJE 


[nar 


MYSTICS,  a  religi  >ussect  distinguish- 
ed by  their  ijrofossing  a  pure,  .•iuhliine, 
anJ  perfect,  devotion,  witli  an  entire  dis- 
interested love  of  (rod,  free  from  all  selfish 
considerations,  and  by  tlieir  aspiring  to  a 
state  of  passive  contemplation. 

MYTHOLOGY,  the  history  of  the 
fabulous  gods  and  heroes  of  antiquity, 
with  the  explanations  of  the  fables  or  al- 
legories couched  therein.  According  to 
the  opinion  of  most  writers,  among  whom 
is  that  profound  thinker,  Lord  Bacon,  a 
great  deal  of  concealed  instrueti(m  and 
allegory  was  originally  intended  in  most 
part  of  the  ancient  mythology  :  he  ob- 
serves, that  some  fables  discover  a  great 
and  evident  similitude,  relation,  and  con- 
nection with  the  thing  they  signify,  as 
well  in  the  structure  of  the  fable,  as  in 
the  meaning  of  the  names  whereby  the 
persons  or  actors  are  characterized.  He 
also  takes  a  more  enlarged  and  higher 
view  of  the  subject,  and  looks  on  them  not 
as  the  product  of  the  age,  nor  the  inven- 
tion of  the  poets,  but  as  sacred  relics, 
or,  as  he  terms  them,  "gentle  whispers, 
and  the  breath  of  better  times,  that  from 
the  tradition  of  more  ancient  nations, 
came  at  length  into  the  flutes  and  trum- 
pets of  the  Greeks." 


N,  the  fourteenth  letter  and  eleventh 
consonant  of  the  English  alphabet,  is  an 
imperfect  mute  or  semi-vowel,  because 
part  of  its  articulation  may  be  continued 
for  any  length  of  time  ;  it  is  also  a  liquid, 
and  a  nasal  letter,  the  sound  being  formed 
by  forcing  the  voice  strongly  through  the 
mouth  and  nostrils,  which,  at  the  same 
time,  is  intercepted  by  applying  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  to  the  fore  part  of  the  pal- 
ate, with  the  lips  open.  It  has  one  sound 
only,  and  after  m  is  silent,  or  nearly  so, 
as  in  hymn,  condemn.  Among  the  an- 
cients, N  stood  as  a  numeral  for  900; 
and,  with  a  dash  over  it,  for  9000.  N. 
or  No.  stands  as  an  abbreviation  for  nii- 
mero.  number;  also  for  north. 

N.\'I50I?,  an  Imlian  word  for  a  deputy  ; 
a  title  of  dignity  ami  ]io\vor  applied  to 
those  who  act  under  the  soubahs  or  vice- 
roy.s.  The  term,  however,  has  become 
proverbial,  of  late  years,  to  signify  a 
person  who  ha.s  acquired  great  wealth, 
and  lives  in  great  splendor. 

NA'IIUM,  or  //n:  proplie.ry  of  Nahum, 
a  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Nahum.  the  seventh  of  the  twelve  minor 


prophets,  was  a  native  of  Elkoshai,  n 
little  vill  ige  of  Galilee.  The  subject  of 
his  prophcTjy  is  the  destruction  of  Nine- 
veh, which  he  describes  in  the  most  lively 
and  pithetic  manner  ;  his  style  being  bold 
and  figurative. 

N.\'lAD.S,in  raythology,water-nyraphs, 
or  deities  that  preside  over  brjoks  and 
fountains.  They  are  represented  as  beau- 
tiful women,  with  their  heads  crowned 
with  rushes,  and  reclining  against  an  urn 
from  which  water  is  flowing. 

NAIVETE',  naturalness;  absence  of 
artifice.  The  essential  moaning  of  the 
word  is  a  natural,  unreserved  expression 
of  sentiments  and  thoughts,  without  re- 
gard to  conventional  rules,  and  without 
weighing  the  construction  which  may  be 
put  upon  the  language  or  conduct. 

NAME,  a  word  whereby  men  have 
agreed  to  e.vpress  some  idea ;  or  which 
serves  to  signify  a  thing  or  subject  spoken 
of.  Names  are  either  proper  or  appel- 
lative. Proper  names  are  those  which 
represent  some  individual  thing  or  per 
son,  so  as  to  distinguish  it  frou\  all  other 
things  of  the  same  species  ;  and  are  either 
called  Christian,  as  that  given  us  at  bap- 
tism, or  surnames;  the  first  imposed  for 
the  distinction  of  persons,  answering  to 
the  Roman  prcenomen  ;  the  second  for 
the  distinction  of  families,  answering  to 
the  iiomen  of  the  Romans,  and  the  patro- 
nymkum  of  the  (Jrceks.  The  ancient 
Britons,  says  Camden,  generally  took 
their  names  from  colors,  because  they 
painted  themselves.  When  they  were 
subdued  by  the  Romans,  they  took  Ro- 
man names;  the  Sa.xons  introduced  the 
German  names ;  the  Danes  brought  with 
them  their  names ;  and  the  Normans  in- 
troduced theirs. 

NARRA'TION,  in  rhetoric,  the  term 
usually  applied  to  the  second  division  of 
an  oratorical  discourse,  in  which  the  facts 
of  the  case  are  set  forth  from  which  the 
orator  intends  to  draw  his  conclusions. 
This  part  of  a  discourse  should  be  charac- 
terized by  the  greatest  simplicity  of  style, 
as  well  as  by  absence  of  all  rhetorical  or- 
naments. 

_  NARCrS'SUS,  in  mythology,  the  bonu- 
tiful  son  of  Cei>hesus  and  the  nyni)ih  Li- 
riope,  whose  history  formed  one  of  the 
most  favorite  topics  with  the  poets  of 
classical  antiquity.  Though  beloved  by 
all  the  Grecian  nymphs,  he  treated  them 
with  contemptuous  indifference  ;  but  hav- 
ing accidentally  seen  his  own  image  re- 
flected in  a  fountain,  he  became  so  ena- 
mored of  it  that  he  languished  till  he 
died,  and  thus  realized  the  nrophocy  of 


»at] 


AND     IIIK     FINK     ARTS. 


419 


Tiresias,  that  he  shouM  live  until  he  saw 
himself.  After  his  lieath  the  gDtls,  uioveil 
with  CDtnpassion  for  his  fate,  changed 
him  into  the  flower  which  bears  his  name. 

NATA'LiS,  or  Natalis  Dies,  prop- 
erly signifies  a  birth-ilay :  but  it  was 
used  by  the  ancients  more  particularly 
to  signify  the  feast  heUl  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  birth-day  of  an  emperor: 
hence  in  time  it  served  to  denote  any  sort 
of  feast ;  and  the  primitive  Christians 
used  it  in  this  sense. 

N.\TION,  a  collective  appellation  for 
a  people  inhabiting  a  certain  extent  of 
territory  under  the  same  government. 
The  word  is  also  used  in  some  universi- 
ties by  way  of  distinguishing  students  of 
different  districts  or  countries,  as  the  case 
may  be.  This  latter  meaning  is  borrow- 
ed from  the  custom  that  was  adopted  in 
the  University  of  Paris  previously  to  the 
institution  of  faculties,  when  those  who 
resorted  to  it  from  different  countries 
lived  under  the  same  institutions  and 
masters,  a  common  countri/,  however, 
being  the  only  bond  of  union. 

NATIONAL  GUARD  (OF  FRANCE  ) 
a  militar}'  institution  coniposcd  of  citi- 
zens, and  not  incorporated  with  the  stand- 
ing array.  It  may  in  fact  be  considered 
the  army  of  the  people,  in  opposition  to 
the  standing  force,  considered  as  the  army 
of  the  state.  It  is,  therefore,  not  liable 
to  be  sent  across  the  frontiers,  except  bj' 
the  consent  of  the  individuals  composing 
it;  but  when  the  country  is  att.acked,  it 
is  expected  to  act,  with  or  without  the 
aid  of  the  regulars;  also  to  concur  with 
the  latter  in  preserving  the  public  peace. 
The  officers  are  elected  by  their  comrades, 
and  not  appointed  by  the  public  author- 
ities. 

NATIVITY,  the  day  of  a  person's 
birth.  The  word  nativity  is  chiefly  used 
in  speaking  of  the  saints,  as  the  nativity 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  &c.  But  when 
we  say  the  Natirity,  it  is  understood  to 
mean  that  of  Jesus  Ciirist,  or  Christmas 
D.iy. 

NAT'URAL,  in  music,  a  character 
marked  thus  t^.  whose  office  is  to  con- 
tradict the  flats  or  sharps  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  a  stave  or  elsewhere,  and  by 
the  use  of  which  the  note  to  which  it  is 
prefixed  returns  to  the  diatonic  scale. 

NATURALIZA'TION,  in  law,  the  act 
of  naturalizing  an  alien,  or  placing  him 
in  the  condition  (that  is,  investing  him 
with  the  rights  and  privileges)  of  a  natu- 
riil  subject. 

NA'TURE,  a  word  of  vast  and  compre- 
hensive   signification,    embracing    as    it 


were,  the  whole  universe — all  that  N 
comprised  under  the  superintending  car«> 
of  the  great  Creator.  Tbus  when  we  say, 
Nature  is  benevolent  and  wise,  we  under 
stand  either  the  Deity  himself,  or  .. 
power  performing  the  will  of  the  Deity, 
and  conducting  everything  in  this  world 
under  his  order:  a  notion  supported  by 
some  ancient  systems  of  pliilosophy, 
•adopted  by  poets,  and  most  easy  to  popu- 
lar idea.  Independently  of  this,  however, 
we  often  say  Nature  herself,  Ac.  in  a 
merely  figurative  sense  ;  personifying  the 
laws  of  nature,  that  is,  the  properties  of 
matter.  When,  therefore,  we  say,  that 
nature  covers  the  earth  with  abumiance, 
wo  mean  that  God  covers  the  earth  with 
abundance;  when  we  say  that  nature  is 
magnificent  and  inexhaustible,  we  mean 
that  creation  is  magnificent  and  ine.x- 
haustible.  When  we  speak  of  the  study 
of  nature,  we  mean  the  study  of  creation  ; 
which  embraces  first  the  knowledge  of 
things,  and  secondly  the  knowledge  of 
the  properties  of  things.  Nature  (mean- 
ing thereby  the  whole  body  of  created 
tilings)  presents  an  assemblage  of  olyecte 
in  every  respect  worthy  of  the  attention 
of  mankind.  Nature  is  made  to  conform 
in  some  degree  to  the  hand  of  man,  and 
resist  only  when  his  ignorance  violates  its 
essential  order.  It  yields  its  secrets  to 
his  inquiries  ;  to  his  sensibility  it  presents 
the  most  engaging  images;  and  remains, 
to  all  ages,  a  picture  perpetually  renewed 
of  the  primitive  creation  of  God. — There 
is  another  sense,  too,  in  which  the  word 
vtdure  is  of  continual  occurrence  ;  viz., 
the  nature  of  man:  by  which  we  under- 
stand the  peculiar  constitution  of  his  body 
or  mind,  or  the  qualities  of  the  species 
which  distinguish  him  from  other  animals. 
So  also  we  express  by  this  word,  the  es- 
sential qualities  or  attributes  of  any  other 
thing  ;  as  the  nature  of  blood,  of  a  metal, 
of  plants,  ite.  Again,  when  we  allude  to 
the  established  or  regular  course  of  things, 
we  say,  this  or  that  event  is  not  accord- 
ing to  nature. — In  the  Fine  Arts,  nature 
often  means  the  successful  imitation  of 
nature  ;  but,  with  artists  of  a  higher  order, 
nature  does  not  signify  a  mere  copi/,  but 
as  it  were,  the  expression  of  the  ideal  of 
nature,  at  which  she  aims  in  all  her  for- 
mations, yet  without  ever  absolutely  at- 
taining it. — By  the  law  of  nature  is  un- 
derstood, that  system  of  principles  which 
human  reason  has  discovered  to  regulate 
the  conduct  of  man  in  all  his  various  re- 
lations. In  its  most  extensive  sense,  it 
comprehends  man's  duties  to  God,  to  him- 
self, and  to  all  mankind. 


420 


evci.oi'EUiA   ov    i.ii  ki;ail  i;k 


NA'VAL  AIl'CJIITECTURE,  or  Ship- 
Building,  the  art  ot' constructing  vessels 
for  the  purposes  of  navigation,  was,  in  all 
probabilit_y,  anterior  to  the  deluge,  and 
is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  hand- 
ed down  by  Noah  to  his  posterity-  That, 
in  a  rude  state,  it  was  practised  in  Egypt, 
there  is  no  question  ;  and  the  Greeks  are 
supposed  to  have  derived  their  knowledge 
of  it  from  the  Carthaginians.  But  nei- 
ther in  Greece  nor  in  Rome,  did  naval 
architecture  rise  to  what  may  be  termed 
a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  art  of  ship- 
building. The  crusades  first  gave  the 
impulse  to  improvements  in  ship-building. 
In  modern  times  the  United  States  and 
England  e.xcel  in  naval  architecture. 
The  American  vessels  in  elegance  of  form 
and  speed  in  sailing,  surpass  those  of  all 
other  nations. 

NAVA'LIS  CORO'NA,  a  crown  among 
the  Romans,  given  to  him  who  first 
boarded  an  enemy's  ship  ;  it  was  a  circle 
of  gold  representing  the  beaks  of  ships. 

NAVE,  in  architecture,  that  part  of  a 
temple  enclosed  by  the  walls.  The  part 
in  front  of  it  was  called  pronaos,  and  that 
in  the  rear  posticuni.  In  modern  archi- 
tecture, it  is  the  middle  part  or  alley  of  a 
church,  between  the  aisles  or  wings. 

NAVIGA'TION,  the  art  and  science 
by  which,  in  open  seas,  ships  are  conduct- 
ed from  port  to  port.  This  is  efi'ected  by 
charts  of  the  seas,  and  by  keeping  a  jour- 
nal of  the  courses  from  hour  to  hour,  and 
the  distance  on  each  by  means  of  the  log 
line,  each  knot  on  which  corresponds  to  a 
mile  of  distance.  Also  by  observations  on 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  made  with  instru- 
ments, and  checked  by  tables  and  alma- 
nacs. 

NAVIGA'TION  LAWS,  a  branch  of 
maritime  law,  defining  the  peculiar  priv- 
ileges to  be  enjoyed  by  British  ships, 
and  the  way  in  which  they  shall  bo  man- 
ned ;  as  also  the  conditions  under  which 
foreign  ships  shall  be  allowed  to  engage 
in  the  trade  of  this  country,  either  as 
importers  or  exporters  of  commodities. 

N.V'VY,  the  whole  naval  establishment 
of  any  country,  including  the  collective 
boily  of  ships,  otlicers,  men,  stores,  &c. 

NAZ'ARITE,  among  the  Jews,  one 
who  had  laid  himself  umler  the  obligation 
of  a  vow  to  observe  the  rules  of  Nazarite- 
fihip,  either  for  his  wliole  life  as  was  the 
case  with  Samuel,  ami  John  the  Baptist, 
or  only  for  a  specifieil  time.  The  rules 
of  Na/.ariteshif),  iluring  the  time  specified 
in  the  vpw,  obliged  the  man  or  woman 
to  more  than  ordinary  degrees  of  purity. 

NECESSITY,  the" cause  of  that  which 


cannot  be  otherwise,  or  whatever  is  done 
by  a  power  that  is  irresistible  ;  in  which 
sense  it  stands  opposed  to  freedom.  The 
schools  distinguish  a  physical  necessity 
and  a  moral  necessity  ;  and  a  simple  or 
absolute  necessity,  and  a  relative  one. 
Physical  necessitij,  is  the  want  of  a  prin- 
ciple, or  of  a  natural  means  necessary  to 
act,  which  is  otherwise  called  a  physical 
or  natural  impotence.  Mural  necessity,  is 
only  a  great  difficulty,  such  as  that  aris- 
ing from  a  long  habit,  a  strong  inclina- 
tion, or  violent  passion.  Simple  or  abso- 
lute necessiti/.  is  that  which  has  no 
dependence  on  any  state  or  conjuncture, 
or  any  particular  situation  of  things,  but 
is  found  everywhere,  and  in  all  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  the  agent  can  bo 
supposed.  Relative  necessity,  is  that 
which  places  a  man  in  a  real  incapacity 
of  acting  or  not  acting  in  those  circum- 
stances, and  that  situation  he  is  found  in, 
though  in  other  circumstances,  and  in 
another  state  of  tilings,  he  might  act  or 
not  act  AVhen  a  man's  actions  are  de- 
termined by  causes  beyond  his  control,  he 
acts  from  necessity,  and  is  not  a  free 
agent. 

NECROL'OGY,  a  register  of  the  deaths 
of  benefactors  in  a  monastery.  Former- 
ly, also,  what  is  now  called  martyrology 
was  called  necrolos^y. — A  register  of  dis- 
tinguished persons  who  die  within  a  cer- 
tain period  (not  a  record  of  their  lives 
and  actions,  for  that  is  biography)  is  also 
known  by  this  term. 

NECROMANCY,  a  sort  of  magic  prac- 
tised by  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
by  which  they  attempted  to  raise  the 
dead  or  make  them  appear.  The  witch 
of  Endor  is  a  striking  example  of  a  bold 
and  artful  deception  of  this  kind. 

NECROP'OLIS,  in  antiquity,  the  name 
given  to  some  ancient  cemeteries  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  cities.  It  has  also  been 
given  to  some  of  our  modern  ones. 

NECTAR,  in  mythology,  the  supposed 
drink  of  the  goils,  and  which  was  imagin- 
ed to  contribute  much  towar<ls  their  eter- 
nal existence.  It  was,  according  to  the 
fables  of  the  poets,  a  most  beautiful  and 
delicious  liquor,  far  exceeding  anything 
that  the  human  mind  can  imagine.  It 
gave  a  bloom,  a  beauty  and  a  vigor,  which 
surpassed  all  conception,  and  together 
with  ambrosia  (their  solid  food.)  repaired 
all  the  decays  or  accidental  injuries  oi 
the  divine  constitution. 

NEF.ASTl  DI'ES,  an  appellation 
given  by  the  Romans  to  those  days  where- 
in it  was  not  allowed  to  administer  jus- 
tice  or  hold  courts. 


NEO] 


AND    HIE     FINE     AfMS. 


421 


NEGA'TION,  in  logic,  a  declaration 
that  something  is  not,  or  the  atlinning 
one  thing  to  be  ditrereiit  from  another; 
as,  the  soul  is  not  matter. 

NEti'ATlVE,  in  general,  something 
that  implies  a  negation  :  thus  we  say,  neg- 
ative quantities,  negative  signs,  nega- 
tive powers,  &c.  'Our  words  and  ideas," 
says  Dr.  Watts,  "  are  so  unhappily  linked 
together,  that  we  can  never  know  which 
are  positive,  which  negative  ideas,  by 
the  words  that  express  them  :  for  some 
jjositive  terms  denote  a  negative  idea,  as 
dead  ;  and  there  are  both  positive  and 
negative  terms  invented  to  signify  the 
same  and  contrary  ideas,  as  unhappy  and 
viiscrable.''  If  we  say,  such  a  thing  is 
"  not  a  man,"  or  "  not  white,"  nothing  is 
determined;  the  thing  may  be  a  dog,  and 
it  may  be  black  :  something  of  a  positive 
character  is  necessary  to  express  what  it 
is. — Negative  pregnant,  in  law,  a  neg- 
ative which  implies  an  affirmation  ;  as 
when  a  person  denies  having  done  a  thing 
in  a  certain  manner  or  at  a  certain  time, 
as  stated  in  the  declaration  ;  which  im- 
plies that  he  did  it  in  some  manner. 

NEHEMI'AH,  a  canonical  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  so  called  from  the  name 
of  its  author.  Nehemiah  was  born  at 
Babylon  during  the  captivity,  and  suc- 
ceeded Ezra  in  the  government  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem.  lie  was  a  Jew,  and  was 
promoted  to  the  office  of  cup-bearer  to 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  king  of  I'ersia; 
when  the  opportunities  he  had  of  being 
daily  in  the  king's  presence,  together 
with  the  favor  of  Esther  the  queen  pro- 
cured him  the  favor  of  being  authorized 
to  repair  and  fortify  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  same  manner  as  it  was  before 
its  destruction  by  the  Babylonians. 

NE  INJUS'TE  VEX'ES,  in  law,  a  writ 
that  lies  for  a  tenant  who  is  distrained  by 
his  lord  for  more  services  than  he  is 
obliged  to  perform,  being  a  prohibition  to 
the  lord  not  in  di.strain  or  vex  his  tenant. 

NEMiE'AN  GAMES,  in  antiquity, 
celebrated  games  in  (Jreece,  deriving 
their  name  from  Nemaoa,  a  village  be- 
tween the  cities  of  Cleona^  and  Philus, 
where  they  were  celebrated  every  third 
year.  They  were  instituted  in  memory 
of  Archemorus  or  Opheltes ;  but,  after 
some  intermission,  were  revived  by  Her- 
cules, in  honor  of  Jupiter,  after  his  vic- 
tory over  the  Nemaean  lion.  The  exercises 
were  chariot  races,  and  all  the  parts  of 
the  Pentathlon. 

NEM.  CON.foriVemi/ie  contradicente, 
(no  one  opposing,)  a  term  chieliy  used  in 
parliamentary  bodies  when  anything  is 


cnrrieii  without  opposition. — Nemine  dls- 
senticnte,  (no  one  dissenting,)  are  termi 
similarly  a|iplied. 

NJ'jM'ESIS,  a  (Ireek  divinity,  worship 
ped  as  the  g(Kldess  of  vengeance.  Ac- 
cording to  Ilusiod,  she  was  the  daughter 
of  iS'ight,  and  was  rejiresented  as  pursu 
ing  with  inflexible  hatred  the  proud  anil 
insolent.  The  reluctance  of  the  Greeks 
to  speak  boastfully  of  their  good  fortune, 
lest  they  should  incur  a  reverse,  is  well 
known  ;  and  from  various  passages  in  the 
Antkologia,  and  other  ancient  writings,  it 
is  clear  that  this  feeling  originated  in  a 
desire  to  propitiate  this  divinity.  The 
worship  of  this  goddess  was  very  exten- 
sive. Temples  were  erected  to  her  honor, 
not  only  in  Greece,  but  throughout  the 
Roman  empire.  Nowhere,  however,  was 
her  worship  so  pompously  celebrated  as 
at  Rhamnus,  a  town  of  Attica,  where  she 
had  a  statue  10  cubits  high  of  a  single 
stone,  and  so  exquisitely  beautiful  as  to 
equal  even  the  finest  productions  of  Phid- 
ias. 

FEOL'OGY,  a  new  phrase  or  word  in- 
troduced into  a  language,  or  any  innova- 
tion on  ordinary  modes  of  expression. 
Most  European  tongues  have  their  clas- 
sical diction  fixed  by  precedent  and  au- 
thority ;  and  words  introduced  by  bold  or 
careless  writers,  since  this  standard  was 
estal^lished,  go  by  the  name  of  neologisms 
until  usage  has  added  them  at  last  to  the 
received  national  vocabulary.  Neology, 
in  the  last  century,  was  the  name  given 
by  orthodox  divines  in  Germany,  to  the 
novel  system  of  interpretation  which 
then  began  to  be  applied  by  many  to  the 
records  of  revealed  religion. 

NEOME'NIA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival 
observed  at  the  beginning  of  a  lunar 
month  in  honor  of  all  the  gods,  but  par- 
ticularly Apollo. 

NE'dPIIYTE,  in  the  primitive  church 
newly  converted  Christians  were  so  term- 
ed ;  and  the  same  appellation  is  still 
given,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  to 
converts  made  by  missionaries  among  the 
heathen,  to  any  person  entering  on  the 
priestly  office,  and  to  those  persons  new- 
ly received  into  the  communion  of  the 
church. 

NEOPLATON'ISTS,  in  ancient  liter- 
ature, the  mystical  philosophers  of  the 
school  of  Ammonius  Saccas  and  Plotinus 
are  commonly  so  called,  who  mixeil  some 
tenets  of  ancient  Platonism  with  others 
derived  from  a  variety  of  sources,  and 
particularly  from  the  demonology  of  the 
East  They  flourished  in  the  4th  and 
5th  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 


422 


CYCLOt'KDIA     OF     LITKUATLKE 


[neu 


NEOllA'MA,  fin  inv&ntion  of  Allaux,  a 
Frenchman,  in  1S27,  fur  representing  the 
interior  of  a  large  building  in  which  the 
spectator  appears  to  be  placed.  Every- 
thing is  exhibited  to  the  life  by  means  of 
groups  and  shading. 

NEPEN'TllE,  a  species  of  magic  po- 
tion, mentioned  by  the  Greeks  and  Rom- 
ans, which  was  supposed  to  have  the 
power  of  obliterating  all  pain  and  sorrow 
from  the  memory  of  those  who  partook 
of  it.  It  is  now  used  figuratively  to  ex- 
press any  efficient  remedy  in  giving  rest 
and  consolation  to  an  afflicted  mind. 

NEPIIA'LIA,  Grecian  festivals  or 
sacrifices  instituted  in  honor  of  various 
deities,  as  Aurora,  Venus,  <tc.  They 
were  so  called  because  no  wine  was  otter- 
ed during  their  celebration.  It  was 
"hiefly  at  Athens  that  these  festivals  were 
observed. 

NE  PLUS  ULTRA,  i.  e.  no  farther,  the 
extremity  or  utmo.;t  extent  to  which  any- 
thing can  go. 

NEPTUNA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  feasts 
observed  by  the  Romans  in  honor  of 
Neptune.  They  differ  from  the  Consiia- 
lia,  in  which  that  god  was  considered  as 
presiding  over  horses  and  the  manege; 
whereas,  the  Neptunalia  were  feasts  of 
Neptune,  in  his  more  general  character 
as  god  of  the  sea. 

NEP'TUNE,  a  Roman  divinity,  wHose 
attributes  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Greek  Poseidon.  He  was  the 
brother  of  Jupiter,  and  presided  over  the 


Bea.  He  is  represontni  .similar  in  ap- 
pearance to  Jupiter,  but  his  .symbols  are 
a  trident  and  the  doI|)hin. 

NEPTUN'IAN,  orXEPTUNTST,  one 
who  adopts  the  theory  that  the  .sub- 
atanccs  of  wh'ch  the  earth  is  composed 


wore  formed  from  aqueous  solution ;  op- 
posed to  the  Plutonic  theory,  which  attri- 
butes the  earth's  formation  to  the  action 
of  fire. 

]S'E'REIDS,in  mythology,  sea-nymphs, 
daughters  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  and  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.  In  ancient  mon- 
uments the  Nereids  are  represented  as 
riding  upon  sea-horses,  sometimes  with 
the  human  form  entire,  and  at  otliers 
with  the  tail  of  a  fish. 

NE'REUS,  a  marine  Grecian  deity, 
son  of  Ocean  and  Earth.  He  possessed 
the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  was  distinguish- 
ed for  his  knowledge  and  love  of  truth 
and  justice. 

NESS,  the  termination  of  several 
names  of  places  in  Great  Britain,  where 
there  is  a  headland  or  promontory,  as 
Inverness,  Shcerness.  The  word  is  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  Fr.  nez,  or  the 
Germ,  nase,  nose. 

NESTO'RIANS.  the  followers  of  Nes- 
torius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  This  pre- 
late agitated  the  Christian  world,  after 
the  Arian  contioversy  had  been  quietly 
settled,  by  the  introduction  of  certain 
subtle  disputations  concerning  the  incar- 
nation of  Christ,  from  whence  debates 
and  contentions  arose  which  harassed 
the  church  for  the  space  of  more  than 
two  centuries.  He  affected  to  distin- 
guish with  peculiar  prasision  between  the 
divine  and  human  natures  united  in 
Christ ;  and,  in  guarding  over-carefully 
against  the  propensity  which  he  discover- 
ed in  the  Christians  of  his  own  day  to 
confuse  the  two,  and  look  upon  them  as 
absorbed  into  one  compound  substance, 
ho  forbade  men  to  entertain  any  combin- 
ed notion  at  all,  and  kept  constantly  be- 
fore their  eyes  both  the  god  and  the 
man. 

NEUTRAL'ITY,  the  state  of  being 
unengaged  in  dis])ute.?  or  contests  between 
others  ;  the  state  of  taking  no  part  on 
either  side. — In  international  hue,  that 
condition  of  a  nation  or  state  in  which 
it  does  not  take  part  directly  or  indirect- 
ly in  a  war  between  other  states.  A 
neutral  state  has  the  right  of  furnishing 
to  either  of  the  contending  parties  all 
supplies  which  do  not  fall  within  the  de- 
scription cti contraband  of  icai\  which  sig- 
nifies in  general,  arms  an  I  munitions  of 
war,  and  those  out  of  which  munitions  of 
war  are  made.  All  such  articles  are 
liable  to  be  seized.  A  neutral  state  has 
also  the  right  to  concl  udo  such  treaties  with 
either  belligerent  |iiirty,  as  aro  uncon- 
nected with  the  subject  of  the  war. 


IIIB 


AND    nil':     FINE     ARTS. 


423 


NEWEL,  in  architecture,  the  space, 
cither  soliil  or  open,  rouml  which  the 
steps  of  a  ytaircase  are  turned  about. 

NEWS,  literally,  fresh  information. 
This  word  has  been  fancifully  derived 
from  the  initial  letters  of  the  four  cardi- 
nal points  of  the  compass,  ?iorth,  east, 
ice.st,  and  south. 

NEWS'PAPERS,  publications  in  num- 
bers, consisting  commonly  of  single  sheets, 
and  published  at  short  and  stated  inter- 
vals, conveying  intelligence  of  passing 
events.  In  Home,  under  the  government 
of  the  emperor.*,  periodical  notices  of  pass- 
ing events  (diurna,  acta  diurna)  were 
compiled  and  distributed  for  general 
reading  ;  but  our  accounts  of  these  an- 
cient newspapers,  derived  from  classical 
sources,  are  somewhat  obscure  and  un- 
certain. In  modern  Europe,  the  earliest 
occasional  sheets  of  daily  intelligence 
seem  to  have  appeared  at  Venice,  during 
the  war  of  1.563  against  the  Turks  ;  and 
the  earliest  regular  paper  to  have  been  a 
monthly  one,  jniblished  in  the  same  city 
by  the  state  :  but  these  were  distributed 
in  manuscript,  and,  owing  to  the  jealousy 
of  the  government,  continued  to  be  so 
down  to  very  late  times.  E.Ktraordinary 
gazettes  are  said  to  have  been  published 
in  England  by  authority,  during  the  time 
when  the  arrival  of  the  Spanish  Armada 
was  apprehended  ;  but  the  specimens  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum,  and  so 
long  regarded  as  authentic,  seem  now  to 
be  demonstrated  forgeries.  The  Mercu- 
ries, Intelligencers,  &a.  of  the  civil  wars, 
seem  to  have  been  the  first  English  pa- 
pers which  appeared  regularly.  The  Ga- 
zette de  France  appeared  regularly  from 
1631  to  1792,  forming  a  collection  of  163 
volumes  ;  it  was  continued,  also,  but  with 
some  interruptions,  through  the  period  of 
the  revolution  ;  and  the  name  still  exists, 
the  journal  so  called  being  at  present, 
however,  but  a  second-rate  paper.  From 
their  first  imperfect  beginning,  news- 
papers have  gradually  increased  in  num- 
ber, matter,  and  consequence,  until  they 
form,  in  many  countries,  one  of  the  most 
important  features  in  the  social  economy 
of  the  people;  exercising  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  domestic  manners,  literature, 
and  usages,  but  more  especially  powerful 
as  a  great  political  instrument. 

NEW  STYLE,  the  raethoil  of  reckon- 
ing the  days  of  the  year  in  accordance 
with  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  which  ad- 
justs the  odd  hours  and  minutes,  bv  which 
the  earth's  revolution  exceeds  36.5  days, 
and  renders  celestial  phenomena  ancl  ter- 
restrial reckoning  equal. 


NEW  TES'TAMENT,  the  name  gircD 
to  that  portion  of  the  Bible  which  com- 
prises the  writings  of  the  apostles  and 
their  immediate  disciples.  It  consists  of 
five  historical  books,  viz.,  the  respective 
(jospels  of  ^Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and 
John,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (at- 
tributed to  Luke;)  of  twenty-one  apos- 
tolical epistles,  of  which  the  early  fathers 
have  unanimously  ascribed  fourteen  to 
St.  Paul,  three  to  St.  John,  two  to  St. 
Peter,  one  to  St.  James,  and  one  to  St 
Jude  ;  and  of  the  book  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Apocalypse  or  the  Kevelation  of 
St.  John. 

NEWTO'NIAN  SYS'TEM,  or  Neicto- 
nian  Philosophy,  a  phrase  often  applied 
to  the  Copernican  or  Solar  system,  which 
was  generally  adopted  before  Newton's 
time;  and  by  others  applied  to  the  laws 
of  planetary  motion,  first  promulgated 
by  Kepler  and  Ilooke  ;  but  strictly  appli- 
cable only  to  certain  geometrical  and 
analytical  demonstrations  of  those  known 
laws,  as  developed  by  the  genius  and  in- 
dustry of  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  The  chief 
parts  of  the  Newtonian  philosophy  are  ex- 
plained by  the  author  in  his  "  Principia.' 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY.  The  celebration 
of  the  commencement  of  the  new  year 
dates  from  high  antiquity.  The  Jews 
regarded  it  as  the  anniversary  of  Adam's 
birth-day,  and  celebrated  it  with  splendid 
entertainments — a  practice  which  they 
have  continued  down  to  the  present  time. 
The  Romans  also  made  this  a  holiday, 
and  dedicated  it  to  Janus  with  rich  .and 
numerous  sacrifices ;  the  newly-elected 
magistracy  entered  upon  their  duties  on 
this  day ;  all  undertakings  then  com- 
menced were  considered  sure  to  terminate 
favorably ;  the  people  made  each  other 
presents  of  gilt  dates,  figs,  and  plums; 
and  even  the  emperors  received  from 
their  subjects  new  year's  gifts,  which  at 
a  later  period  it  became  compulsory  to 
bestow. 

NIBELUNTtEN,  LAY  OF  THE,  the 
name  given  to  the  most  ancient  exi.'^ting 
monument  of  German  epic  poetry.  The 
origin  of  this  poem  is  veiled  in  great  ob- 
scurity ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  existed,  in 
substance  at  least,  two  centuries  before 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and,  like  the 
early  compositions  of  poets  in  .all  ages, 
to  have  consisted  originally  of  detached 
ballads  and  poems,  which  were  afterwards 
gradually  collected,  and  at  length  mould- 
ed into  the  complete  form  in  which  they 
at  present  exist.  The  last  of  the  modifi- 
cations which  it  underwent  took  place 
towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  and 


424 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LUKICATLKE 


is  attributed  to  the  ^Minnesinger  Hen- 
rioh  von  OfterJingen.  The  story  turns 
upon  the  adventures  of  ChrimhilJ  of 
Burgundy,  who  is  first  won  by  the  valiant 
Siegfried,  and  after  he  is  treacherously 
murdered  gives  her  hand  to  Attila,  king 
of  the  Huus,  chielly  in  the  hope  that 
through  his  power  and  influence  slie  may 
bo  revenged  on  the  murderers  of  her  for- 
mer lord.  The  Nibelungen  Lied  formed 
for  many  centuries  the  chief  traditionary 
record  of  the  romantic  deeds  and  senti- 
ments of  the  (Icrman  nation,  but  at  the 
era  of  the  Reformation  it  sank  wholly 
into  oblivion  ;  from  which,  however,  it  has 
within  the  last  thirty  years  been  rescued, 
and  permanently  placed  by  the  labors 
and  commentaries  of  Ilagen,  Zeune,  Sim- 
rock,  and  Schlegel,  among  the  most  con- 
spicuous monuments  of  human  genius. 
All  the  questions  relating  to  its  origin, 
nature,  and  characteristics  are  discussed 
with  great  interest  by  the  German  lite- 
rati, to  many  of  whom,  indeed,  it  forms  a 
distinct  branch  of  study.  In  the  Nibeltiii- 
gen  Lied,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
legends  of  Troy  and  of  Iceland,  the  inter- 
est turns  on  the  fate  of  a  youthful  hero, 
who  is  represented  as  invested  with  all  the 
attributes  of  beauty,  magnanimity,  and 
triumph,  but  dearly  purchasing  all  these 
perishable  glories  by  the  certainty  of  an 
early  and  predicted  death.  In  his  person, 
as  is  usual,  we  have  a  living  type  both  of 
the  splendor  and  the  decline  of  the  heroic 
world.  The  poem  closes  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  great  catastroi)he  borrowed  from 
a  half-historical  incident  in  the  early  tra- 
ditions of  the  north.  In  this  respect  also, 
as  in  many  others,  we  cannot  fail  to  per- 
ceive a  resemblance  to  the  Iliad.  If  the 
last  catastrophe  of  the  German  poem  be 
one  more  tragical,  bloody,  and  litanic 
than  anything  in  Homer,  the  death  of  the 
Gorman  hero,  on  the  other  hand,  has  in 
it  more  solemnity  and  stillness,  and  is 
withal  depicted  with  more  e.xquisito 
touches  of  tenderness  than  any  similar 
scene  in  any  heroic  poem  with  which  we 
are  acquainted.  The  Nibcluns;en.  Lied 
is,  moreover,  a  poem  abounding  in  vari- 
ety ;  in  it,  both  sides  of  human  life,  the 
joyful  as  well  as  the  sorrowful,  are  de- 
picted in  all  their  reality. 

NICK,  COUN'CIL  OF,  the  first,  and, 
according  to  most  writers,  the  most  im- 
portant, oecumenical  council  held  in  the 
Christian  church.  It  was  convened,  a.d. 
325,  at  Nicica,  by  the  emperor  Constan- 
tino, in  order  to  settle  the  differences  that 
had  arisen  in  the  (Uiristian  church  in 
respect  to  the  doctrines  of  Arius.     This 


council  was  attended  by  upwards  of  250 
bishops,  of  whom  a  great  majority  came 
from  the  East,  by  presbyters,  deacons, 
and  others  from  all  p;irts  of  the  Christian 
world.  The  chief  question,  as  was  re- 
marked above,  was  the  Arian  heresy ; 
and  the  council  issued  in  the  e.xcommuni- 
cation  of  Arius.  The  decision  of  this 
council  had  not  the  effect  of  restoring  tran- 
quillity to  the  Eastern  church,  for  the 
Arian  controversy  was  still  warmly  car- 
ried on;  but  it  has  supplied  that  mode 
of  stating  the  doctrine  of  the  Divinitj'  (as 
far  as  relates  to  the  Father  and  Son)  in 
which  it  has  ever  since  been  received  by 
the  orthodo.x  sects 

NI'CEXE  CREED,  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  a  particular  creed,  or  confession 
of  faith,  drawn  up  by  the  clergy  in  the 
council  of  Nice,  and  since  adopted  by  the 
church  of  England. 

NICHE,  in  architecture,  a  hollow  or 
recess  in  a  wall,  for  the  reception  of  a 
statue  or  bust. 

NICOLA'TIANS,  one  of  the  earliest 
Christian  sects,  mentioned  in  the  Reve- 
lations of  St.  John,  where  the  angel  of 
God  reproaches  the  church  <if  Pcrgamos 
with  harboring  persons  of  this  denomina- 
tion. They  are  there  characterized  as 
inclining  to  the  licentious  and  pagan 
practices  of  the  Gentiles. 

NIM'BUS,  a  circle  or  disk,  of  a  lumi- 
nous nature,  which,  on  sundry  ancient 
medals  and  other  monuments,  environs 
the  heads  of  divinities  or  sovereigns  :  the 
primitive  Christian  artists  adopted  this 
usage,  and  applied  it  to  their  personifica- 
tions of  the  great  Founder  of  their  reli- 
gi(m,  and  also  to  the  saints  and  martyrs 
of  the  holy  church.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  but  that  the  origin  of  this  custom 
arose  from  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
people  of  remote  antiquity  to  compliment 
their  kings  and  heroes  by  decorating 
them  with  a  resemblance  to  the  rays  of 
the  sun,  the  great  apparent  source  of 
life,  heat,  and  fertility. 

N  I '  0  B  E  ,  in  classical  mythology, 
daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  one  of  the 
Pleiades,  married  to  Amphion,  king  of 
Thebes.  Proud  of  her  numerous  and 
flourishing  offspring,  she  provoke  I  the  an- 
ger of  Apollo  and  Diana,  who  slew  them 
all  :  she  was  herself  changed  by  Jupiter, 
in  Phrygia,  into  a  rock,  from  which  a 
rivulet,  fed  by  her  tears,  continually 
pours.  The  subject  of  Niobo  and  her 
children  was  a  groat  favorite  with  the 
poets  of  antiquity. 

NIZAM',  the  "title  of  great  officers  of 
state  in  the  Asiatic  governments. 


non] 


AM)    THE     FINK     AKTS. 


425 


NOBIL'ITY,  the  general  appellation 
for  a  privileged  order  of  society  which 
exists  in  every  civilized  country-,  with 
the  exception  of  the  United  States  and 
Norway.  In  Roman  antiquity  persons 
were  not  noble  by  birth,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  public  ofKces  held  by  their 
ancestors,  who  had  the  sole  right  to  be- 
queath their  images  to  their  descendants. 
An  hereditary  nobility  is  found  in  the 
infancy  of  most  nations,  ancient  and 
modern.  Its  origin  is  to  be  attributed  to 
various  causes  ;  for  the  most  part  to  mil- 
itary despotism ;  in  some  cases,  to  the 
honors  paid  to  su()erior  ability,  or  to  the 
guardians  of  the  mysteries  of  religion. 
The  priestly  nobility  of  the  remotest  an- 
tiquity has  everywhere  }'ielded  to  the 
superiority  of  military  chieftains.  In 
France  and  trermany,  the  first  hereditary 
nobility  begins  with  the  downfall  of  the' 
Carlovingian  dynasty;  in  England,  with 
the  conquest  of  the  Normans,  in  the  tenth 
and  eleventh  centuries ;  and  was  after- 
wards spread  over  all  Europe  ;  for,  since 
that  time,  dignities,  as  well  as  lands,  have 
become  hereditary.  —  A  contemporary 
writer  has  remarked,  that  "it  is  a  curi- 
ous particular  in  the  history  of  nobility, 
that  among  the  natives  of  Otaheite,  rank  is 
not  only  hereditary,  but  actually  descends 
to  the  son,  to  the  degradation  of  the 
father  while  j-et  alive  :  thus,  he  who  is  a 
nobleman  to-day,  if  a  son  be  born  to  him, 
is  !i  commoner  to-morrow,  and  his  son 
takes  his  rank." 

NO'BLB,  in  numismatics,  a  gold  coin 
value  Gs.  6d.  which  was  struck  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  and  stamped  with 
the  impression  of  a  ship,  which  emblem 
is  supposed  to  have  been  commemora- 
tive of  a  naval  victory  obtained  by 
Edward  over  the  French  at  Sluys,  in 
1340. 

NO'MADS,  or  NO'MADES,  a  name 
given  to  nations  whose  chief  occupation 
consists  in  feeding  their  flocks,  and  who 
have  no  fixed  place  of  abode,  but  shift 
their  residence  according  to  the  state  of 
pasture.  Nomadic  tribes  are  seldom 
fcund  to  quit  their  wandering  life,  until 
they  are  compelled  to  do  so  by  being  sur- 
rounded by  tribes  in  settled  habitations, 
or  unless  they  can  make  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  settlements  of  a  civilized  na- 
tion. 

NO'MANCY,  the  art  or  practice  of  di- 
vining the  destiny  of  persons  by  the  let- 
ters which  form  their  names. 

NOM  DE  GUERRE,  a  French  term 
commonly  used  to  denote  an  assumed  or 
fictitiou.-i  name. 


NOMEXCLA'TOR,  in  Roman  antiqui- 
ty, was  usually  a  slave  who  attended 
upon  persons  that  stood  candidates  for  of- 
fices, and  prompted  or  suggested  to  them 
the  names  of  all  the  citizens  they  mot, 
that  they  might  address  them  by  their 
names  ;  which,  among  that  people,  was  es- 
teemed an  especial  act  of  courtesy. 

NOxMENCLA'TURE,  was  originally 
applied  to  a  catalogue  of  the  most  ordina- 
ry words  in  any  language,  with  their  sig- 
nifications, ifec,  drawn  up  for  the  purpose 
of  facilitating  their  use  and  retention  to 
those  who  are  endeavoring  to  acquire  a 
language.  But,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
this  term  is  employed  to  denote  the  lan- 
guage' peculiar  to  any  .science  or  art  : 
thus  we  speak  of  the  nomenclature  of 
chemistry,  botany,  Ac. 

NO'MINALISTS,  a  term  originally 
applied  to  a  scholastic  sect  which  arose  in 
the  11th  century.  Its  founder  was  John 
Roscelin,  a  churchman  of  Compiegnc, 
who  asserted  that  general  terms  have  no 
corresponding  reality  either  in  or  out  of 
our  minds,  being,  in  truth,  words,  and  no- 
thing more.  This  doctrine  naturally  ex- 
cited great  consternation  among  the 
schoolmen,  with  whom,  hitherto,  all  that 
was  real  in  nature  was  conceived  to  de- 
pend on  these  general  notions  or  essences. 
Its  promulgator  underwent  much  per- 
secution for  his  opinions,  and  was  ul- 
timately compelled  to  retract  them,  as 
inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin 
ity  as  it  was  then  stated.  He  found, 
however,  an  able  successor  in  the  person 
of  Peter  Abelard,  who  attracted  numer- 
ous disciples  bj'  his  dialectical  skill  and 
eloquence,  and,  with  his  followers,  whom 
he  led  in  a  body  to  Paris,  was  the  occasion 
of  founding  the  celebrated  university  of 
that  city.  After  his  death,  the  ancient 
realism  was  restored  to  its  supremacy; 
nor  do  wo  meet  with  a  nominalist  until 
the  13th  century,  when  William  of  Occam 
revived  his  doctrines  under  some  modifica- 
tions. 

NON'AGE,  the  time  of  life  before  a 
person,  according  to  the  laws  of  his  coun- 
try, becomes  of  age  to  manage  his  own 
concerns. 

NON-A.S.SUMP'SIT,  in  law,  is  a  gen- 
eral plea  in  a  personal  action,  by  which 
a  man  denies  that  he  has  m.ade  any 
promise. — The  following  legal  terms  or 
phrases,  beginning  with  no7i,  properly 
follow  in  this  place  ;  viz. — Non  compos 
mentis,  a  phrase  to  denote  a  person's  not 
being  of  sound  memory  and  understand- 
ing. A  distinction  is  made  between  an 
idiot  a.nil   a   person  non  compos  inr.nl is, 


42G 


CYCLOl'KDIA     OF    LITERATURE 


[nov 


tho  former  being  constitutionally  desti- 
tute of  reii.son,  the  latter  depriveil  of  that 
with  which  he  was  ntiturally  eniiowt-il  : 
but,  to  many  purposes^,  the  law  makes  no 
distinction  between  the  two, — Non  dis- 
trin^endo,  a  writ  granted  not  to  distrain. 
— Non  est  iure.ntus,  that  is,  literally-, 
"lie  has  not  been  found;"  the  answer 
made  by  the  sheriff  in  the  return  of  the 
writ,  when  the  defcmlvnt  is  not  to  be  found 
in  his  bailiwick. — Nun  liquet,  "  it  does  not 
appear  ;"  a  verdict  given  by  a  jury,  Avhen 
a  matter  is  to  be  deferred  to  another  day 
of  trial. — Non  pros,  or  Nolle  prosequi,  is 
a  term  made  use  of  to  signify  that  the 
plaintiff  will  proceed  no  farther  in  his  ac- 
tion. In  criminal  cases  it  can  only  be 
entered  by  the  attornev-general. 

NONCONFORM'ISt,  one  who  refuses 
to  conform  to  the  rites  and  worship  of  the 
established  church.  The  name  was  at 
first  particularly  applied  to  those  clergy- 
men who  were  ejected  from  their  livings 
by  the  act  of  uniformity  in  1662 

NONE.S,  in  the  Pionian  calendar,  the 
fifth  '"Ay  of  the  months  January,  Februa- 
ry, April,  June,  August,  September,  No- 
vember, and  December  ;  and  the  seventh 
of  March,  May,  July,  and  October  ;  these 
four  last  months  having  six  days  before 
the  nones,  and  the  others  only  four. 
March,  May,  July,  and  October  had 
six  days  in  their  nones  ;  because  these 
alone,  in  the  ancient  constitution  of  the 
year  by  Numa,  had  thirty-one  days  a- 
piece,  the  rest  having  only  twenty-nine, 
and  February  thirty  ;  but  when  Casar 
reformed  the  year,  and  made  other 
months  contain  thirty-one  days,  ho  did 
not  allot  them  six  days  of  nones.  The 
nones,  like  the  calends  and  ides,  were 
reckoned  backwards. 

NON'SUIT,  in  law,  the  default  or  non- 
appearance of  the  plaintiff  in  a  suit, 
when  called  in  court,  by  which  the  plain- 
tiff is  presumed  to  signify  his  intention 
to  drop  the  suit ;  he  is  therefore  nonsuited, 
that  is,  his  non-appearance  is  entered 
on  the  record,  and  this  entry  amounts  to 
a  judgment  of  the  court  that  the  plaintiff 
has  dropped  the  suit. 

NONJURORS,  the  adherents  of  James 
II.  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  government  and  crown  of 
England  at  the  Revolution,  when  James 
abilicatod,  and  tho  Hanoverian  family 
was  introduced. 

NOR'MAL,  an  adjective  signifying  that 
the  ordinary  structure  peculiar  to  a  fami- 
ly, a  genus,  fir  a  species,  is  in  no  wise 
dejiarted  from. 

NOR'MAN  AR  CHITECTURE,  astyle 


of  architecture  imported  into  England 
immediately  from  Normandy,  at  the  time 
of  the  Conquest.  It  is  readily  distin- 
guished from  the  styles  which  succeeded 
to  it  by  its  general  massive  character, 
round-headed  doors  and  windows,  and  low 
square  central  tower. 

NORNES,  in  Scandinavian  mj'thologj', 
the  three  fates,  equivalent  to  the  Moira, 
of  the  Greeks.  Thuir  names  were  Urd, 
Wilrand,  and  Sculd ;  or  Past,  Present, 
and  Future.  They  were  represented  as 
endowed  with  great  beauty,  but  of  a 
melancholy  and  sombre  disposition  ;  they 
were  consulted  even  by  the  gods,  and 
their  decrees  were  sure  and  irrevocable. 
NOTABLES,  in  French  history,  the 
deputies  of  the  states  under  the  old  re- 
gime, appointed  and  convoked  on  certain 
occasions  by  the  king.  In  1786  this  as 
sembly  was  summoned,  160  years  after 
its  last  meeting,  and  proposed  various 
reforms  in  different  branches  of  the  gov- 
ernment. It  again  met,  for  the  last 
time,  in  17SS. 

NO'TARIES,  APOSTOLICAL  AND 
IMPE'RIAL,  public  notaries  appointed 
by  the  popes  and  emperors,  in  virtue  of 
their  supposed  jurisdiction  over  other 
powers,  to  exercise  their  functions  in 
foreign  states.  Edward  II.  forbade  the 
imperial  notaries  to  practise  in  England. 
Charles  VIII.  of  France,  in  1490,  abol- 
ished both  these  classes  of  notaries,  and 
forbade  his  lay  subjects  to  employ  them. 
NO'TARY,  or  NOTARY  PUBLIC,  in 
modern  usage,  an  officer  authorized  to 
attest  contracts  or  writings,  chiefly  in 
mercantile  matters,  to  make  them  authen- 
tic in  a  foreign  countrj'  ;  who  protests 
foreign  bills  of  exchange,  and  inland  bills 
and  notes:  and  in  particular,  to  note  the 
non-payment  of  an  accepted  bill. 

NOTE,  in  music,  a  character  which,  by 
its  place  on  the  staff,  represents  a  sound, 
and  by  its  form,  determines  tlie  time  or 
continuance  of  such  sound.  There  are 
six  notes  in  ordinary  use,  viz.,  the  semi- 
breve,  minim,  crotchet,  quaver,  semiqua- 
ver, and  demisemiquaver.  To  these  may 
bo  added  the  breve,  yet  met  with  in 
sacred  music,  and  the  half  demisemi- 
quaver, much  used  by  the  moderns. 

NOTTUR'NO,  in  music,  originally  sy- 
nonymous with  serenade  ;  but  applied  at 
present  to  a  piece  of  music  in  which  the 
emotions  chiefly  of  love  and  tenderness 
arc  developed.  Of  modern  composers 
Chopin,  Field,  and  llerg  are  the  most 
distinguished  in  this  department. 

NOVA'TIANS,  the  followers  of  Nova- 
tian,  a  presbyter  of  Rome,  who  was  stig- 


NOX] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


427 


matizcd  as  a  schismatic  and  heretic,  and 
founded  a  sect  of  (his  name  in  the  3d 
century,  which  continued  to  flourish  to 
the  end  of  the  5th.  The  aim  of  Nova- 
tian  WHS  to  den^  readiuission  into  the 
church  to  all  persons  who,  in  the  lime  of 
persecution,  or  on  other  accounts,  had 
once  lipsed  from  the  faith. 

NOVEL,  in  literature,  a  fictitious  tale, 
or  imaginary  history  of  real  life,  gen- 
erally intended  to  exhibit  the  operation 
of  the  passions,  foremost  among  which  is 
love.  "In  the  novel,"  says  Goethe,  '"sen- 
timents and  events  are  to  be  chiefly  rep- 
resented ;  in  the  drama,  character  and 
actions.  The  hero  of  the  novel  must  be 
passive,  or,  at  least,  not  in  a  high  degree 
active ;  but  wo  e.xpect  of  the  dramatic 
hero  action."  The  Italian  novella,  of 
which  the  bust  and  earliest  specimens  are 
those  contained  in  the  Decameron  of 
Boccaccio,  was  rather  a  short  tale,  turn- 
ing on  an  event,  or  on  a  series  of  adven- 
tures of  humor,  pathos,  or  intrigue,  than  a 
novel  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the 
term.  In  its  present  signitication  in  the 
English  language,  it  seems  to  express  a 
species  of  fictitious  narrative  somewhat 
different  from  a  romance  ;  yet  it  would 
be  difficult  to  assign  the  e.xact  distinction, 
and.  in  the  French  language,  the  same 
name  (roman)  is  used  for  both  ;  while  it 
differs  from  a  tale  merely  in  the  circum- 
stance that  a  certain  degree  of  length  is 
necessary  to  constitute  a  novel.  Although, 
in  fact,  the  terms  novel  and  romance  are 
often  used  indifferently,  yet  they  have  also 
often  been  treated  as  distinct  classes  of 
composition  in  English  literature.  Per- 
haps, if  we  seek  to  draw  the  distinction 
with  as  much  of  accuracy  as  the  subject 
will  admit,  we  may  say  that  the  proper 
object  of  a  novel  is  the  delineation  of 
soci^il  manners,  or  the  development  of  a 
story  founded  on  the  incidents  of  ordina- 
ry life,  or  both  together.  Thus  will  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  class  of  novels,  on  the  one 
hand,  tales  of  which  the  incidents  are  not 
merely  improbable,  (for  this  may  .be  the 
case  in  a  novel,)  but  occurring  out  of  the 
common  course  of  life,  and  such  as  are 
founded  on  imaginary  times  and  imagi- 
nary manners,  tales  of  supernatural  in- 
cidents, chivalrous  romances,  pastoral 
romances,  &c. :  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  must  exclude  from  the  same  class 
fictitious  narratives,  in  which  the  author's 
principal  object  is  neither  the  story  nor  the 
costume,  but  which  arc  obviously  written 
with  an  ulterior  view,  although  their  inci- 
dents and  character  may  perhaps,  in 
other   respects,   fall  under   the  definition 


suggested  above.  Thus,  political,  philo« 
sophical,  and  satirical  fictions  are  clearly 
not  to  be  ranked  as  novels.  But  it  ia 
obvious  that  no  definition  can  be  drawn 
which  shall,  on  this  subject,  entirely  satis- 
fy the  caprices  of  popular  language.  Of 
the  novel,  in  this  confined  sense,  the 
works  of  Richardson,  and  those  of  Field- 
ing and  Smollett,  afforded,  perhaps,  the 
first  examples  in  English  literature.  The 
first  of  these  authors  gave  birth  to  the 
sentimental  novel,  the  latter  two  to  the 
comic  or  humorous.  Marivaux,  Prevost, 
Ac,  spread  the  former  style  of  composi- 
tion in  France  ;  where,  as  well  as  on  the 
Continent  generally,  it  attained  a  high 
degree  of  vogue.  The  novel  of  manners, 
whether  comic  or  serious,  has,  perhaps, 
been  always  a  more  popular  species  of 
fiction  in  England.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  the  historical  fiction,  to  which 
Sir  Walter  Scott  has  given  such  universal 
popularity,  belongs  strictly  to  the  class 
of  novel  or  romance.  By  aiming  at  the 
delineation  of  real,  although  past  man- 
ners, and  by  the  general  turn  of  the 
story,  it  seems  to  resemble  the  former; 
while  the  romantic  character  of  many  of 
its  incidents  seems  to  assimilate  it  to 
the  latter. 

NOVEM'BER,  the  eleventh  month  of 
the  Julian  year,  consisting  only  of  thirty 
days.  It  is  the  first  winter  month  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  the  first  sum- 
mer month  of  the  southern.  Its  name, 
November,  originates  in  its  being  the 
ninth  month  of  the  Roman  reckoning. 

NOVICE,  a  person  not  yet  skilled  or 
experienced  in  an  art  or  profession.  Nov- 
ice is  more  particularly  used  in  monas- 
teries for  a  religious  person,  in  his  or  her 
novitiate,  or  year  of  probation,  and  who 
has  not  made  the  vows. 

NOVI  HOM'INES,  among  the  Romans, 
were  such  persons  as,  by  their  own  per- 
sonal merit,  had  raised  themselves  to  cu- 
rule  dignities  without  the  aid  of  family 
connections.  This  reproach,  as  is  well 
known,  was  addressed  by  Catiline  to 
Cicero. 

NOVI'TIATE,  the  term  appointed  for 
the  trial  .of  those  who  are  to  enter  a 
monastery,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether 
they  have  the  qualifications  necessary  for 
living  up  to  the  rule  to  which  they  are  to 
bind  themselves  by  vow.  The  novitiate 
is  generally  very  severe  ;  the  novice  gen- 
erally having  to  perform  many  menial 
offices  about  the  convent,  and  to  give  ac- 
count of  the  most  trifling  actions  to  the 
master  of  the  novices. 

NOX,   in    mythology,  the    goddess   of 


428 


CVCLOI'KDIA    OK    LIIKRATL"  KE 


[mm 


night.  In  the  Grecian  rajthology,  she 
was  the  dnughter  of  Chaos,  the  sister  of 
Elpen  and  Erebus,  ami  the  mother  of 
^ther,  Ilcinera,  Manatas,  jNIoiuus,  the 
Fates,  Ac.,  Ac;  which  were  all  personifi- 
cations of  the  natural  phenomena  life, 
sleep,  death,  <fec. 

NUDE  COM'PACT,  in  law,  a  contract 
raiide  without  any  consideration,  and 
therefore  not  valid. — Xude  matter,  a  bare 
allegation  of  something  done. 

NUIHI'EDA'IJA,  in  antiquity,  a  fes- 
tival in  which  all  were  obliged  to  walk 
barefooted.  This  was  done  on  account 
of  some  public  calamity  ;  as  the  plague, 
a  famine,  Ac,  &c.  It  was  likewise  usual 
for  the  Koman  matrons,  when  any  sup- 
plication and  vows  were  to  be  made  to  the 
goddess  Vesta,  to  walk  in  procession  to 
her  temple  barefooted. 

NU'DITIES,in  painting  and  sculpture, 
those  parts  of  the  human  figure  which 
are  not  covered  with  drapery.  The  gods, 
demigods,  and  heroes  of  antiquity  are 
generally  represented  cither  entirely 
naked,  or  with  a  slight  mantle  only  thrown 
across  the  shoulders.  Figures  of  fauns, 
satyrs,  &c.,  also  have  this  distinction. 
An  exception  must,  however,  be  made 
with  respect  to  Jupiter,  who  is  very  sel- 
dom found  without  an  ample  robe  envel- 
oping different  parts  of  his  body.  Per- 
haps the  reverence  entertained  by  the 
ancients  for  this  their  principal  deity, 
prevented  them  from  exhibiting  him  in  a 
state  of  absolute  nudity. 

NUrS.\NCE,  in  law,  that  which  in- 
commodes or  annoys;  something  that 
produces  inconvenience  or  damage.  Nui- 
sances are  public  or  private  :  public,  when 
they  annoy  citizens  in  general,  as  ob- 
structions of  the  highway  ;  private,  when 
they  affect  individuals  only,  as  when  one 
man  erects  a  house  so  near  his  neighbor's 
as  to  throw  the  water  off  the  roof  upon 
his  neighbor's  land  or  hause.  or  to  inter- 
cept the  light  that  his  neighbor  before 
enjoved. 

NUM'BER.S,  the  title  of  the  fourth 
book  of  the  Pentateuch,  so  called  because 
it  contains  an  account  of  the  numbering 
of  the  peoide.  Tiie  bcmk  comprehends  a, 
period  of  the  Israelitish  history  of  about 
thirty-eight  years. — Numbers,  in  poetry, 
oratory,  music,  <tc.  are  certain  meas- 
ures, or  cadences,  which  render  a  verse, 
period^  or  son;;,  agreeable  to  the  ear. 
— Foclical  members  consist  in  a  certain 
harnnmy  in  the  order  anil  quantity  of  .syl- 
lables const  it  11  ting  feel  —  Rlictorirul  num- 
bers are  a  sort  iif  simple,  unafrccto<l  har- 
mony, less   ajipareut   than  that  of  verse, 


but  such  as  is  perceived  and  affects  the 
mind  with  pleasure. 

Nl'MEHAL  LETTER?,  the  Roman 
capital  letters  which  stand  as  substitutes 
for  figures;  as  I  for  1  ;  X  for  lU;  L  fur 
50;  C  for  100.  A" 

NUMISMAT  ICS,  the  science  of  coins 
and  medals,  principally  those  struck  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Konians.  The  word 
coin  is  in  modern  times  applied  to  those 
pieces  of  met.al  struck  for  the  purpose  of 
circulation  as  money  ;  while  the  word  med- 
al signifies  pieces  of  metal  similar  to  coins 
not  intended  for  circulation  as  money,  but 
struck  and  distributed  in  coniinemoration 
of  some  person  or  event.  Ancient  coins, 
however,  are  often  termed  in  common  lan- 
guage medals.  The  parts  of  a  coin  or 
medal  are,  the  obverse  or  face,  containing 
generally  the  head,  bust,  or  figure  of  the 
sovereign  or  person  in  whose  honor  the 
medal  was  struck,  or  some  emblematic 
figure  relating  to  him;  and  the  reverse, 
containing  various  figures  or  words.  The 


words  around  the  border  form  the  legend, 
those  in  the  middle  or  field  the  inscrip- 
tion. The  lower  part  of  the  coin  sepa- 
rated by  a  line  from  the  figures  or  the 
inscription,  is  the  basis  or  cvergue,  an  I 
contains  the  date,  the  place  wdiere  th  i 
coin  was  struck,  &c.  The  metals  of  whic'i 
coins  and  medals  have  been  chiefly  com- 
posed are  gold,  silver,  brass  or  copper. 
The  earliest  coins  are  Phoenician,  an  1 
were  struck  or  imprinted  from  dies  unre- 
versed, so  that  the  inscription  was  re- 
versed; but  those  struck  by  the  ancient 
(ireeks  and  Romans  are  most  deservins; 
our  attention.  The  study  of  coins  and 
medals  is  indispensable  to  arclia'ology, 
and  to  a  thorough  acq\iaintance  with  the 
Fine  .Arts.  They  indicate  the  names  of 
countries  and  cities,  determine  their  po- 
sition, and  present  pictures  of  many  cele- 
brated places.  They  fi.\-  the  period  of 
events,  and  enable  us  to  trace  series  of 
kings.  In  short,  they  servo  to  make  us 
acquainted  with  whatever  relates  to  an- 
cient usages,  civil,  military,  and  religious, 
while  they  cnal)lc  us  to  trace  the  epochs 


OASJ 


AND    THE     FINK     A  KTR. 


420 


of  different  styles  of  art,  and  are  of  great 
assistance  in  our  philological   researches. 

NUNCIO,  an  ambassador  from  the 
pope  to  some  Catholic  prince  or  state,  or 
who  attends  some  congress  or  assembly 
as  the  pope's  representative.  The  nun- 
cio is  generally  a  prelate  of  the  court  of 
Rome  ;  if  a  cardinal,  he  is  styled  legate. 
Since  the  time  of  the  council  of  Trent  the 
nuncios  have  acted  as  judges  of  appeal 
from  the  decisions  of  the  respective  bish- 
ops in  those  countries  which  are  subject 
to  the  decretals  and  discipline  of  the 
council  of  Trent.  In  other  Catholic  king- 
doms and  states  holding  themselves  inde- 
pendent of  the  court  of  Rome  in  matters 
of  discipline,  the  nuncio  has  merely  a 
diplomatic  character  like  the  minister 
of  any  other  foreign  power. 

NUNCUPATIVE  WILL,  in  law,  a 
will  or  testamentary  desire  expressed 
verbally,  but  not  put  into  writing.  It 
depends  merely  on  oral  testimony  for 
proof,  though  afterwards  reduced  to  writ- 
ing. Nuncupative,  in  a  general  sense, 
signifies  something  that  exists  only  in 
name. 

NUN'DINzE,  in  antiquity,  days  set 
apart  by  the  Romans  for  the  country 
people  to  expose  their  wares  and  commod- 
ities to  sale,  very  similar  to  the  large 
markets  or  fairs.  They  were  called  Nuii- 
diiicE,  because  they  were  kept  every  ninth 
day. 

NUN'NERY,  in  the  Romish  church,  a 
religious  house  for  nuns,  or  females  who 
have  bound  themselves  by  vow  to  a  sin- 
gle life. 

NYCHTHEMERON,  among  the  an- 
cients, signified  the  whole  natural  day, 
or  day  and  night,  consisting  of  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  equal  parts.  This  way  of 
considering  the  day  was  particularly 
adopted  by  the  Jews,  and  seems  to  owe  its 
origin  to  that  expression  of  Moses,  in  the 
first  chapter  of  (Jenesis,  "  the  evening 
and  the  morning  were  the  first  day." 

NYMPILE'A,  certain  publix;  baths  at 
Rome,  of  which  there  were  twelve  in  num- 
ber, adorned  with  curious  statues  of  the 
Nymphs,  to  whom  they  were  consecrated, 
furnished  with  pleasant  grottoes,  and  sup- 
plied with  cooling  fountains,  which  ren- 
dered them  e.xceedingly  delightful,  and 
drew  great  numbers  to  frequent  them. 
.Silence  was  particularly  reijuired  there, 
as  appears  by  this  iascriplion,  Nymphis 
luci,  bibe.  l(Lva,  tiice. 

NY.MPHS.  female  beinsrs,  in  Grecian 
mythology,  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
gods  and  men.  They  peopled  all  the  re- 
gions of  earth  and  water,  and  were  vari- 


ously designatci],  according  to  the  places 
of  their  abode.  Thus,  the  Naiades  inhab- 
ited the  streams,  tlie  Ureiadcs  the  moun- 
tains, the  Dryades  the  woods,  the  llama- 
dryades  trees,  with  which  they  were  born 
and  died.  They  are  represented  as  very 
beautiful;  they  constituted  the  atten- 
dants of  various  of  the  higher  female 
divinities,  especially  Diana,  and  were  also 
considered  as  having  been  the  nurses  of 
many  of  the  gods,  as  Jupiter  and  Pan. 


o. 


0,  the  fourth  vowel  and  the  fifteenth 
letter  in  the  alphabet,  is  pronounced  by 
projecting  the  lips,  and  forming  an  open- 
ing resembling  the  letter  itself.  The 
English  language  designates  not  less 
than  four  sounds  by  the  character  o,  ex- 
emplified in  the  words  no,  prove,  for,  not. 
The  French  indicate  the  sound  o  (pro- 
nounced as  in  no)  by  various  signs.  The 
use  of  o  is  next  in  frequency  to  that  of  a. 
With  an  apostrophe  after  it,  0  signifies 
son  in  Irish  proper  names;  asO'Neil,  (the 
son  oJ'Neil,)  like  the  prefix  il/ac.  Among 
the  ancients,  0  was  a  mark  of  triple  time, 
from  the  notion  that  the  ternary,  or 
number  3,  is  the  most  perfect  of  num- 
bers, and  properly  expressed  by  a  circle, 
the  most  perfect  figure.  0  is  often  used 
as  an  interjection  or  exclamation  to  ex- 
press a  wish,  admiratiorw,  warning,  pity, 
imploring,  and  sometimes  surprise  ;  but 
when  language  expressive  of  strong  emo- 
tion is  used  the  introductory  exclamation 
is  properly  Oh  !  Shakspeare  uses  0  for 
a  circle  or  oval. 

OAN'NES,  in  ancient  mythology,  the 
most  celebrated  divinity  of  the  Babylo- 
nians, lie  was  represented  as  a  sea- 
monster,  with  human  feet  and  hands ; 
and  was  said  to  dwell  in- the  abysses  of 
the  Red  Sea,  whence  he  was  in  the  habit 
of  issuing  daily,  and  proceeding  to  Babv'- 
lon,  where  he  communicated  instruction 
on  religion,  the  science  of  government, 
and  the  useful  arts.  It  has  been  gene- 
rally supposed  that  Oaunes  was  identical 
with  the  god  Dagon. 

O'ASIS,  a  fertile  spot,  watered  by 
springs,  and  covered  with  verdure,  situ- 
ated m  the  midst  of  the  uninhabited  des- 
erts of  Northern  Africa;  the  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  cluster  of  verdant  spots. 
In  the  desert  of  Sahara  there  are  several 
of  these.  They  serve  as  stopping-places 
for  the  caravans,  and  often  contain  vil- 
lages.    In  Arabi?,  they  are  called  wadyt 


430 


CVCI.ol'P.DIA     OF     I.ITKItATrUK 


L' 


OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation  or  decla- 
ration, luado  witii   an   appeal  to  God  for 
the  truth  of  what  is  aHirined.    The  appeal 
to  God  in  an  oath,  implies  that  the  person 
imprecates  his  vengeance  and   renounces 
his  favor  if  the  declaration  is  false  ;  or  if 
the  declaration  is  a  promise,  the  person 
invokes  the  vengeance  of  God  if  he  should 
fail  tc)  fulfil  it.     A  person  who  is  to  be  a 
witness   in    a  cause  may  have  two  oaths 
administered  to  him;    the  one  to  speak 
the  truth,  in  relation  to  what  the  court 
sliall  think  fit  to  ask  him,  concerning  him- 
self or  anything  else  that  is  not  evidence 
in    the    cause ;   and    the  other  purel}'  to 
give  evidence  in  the  cause  wherein  he  is 
produced  as  a  witness.     The  laws  of  all 
civilized  states  have  required  the  security 
of  an  oath  for  evidence  given  in  a  court 
of  justice ;    and   the    Christian    religion, 
while    it    utterly  prohibits   profane  and 
needless  swearing,  does  not  seem  to  for- 
bid oaths  duly  required,  or  taken  on  ne- 
cessarj  occasions.     But  the  Quakers  and 
Moravians, — swayed  by  the  sense  which 
they  put  upon  that  te.xt  of  Scripture  in 
St.  Matthew,  which  says,  -'Swear  not  at 
all,"  and  St.  James's  words,  ch.  v.  12, — 
refuse  to  swear  on  any  occasion,  even  at 
the  requisition  of  a  magistrate,  and  in  a 
court  of  justice.     Any  believer  in  a  defi- 
nite form  of  religion  can  be  a  witness,  and 
the  oath   maybe  administered  "accord- 
ing to  such  forms  and  ceremonies  as  he 
may  declare  to  be  binding."    But  persons 
who  cannot  take  an  oatii  are  incapable 
of  being  witnesses  ;    such,    therefore,   as 
will  not  declare  their  belief  in  God.  in  a 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
and  that  perjury  will  be  putiished  by  the 
Deity,  are  excluded ;  as  well  as  those  who, 
from  their  years  of  ignorance,  are  inca- 
pable of  comprehending  the  nature  of  an 
oath. — Oaths  to  perform  illegal    acts  do 
not  bind,  nor   do   they  excuse  the    per- 
formance of  the  act.     Perjury  is  the  wil- 
ful violation   of  an  oath   ailininistered  b}' 
a  lawful  authority  to  a  witness  in  a  judi- 
cial   proceeding.       Different    formalities 
have  been  customary  in  ditferent   coun- 
tries in  taking  oaths.     The  Jews  some- 
times swore  with  their    hands   lifted   up, 
and  somotiTnos  placed  umler  the  thigh  of 
the   person   to  whom    they   swore.       This 
was  also  the  custom  among  the  Athenitms 
and  the   Romans.     The  ancients  guarded 
against    perjury    very   religiously  ;    and 
for  fear  they  might  fall  into  it  through 
neglect    of   duo    form,   they    usually    de- 
clared  that   they  bound  themselves   only 
so  far   as   the  oath  was  practicable:   and 
lost  the   obligation  should  lie  upon  their 


ghosts,  they  made  an  express  obligation, 
when  they  swore,  that  the  oath  should 
be  cancelled  at  their  death.  Perjury 
they  believed  could  not  pass  unpunished, 
and  expected  the  divine  vengeance  to 
overtake  the  perjured  villain  even  in  this 
life. 

OBADI'AII,  or  The  Prophecy  of 
Obadiah,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  which  is  contained  in  one 
single  chapter,  and  is  partly  an  invective 
against  the  cruelty  of  the  Edomites,  and 
partly  a  prediction  of  the  deliverance  of 
Israel,  and  of  the  victory  and  triumph 
of  the  whole  church  over  her  enemies. 

O'BEAH,  a  species  of  witchcraft  prac- 
tised among  the  negroes,  the  apprehen- 
sion of  which  operating  upon  their  super- 
stitious fears,  is  frequently  attended  with 
disease  and  death. 

OBEDIENCE,  PAS'SIVE,  in  politics, 
signifies  the  unqualified  obedience  which, 
according  to  some  political  philosophers, 
is  due  from  subjects  to  the  supreme  pow- 
er in  the  state  ;  insomuch  that  not  only 
its  lawful,  but  its  unlawful  commands, 
may  not  be  forcibly  resisted  without  sin. 

OB'ELISK,  a  lofty  quadrangular  mon- 
olithic column,  "  diminishing  upwards, 
with  the  sides  gently  inclined,  but  not  so 
as  to  terminate  in  an  apex  at  the  top; 
neither  is  it  truncated  or  cut  otT  at  the 
summit,  but  the  sides  are  sloped  oflf  so  as 
to  form  a  flattish  pyramidal  figure,  by 
which  the  whole  is  suitably  finished  off 
and  brought  to  a  point,  without  the  upper 
part  being  so  contracted  as  to  appear  in- 
significant." Egypt  was,  properly  speak- 
ing, the  land  of  obelisks  ;  and  they  are 
unquestionably  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
most  ancient  monuments  of  that  extraor- 
dinary people.  I\I  lull' learning  and  in- 
genuity has  been  expended  in  endeavor- 
ing to  ascertain  their  origin,  and  the 
purposes  for  which  they  were  erected ; 
but  it  docs  not  appear  that  any  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  the  problem  has  hitherto 
been  given.  It  has  been  frequently  as- 
serted that  obelisks  were  originally  erect- 
ed in  honor  of  the  sun,  of  which  they 
were  said  to  bo  sj'mbolical,  and  that  they 
served  the  purposes  of  a  gnome  or  sun- 
dial ;  but  this  opinion  is  now  almost 
totally  rejected,  and  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  obelisks  were  nothing  more 
than  monuinenlal  structures,  serving  as 
ornaments  to  the  open  squares  in  which 
they  were  generally  Ijuilt,  or  intended  to 
celebrate  some  important  event  and  to 
perpetuate  its  rcnuMnljranco.  They  were 
usually  adorned  with  hieroglyphics;  and 
we  learn  from  the  testimony  of  Diodorus 


OBO] 


A\D    TIIK    FIXK    ARTS. 


4ni 


and  Slrabo  that  the  inscriptions  with 
whicli  they  were  charged  declared  the 
amount  of  gold  and  silver,  the  number  of 
troops,  and  the  quantity  of  ivory,  pc- 
futnes,  and  corn  which  all  the  countries 
subject  to  Egypt  were  required  to  furnish. 
The  two  large.-t  obelisks  were  erected  by 
Sesostrisin  Heliopolis.  They  wore  form- 
ed of  a  single  block  of  granite,  and  meas- 
ured 180  feet  in  height. 

OB'ELr.S,  in  diplomatics,  a  mark  so 
cnlled  from  its  resemblance  to  a  needle  ; 
usually  thus  —  or  thus  ~  in  ancient  MSS. 
The  common  use  of  the  line  —  in  modern 
writing  is  to  mark  the  place  of  a  break  in 
the  sense,  where  it  is  suspended,  or  where 
there  is  an  ungrammatical  transition ; 
but  a  paragraph  introduced  where  the 
sense  is  suspended,  is  more  properly 
marked  by  the  sign  of  a  parenthesis. 

O'BEROX,  in  mediieval  mythology, 
the  king  of  the  fairies.  Wieland's  beau- 
tiful poem,  and  Weber's  romantic  opera 
of  this  name,  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  and  innumerable  other  poems 
and  tales  of  which  he  is  the  hero,  have 
made  the  name  of  Oberon  so  familiar, 
that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  do  more  in 
this  place  than  to  state  the  origin  of  the 
fable.  The  name  Oberon  first  appears  in 
the  old  French, /i/6/(aM.r  of  Iluon  of  Bor- 
deaux ;  it  is  identical  with  Auberon,  or 
Alberon,  the  first  syllable  of  which  is 
nothing  more  than  the  ol  1  German  word 
Alb,  elf  or  fairy,  lie  was  represented 
as  endowed  with  magic  powers,  and  wit'Ii 
the  qualities  of  a  good  and  upright  mon- 
arch, rewarding  those  who  practised  truth 
and  honesty,  and  punishing  those  who 
acted  otherwise.  His  wife's  name  was  Ti-. 
tania,  or  Mab,  whose  powers  have  been  so 
beautifully  depicted  in  Romeo  and  Juliet . 

O'BIT,  a  funeral  solemnity,  or  otfice 
for  the  dead,  most  commonly  performed 
when  the  corpse  lies  in  the  church  un- 
intcrred.  It  likewise  signifies  an  annual 
commemoration  of  the  dead,  performed 
on  the  day  of  their  death,  with  prayers, 
alms,  &c. 

OBIT'UARY,  a  register  in  which  are 
enrolled  the  names  of  deceased  persons 
for  whom  obits  are  to  be  performed,  and 
the  days  of  their  funeral.  It  is  also  used 
for  the  book  containing  the  foundation  or 
institution  of  the  several  obits  in  a  church 
or  monastery.  In  the  former  sense  it  is 
Evnonymous  with  necrology,  \n  the  latter 
with  martyrology. 

OB'JECT,  that  about  which  any  power 
or  faculty  is  employed,  or  something  ap- 
prehendeil  or  presented  to  the  mind  by 
sensation    or    imagination.      Thus    that 


quality  of  a  rose  which  is  perceived  by 
the  sense  of  smell,  is  an  object  of  percei> 
tion.  When  the  object  is  not  in  contact 
with  the  organ  of  sense,  there  must  be 
some  medium  through  which  we  obtain 
the  perception  of  it.  The  impression 
which  objects  make  on  the  senses,  must 
be  by  the  immediate  application  of  them 
to  the  organs  of  sense,  or  by  means  of  the 
medium  that  intervenes  between  the  or- 
gans and  the  objects. 

OB'LATE,  in  ecclesiastical  antiqui- 
ties, 1.  A  person  who,  on  embracing  the 
monastic  state,  had  made  a  donation  of 
all  his  goods  to  the  community.  2.  One 
dedicated  to  a  religious  order  by  his  pa- 
rents from  an  early  period  of  his  life.  3. 
A  layman  residing  as  an  inmate  in  a  re- 
gular community  to  which  he  had  assign- 
ed his  property  either  in  perpetuity  or 
for  the  period  of  his  residence.  4.  A  lay- 
man who  had  made  donation,  not  only  of 
his  property,  but  his  person,  as  bondsman 
to  a  monastic  community.  In  France  the 
king  possessed,  in  ancient  times,  a  privi- 
lege of  recommending  a  certain  number 
of  oblaii,  chiefly  invalided  soldiers,  to 
monasteries,  whom  they  were  bound  to 
maintain. 

OBLA'TIOX,  a  sacrifice,  or  offering 
made  to  God.  In  the  canon-law,  obla- 
tions are  defined  to  be  anything  offered 
by  godly  Christians  to  God  and  the 
church,  whether  movables  or  immova- 
bles. Till  the  fourth  century,  the  church 
had  no  fi.xed  revenues,  the  clergy  wholly 
subsisting  on  voluntary  oblations. 

OBLIGATION,  in  general,  denotes 
any  act  whereby  a  person  becomes  bound 
to  another  to  do  something.  Obligations 
are  of  three  liinds.  viz.  nntural,  civil,  and 
mixed.  Natural  obligations  are  entirely 
founded  on  natural  equity;  civil  obliga- 
tions, on  civil  authority  alone,  witliout 
any  foundation  in  natural  equity;  and 
mixed  obligations  are  those  which  being 
founded  on  natural  equity,  are  further 
enforced  by  civil  authority. — In  a  legal 
sense,  obligation  signifies  a  bond,  wherein 
is  contained  a  penalty,  with  a  condition 
annexed  for  the  payment  of  money,  (fee. 

OBLIGA'TO,  in  music,  a  term  applied 
to  a  movement  or  composition  written  for 
a  particular  instrument.  It  sometimes 
means  that  a  movement  is  restrained  by 
certain  rules  to  give  particular  expres- 
sion to  a  passage,  action,  &e. 

OB'OLU.S,  a  small  Grecian  silver  coin, 
equal  to  one  penny  farthing.  It  was  this 
coin  which  they  placed  in  the  mouth  of 
the  dead,  to  pay  Charon  for  their  passage 
over  the  Styx. 


432 


CYCI.urKIHA     OF     LIlEliAUKE 


focx 


OBsECKA'TIO,  in  Roman  nntiquity, 
a  solemn  ceremony  {>eriornied  by  the 
chief  magistrates  of  Rome,  to  avert  any 
impending  calamity*.  It  consisted  of 
prayers  offered  up  to  the  gods  whom  they 
supposed  to  be  enrnged.  So  exact  were 
they  in  observing  the  prescribed  form  on 
these  occasions,  that  a  person  was  ap- 
pointed to  read  it  over  to  the  man  who 
was  to  pronounce  it,  and  tiio  niosttriOing 
omission  was  held  sufficient  to  vitiate  the 
whole  solemnity. 

OBSECRA'TIOX,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
in  which  the  orator  implores  the  assist- 
ance of  God  or  man. 

OBSEQUIES,  were  solemnities  per- 
formed at  the  burials  of  eminent  persons. 
The  term  is  now  used  for  the  funeral  it- 
self. 

OBSES'SIOX,  the  state  of  a  person 
vexed  or  besieged  by  an  evil  spirit.  In 
the  language  of  exorcists,  demoniacal  ob- 
session differed  from  demoniacal  posses- 
sion :  in  the  latter,  the  demon  had  pos- 
session of  the  patient  internally  ;  in  the 
former  ho  attacks  him  frojn  without. 
Well-known  marks  of  obsession  were  the 
being  miraculous!}'  hoisted  or  elevated 
in  the  air,  speaking  languages  of  which 
the  patient  had  no  knowledge,  aversion 
to  the  offices  of  religion,  and  so  forth. 

OBSID'IONAL  CROWN,  in  Roman 
antiquities,  a  crown  granted  by  the  state 
to  the  general  who  raised  the  siege  of  a 
beleaguered  place.  It  was  formed  of 
grass  growing  on  the  rampart.  Ubsidi- 
onal  coins,  in  numismatics,  are  pieces 
struck  in  besieged  places  to  supply  the 
place  of  current  money.  They  are  of 
various  base  metals,  and  of  different 
shapes.  Some  of  the  oldest  known  are 
those  which  were  struck  at  the  siege  of 
Pavia,  under  Francis  I. 

OB'VEllSE,  or  FACE,  in  numismat- 
ics, the  side  of  the  coin  which  contains 
the  principal  symbol :  usually,  in  the 
coins  of  monarchical  states,  ancient  and 
modern,  the  face  in  profile  of  the  sove- 
reign ;  in  some  instances,  the  full  or  half 
length  figure. 

OCCA'SIONALISM,  or  the  System  of 
Occasional  Causes,  in  nietaphysics,  a 
name  which  has  been  given  to  certain 
theories  of  the  Cartesian  school  of  phi- 
losophers, esj)ecially  Arnold  Oeulinx,  of 
Antwerp,  by  which  they  accounted  for 
the  apparent  action  of  the  soul  on  the 
body;  c.  f^.  in  the  phenomena  of  volun- 
tary motion.  Accoriling  to  these  theories, 
(which  were  more  or  less  clearly  develop- 
ed by  different  writers.)  the  will  was  not 
the  cause  of  the  action  of  (he  budy  ;  but 


whenever  the  will  required  a  motion,  God 
caused  the  body  to  move  in  the  required 
direction. 

OCCULT',  something  secret,  hidden  or 
invisible,  as  the  occult  quality  of  matter. 
— The  occult  sciences  are  magic,  necro 
mancv,  &c. 

OCE'ANUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
oldest  of  the  Titans  :  according  to  soine, 
the  son  of  Ouranos  and  Gaia.  His  con- 
sort was  Tethys,  his  daughters  the  Ocea- 
nides.  In  Ilomer,  the  word  ocean  merely 
designates  the  "  river,"  or  stream,  which, 
according  to  his  notion,  encompassed  the 
earth. 

OCHLOCRACY,  a  word  coined  to  ex- 
press the  condition  of  a  state  in  which  the 
populace  have  acquired  an  immediate 
illegal  control  over  the  government;  and, 
by  a  figure  commonly  used  in  the  exag- 
geration of  political  speakers  and  writers, 
a  government  in  which  the  power  of  the 
lower  classes  predominates,  either  for  a 
time  or  permanently. 

OCTAVE,  in  music,  an  eighth,  or  an 
interval  of  seven  degrees  or  twelve  semi- 
tones. The  octave  is  the  most  perfect  of 
the  chords,  consisting  of  six  full  tones 
and  two  semi-tones  major.  It  contains 
the  whole  diatonic  scale.  The  most  sim- 
ple perception  that  we  can  have  of  two 
sounds,  is  that  of  unisons  ;  the  vibrations 
there  beginning  and  ending  together. 
The  next  to  this  is  the  octave,  where  the 
more  acute  sound  makes  precisely  two 
vibrations,  while  the  grave  or  deeper 
makes  one  ;  consequently,  the  vibrations 
of  the  two  meet  at  every  single  vibration 
of  the  more  grave  one.  Hence,  unison 
and  octave  pass  almost  for  the  same  con- 
cord;  hence,  also,  the  ratio  of  the  two 
sounds  that  form  the  octave  is  as  1  to  2. 
The  octave  may  bo  doubled,  tripled,  and 
multiplied  at  pleasure,  with  changing  its 
nature,  but  a  double  octave  is  less  agree- 
able to  the  ear  than  a  single  one  ;  a  triple 
octave,  still  less  agreeable  than  a  double 
one,  and  so  on. 

OCTA'VO.  in  printing,  the  form  of  a 
page  which  is  made  by  folding  a  sheet 
into  eight  leaves,  or  sixteen  pages.  It  is 
often  written  8vo. 

OCTO'BER,  in  chronology,  the  tenth 
month  of  the  Julian  year,  consisting  of 
thirty-one  days:  it  obtained  the  name  of 
(Jctober  from  its  being  the  eighth  month 
in  the  calendar  of  Romulus. 

OCTASTY'LOS.  in  architecture,  a  tem- 
ple or  other  building  having  eight  col- 
umns in  front. 

OCTROI,  an  old  French  term  (from  auc- 
torilas)   signifying  a  grant  or  privilege 


off] 


ANU    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


433 


from  government,  is  particularly  applied 
to  the  commercial  privileges  granted  to 
a  person  or  to  a  company.  In  a  lilce 
sense  the  term  is  applied  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  a  state  granted  hy  a  prince,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  which  are  de- 
rived from  a  compact  between  a  ruler 
and  the  representatives  of  the  people.  It 
also  signifies  a  tax  levied  at  the  gates  of 
some  cities  in  France  upon  all  articles 
of  food. 

O'DALISQUE.S,  properly  ODALIKS, 
(Turkish,  oda,  a  chamber,)  female  slaves 
employed  in  domestic  service  about  the 
persons  of  the  wives,  female  relatives, 
Ac.  of  the  sultan. 

ODD'FEL'LOWS,  persons  affiliated  to 
certain  associations  that  originated,  about 
the  year  1820 ;  but  now  oddfellow  socie- 
ties form  parts  of  an  important  S3'stem, 
widely  ramified  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  oddfellows  are  in 
many  respects  similar  to  freemasons,  as 
to  initiatory  rites,  secret  oaths,  Ac. ;  and 
hold  frequent  meetings,  ostensibly  for 
philanthropic  purposes. 

ODE,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
was  n  short  lyric  composition,  usually  in- 
tended to  be  sung,  and  accompanied  by 
some  musical  instrument,  generally  the 
lyre  ;  hence  the  expression  lyric  verse. 
In  the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  the  ode 
appears  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
song  by  greater  length  and  variety,  and 
by  not  being  necessarily  adapted  to  music. 
It  is  distinguished  also  from  the  ballad, 
and  other  species  of  lyric  poetry,  by  its 
being  confined  to  the  expression  of  senti- 
ment, or  of  imaginative  thought,  on  a 
given  subject,  not  admitting  of  narrative, 
except  incidentally.  The  odes  of  Pindar, 
Anacreon,  and  Horace,  are,  in  fact,  the 
models  on  which  the  modern  notion  of  the 
ode  is  formed,  and  which  have  been  imi- 
tated in  similar  compositions  in  modern 
times.  Until  the  science  of  Greek  metres 
was  so  accurately  explored  as  it  has 
recently  been,  the  Pindaric  ode  was  sup- 
posed to  admit  of  an  excessive  irregularity 
in  the  length  and  measure  of  lines.  In 
point  of  fact,  however,  a  scheme  of  per- 
fect metrical  irregularity  pervaded  the 
Greek  ode  .  che  Anacreontic  ode  consists 
of  a  number  of  lines  of  the  same  metrical 
length  and  arrangement.  The  Iloratian 
ode,  again,  consists  of  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  stanzas,  precisely  similar  to  each 
other,  each  forming  a  complete  metrical 
v?hole.  The  Dithyrambic  ode  was  a 
bacchanalian  song;  and  as,  from  the 
attributes  of  the  divinity  to  which  it  was 
dedicated,  it  admitted  great  irregularity 


and  license,  the  name  has  been  tr.insfer- 
red  in  modern  times  to  all  odes  partaking 
of  a  wild  and  impetuous  character. 

ODE'UM,  or  ODE'ON,  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture, a  building  wherein  the  poets  and 
musicians  contended  for  the  prizes,  both 
in  vocal  and  instrumental  music.  Peri- 
cles, who  was  the  first  person  to  erect  one 
of  these  buildings  at  Athens,  instituted  it 
for  the  choragi  of  the  different  tribes  to 
rehearse  their  performances;  but  these 
buildings  in  the  end  were  used  for  far 
different  purposes  from  those  for  which 
they  were  originally  destined.  An  odeum 
w.as  to  be  found  in  all  the  principal  cities 
of  antiquity.  The  word  odeon  has  been 
preserved  in  most  modern  languages : 
thus,  there  is  an  odeon  in  Paris,  appro- 
priated to  theatrical  and  other  similar 
purposes. 

O'DIN,  a  Scandinavian  deity,  who 
seems,  like  the  Jupiter  of  the  Greeks,  to 
have  formed  the  connecting  link  between 
the  ancient  and  more  recent  systems  of 
their  mythology.  The  conqueror  Odin 
appears  to  have  been  a  chieftain  who  led 
the  Asi  (the  Goths)  from  the  confines  of 
Asia  to  northern  Europe.  But,  when 
deified  by  public  adoration,  the  attributes 
of  an  earlier  deity  seem  to  have  been 
transferred  to  him.  Odin  is  the  chief  of 
the  gods  ;  by  his  wife  Freya  he  has  two 
chief  sons,  Thor  and  Balder  :  the  death 
of  the  latter  (for  the  Scandinavian  gods 
are  not  all  immortal)  furnishes  many 
legends  to  the  northern  mythology. 

OD'YSSEY,  an  epic  poem,  attributed, 
in  general,  to  Homer,  but,  according  to 
some  modern  hypotheses,  not  by  the  hand 
of  the  author  of  the  Iliad.  The  sul^ject 
of  the  poem  is  the  return  of  Ulysses  from 
Troy  to  his  native  island,  Ithaca. 

(ECON'OMY,  in  architecture,  the  har- 
monious and  skilful  combination  of  the 
parts  of  the  building,  which  renders  them 
suitable  to  their  several  purposes,  and 
tends  to  connect  them  conveniently  with 
each  other. 

(ECUMEN'ICAL,  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage applied  to  ecclesiastical  matters  in 
the  sense  of  universal.  Several  patri- 
archs of  Constantinople  and  Pionie  as- 
sumed the  title  of  oecumenical  (par- 
ticularly John,  A.D.  590,  and  Cyril,  his 
successor,)  apparently  in  opposition  to 
the  pretensions  of  the  bishop  of  Rome. 
CEcumenical  councils  are  those  to  which 
prelates  resorted  from  every  part  of 
Christendom  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Roman  empire. 

OFFENCE',  in  law,  the  violation  of 
anj'  law  ;  this  is  termed  capital  if  pun- 


i34 


rVCLOrEDIA    OF    Uil'-RATL  KU 


[OLL 


ished  with  death,  and  not  capital  if  visit- 
ed with  nny  other  punishment. 

OF'FEIUXtiS,  litenilly,  gifts  present- 
ed at  the  ;iltnr  in  token  of  aei{ncnvle<l;^- 
ment  of  the  Divine  gooilncss.  OfTerings 
constituted  a  large  portion  of  the  Jewish 
worship.  They  consisted  chiefly  of  bread, 
salt,  fruits,  wine,  and  oil,  and  had  differ- 
ent names  according  to  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  employed.  A  distinc- 
tion has  often  been  made  between  offer- 
ings and  sacrifices  ;  the  former  being  said 
to  refer  only  to  the  fruits  of  tiie  earth, 
the  latter  to  animals  ;  but  tliis  can  scarce- 
ly liave  been  the  case,  for  both  the  burnt 
and  the  sin  offering  required  animals  to 
oe  sacrificed.  Among  the  Greeks,  Ro- 
man.*, and  other  nations,  the  same  prac- 
tice prevailed  of  offering  at  their  altars 
wheat,  flour,  and  bread.  In  a  modern 
sense,  tbe  term  ojf'erins;  is  applied  to  cer- 
tain dues  payable  by  custom  to  the 
Church,  as  the  Easter  olTerings,  etc.  This 
latter  custom  has  obtained  from  the  first 
period  of  Christianity,  wiien  those  who 
ofiBciated  at  the  altar  had  no  other  main- 
tenance or  allowance  than  the  free  gifts 
or  offerings  (oblations)  of  the  people. 

OF'FERTORY,  the  first  part  of  the 
Mass,  in  which  the  priest  prepares  the 
elements  for  consecration.  In  the  Eng- 
lish communion  service,  it  denotes  the 
sentences  which  are  delivered  by  the  of- 
ficiating priest  while  the  people  are 
making  their  oblations  or  offerings. 

OF'FICER,  is  used  generally  to  signify 
any  person  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  post  or 
office,  whether  civil  or  military',  under  the 
crown.  Under  their  different  heacls  will 
be  found  a  notice  of  the  chief  civil  and 
military  officers  ;  to  these  the  reader  is 
referred. 

OFF'.SET,  in  architecture,  the  superior 
surface  left  uncovered  by  the  continuation 
upwards  of  a  wall  where  the  thickness 
diminishes,  forming  a  ledge. 

OGEE,  or  0.  G..  in  architecture,  a 
moulding,  consisting  of  two  members,  the 
one  concave,  the  other  convex;  or,  of  a 
round  and  a  hollow,  somewhat  like  an  S. 

O'GIVE,  in  architecture,  an  arch  or 
branch  of  a  (Jothic  vault;  which,  instead 
"<"  boinz  circular,  passes  diagonally  from 
one  angle  to  another,  and  forms  a  cross 
with  Uie  other  arches.  The  middle,  whore 
the  ogives  cross  each  other,  is  called  tlie 
key.  The  members  or  mouldings  of  the 
ogives  are  called  nerves,  branches,  or 
reins  ;  and  the  arches  which  separate  the 
ogives,  double  arches. 

O'GRE.?,  the  well-known  name  of  those 
Iiaaginary  monster?  with  whieh  the  nur- 


scrj-  tales  of  England  abound.  They  are 
usually  represented  as  cannibals  of  ma- 
lignant disposilions,  and  as  endoweil  with 
gigantic  height  anti  power.  It  is  difficult 
to  speak  with  certainty  of  the  origin  of 
these  fabulous  creations ;  but  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  term  ogre  is  derived  from 
Oegir,  one  of  the  giants  in  the  Scandina- 
vian mythology;  though  it  has  been  al- 
leged, with  perhaps  more  probability, 
that  it  has  been  borrowed  from  the  Ogura, 
or  Onogurs,  a  desperate  and  savage  Asi- 
atic horde,  which  overran'part  of  Europe 
about  the  middle  of  the  .5th  century. 

OIIi-PAIXT'lNG,  the  art  of  pa"inting 
with  oil  colors,  which  are  the  kind  most 
commonly  used  for  large  pictures.  This 
art  has  the  pre-eminence  above  all  other 
kinds  of  painting  on  account  of  its  liveli- 
ness, strength,  agreeableness,  and  natural 
appearance ;  on  account  of  the  variety 
and  mixture  of  tints;  in  short,  on  account 
of  the  charm  of  the  coloring.  The  vari- 
ous colors  chiefly  used  in  oil  painting  are, 
white  lead,  Cremnitz  white,  chrome,  king's 
yellow,  Naples  yellow,  patent  yellow,  the 
ochres,  Dutch  pink,  terra,  da  Sienna,  yel- 
low lake,  vermilion,  red  lead,  Indian  and 
Venetian  red,  the  several  sorts  of  lake, 
brown,  pink.  Vandyke  brown,  burnt  and 
unburnt  amber,  ultramarine,  Prussian 
and  Antwerp  blue,  ivorj' black,  blue  black, 
asphaltum.  The  principal  oils  are  those 
extracted  from  the  poppy,  nut,  and  lin- 
seed, the  latter  being  used  for  the  ground 
work.  Oil  paintings  are  made  upon  wood, 
copper,  and  other  metals  ;  also  upon  walls 
and  thick  silk,  but  now  most  commonly 
upon  canvas,  stretched  upon  a  frame,  and 
done  over  with  glue  or  gold  for  a  ground, 
and  bv  some  with  white  water  colors. 

OL'IGARCIIY,  a  state  in  which  tbe 
sovereign  power  is  lodged  in  the  hands 
of  a  small,  exclusive  class,  is  so  called. 
It  ditTers  from  aristocracy,  in  that  the 
latter  term  appears  to  designate  a  govern- 
ment in  which  the  whole  of  a  particular 
class  or  interest,  e.  g.,  the  noble,  the 
wealthy,  Ac.,sharedirectly  or  indirectly  in 
the  management  of  public  affairs  ;  while, 
in  an  oligarchy,  it  is  a  party  or  section 
formed  out  of  one  of  these  classes  which 
enjoys  the  advantages  of  government. 

OLIO,  a  miscellany;  a  collection  of 
various  pieces.  It  is  chiefly  applied  to 
musical  collections. 

OJ/LA  PODUI'DA,  the  name  given  to 
a  favorite  dish  of  all  classes  in  Spain; 
consisting  of  a  mixture  of  all  kinils  of 
meat  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  stewed 
with  various  kinds  of  vegetables.  The 
epithet  podrida  is  applied  to  this  dish,  in 


ont] 


AM)    THK     FINE    ARTS. 


435 


consequence  of  the  poorer  classes  being 
obliged  to  serve  it  up  so  often  that  the 
odor  arising  from  lon^  keeping  is  far  from 
agreeable.  The  phrase  olla  podrida  is 
often  used  metaphorically  in  England  for 
any  incongruous  melange. 

OLYMP'I  AD,  in  chronology,  a  Grecian 
epoch  of  four  years,  being  the  interval 
between  the  celebration  of  the  Olympic 
games. 

OLYMP'IC  GAMES,  the  greatest  of 
tiie  national  festivals  of  (Jreece,  cele- 
brated once  every  four  years  at  Olympia, 
or  Pisa,  in  Elis,  in  honor  of  Olympian  Ju- 
piter. Their  institution  is  variously  at- 
tributed to  Jupiter,  Pelops,  and  Hercules; 
but  it  appears  that  they  had  fallen  into 
disuse  for  some  time,  till  they  were  revived 
by  Iphitus,  776  B.C.  From  this  period  it 
is  that  the  Olympiads  are  reckoned.  Like 
the  other  public  festivals,  the  Olympian 
games  might  be  attended  by  all  who  bore 
the  Hellenic  name;  and  such  was  their 
universal  celebrity,  that  spectators  qua- 
ternially  crowded  to  witness  them,  not 
only  from  all  parts  of  Greece  itself,  but 
from  every  Grecian  colony  in  Euro|)e, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  In  these  games,  none 
were  allowed  to  contend  but  those  who 
could  prove  that  they  were  freemen  of 
genuine  Hellenic  origin,  and  unstained 
by  crime  or  immorality. 

O.ME'GA,  the  name  for  the  Greek  long 
0.  It  was  the  last  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet,  as  alpha  was  the  first;  and 
from  the  e.xpression  in  Picvelations,  "  I 
am  Al])ha  and  Omega,,  the  beginning  and 
the  ending,  saith  the  Lord,  which  is,  and 
which  was,  and  which  is  to  come,  the  Al- 
mighty," the  characters  of  alpha  and 
omega  became  with  the  Christians  sym- 
bolical hieroglyphics. 

O'MENS.  casual  indications,  from 
which  men  believe  themselves  enabled  to 
conjecture  or  foretell  future  events.  The 
essential  characteristic  of  all  omens  is 
their  happening  by  accident;  and  it  is 
this  which  distinguishes  them  from  all 
other  modes  of  divination.  This  branch 
of  superstition  seems  nearly  as  ancient 
as  the  world  itself;  and  in  none  do  we 
find  such  remarkable  indications  of  same- 
ness of  origin.  Many  external  circum- 
stances appear  to  be  received  in  almost 
.all  countries  as  ominous.  The  omens  in 
which  the  Thugs  or  secret  murderers  of 
India,  believe  with  peculiar  devotion,  are 
almost  the  very  same  which  an  ancient 
Roman  would  have  observed  with  equal 
attention  ;  especially  the  appearance  of 
animals  on  the  right  or  left  hand.  Omens, 
among  the   Greeks   (and,   we   may  add, 


among  almost  all  nations  in  periods  of 
ignorance,  and  among  the  vulgar  of  the 
present  day,)  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  :  those  derived  from  natural  oc- 
currences, relating  to  inanimate  objects, 
lightning,  earthquakes,  phosphoric  ap- 
pearances, &c. ;  those  derived  from  ani- 
mals, especially  birds,  the  region  of  their 
appearance,  their  voices,  &c  ;  and  those 
which  the  individual  drew  from  sudden 
sensations  of  his  own.  Sneezing,  in  most 
times  and  countries,  has  been  apeculiaily 
ominous  occurrence.  The  Romans,  as  is 
well  known,  carried  the  science  of  omens 
to  a  very  profound  depth:  the  flight  of 
birds  was  the  main  element  in  augury ; 
the  omens  afforded  by  the  entrails  of  sac- 
rificed animals,  in  the  learning  of  extis- 
picium.  One  remarkable  variety  be- 
tween Greek  and  Roman  divination  has 
often  been  noticed  ;  the  right  hand  in  the 
former  generally  denoted  good  luck,  and 
the  left  the  contrary.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans this  rule  was  reversed,  although 
their  writers  in  later  times  often  adopt 
the  Greek  mode  of  expression. 

ONE'IROCRIT'ICS,  the  science  of  in- 
terpreting dreams  :  treated  of  by  Arte- 
midorus,  Macrobius,  and  other  classical 
writers  ;  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  others 
of  the  schoolmen ;  and,  among  many 
other  moderns,  by  Cardanus,  and  Maio, 
a  Neapolitan  philosopher.  According  to 
all  these  writers,  the  secret  of  one  irocriti- 
cal  science  consists  in  the  relation  sup- 
posed to  exist  between  the  dream  and  the 
thing  signified;  but  they  are  far  from 
keeping  to  the  relations  of  agreement 
and  similitude,  and  they  frequently  have 
recourse  to  others  of  dissimilitude,  and 
contrariety. 

ONOM'ATOPE,  or  ONOMATOPCE'IA, 
in  grammar  and  rhetoric,  a  figure  in 
which  words  are  formed  to  resemble  the 
sound  made  by  the  thing  signified,  or  in 
which  words  are  formed  or  supposed  to  be 
formed  in  imitation  of  natural  sounds  ; 
as,  to  buzz,  as  bees ;  to  crackle,  as  burn- 
ing thorns  or  brushwood ;  to  creak,  as  a 
door  on  its  hinges,  &c. — A  word  whose 
sound  corresponds  to  the  sound  of  the 
thing  signified,  or  which  expresses  by  its 
sound  the  thing  represented  ;  as,  to  neigh, 
to  murmur,  to  bleat.  Greek  and  German 
are  rich  in  words  of  this  description. 

ONTOL'OGY,  the  doctrine  of  being  ;  a 
name  formerly  given  to  that  part  of  the 
science  of  metaphysics  which  investigates 
and  explains  the  nature  and  essence  of 
all  beings,  their  qualities  and  .attributes. 
It  investigates  the  nature,  1.  of  things  in 
general,    their    possibility,    reality,    and 


436 


OVCLOrEDIA    OF     LITEKAILKE 


[OI'T 


necessity  ;  2.  of  substaneo  and  acciilence, 
cause,  effect,  and  mutual  operation;  3. 
of  quantity,  quality,  similarity,  and 
equality  of  things;  4.  of  space  and  time  ; 
and  5.   of  the  simple  and  compound. 

O'lVlIS  PROBAN^'Dl,  in  law,  the  bur- 
den of  proving  what  has  been  alleged 
against  another. 

O'PENINti.S,  in  architecture,  the  i)ierc- 
ings  or  unfitted  parts  in  a  wall,  left  for 
the  purpose  of  admitting  light,  air,  Ac. 

O'PEllA,  a  musical  drama  iu  which 
the  music  forms  an  essential  part,  and  not 
merely  an  accompaniment.  The  whole 
diamatic  art  of  the  ancients  possessed 
much  of  an  operatic  character.  The 
choric  parts  were  sung  ;  ami  if  the  dia- 
logue was  not  carried  on  in  the  musical 
tone  termed  recitative  in  modern  times, 
it  was  certainly  delivered  in  an  artifi- 
cially raised  and  sustained  key,  very 
different  from  the  ordinary  or  oratorical 
speech.  The  first  operas  in  modern  times 
were  performed  in  Italy,  about  the  end 
of  the  L5th  century.  The  Orpheo  of 
Poliziano  has  been  cited  as  the  first  com- 
plete piece  of  this  sort.  According  as  the 
serious  or  the  comic  character  prevails  in 
the  opera,  it  is  termed  opera  seria.  or  opera 
buffa.  The  name  n? grand  opera  is  given 
to  that  kinil  which  is  confined  to  music 
and  song  ;  of  which  the  recitativo  is  a 
principal  feature.  An  operetta  is  a  short 
musical  drama  of  a  liglit  character  ;  to 
which  species  of  composition  the  French 
vaudeville  belongs.  The  opera,  properly 
speaking,  admits  only  of  singing  and  re- 
citation, althougli,  in  some  of  the  (Jerman 
operas,  dialogue  is  also  introduced.  The 
rommlic  opera,  which  is  considered  as  a 
(rerm.m  invention,  is  a  compoun  1  be- 
tween the  two  Italian  species.  Metasta- 
sio  in  Italy,  and  Ooetlio  in  Gerninny, 
have  both  written  for  the  opera;  but 
these  are  splendid  exceptions,  and  the 
poetry  has,  in  most  instances,  been  held 
entirely  subservient  to  the  music. 

O'PinOAIANCY,  the  art  of  divination 
from  serpents.  Thus,  the  seven  coils  of 
the  serpent  seen  on  the  tomb  of  Anchises 
were  lieM  to  indicate  the  number  of  years 
of  .Eneas's  future  wanderings. 

O'PIIITE.S,  the  name  of  an  early  sect 
of  Christian  heretics,  who  emanated  from 
the  (inostics,  so  called  from  their  worship- 
. ping  the  serpent  that  tempted  Eve.  They 
considered  the  .«orpent  as  the  father  of  all 
the  sciences,  which,  but  for  the  tempta- 
tion of  our  first  parents,  would  never  have 
boon  known. 

OI'IXIOX,  the  judgment  which  the 
mind  forms   of  any  proposition,  for  the 


truth  or  falsehood  of  which  there  is  not 
.sufficient  evidence  to  produce  absolute 
belief.  Some  thit?gs  are  known  to  be 
scientifically  correct,  or  capable  of  mathe- 
matical demonstration  ;  but  other  thiug.s 
depend  on  testimony.  When  one  or  two 
men  relate  a  story  including  many  cir- 
cumstances to  a  third  person,  and  another 
comes  who  positively  contradicts  it,  either 
in  whole  or  in  part,  he,  to  whom  those 
jarring  testimonies  are  given,  weighs  all 
the  circumstances  in  his  own  miud,  bal- 
ances the  one  against  the  other,  and 
lends  an  assent  more  or  less  wavering,  to 
that  side  on  which  the  evidence  appears 
to  preponderate.  This  assent  is  his  opin- 
ion respecting  the  facts  of  which  he  has 
received  such  different  accounts. 

OPISTHOG'RAPIIUM,  in  classical  an- 
tiquity, a  set  of  tickets,  or  roll  of  parch- 
ment or  paper,  answering  the  pur])ose  of 
a  memorandum  book,  or  commonplace 
book,  to  enter  notes  and  other  extempo- 
rary matters  to  be  revised  afterwards  :  so 
called  from  being  written  over  both  on 
the  front  and  back.  Any  ordinary  MS.  in 
which  the  transcriber  had  employed  both 
the  front  and  back  of  the  papyrus  was 
indeed  an  opisthograph,  strictly  so  called. 

OPPOSI'TION,  in  politics,  a  word  well 
understood  in  free  representative  govern- 
ments, but  nowhere  else  :  denoting  that 
intelligent  and  independent  spirit  in  the 
members  of  the  legislative  assembly, 
which  induces  them  to  persevere  in  op- 
posing whatever  legislation  is  injurious 
to  the  state,  but  which  does  not  so  far  in- 
fluence them  as  to  oppose  what  is  bene- 
ficial. A  temperate  and  consistent  oppo- 
sition is  therefore  an  essential  element 
of  goo  1  government ;  for  though  it  may 
struggle  against  an  existing  administra- 
tion, it  contributes  at  the  same  time  to 
the  soundnes.^  and  vigor  of  the  boily  poli- 
tic—  Opj>0!iilion.  in  logic,  the  disagree- 
ment between  propositions  which  have 
the  same  subject  and  the  same  predicate. 
—  In  rhetoric,  a  figure  w'leroby  two 
things  are  joine-1.  >vhtch  sj-  n  incom- 
patible. 

OP'TATIVE,  iu  gi;ini  11  ir,  a  mode  or 
form  of  a  (ireek  verb,  by  which  is  express- 
ed the  wish  or  desire  to  do  a  thing. 

OPTE'RIA,  in  antiquity,  presents  made 
by  the  bridgroom  to  the  brido  when  he 
first  saw  her. 

OPTI'.MATE.^,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Roman  people, 
opposed  to  the  Populares.  It  does  not 
certainly  appear  what  were  the  charac- 
teristic differences  betwixt  these  two  par- 
ties. Some  say  the  Optimates  were  warm 


ora] 


AND  THE   Fisn:   Aiirs. 


437 


supporters  of  the  dignity  of  the  chief 
magistrate,  and  sticklers  for  the  grandeur 
of  the  state;  caring  little  f(jr  the  other 
classes;  whereas  the  Populares  bolilly 
stood  up  for  the  rights  of  the  people, 
pleaded  for  larger  privileges,  and  labored 
to  bring  matters  nearer  to  a  level.  TuUy 
says,  that  the  Optimates  were  the  best 
citizens,  who  wished  to  deserve  the  appro- 
bation of  the  better  sort ;  and  that  the 
Populares  courted  the  favor  of  the  popu- 
lace, not  so  much  consiilering  what  was 
right,  as  what  would  please  the  people 
and  gratify  their  own  thirst  of  vain  glory. 

OPTI'ME,  a  scholar  in  the  first  class 
of  mathematics  at  Cambridge. 

OP'TIMISM,  that  philosophical  and 
religious  doctrine  which  maintains  that 
this  world,  in  spite  of  its  apparent  imper- 
fections, is  the  best  that  could  have  been 
devised,  and  that  everything  in  nature  is 
ordered  for  the  best. 

OP'TIOX,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  a  pre- 
rogative of  the  archbishops  of  the  church 
of  England.  Everj'  bishop  is  bound,  im- 
raeiliately  after  his  confirmation,  to  make 
a  legal  conveyance  to  the  archbishop  of 
the  next  avoidance  of  any  one  benefice 
or  dignity  belonging  to  his  see  which  the 
archbishop  may  choose  (whence  the 
name.) 

ORACLE,  the  name  primarily  given 
to  the  response  delivered  by  the  ancient 
heathen  divinities  to  those  who  consulted 
them  respecting  the  future,  but  afterwards 
applied  both  to  the  place  where  responses 
were  given  as  well  as  to  the  divinities 
from  whom  the  responses  were  supposed 
to  proceed.  To  the  desire  so  natural  to 
man  to  obtain  a  glimpse  into  futurity. 
coupled  with  the  ennobling  belief  that  his 
destiny  was  pre<letermined  in  a  higher 
sphere,  is  doubtless  to  be  traced  the 
origin  of  the  art  of  divination,  which  has 
in  all,  but  more  especially  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  society,  e.Kcrcised  so  powerful 
an  influence  over  the  human  mind.  But, 
of  all  the  modes  of  divination,  that  by 
consulting  the  oracle  was  the  most  popu- 
lar. In  other  cases,  as  the  interpretation 
of  events  depended  on  man  alone,  there 
might  be  mistake  or  deception ;  but  in 
the  oracle,  when  the  deity  was  believed 
to  pronounce  either  in  his  own  voice  or 
in  that  of  a  consecrated  agent,  it  was 
supposed  there  could  be  none.  Ilence 
oracles  obtained  such  credit  and  celebrity 
in  antiquity,  but  more  especially  among 
the  Greeks,  that  they  were  resorted  to 
on  every  occasion  of  doubt  and  emergen- 
cy, both  by  princes  and  states,  as  well  as 
b3'    private    individuals.      The    general 


characteristics  of  oracles  were  ambiguity, 
obscurity,  and  convertibility;  so  that 
one  answer  would  agree  with  several 
various  and  sometimes  directly  opposite 
events.  Thus,  when  Croesus  was  on  the 
point  of  invading  the  Meles,  he  consult- 
ed the  oracle  of  Delphi  as  to  the  success 
of  the  enterprise,  and  received  for  an 
answer  that  by  passing  the  river  Halys 
he  would  ruin  a  great  empire.  But 
whether  it  was  his  own  empire  or  that  of 
his  enemies  that  was  destined  to  be  ruined 
was  not  intimated  ;  and  in  either  case, 
the  oracle  could  not  fail  to  be  right. 

OR'ANGEMEN,  the  name  given  by 
the  Catholics  in  Ireland  to  their  Protes- 
tant countrymen,  on  account  of  their  ad- 
herence to  king  William  (of  the  house  of 
Orange,)  while  the  former  party  support- 
ed the  cause  of  James  If. 

ORATION,  in  modern  usage,  an  or.'?- 
tion  differs  from  a  sermon,  from  an  argu- 
ment at  the  bar,  from  a  speech  before  a 
deliberative  assembly,  and  from  a  popu- 
lar harangue,  though  all  these  are  ora- 
tions in  the  generic  sense.  The  word  is 
now  applied  chiefly  to  di.scourses  pro- 
nounced on  special  occasions,  as  a  fune- 
ral oration,  an  oration  on  some  anniver- 
sary. &c.,  and  to  academic  declamations. 

OR'ATOR,  in  modern  usage,  signifies 
an  eloquent  public  speaker ;  or  a  person 
who  pronounces  a  discourse  publicly  on 
some  special  occasion.  In  ancient  Rome 
orators  were  advocates  of  a  superior  kind, 
differing  from  the  patrojis :  the  latter 
were  allowed  only  to  plead  causes  on  be- 
half of  their  clients ;  whereas  the  former 
might  quit  the  forum  and  ascend  the  ros- 
tra or  tribunal,  to  harangue  the  senate 
or  the  people.  The  orators  had  rarely  a 
profound  knowledge  of  the  law,  but  they 
were  eloquent,  and  their  style  was  gene- 
rally correct  and  concise. 

ORATO'RIO,  a  sacred  musical  compo- 
sition, consisting  of  airs,  recitatives,  du- 
ets, trios,  choruses,  Ac,  the  subject  of 
which  is  generally  taken  from  Scripture. 
The  text  is  usually  in  a  dramatic  form, 
as  in  Handel's  Samson  ;  but  it  sometimes 
takes  the  form  of  a  narrative,  as  in  Is- 
rael  in  E^ypt ;  occasionally  it  is  of  a 
mixed  character,  .as  in  Haydn's  Creation; 
and  sometimes  it  consists  merely  of  de- 
tached passages  from  Scripture  as  in  the 
Messiah.  The  origin  of  oratorios  has 
been  variously  ascribed ;  but  the  most 
prevalent  opinion  regards  them  <as  origi- 
nally founded  upon  the  spiritual  songs 
and  dialogues  which  were  sung  or  recited 
by  the  priests  of  the  oratory.  The  more 
recent    introduction    of   this    species   of 


438 


CVCLOI'KDIA     OF     Lll  lOKAlLRE 


[ORD 


musical  drama  is  on  all  sides  attributed 
to  St.  Philippo  Neri,  about  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century ;  but  oratorio^^,  jiroperly 
so  called,  were  not  produced  till  about 
a  century  afterwards.  At  first  the  per- 
sons introduced  were  sometimes  ideal, 
sometimes  parabolical,  and  sometimes,  as 
in  the  latter  oratorios,  taken  from  sacred 
history;  but  this  species  of  drama  soon 
assumed  a  more  regular  form,  and  orato- 
rios became  great  favorites  in  Italy; 
where  they  were  constantly  performed 
during  the  Carnival ;  and  they  have  since 
given  birth  to  some  of  the  noblest  and 
most  elaborate  compositions  of  the  great 
masters  both  of  that  and  other  countries. 

OR'ATORY.  the  art  of  speaking  well, 
or  of  speaking  according  to  the  rules  of 
rhetoric,  in  order  to  persuade.  To  con- 
stitute oratory,  the  speaking  must  be  just 
and  pertinent  to  the  subject;  it  must  be 
methodical,  all  parts  of  the  discourse 
being  disposed  in  due  order  and  connec- 
tion ;  and  it.inust  be  embellished  with  the 
beauties  of  language  and  pronounced  with 
eloquence.  Oratory  consists  of  four  parts, 
invention,  disposition,  elocution,  and  pro- 
nunciation. Diction,  manner,  gesture, 
modulation,  a  methodical  arrangement  of 
the  several  topics  to  be  introduced,  and  a 
logical  illustration  of  them,  are  all  essen- 
tial requisites  in  oratory;  and,  as  Cicero 
has  observed,  "  the  action  of  the  body 
ought  to  be  suited  to  the  expressions,  not 
in  a  theatrical  way,  mimicking  the  words 
by  particular  gesticulations,  but  in  a  man- 
ner expressive  of  the  general  sense,  with 
a  sedate  and  manly  inllection." 

OR'ATORY,  signifies,  commonly,  a 
room  in  a  private  house  set  apart  for 
prayer.  It  differs  from  a  chapel,  inas- 
mucli  as  it  does  not  contain  an  altar,  nor 
may  mass  be  celebrated  in  it. — Oratory, 
Priests  of  the,  a  religious  order  founded 
by  Philip  Nevi,  in  1.574,  for  the  study  of 
theology,  and  for  superintending  the  re- 
ligious exercises  of  the  devout;  but  they 
are  not  bound  by  monastic  vows.  This 
order  still  exists  in  Italj'. 

OR'CIIE.STRA,  the  space  in  theatres 
between  the  stage  and  the  seats  of  the 
spectators.  It  was  appropriated  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  chorus  and  musicians,  by 
the  Romans  to  the  magistrates  and  sena- 
tors, and  by  moderns  to  the  musicians. 
The  word  is  aho  used  to  denote  the  whole 
instrumental  band  performing  together 
in  modern  concerts,  operas,  or  sacred 
music. 

ORDE'AL,  an  ancient  mode  of  trial, 
in  which  an  appeal  was  made  to  tiod  to 
manifest  the  truth,  by  leaving  nature  to 


its  ordinary  course,  if  the  accused  were 
guilty  ;  by  interposing  a  miracle  if  inno- 
cent. This  mode  of  distributing  justice 
in  criminal  charges  prevailed,  during  the 
middle  ages,  throughout  almost  the  whole 
of  Europe;  and  it  is  still  practised  in 
some  parts  of  the  East  Indies.  In  Eng- 
land it  existed  from  the  time  of  the  Con- 
fessor to  that  of  Henry  III.,  who  abol- 
ished it  by  declaration  :  while  it  lasted, 
the  more  popular  modes  of  resorting  to  it 
were  those  of  Jire  (or  the  hot  iron,)  anil 
of  xcater;  the  former  for  freemen  and 
people  of  rank,  the  latter  for  peasants. 
The  methoil  of  administering  the  ordeal 
by  fire,  in  England,  was  by  placing  nine 
red-hot  plough-shares  in  a  line,  at  certain 
distances  from  each  other,  and  requiring 
the  person  accused  to  walk  over  them 
barefoot  and  blindfold.  If  his  feet  always 
alighted  in  the  spaces  between  the  shares, 
so  that  he  passed  over  them  unhurt,  his 
success  was  deemed  a  divine  assertion  of 
his  iimocence  ;  if  on  the  contrary,  he  was 
burnt,  the  disaster  was  an  oracular  proof 
of  his  guilt.  The  ordeal  by  water  was  of 
two  kinds;  either  by  plunging  the  bare 
arm  to  the  elbow  in  boiling  water,  or  by 
casting  the  person  suspected  into  a  river 
or  pond  of  cold  water,  and  if  he  floated 
without  an  effort  to  swim,  it  was  an  evi- 
dence of  guilt,  but  if  he  sunk  he  was  ac- 
quitted. There  were  also  ordeals  by  lot, 
as  by  the  casual  choice  between  a  pair  of 
dice,  one  marked  with  a  cross  and  the 
other  blank,  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  the 
Prisons.  The  famous  trial  of  the  bier,  in 
which  the  supposed  perpetrator  was  re- 
quired to  touch  the  body  of  a  murdered 
person,  and  was  pronounced  guilty  if  the 
blood  flowed,  may  be  regarded  as  a  spe- 
cies of  ordeal,  although  founded  more  on 
usage  than  legal  enactment  ;  as  this  form 
of  superstition  did  not  become  prevalent 
until  later  times,  when  ordeals  were  no 
longer  a  recognized  part  of  the  law.  To 
the  same  head  may  be  referred  the  vari- 
ous absurd  and  cruel  methods  which  were 
adopted  in  different  countries  to  try  sus- 
pected witches.  Ordeals  are  of  common 
use  in  the  judicial  practice  of  various 
heathen  nations,  especially  of  the  Hin- 
doos. 

ORDER  OF  THE  DAY,  in  parliamen- 
tary usage,  one  method  of  superseding  a 
question  already  proposed  to  the  House  is 
by  moving  "for  the  order  of  the  day  to 
be  read."  This  motion,  to  entitle  it  to 
precedcnco,  must  be  for  the  order  gen- 
erally, and  not  for  any  particular  order; 
and,  if  this  is  carried,  the  orders  must  be 
read  and  proceeded  on  in  the  course  ir 


ordJ 


AND    THK    FINE    ARTS. 


439 


which  they  stand.  But  it  can  be  in  its 
turn  superseded  by  a  motion  "  to  ad- 
journ." 

OR'DERS,  or  HO'LY  OR'DERS,  de- 
note the  character  and  office  peculiar  to 
ecclesiastics,  whereby  they  are  set  apart 
for  the  ministry.  Since  the  Reformation, 
there  are  three  orders  of  the  clergy  ac- 
knowledged, namely,  bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons  ;  whence  the  phrase,  ■'  to  be  in 
orders,"  is  the  same  as  to  be  of  the  cleri- 
cal order. — Religious  orders,  associa- 
tions, or  societies  of  monastics,  bound  to 
load  strict  and  devotional  lives,  according 
to  the  prescribed  rules  of  their  respective 
communities.  An  order,  in  fact,  consists 
in  the  rules  to  be  observed  by  those  who 
enter  it;  thus  some  orders  are  more  aus- 
tere than  others,  and  one  order  dresses  in 
white,  while  another  is  habited  in  gray  or 
blacli. — Military  Orders  are  societies  es- 
tablished by  princes,  the  members  of 
which  are  distinguished  by  particular 
badges,  and  consist  of  persons  who  have 
done  particular  service  to  the  prince  and 
state,  or  who  enjoy,  by  the  privileges  of 
birth,  the  highest  distinctions  in  the  state. 
They  originated  from  the  institutions  of 
chivalry  and  the  ecclesiastical  corpora- 
tions, and  were,  in  the  beginning,  frater- 
nities of  men,  who,  in  ad<lition  to  particu- 
lar duties  enjoined  b}'  the  law  of  honor, 
united  for  the  performance  of  patriotic  or 
Christian  i)urposes.  Free  birth  and  an 
irreproachable  life  were  the  conditions  of 
admission.  During  the  time  of  the  cru- 
sades numerous  military  orders  arose, 
and  were  an  example  for  all  future  or- 
ders. The  oldest  of  the  religious  military 
orders  is  that  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  ; 
and  on  their  model  the  secular  military 
orders  were  formed  in  later  times,  which 
united  religious  with  military  exercises. 
But  the  original  pious  object  of  these  or- 
ders was  changed,  and  the.y  acquired  by 
degrees  their  present  character. —  Or- 
ders, in  law,  rules  made  by  the  court  in 
causes  there  depending. 

ORDINAL,  or  ORDER,  the  name 
given  in  England  to  an  old  work  contain- 
ing the  ritual  or  religious  ceremonies  ne- 
cessary to  bo  performed  before  the  or- 
dination of  a  priest.  It  was  composed  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and  revised  by 
the  English  clergy  in  1552. 

ORDINANCE,  in  law,  a  temporary 
act  of  parliament,  not  introducing  any 
new  law,  but  founded  on  souie  act  former- 
ly made;  consequently,  such  ordinances 
might  be  altered  by  subsequent  ones. 

OR'DINARY,  in  general  signifies  com- 
mon or  usual ;  thus   an    ambassador  or 


envoy  ?';i  ordinary,  is  one  sent  to  reside 
constantly  at  some  foreign  court,  in  order 
to  preserve  a  good  understanding,  and 
watch  over  the  interest  of  his  own  nation. 
—  Ordinary,  in  the  common  and  canon 
law,  one  who  has  ordinary  or  immediate 
jurisdiction.  In  which  sense,  archdeacons 
are  ordinaries;  though  the  appellation  is 
more  frequently  given  to  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  who  has  the  ordinary  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction. 

ORDINA'TION,  the  conferring  holy 
orders,  or  initiating  a  person  into  the 
priesthood.  In  the  church  of  England 
the  first  thing  necessary  on  application 
for  holy  orders,  is  tiie  possession  of  a 
titu,  that  is,  a  sort  of  assurance  from  a 
rector  to  the  bishop,  that,  provided  the 
latter  finds  the  party  fit  to  be  ordained, 
the  former  will  take  him  for  his  curate, 
with  a  stated  salary.  The  candidate  is 
then  examined  by  the  bishop  or  his  chap- 
lain, respecting  both  his  faith  and  his 
erudition  ;  and  various  certificates  are 
necessary,  particularly  one  signed  by  the 
clergyman  of  the  parish  in  which  he  has 
resided  during  a  given  time.  Subscrip- 
tion to  the  thirty-nine  articles  is  requir- 
ed, and  a  clerk  must  have  attained  his 
twenty-third  year  before  he  can  be  or- 
dained a  deacon  ;  and  his  tvvent3--four,th 
to  receive  priest's  orders. — The  ceremony 
i  of  ordination  is  performed  by  the  bishop 
by  the  imposition  of  hands  on  the  person 
to  be  ordained.  In  the  English  church, 
and  in  most  Protestant  countries  where 
the  church  is  connected  with  the  state, 
ordination  is  a  requisite  to  preaching ; 
but  in  some  sects  ordination  is  not  consid- 
ered necessary  for  that  purpose,  although 
it  is  considered  proper  previous  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments  by  the 
preacher. — In  the  Presbj'terian  and  con- 
gregational churches,  ordination  means 
the  act  of  settling  or  establishing  a  li- 
censed preacher  over  a  congregation  with 
pastoral  charge  and  authority  :  or  the 
act  of  conferring  on  a  clergyman  the 
powers  of  a  settled  minister  of  the  gospel, 
without  the  charge  of  a  particular  church, 
hut  with  general  pow(^s  wherever  he 
may  be  called  to  officiate. 

ORD'NANCE,  a  general  name  for  ar- 
tillery of  every  description. — Ordnance 
OJfice,  or  Board  of  Ordnance,  an  oflTice 
kept  within  the  tower  of  London,  which 
su[>erintends  and  disjioses  of  all  the  arms, 
instruments,  and  utensils  of  war,  both  by 
sea  afid  land,  in  all  the  magazines,  gar- 
risons, and  forts  in  Great  Britain.  Tho 
Board  of  Ordnance  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  branches,  the  civil  and  tho  mill- 


440 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    I.Il  KUAITRE 


[ORl 


tary;  the  latter  being  subordinate  to, 
and  under  tlic  authority  of  the  former. 

OKD'OXXAXCE,  in' architecture,  the 
rij^ht  assignment,  for  convenience  and 
pnipricty,  of  the  mea.suro  of  the  several 
apartments,  that  tlicy  bo  neither  too 
large  nor  too  small  for  the  purposes  of 
the  building,  and  that  they  be  conveni- 
ently distributed  and  lighted. 

O  '  R  E  A  D  S,  in  Greek  mythology, 
nymphs  of  the  mountains,  companions  of 
Diana,  and  usually  invoked  along  with 
that  goddess. 

Oll'UAN,  in  music,  a  wind  instrument, 
of  ancient  invention,  blown  by  bellows, 
and  containing  numerous  pipes  of  various 
kinds  and  dimensions,  which,  for  its 
solemnity,  grandeur,  and  rich  volume  of 
tone,  is  particularly  fitted  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  commonly  employed. 
Organs  are  sometimes  of  an  immense 
size.  St.  Jerome  mentions  an  organ  with 
twelve  pair  of  bellows,  which  might  be 
heard  at  the  distance  of  a  thousand  paces, 
or  a  mile;  and  another  at  Jerusalem, 
which  might  be  heard  at  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  The  organ  in  the  Cathedral 
church  at  Ulm,  in  Germany,  is  said  to  be 
9iS  feet  high  and  28  broad,  its  largest 
pipe  being  13  inches  in  diameter,  and  it 
having  16  pair  of  bellows. 

ORGA'NIC  LAWS,  in  modern  politi- 
cal phraseology,  the  name  given  to  laws 
directly  concerning  the  fundamental 
parts  of  the  constitution  of  a  state.  Ac- 
cording to  the  distinction  taken  by  some 
French  writers,  fundamental  laws  are 
merely  declaratory,  containing  the  princi- 
[)les  or  theory  of  government.  Organic 
laws  lire  those  which  apply  those  prin- 
ciples to  the  actual  condition  of  society, 
by  positive  ennctment,  and  add  the  sanc- 
tion of  punishment. 

ORGA'NISTS,  the  old  name  given  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  to  those 
priests  who  organized  or  sang  in  parts. 
The  name  organists  of  the  halldujah  was 
apj]lied  in  the  13th  century,  to  certain 
jiricsts  who  assisted  in  the  performance 
of  the  mass.  Tliey  were  generally  four 
in  number,  and  (terived  their  name  from 
singing  in  parts,  or  organizing  the  melody 
a|i])ropri:itcil  to  the  word  hallelujah. 

(I1',(;.\X1/,A'TI0X,  the  processes  by 
wITk'Ii  an  organized  boily  is  formed  :  also, 
the  totality  of  the  parts  which  constitute, 
and  of  the  laws  which  regulate  an  organ- 
ized body. 

0R'(;AN0N,  in  philosophical  .lan- 
guage, nenrly  synonymous  with  method, 
and  implying  a  bo  ly  of  rules  and  canons 
for  the  direction  of  the  scientific  faculty. 


cither  generally  or  in  reference  to  some 
])articular  department  ;  as,  the  organon 
of  Aristotle;  the  orgcinuii  of  Bacon.  The 
organon  of  Aristotle  is  his  System  of 
Logic,  and  contains  his  Categories,  his 
treatise  on  Interpretation,  or  the  nature 
of  Propositions,  his  former  and  latter 
Analytics,  and  his  eight  books  of  Topics  ; 
to  which  may  be  added,  his  book  on  Soph- 
isms. The  Novum  Organon  of  Bacon 
contains  the  development  of  his  system 
of  philosophy,  or  the  inductive  system. 

ORGAN  POINT,  in  music,  a  succession 
of  chords,  in  some  of  which  the  harmony 
of  the  fifth  is  taken  unprepared  on  the 
bass  as  a  holding  note,  wliether  preceded 
by  the  tonic  or  by  the  harmony  of  the 
fourth  of  the  key. 

OR'GIA,  in  antiquity,  feasts  and  sac- 
rifices performed  in  honor  of  Bacchus, 
instituted  by  Orpheus,  and  chielly  cele- 
brated on  the  mountains  by  wild,  dis- 
tracted women,  called  baccliae. — These 
feasts  were  held  in  the  night :  hence  the 
term,  "nocturnal  orgies." 

OR'GUES,  in  fortification,  long  and 
thick  pieces  of  wood  shod  with  iron,  and 
suspended  each  by  a  separate  rope  over  a 
gate  so  as  to  be  ready  to  let  fall  and  stop 
it  up  upon  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 
The  term  also  denotes  a  machine  com- 
posed of  arquebuses,  or  musket-barrels, 
linked  together  so  that  they  may  be  dis- 
charged all  at  once,  and  used  to  defend 
breaches. 

OR  I  EL,  a  large  bay  or  recessed  win- 
dow in  a  hall,  chapel,  or  other  apartment. 
It  usually  projects  from  the  outer  face  of 
the  wall,  either  in  a  semi-octagonal  or 
semi-square  plan,  and  is  of  various  kinds 
and  sizes.  When  not  on  the  ground-floor 
it  is  sup])ortcd  on  brackets  or  corbels. 

O'RIEXT,  the  east  or  eastern  part  of 
the  liorizon.  In  surveying,  to  orient  a 
lilaii  signifies  to  mark  its  situation  or 
bearing  with  respect  to  the  four  cardinal 
points. 

ORIENTALS,  the  n.atives  or  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Eastern  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  common  to  give  this  appellation  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Asia  from  the  Helles- 
pont and  Mediterranean  to  .Japan. — An 
orUntiillsm  is  an  idiom  of  the  eastern 
languages. — An  oricntnlisf,  one  versed  in 
the  eastern  lan<^uages  and  literature. 

O'RIFLAM.ME,  the  ancient  royal 
standard  of  Franco.  It  was  the  banner 
of  the  abbey  of  St.  Dennis,  which  was 
presented  by  the  abbot  to  the  lord-protec- 
tor of  the  convent,  whenever  engaged  in 
the  field  on  its  behalf.  This  protector- 
ship was   attached   to  the   countship  of 


ORI 


AND    THE    FINE    AlUS. 


441 


Vexin ;  and  when  that  county  was  atlded 
to  the  possessions  of  the  crown  by  Philip 
I.,  this  banner,  which  he  bore  in  conse- 
quence, became,  in  time,  the  great  stand- 
ard of  the  monarchy.  By  some  it  is  said 
to  have  been  lost  at  Agincourt,  but,  ac- 
cording to  others,  its  last  display  in  the 
field  was  in  the  reign  of  Charles  YII. 

OR'IGENISTS,  in  the  history  of  the 
church,  followers  of  Origen  of  Alexandria, 
a  celebrated  Christian  father,  who  held 
that  the  souls  of  men  have  a  pre-existent 
state  ;  that  they  are  holy  intelligences, 
and  sin  before  they  are  united  to  the 
body,  etc. 

ORIG'INAL.  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a  work 
not  copied  from  another,  but  the  work  of 
the  artist  himself.  When  an  .artist  copies 
his  own  work,  it  is  called  a  duplicate.  A 
certain  freedom  and  ease  are  always  dis- 
cernible in  an  original,  which  in  a  copy 
are  looked  for  in  vain ;  though  copies 
have  sometimes  been  executed  which  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  detect,  and  which 
have  deceived  even  excellent  judges.  In 
its  more  obvious  and  general  sense,  the 
word  is  used  as  an  adjective,  and  applied 
to  such  productions  as  possess  the  princi- 
ples of  novelty  or  invention,  as  distin- 
guished from  that  of  imitation  or  man- 
nerism ;  but  as  a  substantive,  it  means 
such  works  as  are  the  undoubted  perfor- 
mances of  the  great  masters  in  any  given 
art  or  branch  of  art,  a  distinction  which 
it  is  often  very  difficult  to  award  justly, 
and  which  has  been  consequentlj'  given, 
over  and  over  again,  through  want  of 
complele  evidence,  to  successful  and  spir- 
ited copies. 

ORIL'LON,  in  fortification,  a  round 
mass  of  earth  faced  with  a  wall,  raised 
on  the  shoulder  of  those  bastions  that 
have  casements  to  cover  the  cannon  of 
the  retired  flank. 

ORI'ON,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  son 
of  Hyrieus  ;  according  to  Homer  a  youth 
slain  by  Diana,  on  account  of  the  love 
borne  to  him  by  Aurora;  but  according 
to  others,  a  king  and  a  mighty  hunter. 
Antiquity  is  full  of  contradictions  re- 
specting the  origin,  character,  and  fate  of 
this  mythological  personage,  and  the 
only  point  in  which  it  agrees  respecting 
him  is  in  his  elevation  to  the  stars  after 
his  death. 

OE'LO,  in  architecture,  the  plinth  to 
the  ba.«e  of  a» column  or  a  pedestal. 

0  R' M  0  LU,  bronze  or  copper,  gilt, 
usually  goes  under  this  name.  The 
French  are  celebrated  in  this  branch  of 
manufacture. 

ORNITH'OMANCY,  divination  by  the 


flight  of  birds.     The  Etruscans  were  the 
most  celebrated  practisers  of  it. 

OROMAS'DES,  in  Persian  mythology, 
the  principle  of  Good,  created  by  the  will 
of  the  great  eternal  spirit  Zeruane  Ak- 
herene,  simultaneously  with  Ahriman, 
the  principle  of  evil,  with  whom  he  is  in 
perpetual  conflict.  Oromasdes  is  the 
creator  of  the  earth,  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
to  which  he  originally  assigned  each  its 
proper  place,  and  whose  various  move- 
ments he  continues  to  regulate.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Persian  myths,  the  world 
which  is  to  last  12,000  years,  during 
which  the  war  between  the  Good  and 
Evil  principle  is  to  go  on  increasing,  is 
at  length  to  be  consumed,  the  Evil  prin- 
ciple exterminated,  and  a  new  world  be 
formed. 

OR'PHAN,  a  fatherless  child  or  minor; 
or  one  that  is  deprived  both  of  father  and 
mother.  The  lord  chancellor  is  the  gen 
eral  guardian  of  all  orphans  and  mino.'-» 
throughout  the  realm. — In  London  the 
lord-mayor  and  aldermen  have  the  cus- 
tody of  the  orphans  of  deceased  freemen, 
and  also  the  keeping  of  their  lands  and 
goods :  accordingly,  the  executors  or  ad- 
ministrators of  freemen  leaving  such  or- 
phans, are  to  exhibit  inventories  of  the 
estates  of  the  deceased,  and  give  security 
to  the  chamberlain  of  London  for  the 
orphan's  part. 

OR'PIIANS'  COURT,  a  court  in  some 
states  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
having  jurisdiction  of  the  persons  and 
estates  of  orphans. 

OR'PIIEAN  MYS'TERIES,  tke  mys- 
teries of  which  Orpheus  was  the  founder 
were  so  called.  These  mysteries  were  at 
a  remote  period  in  the  highest  estimation, 
and  exercised  an  important  influence  over 
the  intellectual  development  of  mankind. 
Their  nature  is  involved  in  an  impenetra- 
ble veil  of  obscurity ;  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  they  partook  of  the  general 
character  of  all  mj'steries,  inculcating  a 
purer  knowledge  of  religion  than  was 
compatible  with  the  superstitious  obser- 
vances then  prevalent.  On  the  union  of 
these  mysteries  with  the  Bacchanalian 
orgies  they  fell  into  merited  contempt, 
and  were  at  length  gradually  disused. 
The  initiated  in  these  mysteries,  as  well 
as  the  persons  employed  to  initiate  candi- 
dates in  them,  were  called,  in  some  cases, 
Orpheotehstce. 

OR'PHEUS,  a  mythological  personage  ; 
according  to  the  common  story,  a  son  of 
the  Thraoian  river  iEagrus  and  the  muse 
Calliope.  His  power  of  moving  inajii- 
mate  things  by  music,  the  share  he  bor« 


442 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LirEllATLKE 


OSS 


in  the  Argonaut  ic  expedition,  his  descent 
into  the  Shades  to  recover  his  wife  Eury- 
dice,  and  liis  death  by  the  violence  of  the 
Thracian  women,  are  well-known  circum- 
stances in  ancient  romantic  faVjle.  Mod- 
erns have  imagined  that  his  name  is  <a 
general  mythic  designation  for  the  earliest 
bards  who  came  with  their  art  from  Thrace 
to  Greece.  Whether  any  fragments  of 
poetry  either  of  the  real  Orpheus  or 
of  this  supposed  school,  existed  in  Grecian 
classical  ages,  has  been  doubted.  "What 
passed  as  the  poetry  of  Orpheus  in  the 
time  of  Aristotle  seems  to  have  been 
decidedly  supposititious,  as  much  so  as  the 
poems  which  we  possess  under  the  same 
name,  some  of  which  are  thought  to  be 
as  recent  as  the  4th  century  after  Christ. 
According  to  modern  theories,  the  Orphic 
poetry  of  ancient  times  contained  the 
whole  body  of  Grecian  esoterical  religion 
and  import  of  the  Mysteries. 

OR'THODOX,  or  ORTHODOXY,  these 
terms  arc  restricted  in  applicaticm  to 
right  judgments  in  matters  of  religious 
faith;  and  although  every  sect  maintains 
of  course  the  exclusive  correctness  of  its 
own  views,  yet  the  title  of  orthodoxy  is 
appropriated  by  ecclesiastical  historians 
to  the  standard  maintained  by  the  Catho- 
lic or  universal  church.  The  term  ortho- 
dox is  generally  restricted  also  to  those 
principal  tenets  which  have  been  always 
held  by  the  great  mass  of  professing  Chris- 
tians :  large  bodies  of  dissenters  in  Eng- 
land are  allowed  by  the  church  to  be 
orthodox,  inasmuch  as  they  hold  the  three 
creeds,  and  therefore  profess  the  principal 
articles  of  the  Christian  faith  in  common 
with  those  who  differ  from  them  in  mat- 
ters of  church  authority  and  discipline. 

OR'TIIOEPY,  the  art  of  uttering  words 
with  propriety  ;  a  correct  pronunciation 
of  words. 

ORTIIOG'RAPIIY,  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  teaches  the  nature  and  prop- 
erties of  letters,  and  the  proper  spelling 
or  writing  of  words. —  In  architecture,  the 
elevation  or  representation  of  the  front 
of  a  building. — The  internal  ortliogrnphy, 
called  also  a  section,  is  a  delineation  of 
a  building,  such  as  it  would  appear  if  the 
external  wall  were  removed. — In  ]>er- 
spective,  the  right  side  of  any  plane,  i.  e. 
the  siilo  or  plane  that  lies  parallel  to  a 
straight  line  which  may  be  imagined  to 
pass  through  the  outward  convex  points 
of  the  eyes,  continued  to  a  convenient 
length. 

O'RUS,  an  Egyptian  god,  son  of  Isis 
and  Osiris,  according  to  Herodotus;  an- 
sweiingto  the  Greek  Apollo.  He  frequent- 


ly appears  in  Egyptian  paintings  sitting 
on  the  lap  of  Isis. 

OSIAN'DRIANS,  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, a  sect  among  the  Lutherans  ;  so 
called  from  their  founder  Osiander,  a 
celebrated  divine.  They  differed  from 
the  followers  of  Luther  and  Calvin  as  to 
the  efficient  cause  of  the  justiDcation. 

OSI'RIS,  in  mythology,  one  of  the  chief 
Egyptian  divinities,  the  brother  and  hus- 
band of  Isis,  and,  together  with  her,  the 
greatest  benefactor  of  Egypt,  into  which  he 
introduced  a  knowledge  of  religion,  laws, 
and  the  arts  and  sciences.  After  having 
accomplished  great  reformations  at  home, 
he  visited  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  where  he  enlightened  the  minds  of 
men  by  teaching  them  the  worship  of  the 
gods  and  the  arts  of  civilization.  He  was 
styled  "  the  Manifester  of  (lood  ;"  and  to 
this  title  he  had  an  undisputed  right,  for 
he  appeareil  on  earth  to  benefit  mankind  ; 
and  after  having  performed  the  duties  he 
had  come  to  fulfil,  and  fallen  a  sacrifice 
to  Typhon  the  evil  principle  (which  was 
at  length  overcome  by  his  influence  after 
his  leaving  the  world,)  he  •'  rose  again  to 
a  new  life,"  and  became  the  "judge  of 
mankind  in  a  future  state."  Other  titles 
of  Osiris  were,  "  President  of  the  ^Vest," 
"  Lord  of  the  East,"  "  Lord  of  Lords," 
"  Eternal  Ruler,"  "  King  of  the  Gods," 
Ac.  Osiris  has  been  identifioil  with  many 
of  the  Grecian  divinities  ;  but  more  espe- 
cially with  Jupiter,  Pluto,  and  with  Bac- 
chus, on  account  of  his  reputed  conquest 
of  India.  Osiris  was  particularly  wor- 
shipped at  Philae  and  Abydus  :  so  s<acred 
was  the  former  that  no  one  was  permitted 
to  visit  it  without  express  permission  ; 
and  the  latter  was  regarded  with  such 
veneration  that  persons  living  at  a  dis- 
tance from  it  sought,  and  with  difiBculty 
obtained,  permission  to  possess  a  sepul- 
chre within  its  necropolis. 

OS'SIAN'S  POEM.S,  the  name  given 
to  a  collection  of  ]ioeTns,  allegerl  to  have 
been  the  production  of  Ossian,  the  son  of 
Fiiigal,  a  Scottish  bard,  who  lived  in  the 
third  century.  The3-  were  first  given  to 
the  world  in  an  English  version  by  James 
M'Pherson,  Esq  ,  in  17G0,  with  the  assur- 
ance that  they  were  translations  made 
by  himself  from  ancient  Erse  manuscripts 
which  he  had  collected  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland  ;  and  such  was  the  enthusiasm 
which  their  appearance  excited,  that  they 
may  be  almost  said  to  have  given  a  new 
tone  to  poetry  throughout  all  Europe. 
There  were  not,  however,  wanting  many 
distinguished  persons  who,  from  the  first, 
denied  their  authenticity;  foremost  among 


ott] 


AND    ItIK     FINE     ARTS. 


143 


whom  was  Dr.  Johnson,  who  boldly  pro- 
nounced the  whole  of  the  poems  ascribed 
to  Ossian  to  be  forgeries  ;  and  his  opinion 
was  corroborated  by  Hume.  Gibbon,  and 
many  others,  who  defied  M'Pherson  to 
produce  a  manuscript  of  any  Erse  poem 
of  earlier  date  than  the  sixteenth  century. 
On  the  other  hand,  M'Pherson's  asser- 
tions as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  poems 
found  warm  supporters  in  Dr.  Blair,  Dr. 
Henrj',  Lord  Kaimes,  anil  many  other 
distinguished  names,  and  almost  to  a.  man 
in  the  whole  body  of  the  Highlanders. 
In  this  unsettled  state  the  controversy 
remained  till  the  year  1800,  when  Mal- 
colm Laing,  so  well  known  for  his  histor- 
ical labors,  in  a  Dissertation  appended 
to  the  second  volume  of  his  Historij  of 
Scotland,  endeavored  to  establish,  from 
historical  and  internal  evidence,  that  the 
so  called  poems  of  Ossian  are  absolutely 
and  totally  spurious.  The  sensation  cre- 
ated by  this  Dissertation  was  unprece- 
dented. JIany  converts  were  made  to 
the  opinions  therein  set  forth;  but  the 
general  disbelief  in  the  authenticity  of 
the  poems  was  not  complete  till  180.5. 
when  a  committee  of  the  Highland  Soci- 
ety of  Edinburgh,  which  had  been  ap- 
pointed in  1797  to  inquire  into  their  na- 
ture and  authenticity,  reported  to  the 
effect  "  that  thej'  had  not  been  able  to 
obtain  any  one  poem  the  same  in  title 
and  tenor  with  the  poems  of  Ossian." 
Since  that  period  the  controversy,  so  far 
as  it  regards  their  translation  from  Erse 
manuscripts,  may  be  said  to  be  terminat- 
ed. But  although  these  poems  had  never 
been  committed  to  writing,  or  rather  have 
not  been  handed  down  in  vvriting,  there 
can  be,  we  believe,  but  little  doubt  that 
many  of  them  still  e.\ist  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  in  a  dress  not  verj'  different 
from  that  in  which  they  were  rendered 
by  M'Pherson  into  English,  having  been 
committed  to  memory,  and  transmitted 
from  one  bard  or  storj^teller  to  another 
in  regular  succession;  and  consequently 
their  pretensions  to  be  regarded  as  his- 
torical authority  on  many  points  can 
pcarcely  be  denied.  Their  scene  is  some- 
times laid  in  Scotland,  but  more  fre- 
quently in  Ireland;  and  they  may  be 
justly  considered  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey 
of  the  Celtic  race  of  the  two  islamls, 
handed  down  by  tradition  only — what  the 
poems  of  Homer  were,  in  all  likelihood, 
to  the  Greeks  themselves  before  they 
were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  writ- 
ing. 

OSSILE'GIUM,   in  antiquity,  the  act 
of  collecting  the  bones  and   ashes  of  the 


dead  after  the  funeral-pile  was  consumed, 
and  which  was  performed  by  the  friends 
or  near  relations  of  the  deceased,  who 
first  washed  their  hands  and  ungirt  their 
garments.  When  all  the  bones  were  col- 
lected, they  were  washed  with  wine,  milk, 
perfumes,  and  the  tears  of  friends;  after 
this  ceremony  was  over,  the  relics  were 
put  into  an  urn,  and  deposited  in  a  sep- 
ulchre. 

OS'TR.\CISM,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
kind  of  popular  judgment  or  condemna- 
tion among  the  Athenians,  whereby  such 
persons  as  had  power  and  popularity 
enough  to  attempt  anything  against  the 
public  liberty  were  banished  for  a  term 
of  ten  years.  This  punishment  was  called 
ostracism,  from  a  Greek  word  which 
properly  signifies  a  shell ;  but,  when  ap- 
plied to  this  object,  it  is  used  for  the  bil- 
let on  which  the  Athenians  wrote  the 
names  of  the  citizens  whom  the}'  inteniled 
to  banish,  which  was  a  piece  of  baked 
earth,  or  tile,  in  the  form  of  a  shell.  If 
6000  of  the  shells  deposited  in  the  place 
appointed  were  in  favor  of  the  banish- 
ment of  the  accused,  it  took  effect ;  other- 
wise he  was  acquitted.  After  the  e.xpi- 
ration  of  ten  years,  the  exiled  citizen  was 
at  liberty  to  return  to  his  country,  and 
take  possession  of  his  wealth,  and  all  his 
civil  privileges.  To  this  sentence  no  dis- 
grace was  attached  ;  for  it  was  never  in- 
flicted upon  criminals,  but  only  upon 
those  who  had  excited  the  jealousy  or 
suspicion  of  their  fellow-citizens,  by  the 
influence  they  had  gained  by  peculiar 
merit,  wealth,  or  other  causes.  Aristotle 
and  Plutarch  called  ostracism  the  "  med- 
icine of  the  state." 

OTTA'VA  RI'MA,  an  Italian  form  of 
versification,  consisting  of  stanzas  of  two 
alternate  triplets  and  a  couplet  at  the 
end  :  the  verses  being,  in  the  proper  Ital- 
ian metre,  the  heroic  of  eleven  syllables. 
It  is  a  happj'  metre,  in  the  hands  of  an 
able  versifier,  for  the  expression  of  feel- 
ings varying  from  the  sublime  and  pa- 
thetic to  the  humorous  ;  although  rather 
deficient  in  varietj-,  and  possessing  too 
little  repose  and  solemnity  for  the  sus- 
tained majesty  of  epic  poetry.  It  has 
been  adopted  by  the  Germans,  who  have 
given  it  something  of  an  elegiac  turn  ; 
and,  of  late,  by  English  poets,  of  whom 
the  most  distinguished  is  Lord  Byron, 
who  has  employed  it  in  his  Beppo  and 
Don  Juan,  works  belonging  to  a  mixed 
class  of  poetry,  between  the  serious  and 
the  burlesque. 

OT'TOMAN,  an  appellation  given  to 
what  pertains  to  the  Turks  or  their  gov- 


444 


CVCLOrEDI.V    OF    LITERATL'llF. 


[OXG 


ernment :  as,  the  Olloman  power  or  em- 
pire. The  word  originated  in  Othiuan, 
the  name  of  a  sultan  who  assumed  the 
government  about  the  year  1300.  The 
finest  countries  of  the  old  world  have 
been  ruled  for  five  hundred  years  by  the 
Turks,  or  Ottomans,  a  mi.ved  people,  com- 
posed of  Tartars,  robbers,  slaves,  and  kid- 
napped Christian  children. 

Ol'T'LAWRY,  the  putting  a  man  out 
of  the  protection  of  the  law,  or  the  pro- 
cess by  which  a  man  is  deprived  of  that 
jirotection.  A  defendant  is  outlawed  in 
Great  Britain,  upon  certain  proceeilings 
being  had,  when  he  does  not  appear  to 
answer  to  an  indictment  or  process.  On 
an  outlawry  for  felony,  the  person  forfeits 
his  lands,  goods,  and  chattels.  In  person- 
al actions,  the  goods  and  chattels  only  are 
liable  ;  and  they  are  forfeited  to  the  king, 
with  the  profits  of  the  lands  ;  for  the 
party  being  without  the  law,  is  incapable 
of  taking  care  of  them  himself.  In  an 
indictment  for  treason  or  felony,  an  out- 
lawry of  the  party  indicted  is  equivalent 
to  a  conviction.  Eut  in  the  case  of  either 
treason  or  felony,  an  outlawry  may  be 
reversed  V)y  a  writ  of  error,  or  plea;  and 
the  judgment  upon  the  reversal  is,  that 
the  party  shall  be  restored  to  all  that  he 
lost,  &c. ;  he  must,  however,  plead  to  the 
indictment  against  him. 

OUT'LINE,  contour;  the  line  by  which 
a  figure  is  defined  ;  the  e.vterior  line.  In 
drawing,  the  representation  of  an  imagi- 
nary line  circumscribing  the  boundary  of 
the  visible  superficies  of  objects,  without 
indicating  by  shade  or  light  the  elevations 
or  depressions,  and  without  color.  The 
study  of  contour  or  outline  is  of  the 
greatest  iinportance  to  the  painter,  and 
in  recent  times  great  attention  has  been 
paid  to  it.— The  first  sketch  of  a  figure. 
— First  general  sketch  of  any  scheme  or 
design. 

OUT'WORK.S,  in  fortification,  all  those 
works  of  a  fortress  which  are  situated 
without  the  princi])al  wall,  within  or  be- 
yond the  princi])al  ditcli.  They  are  de- 
signe  1  not  only  to  cover  the  body  of  the 
place,  but  also  to  keep  the  enemy  at  a 
distance,  and  prevent  his  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  cavities  and  elevations  usual- 
ly found  in  tiie  places  about  the  counter- 
scarp, which  might  serve  them  either  as 
lodgments,  or  as  ridoiinx,  to  facilitate  the 
carrying  on  their  trenches,  and  planting 
their  batteries  against  the  place  :  such 
are  ravelins,  tenailles,  horn-works,  crown- 
works,  Ac. 

OVA'TIOX.  an  inferior  kind  of  triumph 
which,   according   to  the   ancient  Uoiuau 


custom,  was  granted  to  distinguished  mil- 
itary leaders.  iSome  antiquaries  imagine 
the  distinction  between  the  triumph  and 
the  ovation  to  have  originally  consisted, 
not  in  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  honor, 
but  in  the  latter  being  strictly  appropri- 
atcil  to  successes  by  which  peace  was  ob- 
tained, or  to  distinguish  brilliant  achieve- 
ments in  time  of  peace.  Thus  we  find 
that  ovations  were  permitted,  though 
triumphs  were  not,  in  civil  wars.  An 
ovation  was  celebrated  by  Mark  Antony 
[  ami  Oetavius  to  solemnize  their  recon- 
ciliation. 

OVERT  ACT,  in  law,  an  open  or 
manifest  ai-t  from  whence  criminality  is 
implied.  No  indictment  for  high  treason 
is  good  unless  some  overt  act  is  alleged  in  it. 

O'VERTURE,  the  introductory  piece 
of  music  prefixed  to  an  opera  or  oratorio. 
Its  movements  in  works  of  the  modern 
school  generally  contain  snatches  of  the 
more  prominent  and  leading  airs  in  the 
opera,  and  introduce  the  audience  to  a 
general  notion  of  the  emotions  which  it 
is  the  desire  of  the  author  to  e.xcite.  The 
word  orertare  also  signifies  a  proposal  ; 
in  which  sense  it  is  always  used  in  the 
Presbyterian  church  to  indicate  those  res- 
olutions proposed  by  presbyteries  and 
synods,  and  afterwards  laid  before  the 
General  Assembly,  either  for  its  sanction 
or  rejection. 

O'VOLO,  in  architecture,  a  moulding 
whose  profile  is  the  quadrant  of  a  circle  ; 
though  in  Grecian  architecture  there  is  a 
deviation  from  that  exact  form,  which  is 
most  apparent  at  the  upper  portion, 
wliere  it  resembles  the  form  of  an  egg, 
whence  this  moulding  derives  its  name. 

0  W  L,  T  II  E,  among  the  ancients, 
generally  was  considered  as  an  omen  of 
misforl\ine  or  death.  As,  however,  ac- 
cording to  I'hilostratus,  theEgyptians  rep- 
resented Minerva  under  the  form  of  an 
owl,  the  Athenians,  so  peculiarly  under 
the  care  of  this  goddess,  looked  upon  the 
appearance  of  this  bird  as  a  favorable 
omen.  From  this  circumstance  it  formed 
upon  ancient  coins,  the  symbol  of  Athens 
and  her  foreign  possessions. 

OWlVINGi  so  called  from  its  being 
usually  carried  on  in  the  night,  is  the 
offence  of  transporting  wool  or  sheep  out 
of  England,  contrary  to  the  statute. 

OX'GANG,  in  English  antiquities,  was 
used  to  signify  as  miicl\  laml  as  a  single 
ox  couM  ear  or  plough  in  a  season.  The 
oxgang  was  contracted  or  expanded  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  land;  forty 
acres  constituting  the  maximum  and  six 
the  minimum  of  the  measure. 


0 


AND    Tllli;    FINE     ARTS. 


445 


OXYMO'RON,  a  rhetorical  figure,  in 
which  an  epithet  of  a  quite  contrary  sig- 
nification is  adtled  to  a  word;  as,  tender 
cruelty. 

O'YER  AND  TER'MINER,  in  law,  a 
court  by  virtue  of  the  king's  commission, 
to  hear  and  determine  all  treasons,  felo- 
nies, and  misdemeanors. 

0  YES,   in    law,    corrupted   from    the 

Frencli  "oye^,  hear  ye;"  the  expression 

used  by  the  crier  of  a  court,  in  order  to 

■'injoin  silence  when  any  proclamation  is 

made. 


P,  a  consonant  of  the  labial  series.  As 
was  to  be  expected  from  the  approxima- 
tion of  this  letter  in  sound  to  6,  it  is  sus- 
ceptible of  interchange  with  the  latter  in 
nearly  all  the  languages  of  which  we  have 
any  knowledge,  but  more  especially  in 
the  German.  P.  M.  stands  for  post  vie- 
ridiem,  afternoon;  P.  S.  for  postscript. 
As  a  numeral,  P,  like  C,  stands  for  one 
hundred,  and  with  a  dash  over  it,  P,  for 
four  hundred  thousand.  P,  in  music,  an 
abbreviation  of  the  Italian  word  piano, 
soft,  denoting  that  the  force  of  the  voice 
or  instrument  is  to  be  diminisheil.  P.P. 
means  piu  piano,  or  more  soft ;  and 
P. P. P.  pianissimo,  as  soft  as  possible. 

PAC  A'LI  A,  a  feast  among  the  Romans 
in  honor  of  the  goddess  Pax.  or  peace, 
who  was  worshipped  as  a  deity  with  great 
solemnity,  and  honored  with  an  altar  and 
a  magnificent  temple. 

PACIIA',  or  PASHAW,  the  military 
governor  of  a  Turkish  province.  Tho 
most  distinguished  of  them  have  three 
horse  tails  carried  before  them ;  the  in- 
ferior, two.  Tiiough  the  pacha  is  ap- 
pointed and  removed  at  the  will  of  the 
sultan,  his  power  is  very  great,  and  the 
provincial  administration  is  in  his  hands. 
This  word  is  also  written  bashaw. 

PA'CHACA'MAC,  the  name  given  by 
the  idolaters  of  Peru  to  the  being  whom 
they  worshipped  as  the  creator  of  the 
universe  ;  this  divinity  was  held  in  the 
highest  veneration.  In  the  fruitful  val- 
ley of  Pachacama  (whence  the  name)  the 
incas  dedicated  to  his  honor  a  temple  of 
such  splendor  and  wealth,  that  notwith- 
standing the  rapacity  of  the  Spanish 
soldiers,  by  whom  it  was  plundered  pre- 
viously to  the  arrival  of  Pizarro,  that 
general  is  said  to  have  drawn  from  it  treas- 
ures to  the  amount  of  900,000  ducats. 
Tho  ruins  of  this  temide  whicli  still  re- 


main, furnish  a  high  notion  of  its  former 
magniticenco. 

PACIFICA'TION,  EDICTS  OF,  tho 
term  usually  apidied  to  the  edicts  issued 
by  the  French  munarchs  in  favor  of  their 
Protestant  subjects,  in  the  view  of  allay- 
ing the  commotions  occasioned  by  their 
previous  persecutions.  The  first  edict  of 
this  nature  was  promulgated  by  Charles 
IX.  in  1562  ;  but  the  most  celebrated  was 
the  edict  of  Nantes  issued  by  Henry  IV. 
in  1.59S,  and  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1685. 

PAC'TIO,  among  the  Romans,  was  a 
temporary  cessation  from  hostilities ;  a 
truce  or  league  for  a  limited  time.  It 
diftered  from .  Fwdus,  which  was  a  per- 
petual league,  and  required  one  of  those 
heralds  called  Feciales,  to  confirm  it  by 
solemn  proclamation  ;  neither  of  which 
conditions  were  necessary  in  the  truce 
called  Factio. 

PAD'ISHAII,  a  title  assumed  by  tho 
Turkish  sultan.  Formerly  the  Ottoman 
Porte  applied  that  name  only  to  the  king 
of  France,  calling  the  other  European  sov- 
ereigns koral ;  but  it  has  since  been  ap- 
plied to  other  foreign  princes  of  Europe. 

PA'DUAN  COINS,  in  the  Fine  Arts, 
coins  forged  by  the  celebrated  Paduans, 
Cavino  and  Bassiano  ;  who  were  also  the 
artists  emploj'ed  on  the  pope's  medals, 
from  Julius  III.  to  Gregory  XIII.  (1571.) 
These  coins  hold  the  first  rank  in  imita- 
tions of  ancient  medals  for  their  masterly 
execution. 

P^E'AN,  among  the  ancients,  a  song 
of  rejoicing  in  honor  of  Apollo,  chiefly 
used  on  occasions  of  victory  anil  triumph. 
Such  songs  were  named  Pagans,  because 
the  words  lo  Faean  !  frequently  occurred 
in  them,  which  alluded  to  Apollo's  contest 
with  the  serpent. —  Fman,  in  ancient  poe- 
try, a  foot  of  four  syllables,  of  which  there 
are  four  kinds,  the  pcBan  primus,  secun- 
dus,  L^c. 

P.E'DOBAP'TISTS,  those  who  hold 
that  baptism  should  be  administered  dur- 
ing infancy.  The  great  majority  of  Chris- 
tian churches  which  allow  tho  baptism  of 
infants  are  thus  denominated  from  that 
circumstance,  and  are  thereby  distin- 
guished from  the  Antipaedobaptists,  i.  e., 
those  who  deny  the  validity  of  infant 
baptism. 

P.EDOTIIY'SIA,  the  inhuman  custom 
of  sacrificing  children,  which  prevailed 
among  the  heathens. 

PAGANA'LIA,  in    antiquity,  certain 

festivals  observed  by  tho  Romans  in  tho 

month  of  .Tanuary.  They  were  instituted 

i  by  Servius  Tullius,  who  appointed  a  cer- 


446 


CVCI.OPF.DIA     OF    LrrKRATl'IiE 


t.iin  number  of  villages  (pafri,)  in  each  of 
which  an  altar  was  to  bo  raised  for  an- 
nual sacrifices  to  their  tutelar  gols,  at 
which  all  the  inhabitants  were  to  assist, 
and  give  presents  in  money  according  to 
their  sex  and  age,  by  which  means  the 
number  of  country-people  was  known. 

PA'GAXISM,"the  religion  of  the  hea- 
then world,  in  which  the  Deity  is  rep- 
resented under  various  forms,  and  by  all 
kinds  of  images  or  idols  ;  it  is  therefore 
called  idolatry  or  image  worship.  The 
theology  of  the  pagans  was  of  three  sorts, 
fabulous,  natural,  and  political  or  civil. 
The  first  treats  of  the  genealogy,  worship, 
and  attributes  of  their  deities,  who  were 
for  the  most  part  the  off"spring  of  the 
imagination  of  poets,  painters,  and  stat- 
uaries. The  natural  theology  of  the 
pagans  was  studied  and  taught  by  the 
philosophers,  who  rejected  the  multiplici- 
ty of  gods  introduced  by  the  poets,  and 
brought  their  theology  to  a  more  rational 
form.  The  political  or  civil  theology  of 
the  pagans  was  instituted  by  legislators, 
statesmen,  and  politicians  to  keep  the 
people  in  subjection  to  the  civil  power. 
This  chiefl}'  related  to  their  temples,  al- 
tars, sacritices,  and  rites  of  worship.  In 
its  origin  paganism,  as  ,j\  system,  was 
simple.  A  few  great  divinities  were 
placed  in  heaven  to  guide  the  affairs  of 
the  visible  and  invisible  worlds.  By  de- 
grees each  great  planet,  each  law  of  na- 
ture, each  region  and  city,  nay  each  river, 
fountain,  wood,  tree,  mineral,  had  its  tu- 
telary divinity.  The  laws  of  nature  were 
often  ine.xplicable ;  what  more  obvious 
than  to  infer  that  each  was  subject  to  a  su- 
perior power  7  As  the  ideas  of  men  became 
more  precise  and  refined,  gods  were  placed 
over  human  faculties  and  passions  :  thus 
the  understanding  and  the  will,  love  and 
revenge,  were  the  offspring  of  certain  dei- 
ties. Mere  abstractions  were  similarly 
personified;  until  tlie  empire  of  reason, 
of  sentiment,  and  of  morals,  was  as  much 
pervaded  as  earth,  air,  and  ocean  with 
these  visionary  beings.  In  all  countries 
we  find  instances  of  deification  of  individu- 
als. Thus  he  who  during  life,  proved 
nimself  a  benefactor  to  his  countrymen, 
who  taught  tliem  useful  arts,  or  freed 
them  from  some  impending  evil,  would 
be  regarded  with  affectionate  admiration 
by  his  contemporaries;  and  time,  which 
80  constantly  increases  every  object, 
would  convert  a  great  exploit,  a  shining 
virtue,  into  a  divine  effort.  But  it  not 
unfrequently  happened  that  men  were 
often  deified  for  brute  strength,  unac- 
companied by  tliosc  elevated  mental  qual- 


ities which  form  the  noblest  distinction 
of  the  hero.  It  may,  however,  be  observ- 
ed, that  in  such  c  ises  men  were  always 
reverenced  for  the  quality  most  wanted 
in  a  state.  If  a  district  were  infested  by 
wiM  beasts  or  by  predatory  savages,  a 
Hercules  arose  to  free  it.  If  a  country 
required  laws,  a  .Minos  established  them. 
If  the  culture  of  the  grape  was  unknown,  a 
Bacchus  appeared  to  teach  it.  Such  ben- 
efactors, it  was  believed,  deserved,  as 
they  certainly  obtained,  the  peculiar  fa- 
vor of  heaven — rewards  which  far  transg 
cended  those  bestowed  on  other  men.  In 
most  cases,  however,  each  was  held  to  be 
a  divinity,  or  at  least  the  offspring  of  one. 
As  the  generation  of  the  gods  was  a  re- 
ceived tenet,  and  their  union  with  mortals 
of  constant  occurrence,  imagination  had 
little  diOiculty  in  the  filiation  of  a  ben 
efaetor.  Most  nations  were  eager  to 
proclaim  a  god  as  their  founder;  and 
when  one  laid  claim  to  the  honor,  the  ex- 
ample was  speedily  followed  by  others 
with  equil  appearance  of  justice,  llonce 
the  prodigious  number  of  divinities  ; 
heaven  and  hell,  the  earth  and  the  plan- 
ets, air  and  ocean,  the  whole  frame  of  na- 
ture, every  part  of  the  universe,  visible 
an  1  invisible,  even  the  re.ilms  of  imagina- 
tion, being  pervaded  by  them  ;  and  hence 
idolatry  became  a  complicated  system, 
endless  in  its  forms  of  worship  as  in  its 
objects. 

PA'GEAXT,  in  its  general  sense,  apub- 
lic  repre.-entation  or  e.xhibition  of  ashowy 
and  splendid  character.  It  was  a  very 
early  custom  in  the  middle  ages,  both  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent,  to  celebrate 
festive  occasions  of  a  public  nature,  as 
royal  visits,  marriages.  <te  ,  by  some  orna- 
mental show  in  the  public  streets  of  cities. 
During  the  periml  of  chivalry  these  shows 
began  to  be  e.vhibitcd  with  the  addition 
of  masked  figures,  representing  allegori- 
cal personages,  with  appropriate  scenery; 
and  as,  in  process  of  time,  speeches  in 
verse  or  prose  were  put  into  the  mouths 
of  these  figures,  and  sometimes  a  kind 
of  dramatic  entertainment  performed  be- 
tween them,  the  pageant  consequently 
hoMs  a  place  in  e:irly  English  literature. 

P.VtjO'D.A,  a  Hindoo  place  of  worship, 
divided,  like  our  churches,  into  an  open 
space,  a  place  for  worship,  and  an  interior 
or  chancel.  The  most  remarkable  pago- 
das are  those  of  Benares,  .Siani,  Pegu, 
and  particularly  that  of  Juggernaut,  in 
Orissa.  In  the  interior  of  these  build- 
ings, besides  altars  and  statues  of  the 
gods,  there  are  many  curiosities.  The 
statues,  which  are   likewise  called  pago- 


pal] 


AND    THE     FINE    ARTS. 


44' 


das,  and  which  are  often  numerous,  are 
usually  ruilo  ira:igcs  of  b.ikeJ  earth, 
richly  gilt,  but  without  any  kind  of  ex- 
pression. PagoJ-.i  is  also  the  name  of  a 
gold  or  silver  coin  current  in  Hindostan, 
of  different  values  in  different  parts  of 
India,  from  $2.00  to  $2.25. 

PAINS  AND  PEN'ALTIES,  in  law, 
an  act  for  the  infliction  of  pains  and 
penalties  beyond  or  contrary  to  the  com- 
mon law,  in  the  particular  cases  of  great 
public  offenders. 

PAINTING,  the  art  of  representing 
objects  in  nature,  or  scenes  in  human  life, 
with  fidelity  and  passion.  It  was  coeval 
with  civilization,  and  practised,  with  suc- 
cess by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ;  obscured 
for  many  centuries,  but  revived  in  Italy 
in  the  15th  century,  where  it  produced 
the  Roman,  Venetian,  and  Tuscan  schools  ; 
afterwards,  the  German,  Dutch,  Flemish, 
French  and  Spanish  schools  ;  and,  finally, 
the  English  school,  which  equals,  and  bids 
fair  to  transcend  them  all,  in  correct- 
ness of  drawing,  efifect  of  coloring,  and 
taste  of  design.  It  is  distinguished  into 
historical  painting,  portrait  painting, 
landscape  painting,  animal  painting,  ma- 
rine painting,  &c.  ;  and  as  regards  the 
form  and  the  materials,  into  painting  in 
oil,  water  colors,  fresco,  miniature,  dis- 
temper, mosaic,  &c.  Historical  paint- 
ing is  the  noblest  and  most  compre- 
hensive of  all  branches  of  the  art;  for 
in  that  the  painter  vies  with  the  poet, 
embodying  ideas,  and  representing  them 
to  the  spectator.  He  must  have  technical 
skill,  a  practised  eye  and  hand,  and  must 
understand  how  to  group  his  skilfully 
e.xecuted  parts  so  as  to  produce  a  beauti- 
ful composition ;  and  all  this  is  insuf- 
ficient without  a  poetic  spirit  which  can 
form  a  striking  conception  of  an  histori- 
cal event,  or  create  imaginary  scenes  of 
beauty.  The  following  rules  of  criticism 
in  painting  have  been  laid  down  : — 1.  The 
subject  must  be  well  imagined,  and,  if 
possible,  improved  in  the  painter's  hands  ; 
he  must  think  well  as  an  historian,  poet, 
or  philosopher ;  and  more  especially  as 
a  painter,  in  making  a  wise  use  of  all 
the  advantages  of  his  art,  and  in  finding 
expedients  to  supply  its  defects.  2.  The 
expression  must  be  proper  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  characters  of  the  persons  ; 
it  must  be  strong,  so  that  the  dumb- 
show  may  be  perfectly  .and  readily  un- 
derstood ;  every  part  of  the  picture  must 
contribute  to  this  end ;  colors,  animals, 
draperies,  and  especially  the  attitudes  of 
the  figures.  3.  There  must  be  one  prin- 
cipal   light,  and  this  and  all  the  subor- 


dinate ones,  with  the  shadows  and  re- 
poses, must  make  one  entire  and  harmo- 
nious mass  ;  while  the  several  parts  must 
be  well  connected  and  contrasted,  so 
so  as  to  make  the  whole  as  grateful  to 
the  eye  as  a  good  piece  of  music  is  to 
the  ear.  4.  The  drawing  must  be  just ; 
nothing  must  be  out  of  place,  or  ill-pro- 
portioned ;  and  the  proportions  should 
vary  according  to  the  characters  of  the 
persons  drawn.  5.  The  coloring,  whether 
gay  or  solid,  must  be  natural,  and  such 
as  delights  the  eye,  in  shadows  as  well 
as  in  lights  and  in  middle  tints  ;  and  the 
colors,  whether  they  are  laid  on  thick,  or 
finely  wrought,  must  appear  to  have  been 
applied  by  a  light  and  accurate  hand.  6. 
Nature  must  be  the  obvious  foundation  of 
the  piece  ;  but  nature  must  be  raised  and 
improved,  not  onlj'  from  what  is  common- 
ly seen  to  what  is  rarely  met  with,  but 
even  yet  higher,  from  a  judicious  and 
beautiful  idea  in  the  painter's  mind. 

PAIPi'ING,  in'  parliamentary  lan- 
guage, that  practice  by  which  two  mem- 
bers of  a  legislative  body,  of  opposite  po- 
litical opinions,  agree  to  absent  them- 
selves from  divisions  of  the  house  during 
a  stated  period. 

PAL'ACE,  a  magnificent  house  in 
which  a  sovereign  or  other  distinguished 
person  resides  ;  as  a  royal  palace  ;  a  pon- 
tifical palace  ;  a  ducal  palace. — Palace- 
Court,  a  court  in  England  which  admin- 
isters justice  between  the  domestic  ser- 
vants of  the  crown. 

PAL'ADIN,  a  name  formerly  given  to 
the  knights-errant,  who  travelled  from 
place  to  place  to  give  proofs  of  their 
valor  and  their  gallantry  ;  extolling  their 
own  mistresses  as  unrivalled  in  beautj', 
and  compelling  those  who  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  truth  of  their  panegyrics 
to  engage  with  them  in  mortal  combat. 
Of  this  kind  the  most  famous  were  Ama- 
dis  of  Gaul  and  the  brave  Roland  or 
Orlando. 

PAL.^OG'RAPHY.  a  description  of  an- 
cient writings,  inscriptions, characters,  &a. 

PAL.ES'TRA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a 
public  building  where  the  j'outh  exercised 
themselves  in  wrestling,  running,  play- 
ing at  quoits,  &c.  Some  say  the  palfes- 
tra  consisted  both  of  a  college  and  an 
academy,  the  one  for  exercises  of  the 
mind,  the  other  for  those  of  the  body  ; 
but  most  authors  describe  the  palsestra 
as  a  mere  academy  for  bodily  exercises. 

PALANQUIN',  or  PALANKEEN',  a 
sort  of  litter  or  covered  carriage,  used  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  borne  on  the  should- 
ers of  four  porters,  called  coolies,  eight  of 


448 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKKATfRE 


•whoBi  are  attached  to  it,  and  who  relieve 
each  other.  They  are  usually  provided 
with  a  bed  and  cushions,  and  a  curtain, 
which  can  be  dropped  when  the  occupant 
is  disposed  to  sleep.  The  motion  is  easy, 
and  the  travelling  in  this  way  safe  and 
rapid. 

PALA'RTA,  in  antiquity,  an  e.vercise 
performed  by  the  Roman  soldiers,  to  im- 
prove tiiem  in  all  their  necessary  ma- 
noeuvres. 

PAL'ATINE,  an  epithet  applied  ori- 
ginally to  persons  holding  an  office  or 
employment  in  the  palace  of  a  sover- 
eign ;  hence  it  imports — possessing  royal 
privileges,  as  the  counties  palatine  of 
Lancaster,  Chester,  and  Durham,  in  Eng- 
land, which  have  particular  jurisdictions. 
— On  the  continent  a  palatine,  or  count 
palatine,  is  a  person  delegated  by  a 
prince  to  hold  courts  of  justice  in  a  prov- 
ince, or  one  who  has  a  palace  and  a  court 
of  justice  in  his  own  house.  All  the 
princes  of  the  German  empire  were  ori- 
ginally servants  of  the  imperial  crown. 
In  course  of  time  they  acquired  indepen- 
dent authority,  and  secured  that  author- 
ity to  their  heirs  :  among  these  was  the 
count  palatine,  or  of  the  palace,  in  the 
German  language  denominated  the  pfalz- 
graf.  This  officer  was  a  president  who 
decided  upon  appeals  made  to  the  emper- 
or himself,  from  the  judgment  of  provin- 
cial courts.  All  titles,  except  that  of 
lord,  which  is  complimentary,  and  belong- 
ed to  territorj',  were  originally  official, 
as  are  those  of  judge,  general,  Ac,  at 
this  day. 

PALEOL'OGY,  a  discourse  or  treatise 
on  antiquities,  or  the  knowledge  of  an- 
cient things. 

PAL'FIIE  Y,  a  word  seldom  u.-sed  except 
in  novels  and  romances  to  signify  a  small 
or  gentle  horse,  such  as  is  fit  for  a  lady's 
use.  It  is  also  used  by  the  old  poetical 
writers  for  a  horse  used  by  kings  or  noble- 
men, or  on  state  occasions. 

PALt'CI,  in  Grecian  mythology,  twin 
divinities  worshipped  in  Sicily,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  neighborhood  of  ^'Etna ; 
sons,  according  to  some,  of  Jupiter  and 
Thalia,  the  daughter  nf  Vulcan  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  of  Vulcan  and  yEtna, 
daughter  of  Ocean.  Their  heads  appear 
on  coins  of  Catania. 

PA'LIMPSEST,  the  name  given  to  a 
sort  of  parchment,  from  which  whatever 
was  written  thereon  might  be  cra.scd,  so 
as  to  ailmit  of  its  being  written  on  anew. 
The  torra  moans,  literally,  twice  rubbed. 

PALTNDROME,  in  composition,  a 
verso  or  line  which  reads  the  ?ame  either 


forwards  or  backwards;  e.  g.  that  which 
is  put  in  the  mouth  of  Satan — isigna  te, 
signa,  teniere  me  tangis  el  angis  (cross 
thyself,  cross  thyself,  you  touch  and  tor- 
ment me  in  vain  ;)  or,  Roma  tibi  subilo 
7notibus  ibit  amor. 

PALINGEXE'SIA,  in  philosophy,  a 
new  or  second  birth — regeneration.  The 
doctrine  of  the  destruction  and  reproduc- 
tion of  worlds  and  living  beings  is  Orien- 
tal ;  but  the  word  in  question  appears  to 
be  of  Stoical  origin. 

PAL'INODE,  or  PAL'INODY,  a  re- 
cantation, particularly  a  poetical  one,  of 
anything  dishonorable  or  false  uttered 
against  another  person. 

PAL'LET,  among  painters,  a  little 
oval  tablet  of  wood  or  ivory,  on  which  a 
painter  places  the  several  colors  he  has 
occasion  to  use.  The  middle  serves  to 
mi.x  the  colors  on,  and  to  make  the  tints 
required.  It  is  held  by  putting  the 
thumb  through  a  hole  made  at  one  end 
of  it. 

PAL'LIUM,  an  upper  garment  or 
mantle  worn  by  the  Greeks,  as  the  toga 
was  by  the  Romans.  Each  of  these  was 
so  peculiar  to  the  respective  nations,  that 
Palliatiis  is  used  to  signify  a  Greek,  and 
Togatus  a  Roman — Pallium,  or  Pall, 
also  the  woollen  mantle  which  the  Roman 
emperors  were  accustomed  from  the 
fourth  century,  to  send  to  the  patriarchs 
and  primates  of  the  empire,  and  which 
was  worn  as  a  mark  of  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nity. Since  the  12th  century  it  has  con- 
sisted of  a  white  woollen  band  or  fillet, 
which  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders  out- 
side of  the  sacerdotal  vestments;  one 
band  hanging  over  the  hack,  and  another 
over  tho  breast,  and  both  ornamented 
with  a  red  chaplet. 

PALMER,  a  pilgrim  bearing  a  staff; 
or  one  who  returned  from  the  Holy  Land, 
bearing  branches  of  palm  :  he  was  dis- 
tinguished from  other  pilgrims  by  his  pro- 
fession of  poverty,  and  living  on  alms  as 
he  travelled. 

PALMISTRY,  a  mode  of  telling  for- 
tunes by  the  lines  of  the  hand  ;  a  trick  of 
imposture  much  practised  by  gipsies. 

PALM  SUNDAY,  tho  sixth  Sunday 
in  Lent,  tho  next  before  Easter,  commem- 
orative of  our  Saviour's  triuin)>hal  en- 
trance into  Jerusalem,  when  palm  branch- 
es were  strewed  in  the  way. 

PAN,  tho  chief  rural  divinity  of  the 
Greeks,  who  presided  over  flocks  and 
herds.  Ho  was  said  by  some  to  be  tho 
son  of  Mercury  ;  ami  his  birtln)lace  was 
Arcadia,  to  which  province  his  worship 
seems   to   have   been   confined   in   early 


pan] 


AND    THE     FINK    AUTS. 


449 


times.  The  introduction  of  his  worship 
into  the  other  Grecian  states  is  thus  ac- 
counted for.  He  was  represented  with 
the  head  and  breast  of  an  elderly  ni;in, 
while  his  lower  parts  were  like  the  hind 
quarters  of  a  goat,  whose  horns  he  like- 
wise bore  on  his  forehead.  His  emblems 
were  the  shepherd's  crook  and  pipe  of 
seven  reeds,  his  own  invention, 

PANATHEN.E'A,  in  Grecian  anti- 
quity, an  ancient  Athenian  festival,  in 
honor  of  Minerva,  who  was  the  protec- 
tress of  Athens,  and  called  Athena.  There 
were  two  solemnities  of  this  name,  one 
of  which  was  called  the  greater  panathe- 
ncea,  and  celebrated  once  in  five  years. 
These  were  distinguished  from  the  less 
(which  were  celebrated  every  third  year) 
not  only  by  their  greater  splendor  and 
longer  continuance,  but  particularly  by 
the  solemn  procession,  in  which  the  pe- 
plus,  a  sacred  garment,  consecrated  by 
young  virgins,  and  made  of  white  wool, 
embroidered  with  gold,  was  carried  from 
the  Acropolis  into  the  temple  of  the  god- 
dess, whose  ivory  statue  was  covered  with 
it.  This  festival  was  so  lioly,  that  crimi- 
nals were  released  from  the  prisons  on 
the  occasion  of  its  celebration,  and  men 
of  distinguished  merit  were  rewarded  with 
gold  crowns. 

PANCRA'TIUM,  among  the  ancients, 
a  kind  of  exercise  which  consisted  of 
wrestling  and  boxing.  In  these  contests 
it  was  customarj'  for  the  weaker  party, 
when  he  found  himself  pressed  by  his 
adversary,  to  fall  down,  and  fight  rolling 
on  the  ground. 

PAN'DECT.S,  the  name  of  a  volume 
of  the  civil  law,  digested  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Justinian. 

PAN'DIT,  or  PUN'DIT,  a  learned 
Brahmin  ;  or  one  versed  in  the  Sanscrit 
language,  and  in  the  sciences,  laws,  and 
religion  of  the  country. 

PANDOUR.S',  a  kind  of  light  infantry, 
firmerly  organized  as  separate  corps  in 
the  Austrian  service ;  raised  from  the 
Servian  and  Rascian  inhabitants  of  the 
Turkish  frontier,  and  originally  under 
leaders  of  their  own,  styled  Harumbachas. 
Since  IT,'?.^,  they  have  been  included  in 
the  regular  army. 

PANEGYRIC,  in  oratory,  an  eulogy 
or  haranizine,  written  or  spokeii,  in  praise 
of  an  individual  or  body  of  men.  Among 
the  ancients,  orations  were  recited  in 
praise  of  the  departed  on  various  occa- 
sions, before  solemn  assemblies :  hence 
the  name.  Among  the  later  Romans, 
the  baser  practice  prevailed  o'  reciting 
panegyrical  orations  on  distinguished 
29 


living  persons  in  their  presence.  Among 
the  moderns  p'^inogyrieal  oratory  has 
been  chiefly  confined  to  funeral  discourses 
from  the  pulpit. 

PAN'EL,  in  law,  a  schedule  or  /oil  of 
parchment  on  which  are  written  the 
names  of  the  jurors  returned  by  the 
sheriff.  Impanelling  a  jury,  is  returning 
their  names  in  such  schedule. 

PAN'IC,  an  ill-grounded  terror  in- 
spired by  the  misapprehension  of  danger. 
The  origin  of  the  word  is  said  to  be  de- 
rived from  Pan,  one  of  the  captains  of 
Bacchus,  who  with  a  few  men  routed  a 
numerous  army,  by  a  noise  which  his 
soldiers  raised  in  a  rocky  valley  favored 
with  a  great  number  of  echoes.  Hence 
all  ill-grounded  fears  have  been  called 
panic  fears. 

PAN'OPLY,  literally  all  the  armor 
that  can  be  worn  for  defence :  complete 
.armor. 

PAXORA'MA,  a  picture  in  which  all 
the  objects  of  nature  that  are  visible  from 
a  single  point  are  represented  on  the  in- 
terior surface  of  a  round  or  cylindrical 
wall,  the  point  of  view  being  in  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder.  The  rules  according  to 
which  the  different  objects  are  represent- 
ed in  perspective  are  easily  deduced  from 
the  consiileration  that  the  lines  on  the 
panorama  are  the  intersections  of  the 
cylindrical  surface  of  the  picture,  with 
one  or  more  conical  surfaces  having  their 
summits  at  the  point  of  view,  and  of 
which  the  bases  are  the  lines  of  nature 
which  the  artist  proposes  to  represent. 
In  executing  this  kind  of  perspective,  the 
artist  divides  the  horizon  into  a  conside- 
rable number  of  parts,  twenty,  for  exam- 
ple, and  draws,  in  the  ordinary  way,  on 
a  plane  surface,  a  perspective  view  of  all 
the  objects  comprised  in  each  of  these 
portions  of  the  horizon.  He  then  paints 
on  a  canvass,  representing  the  develop- 
ment of  the  cylindrical  surface,  the  twen- 
ty drawings,  in  as  many  vertical  and 
parallel  stripes;  and  the  picture  is  com- 
pleted by  stretching  the  canvas  on  the 
cylindrical  wall  of  the  rotunda  which  is 
to  contain  the  panorama.  When  a  paint- 
ing of  this  kind  is  well  executed,  its  truth 
is  such  as  to  produce  a  complete  illusion. 
No  other  method  of  representing  objects 
is  so  well  calculated  to  give  an  exact  idea 
of  the  general  aspect  and  appearance  of 
a  country  as  seen  all  round  from  a  given 
point. 

PANT  HE' A,  in  antiquity,  statues  com- 
])osed  of  the  figures  or  symbols  of  several 
divinities. 

PAN'THEISM,  in  metaphysical  thool- 


450 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF     LITERATURE 


[PAB 


ogy,  the  theory  which  identifies  nature, 
or  the  universe  in  its  totality  with  God. 
This  doctrine  differs  frnni  atheism  in  the 
greater  distinctness  with  which  it  asserts 
the  unity  an<l  essential  vitality  of  nature, 
parts  of  which  all  animated  beings  are. 
The  most  ancient  Greek  philosophers 
were  pantheists  in  this  sense,  Ana.vago- 
ras  being  the  first  who  di.stinetly  stated 
the  coexistence  with  nature  of  a  reason- 
able creator — "  a  mind,  the  principle  of 
all  things."  In  this  sense,  too,  Spinosa 
may  be  called  a  pantheist.  The  panthe- 
ism of  Scheliing,  and  many  modern  Ger- 
man philosophers,  is  of  a  different  stamp. 
According  to  these  thinkers,  God  is  con- 
ceived as  the  absolute  and  original  Being, 
revealing  himself  variously  in  outward 
nature,  and  in  human  intelligence  and 
freedom. 

PANTIIE'ON,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
temple  of  a  circular  form,  dedicated  to 
all  the  heathen  deities.  It  was  built  on 
the  Campus  Martius,  by  Agrippa,  son- 
in-law  to  Augustus  ;  but  is  now  converted 
into  a  church  and  dedicated  to  the  Vi'-gin 
Mary  and  all  the  martyrs.  It  is,  how- 
ever, called  the  rotunda,  on  account  of  its 
form,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  edifices  in 
Rome.  The  well-preserved  portico  seems 
to  be  of  a  later  perioii  than  the  temple 
itself;  it  consists  of  si.\teen  columns  of 
oriental  granite,  each  of  which  is  15  feet 
in  circumference.  The  interior  was  for- 
merly adorned  with  the  most  beautiful 
statues  of  the  various  deities,  but  they 
were  removed  by  Constantine  to  Constan- 
tinople ;  at  present  there  arc  in  the  eight 
niches,  eight  fine  columns,  placed  there 
by  the  emperor  Adrian.  What  is  very 
remarkable,  and  shows  the  alteration 
which  has  taken  place  at  Rome,  is,  that 
the  entrance  is  now  twelve  steps  below, 
though  heretofore  it  was  twelve  steps 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

PAN'TO.MIME,  in  the  modern  drama, 
a  mimic  representation  by  gestures,  ac- 
tions, and  various  kinds  of  tricks  perform- 
ed by  Harlequin  and  Columbine  as  the 
hero  and  heroine,  assisted  by  Pantaloon 
and  his  clown. — Pantomimes,  among  the 
ancients,  were  persons  who  could  imitate 
all  kinds  of  aclion.s  and  characters  by  signs 
and  gestures.  Scaligor  supposes  they 
were  first  introduced  upon  the  stage  to 
fjucceed  the  chorus  and  comedies,  and 
divert  the  audience  with  a]iish  postures 
and  antic  dances.  In  after  times  their 
interludes  became  distinct  entertain- 
ments, and  were  separately  exhibited. 

PA'PACY,  the  office  of  pope,  or,  his- 
torically, the  succession  of  popes   in  tlio 


see  of  Rome.  The  origin  of  the  term  is 
oriental.  The  word  papas  was  used  in 
lower  Greek,  with  the  signification  of 
father,  and  is  still  applied  by  the  Greek 
church  to  the  priests  of  that  communion. 
In  the  Western  Church,  the  title  was  not 
uncommonly  given  to  bishops  in  general, 
and  was  not  confined  to  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff for  several  centuries. 

PAPER-MONEY,  or  PAPER  CUR'- 
RE>'CY,  bank  notes  or  bills  issued  by 
the  credit  of  government,  and  circulaicd 
as  the  representative  of  coin.  In  a  more 
extensive  sense,  these  terms  may  denote 
all  kinds  of  notes  and  bills  of  exchange. 

PA  PLS T,  one  that  adheres  to  the  doc- 
trines and  ceremonies  of  the  church  of 
Rome  ;  a  Roman  Catholic. 

PAPY'RUS,  an  Egyptian  sedge-like 
plant,  or  reed-grass,  which  has  acquired 
an  immortal  fame  in  consequence  of  its 
leaves  having  furnished  the  ancients  with 
paper.  It  grows  in  the  marshes  of  Egypt 
or  in  the  stagnant  places  of  the  Nile.  Its 
roots  are  tortuous,  and  in  thickness  about 
four  or  five  inches ;  its  stem,  which  is  tri- 
angular and  tapering,  rises  to  the  height 
of  ten  feet,  an(i  is  terminated  by  a  com- 
pounil,  wide  spreading,  and  beautiful 
umbel,  which  is  surrounded  with  an  in- 
volucre composed  of  eight  large  sword- 
shaped  leaves.  The  uses  of  the  papyrus 
were,  however,  by  no  means  confined  to 
the  making  of  paper.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  where  it  grows,  even  to 
this  day,  manufacture  it  into  sail-cloth, 
cordage,  and  sometimes  wearing  apparel. 

PAR,  (Latin,  equal,)  in  commerce,  is 
said  of  any  two  things  equal  in  value; 
and  in  money-affairs,  the  equality  of  on* 
kind  of  money  or  property  with  another: 
thus,  when  $100  stock  is  worth  exactlj' 
$100  specie,  the  stock  is  said  to  bo  at  par; 
that  is,  the  purchaser  is  required  to  give 
neither  more  nor  less  of  the  commodity 
with  which  he  parts,  than  he  receives  of 
that  which  he  acquires  :  thus,  too,  the  par 
of  exchange  is  the  equal  value  of  money 
in  one  country  and  another. 

P.V'R.A,  a  Turkish  coin,  very  small  and 
thin,  of  copper  and  silver,  the  fortieth 
part  of  a  Turkish  piaster. 

PAR' ABLE,  a  liable  or  allegorical  rep- 
resentation of  something  real  or  appar- 
ent in  life  or  nature,  from  which  a  moral 
is  drawn  for  instruction.  Parables  are 
certainly  a  most  delicate  way  of  impress- 
ing disagreeable  truths  on  the  mind,  and 
in  many  cases  have  the  advantage  of  a 
more  open  reproof,  and  even  of  formal 
lessons  of  morality  :  thus  Nathan  made 
David  sensible  of  his  guilt  by  a  parable  i 


parJ 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


451 


and  thus  our  Saviour,  in  compliance  with 
the  customs  of  the  Jews,  who  had  a  liind 
of  natural  genius  for  this  sort  of  instruc- 
tion, spoke  frequently  in  parables,  most 
beautifully  construcleil,  and  calculated  to 
convince  them  of  their  errors  and  pre- 
ju  dices. 

PARACEL'SIAN,  a  name  given  to  a 
physician  who  follows  the  practice  of 
Paracelsus,  a  celebrated  Swiss  physician 
and  alchymist  who  lived  at  the  close  of 
the  15th  century,  and  who  performed 
man}'  extraordinary  cures  by  means  to- 
tally unknown  to  the  generality  of  medi- 
cal practitioners  of  his  time. 

PARACH  RONISM,  an  error  in  chro- 
nology, by  which  an  event  is  related  as 
having  happened  later  than  its  true 
date. 

P  AR'ACLETE,  a  name  attached  to  the 
Holy  Spirit,  as  an  advocate,  intercessor, 
or  comforter  of  mankind.  It  was  not  an 
uncommon  opinion  of  the  early  heretics, 
that  the  Paraclete,  whose  mission  was 
promisedby  Christ,  was  to  appear  corpore- 
ally upon  the  earth,  and  complete  the  dis- 
pensation announced  by  our  Lord  and  the 
apostles  ;  and  they  drew  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  person  of  the  Comforter  and 
the  etfusion  of  his  grace  upon  the  disciples 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  Accordingly, 
several  of  them,  Simon  Magus,  Manes, 
and  others,  gave  themselves  out  as  this 
expected  Paraclete;  and  Tertullian  him- 
self was  at  one  period  infatuated  by  the 
claims  advanced  by  Montanus  to  this 
personification. 

PARACROS'TIC,  a  poetical  composi- 
tion in  which  the  first  verse  contains,  in 
order,  all  the  letters  which  commence  the 
remaining  verses  of  the  poem  or  division. 
According  to  Cicero,  the  original  sibylline 
verses  were  paracrosties. 

PAR'ADIGM,  in  grammar,  an  example 
of  fl  verb  conjugated  in  the  several  moods, 
tenses  and  persons. 

PAR'ADISE,  a  region  of  supreme  fe- 
licity; generally  moaning  the  garden  of 
E  len,  in  wljich  Adam  and  Eve  were  placed 
immediately  after  their  creation.  The 
locality  of  this  happy  spot  has  been  as- 
signed, by  different  writers,  to  places  the 
most  opposite.  In  truth  there  is  scarcely 
any  part  of  the  world  where  Paradise  has 
not  been  sought  for.  The  most  probable 
opinion  is,  that  it  was  situated  between 
the  confluence  of  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
and  their  separation  ;  Pison  being  a 
branch  arising  from  one  of  them  after 
their  separation, — and  Gihon,  another 
branch  arising  from  the  other,  on  the 
western  side. — When  Christians  use  the 


word,  they  mean  that  celestial  paradise, 
or  place  of  pure  and  refined  delight  in 
which  the  souls  of  the  blessed  enjoy  ever- 
lasting happiness.  In  this  sense  it  is 
frequently  used  in  the  New  Testament  : 
our  Saviour  tells  the  penitent  thief  on  the 
cross,  "  This  day  shalt  thou  be  with  me 
in  Paradise;"  and  St.  Paul,  speaking  of 
himself  in  the  third  person,  says,  '•  I 
knew  a  man  who  was  caught  up  into 
Paradise,  and  heard  unspeakable  words, 
which  it  is  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  utter." 

PAR'ADOX,  in  philosophj',  a  tenet  or 
proposition  seemingly  absurd,  or  con- 
trary to  received  opinion,  yet  true  in 
fact. 

PAR'AGOGE,  a  figure  in  grammar  by 
which  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  syllable 
is  made  to  the  end  of  a  word. 

PAR' AGON,  a  model  by  way  of  dis- 
tinction implying  superior  excellence  or 
perfection  :  as,  a  paragon  of  beauty  or 
eloquence. 

PAR'AGRAM,  a  play  upon  words. 
Hence  paragrammatist,  an  appellation 
for  a  punster. 

PAR'AGRAPH,  any  section  or  portion 
of  a  writing  which  relates  to  a  particular 
point,  whether  consisting  of  one  sentence 
or  many  sentences.  Paragraphs  are  gen- 
erally distinguished  by  a  break  in  the 
lines  ;  or,  when  a  great  quantity  of  print 
is  intended  to  be  compressed  into  a  small 
space,  they  may  be  separated  by  a  dash, 
thus .  A  paragraph  is  also  some- 
times marked  thus,  ^. 

PARALEP'SIS,  or  PAR'ALEPSY,  a 
figure  in  rhetoric  by  which  the  speaker 
pretends  to  pass  by  what  at  the  same 
time  he  really  mentions. 

PARALIPOM'ENA,  in  matters  of  lit- 
erature, denotes  a  supplement  of  things 
omitted  in  a  preceding  work. 

PAR'ALLEL,  is  often  used  metaphori- 
cally, to  denote  the  continued  comparison 
of  two  objects,  particularly  in  history. 
Thus  we  speak  of  drawing  an  historical 
parallel  between  ages,  countries,  or  men. 
— Parallel  passages,  are  such  passagea 
in  a  book  as  agree  in  import ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  parallel  passages  in  the 
bible. 

PARAL'OGISM,  in  logic,  a  fallacious 
argument  or  false  reasoning ;  an  error 
committed  in  demonstration,  when  a  con- 
sequence is  drawn  from  principles  which 
are  false,  or  though  true,  are  not  proved; 
or  when  a  proposition  is  passed  over  that 
shoulil  have  been  proved  by  the  way. 

PARAMOUNT,  in  Eng.  the  supreme 
lord  of  the  fee.  The  lords  of  those  ma- 
nors that  have  other  manors  under  them 


452 


CVC'LOPEniA     OF    LIIERATLIIE 


PAR 


aro  styled  lords-paramount ;  and  the 
king,  who,  in  law,  is  chief  lord  of  all  the 
lands  in  England,  is  thus  the  lord-para- 
mount.— In  common  parlance,  it  means 
tuperior  to  anything  else;  as,  a  man's 
■,,rivate  interest  is  usually  parawou/ti  to 
all  other  considerations. 

.PAR'AX YMl'II,  among  the  ancients, 
the  person  who  waited  (m  the  bridegroom 
and  directed  tlic  nuptial  solemnities.  As 
the  paranympli  olliciated  only  on  the 
part  of  the  bridegroom,  a  woman  called 
■nronuba  officiated  on  the  part  of  the 
Dride. — In  poetry,  the  term  paranyniph 
is  still  occasionally  used  for  the  bride- 
man. 

PAR'APEG-M,  in  ancient  customs,  sig- 
nified a  brazen  table  fixed  to  a  pillar,  on 
which  laws  and  proclamations  were  en- 
graved. Also,  a  table  set  in  a  public 
place,  containing  an  account  of  the  rising 
and  setting  of  the  stars,  eclipses,  seasons, 
&c. 

PAR'APET,  in  fortification,  a  wall, 
rampart,  or  elevation  of  earth  for  screen- 
ing soldiers  from  an  enemy's  shot.  It 
means  literally,  a  wall  breast  high. 

PA'RAPII,  in  diplomatics,  the  figure 
formed  by  a  flourish  of  the  pen  at  the 
conclusion  of  a  signature.  This  formed, 
in  the  middle  ages,  a  sort  of  rude  provi- 
sion against  forgery,  like  the  flourishes 
in  the  plates  of  bank  notes.  In  some 
countries  (as  in  Spain,)  the  paraph  is 
still  a  usual  addition  to  a  signature. 

PARAPIIERNA  LIA,  in  English  law, 
the  goods  which  a  wife  brings  with  her 
at  her  marriage,  or  which  she  possesses 
beyond  her  dower  or  jointure,  and  which 
remain  at  her  disposal  after  her  husband's 
death.  They  consist  principally  of  the 
woman's  apparel,  jewels,  kn  ,  which,  in 
the  lifetime  of  her  husband,  she  wore  as 
the  ornaments  of  her  person  ;  nor  can 
the  husband  devise  such  ornaments  and 
jewels  of  his  wife,  though,  during  his  life, 
he  has  power  to  dispose  of  them. 

PAR'APIIRASE,  an  explanation  of 
•some  text  or  passage  in  a  book,  in  a  more 
clear  and  ample  manner  than  is  express- 
ed in  the  words  of  the  author;  such  as 
the  jxirttphrasc  of  the  Xcw  Testament  by 
Erasmus.  A  paraiihraso  partakes  of  the 
nature  both  of  a  version,  it  the  work  p.ar- 
aphrasod  be  in  a  foreign  language,  and 
of  a  commentary.  Its  object  is  to  ex- 
press the  full  sense  contained  in  the 
words  which  are  paraphrased,  by  the  in- 
troduclioti  of  circumlocutions,  explana- 
tory clauses,  and  expansions  of  the  au- 
thor's meaning. 

PAR'AriANd,  a  Persian   measure  of 


length,  varying  in  different  ages,  and  in 
diff'erent  places,  from  thirty  to  fifty  stadia 
or  furlongs. 

PARASCE'NIUM.  in  the  Grecian  and 
Roman  theatres,  was  a  j)lace  behind  the 
scenes  whither  the  actors  withdrew  to 
dress  and  umlress  themselves.  The  Ro- 
mans more  frequently  called  it  pustsce- 
niurn. 

PARASCE'VE,  a  word  signifying  prep- 
aration, given  by  the  Jews  to  the  sixth 
day  of  the  week,  or  Friday  ;  because,  not 
being  allowed  to  prepare  their  food  on 
the  sabbath  day,  they  provided  and  pre- 
pared it  on  the  day  previous. 

PAllASI'TI,  among  the  Greeks,  were 
an  order  of  priests,  or  at  least  ministers 
of  the  gods,  resembling  the  Epulones  at 
Rome.  Their  business  was  to  collect  and 
take  care  of  the  sacred  corn  destined  for 
the  service  of  the  temples  and  the  gods ; 
to  see  that  sacrifices  were  duly  perform- 
ed, and  that  no  one  withheld  the  first 
fruits,  &c.  from  the  deities.  In  every  vil- 
lage of  the  Athenians,  certain  Parasiti, 
in  honor  of  Hercules,  were  maintained 
at  the  public  charge  ;  but,  to  ease  the 
commonwealth  of  this  burthen,  the  ma- 
gistrates at  last  obliged  souie  of  the  richer 
sort  to  take  them  to  their  own  tal)les,  and 
entertain  them  at  their  individual  ex- 
pense :  hence  the  word  j)arasilc.  by  which 
we  denote  a  hanger-on,  a  fawning  flat- 
terer, one  who,  for  the  sake  of  a  good 
dinner  at  the  expense  of  another  person, 
would  be  ready  to  surfeit  him  with  adula- 
tion. 

PARAVAIL',  in  feudal  law,  tlie  lowest 
tenant  holding  under  a  mediate  lord,  as 
distinguished  from  a  tenant  in  capite, 
who  holds  immediately  of  the  king. 

PAirCE,  or  the  FATH.^,  in  the  hea- 
then mythology,  Vwivo  three  goildesses 
who  were  supposed  to  preside  over  the  ac- 
cidents and  events,  and  to  determine  the 
date  or  period  of  human  life.  They  were 
called  Atropos,  Clotho,  and  Lachesis,  and 
are  represented  as  spinning  the  thread  of 
human  life  ;  in  which  en)]iloyment  Clotho 
held  the  distatF,  Lachesis  twrneil  the 
wheel,  and  Atropos  cut  the  thread.  Their 
persons  are  variously  desoribed  ;  some- 
times they  are  represented  as  old  women, 
one  holding  a  distaff,  another  a  wheel, 
and  a  third  a  pair  of  scissors.  Others 
pa'nt  Clotho  in  a  robe  of  various  colors, 
with  a  crown  of  stars  upon  her  head,  and 
holding  a  distaff  in  her  liand  ;  Lachesis  in 
a  garment  covered  with  stars,  and  holil- 
I  ing  several  spindles;  and  Atropos  they 
I  clad  in  black,  cutting  tlic  thrcail  with  a 
[  largo  pair  of  scissors. 


par] 


AND     rilK     FINE     AltTS. 


453 


PAR'CENER,  or  CO-PAR'CENER,  in 
law,  a  coheir,  or  one  who  holds  lands  by 
descent  from  an  ancestor  in  common  with 
others.  The  holding  or  occupation  of 
lands  of  inheritance  by  two  or  more  per- 
sons, differs  from  joint  tenancy,  which  is 
created  by  deed  or  devise,  whereas  fjar- 
cenarij  is  created  by  the  descent  of  lands 
from  a  common  ancestor. 

PAREL'CON,  in  grammar,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  word  or  syllable  at  the  end  of 
another. 

PAREM'BOLE,  a  figure  in  rhetoric, 
often  confounded  with  the  parenthesis. 
The  parembole  is,  in  reality,  a  species  of 
parenthesis  ;  but  its  specific  character  is 
this,  that  it  relates  to  the  subject ;  while 
the  parenthesis  is  foreign  from  it. 

PA'RENT,  a  term  of  relationship  ap- 
plicable to  those  from  whom  we  im- 
mediately receive  our  being.  Parents, 
by  the  law  of  the  land  as  well  as  by  the 
law  of  nature,  are  bound  to  educate, 
maintain,  and  defend  their  children,  over 
whom  they  have  a  legal  as  well  as  a  nat- 
ural power  :  they  likewise  have  interest 
in  the  profits  of  their  children's  labor, 
during  their  nonage,  in  case  the  children 
live  with  and  are  provided  for  by  them  ; 
yet  the  parent  has  no  interest  in  the  real 
or  personal  estate  of  a  child,  any  other- 
wise than  as  his  guardian.  The  laws  re- 
lating to  the  mutual  rights  and  duties  of 
parents  and  children  are  a  very  important 
part  of  every  code,  and  have  a  very  inti- 
mate connection  with  the  state  of  society 
and  with  civil  institutions.  In  ancient 
times,  when  paternity  was  a  great  foun- 
dation of  civil  authority,  the  parental 
rights  were  much  more  absolute  than  in 
the  modern,  extending,  in  some  countries, 
to  the  right  of  life  and  death,  and  con- 
tinuing during  the  life  of  the  two  parties. 

PARENTA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  funeral 
obsequies,  or  the  last  duties  paid  by  chil- 
dren to  their  deceased  parents.  The  terra 
is  also  used  for  a  sacrifice,  or  solemn  ser- 
vice, offered  annually  to  the  manes  of  the 
dead. 

PAREN'TIIESrS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
bj'  which  a  series  of  words  is  inserted  in 
a  sentence,  having  no  grammatical  con- 
nection with  those  which  precede  or  fol- 
low, with  the  object  of  e.xplaining  some 
detached  portion  of  the  sentence.  In  an- 
cient author.^,  a  parenthetical  form  of 
writing  is  even  more  connnon  than  among 
moderns;  because  much  which  a  Greek  or 
Roman  author  would  have  conveyed  by 
way  of  parenthesis  is  now  inserted  in  sep- 
arate explanatory  notes. 

PA'RIAS,  a  degraded  tribe  of  Hindoos 


who  live  by  themselves  in  the  outskirts 
of  towns  ;  and,  in  the  country,  build  their 
houses  apart  from  the  villages,  or  rather 
have  villages  of  their  own.  They  dare 
not  in  cities  pass  through  the  streets 
where  the  Brahmins  live  ;  nor  enter  a 
temple  of  the  superior  castes.  They  are 
prohibited  from  all  approach  to  anything 
pure,  and  are  doomed  to  perform  all 
kinds  of  menial  work. 

PAR  IM'PAR,  in  antiquity,  a  game 
of  chance  practised  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  It  was  identical  with  the 
game  of  "  even  or  odd"  practised  by  the 
boys  of  modern  times. 

PAR'ISH,  the  precinct  or  territorial 
jurisdiction  of  a  secular  priest,  or  a  cir- 
cuit of  ground  or  district  inhabited  by 
people  who  belong  to  one  church,  and  are 
under  the  particular  charge  of  its  minis- 
ter. In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  church, 
the  name  parish  was  applied  to  the  dis- 
trict placed  under  the  superintendence  of 
tlie  bishop,  and  v^'as  equivalent  to  the 
diocese.  Parishes  were  originally  eccle- 
siastical divisions,  but  they  now  come 
under  the  class  of  civil  divisions.  In 
England,  their  limits  cannot  be  altered 
but  by  legislative  enactment  ;  and  in 
Scotland  it  requires  the  authority  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  together  with  the  con- 
sent of  three  fourths  of  the  heritors,  to 
erect  new  churches  and  to  disjoin  parish 
es.  Towns  originally  contained  but  one 
parish,  but  from  the  increase  of  inhab- 
itants, many  of  them  are  divided  into 
several  parishes.  The  number  of  parish- 
es and  parochial  chapelries  in  England 
and  Wales  is  estimated  at  about  10,700. 
In  Scotland,  the  number  of  parishes  rec- 
ognized by  law  is  948. — In  some  of  the 
United  States,  parish  is  an  ecclesiastical 
society  not  bounded  by  territorial  limits  ; 
but  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  belonging 
to  one  church,  though  residing  promiscu 
ously  among  the  people  belonging  to 
another  church,  are  called  a  parish.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  in  Massachusetts. 
In  Connecticut,  the  legal  appellation  oi' 
such  a  societ}'  is  ecclesiastical  society. 

PARK,  in  England,  a  large  piece  of 
ground  enclosed  and  privileged  for  beasts 
of  the  chase.  Also,  a  piece  of  ground  in 
cities,  planted  with  trees  and  devoted  to 
public  recreation. — Parle  of  artillery,  a 
place  in  the  rear  of  both  lines  of  an 
army  for  encamping  the  artillery,  which 
is  formed  in  lines,  the  guns  in  front,  the 
ammunition  wagons  behind  the  guns,  and 
the  pontoons  and  tumbrils  forming  the 
third  line.  The  whole  is  surrounded  with 
a  rope. 


454 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    I.TTRRVTrilE 


(pAIi 


PARLIAMENT,  the  gran.l  npscnibly 
of  the  three  estates  in  Great  Britain,  or 
tl>e  great  council  of  the  nation,  consisting 
of  the  King,  Lords,  and  Commons,  wliich 
form  the  legislative  branch  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  word  parlid 'Hcnt  was  intro- 
duced into  England  under  the  Norman 
kings.  The  supreme  council  of  the  na- 
tioi  was  called  by  our  Saxon  ancestors, 
the  wilteriagemote,  the  meeting  cf  wise 
men  or  sages.  A  parliament  is  called  by 
the  king's  [queen's]  writ,  or  letter,  direct- 
ed to  each  lord,  summoning  him  to  ap- 
pear ;  and  by  writs  sent  by  the  lord 
chancellor  under  the  great  seal,  com- 
manding the  sheriffs  of  each  cotinty  to 
take  the  necessary  steps  for  the  election 
of  members  for  the  county,  and  the  bor- 
oughs contained  in  it.  On  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  the  meeting  of  parliament, 
the  king  [queen]  sits  in  the  house  of  lords 
under  a  canopy,  dressed  in  his  [her]  robes, 
as  are  all  the  lords  in  theirs;  and,  the 
commons  being  summoned  to  the  bar  of 
that  house,  the  sovereign  addresses  both 
houses  on  the  state  of  public  affairs. 
The  commons  are  then  required  to  choose 
a  speaker,  which  officer  being  presented 
to  and  approved  by  the  sovereign,  the 
latter  withdraws,  the  commons  retire  to 
their  own  house,  and  the  business  of  par- 
liament begins.  In  the  liouse  of  lonls, 
the  seat  of  each  member  is  prescribed 
according  to  rank  ;  though,  except  in  the 
presence  of  the  king  [queen]  this  formali- 
ty is  almost  wholly  dispensed  with.  The 
princes  of  the  blood  sit  on  each  side  of 
the  throne  ;  the  two  archbishops  against 
the  wall  on  the  king's  right  hand;  the 
bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and  Win- 
chester below  the  former,  and  the  other 
bishops  according  to  priority  of  Conse- 
cration. On  the  king's  [queen's]  left 
hand,  above  all  the  dukes  except  those 
of  the  blood  royal,  sit  the  lord  treasurer, 
lord  president,  and  lord  privy-seal;  then 
the  dukes,  marquises,  and  carls,  the  in- 
dividuals of  each  class  taking  precedence 
according  to  the  date  of  their  creation. 
Across  the  room  are  woolsacks,  continued 
from  ancient  custom  ;  and  on  the  first  of 
these,  immediately  before  the  throne,  sits 
the  lord  chancellor,  as  speaker  of  the 
hou-'e.  On  the  other  woolsacks  arc  seated 
julgcs,  masters  in  chancery,  and  the 
king's  couTisel,  who  only  give  their  advice 
on  ])oiiits  of  law.  In  the  house  of  commons 
there  are  no  peculiar  seats  for  any  mem- 
bers. The  speaker  only  has  a  chair  ap- 
propriated to  him  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  house,  and  at  a  table  before  him 
sit  the  clerk    and  his    assistant.     When 


the   parliament    is   thus    assembleil,    nc 

member  is  to  depart  without  leave    Tpon 

extraordinary  occasions,  all  the  members 

are  summoned;  otherwise  three  hundred 

of  the  commons  is  reckoned  a  full  house, 

and  forty  may  compose  a   house    for  the 

dispatch    of  business.       The    method    of 

I  making  laws  is  much  the  same  in  both 

houses.     In    each    house  the   act   of  the 

I  majority  binds  the  whole;  and  this  ma- 

I  jority  is  declared  by  votes  openly  given  ; 

not  privatelv,  or  by  ballot. 

PARLIAMENTA'RIAN,  an  epithet 
for  those  who  sided  with  the  English  re- 
publican parliament  in  opposition  to  king 
Charles  I. 

PARN.AS'SUS,  in  mythology,  a  cele- 
brated mountain  in  ancient  Greece,  sa- 
;  ered  to  Apcitlo  and  the  Muses,  and,  from 
;  the  numerous  objects  of  classical  interest 
of  which  it  formed  the  theatre,  considered 
,  "holy"  by  the  Greeks.    On  its  side  stood 
the  city  of  Delphi,  near  which  flowed  the 
Castalian  spring,  the  grand  source  of  an- 
I  cient  inspiration  ;   and  from  this  circum- 
j  stance,    in    metaphorical    langunge,    the 
I  word  Parnassus  has  come  to  sisrnifv  poe- 
j  try  itself   A  good  collection  of  the  Italian 
poets,  printed    at    Milan,  bears   the   title 
]  11  Parnas.to  ItaHano. 
1       PARO'DY,  a  kind  of  writing  in  which 
the  words  of  an   author  or  his  thoughts 
are,  by  some  slight  alterations,  adapted 
to  a  different  purpose;   or  it  may  be  de- 
fined, a  poetical  pleasantry  in  which  the 
verses  of  some  author  are,  by  way  of  rid- 
icule,  applied  to  another  object;    or  in 
turning  a  serious  work  into  burlesque  by 
,  affecting  to  observe   the   same    rhymes, 

words,  and  cadences. 
!  PAR'OL,  in  law,  anything  done  ver- 
bally, or  by  oral  declaration;  as  paroi 
evidence — Parole,  in  military  affairs,  a 
promise  given  by  a  prisoner  of  war  when 
suffered  to  be  at  large,  that  he  will  return 
at  the  time  appointed,  unless  he  shall 
have  previously  been  discharged  or  ex- 
changed.—  Parole  also  means  the  watch- 
'  word  given  out  every  day  in  orders  by  a 
commanding  officer,  in  camp  or  garrison, 
by  which  friends  may  be  distinguished 
from  enemies. 

PAROMOL'OGY,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
of  speech  by  which  the  orator  concedes 
something  to  his  adversary,  in  order  to 
strcnsthen  his  own  argument. 

P.\RO\OM.'\'Sr.A,  a  rhetorical  fisrure, 
by  which  words  nearly  alike  in  sound,  but 
of  very  <lifforent  or  opposite  mc^anings, 
are  affectedly  or  designedly  used;  a  play 
upon  words. 

PAR'QI'ETRY,  a  species  of  joinery  or 


^] 


AND    THE    FINK     ARTS. 


cabinet  work,  which  consists  in  making  a 
parquet,  or  inlaid  floor,  composed  of  small 
jMecos  of  wood,  either  square  or  triangu- 
lar, which,  by  the  manner  of  their  dispo- 
sition, are  capable  of  forming  various 
combinations  of  figures.  Two  sorts  of 
wood  are  emploj'ed  for  this  purpose  al- 
most of  the  same  color,  or  differing  only 
in  shade,  and  those  two  sorts  suffice  for 
the  production  of  a  great  variety  of 
ctfects. 

PAK'RICIDE,  strictly  signifies  the  mur- 
der or  murderer  of  a  f:ither,  as  matricide 
does  of  a  mother  ;  yet  this  word  is  ordina- 
rily taken  in  both  senses,  and  is  also  ex- 
tended to  the  murder  of  any  near  relation. 
The  word  parricide  is  also  applied  to  one 
who  invades  or  destroys  any  to  whom  he 
owes  particular  reverence,  as  his  country 
or  patron.  B,y  the  Roman  law  it  was 
punished  in  a  severer  manner  than  any 
other  kind  <>(  homicide.  After  being 
scourged,  the  delinquents  were  sewn  up 
in  a  leathern  sack. 

PARRICID'IUM,  a  name  given  by  a 
decree  of  the  Roman  senate  to  the  ides 
of  March,  which  was  the  anniversary  of 
Caesar's  assassination.  Dolabella  the 
consul  proposed  a  law  to  change  its 
name  to  Natalis  Urbis,  as  he  looked 
on  that  day  as  the  birthday  of  Roman 
liberty. 

PAR'SEE,  the  name  given  by  English 
writers  to  the  Persian  refugees,  driven 
from  their  country  by  the  persecutions 
of  the  Mussulmans,  who  now  inhabit 
various  parts  of  India.  Their  principal 
emigration  to  Baroach,  Surat,  and  the 
neighboring  coast,  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  about  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century.  The  sacred  fire,  the  emblem  of 
their  religion,  called  behrem.  is  believed 
by  them  to  have  been  brought  by  the  first 
emigrants  from  Persia,  and,  after  many 
changes  of  place,  is  now  preserved  at 
Odisari  and  Nausari,  near  Surat,  and  at 
Bombay.  In  this  latter  city,  under  the 
protection  of  the  British  government, 
they  have  grown  into  a  colony  of  consid- 
erable numbers  and  of  great  opulence. 
They  have  become  particularly  distin- 
guished in  the  art  of  shipbuilding,  and 
the  dock-yard  of  Bombay  is  now  almost 
e.vclusively  in  their  hands.  Their  charac- 
ter is  variously  estimated  by  different 
:)bservers;  but  all  agree  in  attributing  to 
them  industry  and  economy,  and  attach- 
ment to  their  religion,  and  to  those  of  the 
higher  class  strong  sentiments  of  honor 
and  honesty.  Their  number  is  said  to 
equal  700,000  ;  and  at  Bombay,  according 
to  lato  calculations,  at  least  20,000. 


PARS'INt],  in  grammar,  the  resolving 
a  sentence  into  its  elements,  by  showing 
the  several  parts  of  speecli  of  which  it  is 
composed,  and  their  relation  to  each 
other  according  to  grammatical  rules. 

PAR'SOX,  the  rector  or  incumbent  of 
a  parish,  who  has  the  parochial  charge 
or  cure  of  souls. — Parsonage,  a  rectory 
endowed  with  a  house,  glebe,  l.uids,  tithes, 
&c.,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  incum- 
bent. 

PAR'TIIEXOX,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, the  name  given  to  the  celebrated 
Grecian  temple  of  Minerva,  erected  dur- 
ing the  splendid  era  of  Pericles.  It  was 
built  of  marble  upon  a  spot  elevated  on 
all  sides  above  the  town  and  citadel ;  of 
the  Doric  order  ;  222  Greek  feet  in  length, 
and  69  in  height.  This  magnificent  tem- 
ple had  resisted  all  the  ravages  of  time ; 
had  been  in  turn  converted  into  a  Chris- 
tian church  and  a  Turkish  mosque ;  but 
in  the  year  1687,  when  the  Venetians 
besieged  the  citadel  of  Athens,  under  the 
command  of  general  Koenigsmarck,  a 
bomb  fell  most  unluckily  on  the  devoted 
Parthenon,  set  fire  to  the  powder  whicli 
the  Turks  had  shut  up  therein,  and  thus 
the  roof  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  the 
whole  building  almost  reduced  to  ruins. 

PARTICEPS  CRIM'INIS,  in  law,  an 
accomplice,  or  one  who  has  a  share  in 
the  guiU. 

PARTI'CIPANTS,  a  semi-religious 
order  of  knighthood,  founded  by  Popo 
Sextus  v.,  in  1586,  in  honor  of  Our  Lady 
of  Loretto.  The  members  of  this  order 
were  allowed  to  marry.  The  order  w.as 
soon  extinguished;  and  the  title  of  Knights 
of  Loretto  is  now  conferred  on  some  civil 
servants  of  the  pope.  . 

,  PARTITION,  in  music,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  several  parts  of  a  composition 
on  the  same  page  or  pages,  ranged 
methodically  above  and  under  each  other, 
so  that  they  may  be  all  under  the  eye  of 
the  performer  or  conductor,  and  sung  or 
played  jointly  or  separately  as  the  com- 
poser intended.  It  is  commonly  called  a 
score. — In  architecture,  the  vertical  as- 
semblage of  materials  which  divides  one 
apartment  from  another.  It  is  usually, 
however,  employed  to  denote  such  divi- 
sion when  constructed  of  vertical  pieces  of 
timber  called  quarters. — In  politics,  the 
division  of  the  states  of  a  sovereign  or 
prince,  after  his  decease,  among  his  heirs, 
as  was  the  custom  in  some  of  the  prince- 
ly families  in  the  ancient  German  em- 
pire :  or  among  other  powers,  such  as 
that  of  the  states  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
which  was  in  contemplation  (against  all 


45G 


CVCLOI'EUIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[pas 


justice)  Vjctween  Willinm  III.,  Louis 
XIV.,  anil  tlin  Dutch,  Iiv  the  treaties  (if 
1693  and  169<J,  when  Charles  II.,  the 
reignin;;  monarch,  was  witiiout  near 
heirs.  But  the  most  celebrated  parti- 
^tions  in  historj',  to  which  the  name  has 
become  almost  exclusively  attadied,-were 
those  of  Poland  by  Kussia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria. 

PAIIT'NERSIIIP,  the  association  of 
two  or  more  persons  for  the  prosecution 
of  an  J'  trade,  manufacture,  or  commercial 
enterprise,  at  tiieir  Joint  expense.  In 
this  case  the  connection  is  formed  by  con- 
tract ;  each  partner  furnishing  a  part  of 
the  capital  stock,  and  being  entitled  to  a 
proportional  share  of  profit,  or  subject  to  a 
proportional  share  of  loss  ;  or  one  or  more 
of  the  partners  may  furnish  money  or 
stock,  and  the  others  may  contribute 
their  services.  A  partnership  or  associa- 
tion of  this  kind  is  a  standing  or  perma- 
nent company,  and  is  denominated  a.  firm 
or  house.  Though  partnerships  ought  not 
to  be  entered  into  witiiout  great  circum- 
spection, the  benefits  of  a  union  of  the 
means  and  advantages  of  different  per- 
sons for  the  conduct  of  a  business,  in  many 
instances,  are  too  obvious  to  need  illus- 
tration. 

PAR'TY,  in  politics,  a  body  of  men 
united  under  different  leaders  for  promot- 
ing, by  their  joint  endeavors,  the  nation- 
al interest,  upon  some  particular  prin- 
ciple in  which  they  are  all  agreed.  The 
origin  of  party  may  be  traced  to  that  law 
of  the  human  mind  which  is  founded  in 
our  natural  desire  of  sympathy,  and  our 
disposition  to  afford  it.  From  the  earliest 
ages  down  to  the  present  time,  the  prin- 
ci[ile  of  mutual  co-ojieration  lias  been 
adoj)ted  with  success  in  executing  favor- 
ite designs,  and  in  aiming  at  the  aecom- 
plishuicnt  of  certain  ends.  Among  the 
ancient  Romans,  for  example,  "  idem 
aentire  de  7-epnblica"  formed  a  principal 
ground  of  friendship  and  attachment ; 
and  the  same  feeling,  modified  by  differ- 
ent forms  of  government  and  other  cir- 
cumstances, is  at  present  in  full  operation 
in  all  the  civilized  states  of  Europe  and 
America.  The  benefits  of  party  may  be 
liriefiy  stated  to  be,  increased  energy  in 
pursuit  of  a  common  object,  regular  co- 
operation, mutual  control  and  regulation, 
and  an  advantageous  division  of  labor. 
But,  though  party  or  combination  may  in 
this  manner  bo  jiroductive  of  good  results, 
like  every  other  ]iriiiciplc  mid  feeling  in 
our  nature,  it  is  liable  to  be  abused.  It 
involves  a  frequent  sacrifice  of  individual 
uotious  of  what  is  just  an  I   proper,  and 


tempts  bodies  of  men  to  act  in  a  way  that 
would  often  be  deemed  discreditable  in 
individuals.  Perhaps  the  worst  ell'ect  of 
party  is  its  tendency  to  generate  narrow, 
false,  and  illiberal  prejudices,  bj-  teach- 
ing the  adherents  of  one  party  to  regard 
those  that  belong  to  an  opposing  party  as 
unworthy  of  confidence  ;  and  in  making 
them  oppose  good  measures  because  they 
happen  to  be  proposed  by  a  different 
party,  and  support  bad  measures  because 
they  are  proposed  or  supported  by  their 
own  party. 

PASRVRAPHY,  the  imaginary  uni- 
versal language  to  bo  spoken  and  written 
by  all  nations,  the  invention  of  which  has 
exercised  the  ingenuitj'  of  so  many  learn- 
ed men,  has  been  denoted  by  this  word. 
Leibnitz  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
first  who  conceived  this  to  be  possible. 
Many  writers  in  Germany  (whore  the 
name  was  invented)  have  followed  him  in 
the  endeavor  to  devise  schemes  for  this 
fanciful  object.  In  England,  Bishop 
AVilkins,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  in- 
vented a  scheme  for  a  universal  language, 
grammar  and  character. 

PASQUINADE',  a  satirical  writing 
directed  against  one  or  more  individuals. 
A  mutilated  ancient  statue  of  a  gladiator 
dug  up  at  Rome  about  300  years  ago, 
which  now  lies  in  the  court  of  the  Capi- 
tol, was  popularly  termed,  by  the  Ro- 
mans, "  Pasquino,"  from  the  name,  it  is 
said,  of  a  liarber  of  eccentric  and  well- 
known  character,  opposite  to  whose  house 
it  was  originally  set  up.  This  statue,  and 
another,  called  by  the  populace  Marforio, 
which  was  situated  near  it,  were  useii  for 
the  purpose  of  bearing  satirical  placards, 
often  reflecting  on  the  court  and  church 
of  Rome,  which  were  aflixod  to  them  at 
night,  not  unfroqiiently  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  the  two  statues.  So 
annoying  did  Pasquin  often  become  to  the 
government,  that  on  one  occasion  a  serious 
design  was  entertained  of  throwing  him 
into  the  river;  but  the  ministers  of  the 
reigning  pontiff  are  said  to  have  dissiiail- 
ed  him  from  it,  representing  that  if  this 
were  done  "  the  frogs  in  the  Tiber  would 
croak  louder  than  ever  Pasquin  had 
spoken."  He  has,  however,  lost  his  pub- 
lic spirit,  ami  rarely  or  never  ventures  to 
attack  the  powers  that  be.  But  his 
statue  is  still  the  occasional  receptacle 
of  jocose  comments  on  private  matters 
The  difference  between  a  pas<]iiinndc  and 
a  satire  is,  that  the  end  of  the  latter  is  to 
correct  and  reform,  while  that  of  the 
former  is  only  to  ridicule  and  expose. 

PAS'SING-BELL,    the    bell   that    is 


pas] 


AND    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


457 


toUoil  at  the  hour  of  death,  or  immeiiiatc- 
)y  lifter  death.  The  passing-bell  was 
origiiKill}-  intended  to  drive  away  any 
demon  that  might  seek  to  take  possession 
of  the  soul  of  the  deceased,  on  which  ac- 
count it  was  sometimes  called  the  xoul- 
beli.  Mr.  Ellis  in  his  notes  to  Brand, 
quotes  VVheatley's  apology  for  our  re- 
taining this  ceremony;  "Our  church," 
says  he,  "  in  imitation  of  the  saints  in 
former  ages,  calls  on  the  minister,  and 
others  who  are  at  hand,  to  assist  their 
brother  in  his  last  extremity.  In  order 
to  this,  she  directs  that  when  any  one  is 
passing  out  of  this  life  a  bell  should  be 
tolled." 

PAS'SION,  or  THE  PAS'SIONS,  are 
strong  feelings  or  emotions  of  the  mind 
excited  by  an  adequate  cause,  and  exist- 
ing in  such  strength  as  to  engross  the 
whole  man,  and  resist  the  influence  of 
every  other  cause  of  sensation.  In  order 
to  form  a  clear  notion  of  the  passions,  we 
must  begin  with  rejecting  the  phrase 
that  man  is  possessed  of  this  or  that 
number  of  passions,  and  say  that  he  is 
possessed  of  one  quality,  that  is,  suscep- 
tibility, which  is  liable  to  be  acted  upon 
by  this  or  that  number  of  causes.  Man, 
therefore,  has  not  so  many  feelings,  but 
one  feeling,  assuming  different  forms  of 
appearance  according  to  the  impression 
it  receives;  and  the  number  of  passions  is 
exactly  that  of  the  circumstances  that 
are  important  to  a  sentient  creature. 
Now,  these,  in  a  comprehensive  point  of 
view,  are  only  of  two  kinds  ;  those  that 
contribute  to  its  pleasure,  and  those  that 
are  productive  of  pain.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that,  according  to  some,  man  has 
only  two  passions  :  the  desire  of  happi- 
ness, and  the  aversion  to  evil ;  but  sub- 
divided, each  order  has  its  genera,  and 
each  genus  its  species.  The  desire  of 
happiness  is  separated  into  love,  or  the 
wish  to  possess  that  which  will  impart 
happiness  ;  hope,  which  is  the  expecta- 
tion of  possessing  it ;  apd  joy,  which  is 
the  assurance  of  possession.  The  aver- 
sion to  evil  is  separated  into  fear,  which 
belongs  to  the  dread  of  evil;  grief,  which 
belongs  to  the  presence  of  it;  and  anger, 
which  resents  it.  These,  again,  to  which 
also  other  genera  may  bo  added,  are  dis- 
tinguished into  species;  as,  to  fear  belong 
terror  and  horror ;  and  to  anger,  envj-, 
jealousy,  hatred,  and  malice.  Some  think 
the  most  natural  division  of  the  passions 
is  into  pleasurable  and  painful. — Pas- 
sions, in  painting  and  sculpture,  the  rep- 
resentation in  the  countenance  and  other 
parts,  of  the  violent  emotions  of  the  mind. 


produced  by  anger,  fear,  grief,  <tc.  The 
expression  of  the  passions  is  a  language 
without  which  the  painter  can  never  hope 
for  success ;  it  is  in  this  that  he  has  the 
means  of  appealing  to  the  sympathy  of 
the  spectator.  The  close  observation  of 
nature  under  similar  circumstances  is 
the  only  mode  by  which  his  aim  can  be 
accomplished. 

PAS'SION-WEEK,  the  week  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  festival  of  Easter  ;  so 
called,  because  in  that  week  our  Saviour's 
passion  and  death  happened.  The  Thurs- 
day in  this  week  is  called  Maundy 
Thursday,  and  the  Friday,  Good  F'riday. 
The  "passion  of  Christ"  is  celebrated  in 
the  Catholic  and  most  Protestant  churches 
on  the  European  continent  during  Lent, 
and  particularly  during  Passion-week,  by 
sermons  relating  to  the  sufferings  of  the 
Saviour ;  and  it  is  no  inconsiderable 
treat  to  the  lovers  of  sacred  music  wlio 
may  be  sojourning  at  Rome  during  the 
time,  to  hear  the  compositions  of  Pales- 
trini,  Pergolesi,  Allegri,  Ac  ,  in  the  purest 
style,  as  performed  in  the  Sistine  Chapel. 

PAS'SIVE,  in  grammar,  a  term  given 
to  a  verb  which  expresses  passion,  or  the 
effect  of  an  action  of  some  agent. — Pas- 
sive obedience,  in  civil  polity,  denotes  not 
only  quiet  unresisting  submission  to  pow- 
er, but  implies  the  denial  of  the  right  of 
resistance,  or  the  recognition  of  the  duty 
to  submit  in  all  cases  to  the  existing  gov- 
ernment.— Passive  prayer,  among  mystic 
divines,  is  a  suspension  of  the  soul  or  in- 
tellectual faculties,  and  yielding  only  to 
the  impulses  of  grace. — Passive  com- 
merce, trade  in  which  the  productions  of 
a  country  are  carried  on  by  foreigners  in 
their  own  ships  :  opposed  to  active  com- 
merce. 

PASS'OVER,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Jews,  celebrated  on  the  14th  day  of  the 
month  following  the  vernal  equinox,  and 
instituted  in  commemoration  of  their  prov- 
idential deliverance  on  the  night  before 
their  departure  from  Egypt,  when  the 
destroying  angel,  who  put  to  death  the 
first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  passed  orir 
the  house  of  the  Ilebrews,  which  were 
sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  a  lamb. 

PASS'PORT,  a  written  license  from  a 
king,  governor,  or  other  proper  authority, 
granting  permission  or  safe  conduct  for 
one  to  pass  through  his  territories,  or  to 
pass  from  one  country  to  another,  or  to 
navigate  a  particular  sea  without  moles- 
tation. Also,  a  license  for  importing  or 
exporting  contraband  goods  or  movables 
without  paying  the  usual  duties.  In  all 
passports  it  is  usual  to  describe  the  per- 


458 


CVCLOrKDIA    OF    LITKHATLUK 


[['AT 


Bons,  purposes,  and  destinations  of  the 
traveller,  intended  to  show  that  their 
characters  are  good,  and  their  objects  in 
travelling  lawful.  The  use  of  passports 
is  abolished  in  the  United  States  and 
England. 

PASTE,  in  gem  sculpture,  a  prepara- 
tion of  glass,  calcined  crystal,  lead,  and 
other  ingredients,  for  imitating  gems. 
This  art  was  well  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  after  being  long  lost,  was  restored, 
at  the  end  "f  the  firtceiith  century,  by  a 
.Mil.inese  ii;iinter. 

PASTEL,  in  painting,  a  cniyon  formed 
with  any  color  and  gum  water,  for  paint- 
ing on  paper  or  jjarchment.  The  great 
defect  of  this  mode  of  painting  is  its  want 
of  durability. 

PASTICCIO,  in  painting,  a  picture 
painted  by  a  master  in  a  style  dissimilar 
to  that  in  which  he  generally  painted. 
David  Teniers  could,  for  instance,  imitate, 
with  surprising  exactness,  the  styles  of 
many  of  the  first  masters  of  Italy  and 
Planders.  The  same  may  l>e  alhrmed  of 
Luca  Giordano,  a  Neapolitan  artist. 

PASTOPII'ORI,  in  antiquity,  priests 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  whose  of- 
fice it  was  to  carry  the  images  along  with 
the  shrines  of  the  gods  at  solemn  festivals. 
The  cells  or  apartments  near  the  temples 
where  the  Pastopkori  lived,  were  called 
Pastophoria. 

PAS'TORAL,  something  descriptive  of 
a  shepherd's  life  ;  or  a  poem  in  which  any 
action  or  passion  is  represented  by  its  ef- 
fects on  a  country  life.  The  complete 
character  of  this  poem  consists  in  sim- 
plicity, brevity,  and  delicacy;  the  two 
first  of  which  render  an  eclogue  or  idyl 
natural,  and  the  last  delightful.  As  the 
first  strains  of  poetry  must  have  been 
heard  in  the  primitive  times  of  the  Im- 
man  race,  and  as  a  shepherd's  life  is  con- 
genial with  this  mode  of  occupation,  we 
naturally  consider  poetry  as  having  origi- 
nated in  the  pastoral  period  ;  but  the 
poetic  idea  of  pastoral  life,  where  all  is 
purity  and  simplicity,  is  not  supported  by 
experience  in  past  or  present  times. 

PASTtiRA'LE,  in  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
tii:it  part  of  theology  which  includes  the 
execution  of  the  duties  of  the  clergyman, 
or  the  practical  application  of  his  theolo- 
gical knowledge.  In  the  pastorale  of  a 
Rouiiin  Ciitholic  priest,  the  chief  part  of 
the  canon  law  is  compriseil  ;  while  that  of 
the  Protestant  minister  consists  of  princi- 
ples addressed  merely  to  his  understand- 
ing, including  certain  rules  which  experi- 
ence has  shown  to  be  important  for  the 
execution  of  clerical  duties. 


PATAVIN'ITY,  a  term  used  by  clas- 
sical scholars  to  denote  a  peculiarity  of 
Livy's  diction  ;  so  denominated  from  Pa- 
tavium  or  Padua,  the  place  of  his  nativ- 
ity ;  but  as  authors  are  not  agreed  as  to 
what  this  palavinity  consists  in,  it  may 
reasonably  be  concluded  that  it  is  one  of 
those  delicacies  which  are  undiscernible 
when  a  language  is  no  longer  spoken. 

PATE,  in  fortification,  a  kind  of  plat 
form,  resembling  what  is  called  a  horse- 
shoe ;  not  always  regular,  but  generally 
oval,  encompassed  only  with  a  parapet, 
and  having  nothing  to  flank  it. 

PAT'ENTS,  orLET  TERS  PAT  ENT, 
{open  letters,)  writings  sealed  with  the 
great  seal,  granting  a  privilege  to  some 
person,  or  authorizing  a  man  to  do  or  en- 
joy that  which  he  could  not  of  himself. 
They  are  called  patent  on  account  of  their 
form  being  open,  ready  to  be  exhibited 
for  the  confirmation  of  the  authority  del- 
egated by  them.  In  England  and  the 
United  States,  patents  are  granted  for  a 
term  not  exceeding  fourteen  years.  The 
time  in  England  may  be  prolonged  by  a 
private  act,  and  in  the  United  States  by 
act  of  '-ongress.  In  Fr:ince,  patents  are 
given  for  five,  ten,  or  fifteen  years,  at  the 
option  of  the  inventor  ;  but  this  last  term 
is  never  to  be  prolonged  without  a  par- 
ticular decree  of  the  legislature. — The 
caveat  is  an  instrument  by  which  notice  is 
requested  to  be  given  to  the  person  who 
enters  it,  whenever  any  ap]>Iication  is 
made  for  a  patent  for  a  certain  invention, 
which  is  therein  describcil  in  general 
terms,  and -must  be  renewed  annually. 
It  simply  gives  notice  that  the  invention 
is  nearly  completed,  with  a  request  that, 
if  any  other  person  should  apply  for  a  pat- 
j  ent  for  the  same  thing,  the  preference 
I  may  be  siven  to  him  who  entered  it. 
PA'TERA,  in  architecture,  an  orna- 
ment frequently  seen  in  the  Doric  frie/.e, 
and  in  the  tympans  of  arches.  The  pa- 
,  tera  was  a  small  dish  or  vase  used  by  the 
[  Romans  in  their  sacrifices,  in  which  they 
[  offered  their  consecrated  food  to  the  gods, 
I  and  with  which  they  made  libations;  and 
I  hence,  as  the  Doric  was  used  for  temples, 
it  became  an  ornament  of  that  order.  It 
was  also  enclosed  in  urns  with  the  ashes 
of  the  dead,  after  it  had  been  used  in  the 
libations  of  wine  and  other  liquors  at  the 
funeral. 

I'AT'ERXOSTER,  the  Lord's  prayer, 
so  called  from  the  two  first  words  thereof 
in  Latin.  It  is  also  sometimes  used  for 
a  rosary  or  string  of  beads,  used  by  Ro- 
man Catholics  in  their  devotions;  but 
more    especially  for   every   tenth   large 


PAr] 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ARTS. 


4.J9 


bead  in  fho  sa'ul  rosary;  for  at  this  they 
repeat  the  Lord's  prayer ;  and  at  the  in- 
terveninf;  small  ones,  only  an  Ave  Ma- 
ria.— In  architecture,  the  same  term  is 
used  for  an  ornament  cut  in  the  form  of 
heads,  either  oval  or  round,  for  astragals, 
.fee. 

PA'THOS,  language  capable  of  moving 
the  temler  passions,  and  of  exciting  the 
finest  emotions  of  the  soul. 

PA'TIENCE,  the  quality  of  enduring 
affliction,  pain,  persecution,  or  other  evil, 
without  murmuring  or  frctfulness. 

PAT'IN,  in  the  Romish  church,  the 
cover  of  the  chalice,  used  for  holding  par- 
ticles of  the  host. 

PATOIS,  a  word  in  general  use  in 
most  European  countries,  signifying  the 
dialect  peculiar  to  the  lower  classes. 

PA'TKE.S  CONSCllIP'TI,aname given 
to  the  Roman  senators  in  general,  though 
at  first  it  was  applied  to  a  particular  part 
of  that  body.  The  hundred  appointed  by 
Romulus  were  called  simply  Pn/res;  a 
second  hundred  added  by  Romulus  and 
Tatius  upon  the  union  of  their  people, 
were  denominated  Padres  l\Iinorurii  Gen- 
tium ;  a  third  hundred  being  afterwards 
added  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  the  two 
latter  classes  were  called  Palrcs  Con- 
scripti,  because  they  were  written  down 
or  put  upon  the  list  with  the  original 
hundred  of  Romulus. 

PA'TRIARCII,  properly  signifies  the 
head  or  chief  of  a  family.  The  name  of 
patriarchs  is  generally  confined  to  the 
progenitors  of  the  Israelites  who  lived 
before  Moses,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
itc  ;  or  to  the  heads  of  families  before  the 
flood,  as  the  antediluvian  patriarchs.  The 
appellation  has  from  hence  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  bishops  of  the  first  churches 
of  the  East  ;  ns,  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  Jerusalem.  Constantinople. 

PATRI'CIAN,  in  Roman  history,  a 
title  given  at  first  to  the  descendants  of 
the  senators  whom  llomnlus  created,  and 
called  patres,  "  fathers."  It  was  after- 
wards enjoyed  by  those  who  became  sen- 
ators by  other  channels  than  that  of  he- 
reditary claim:  but  the  dignity  of  the 
patricians  was  lessened  by  the  fall  of  the 
republic,  the  civil  wars,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  imperial  dignity. — The 
word  patrician,  in  its  general  and  mod- 
ern acceptation,  signifies  noble  ;  senato- 
rial ;  not  plebeian. 

PAT'RICK,  St,  Order  of.  an  Irish 
order  of  kniglithood,  instituted  by  George 
III.  in  1783,  which  is  the  only  one  be- 
longing to  Ireland,  but  it  is  the  most 
splendid  of  any. 


PA'TRIOT,  one  who  sincerely  loves 
his  country,  and  who,  as  a  proof  of  that 
love,  exerts  his  best  energies  in  contrib- 
uting to  his  country's  welfare.  In  the 
Latin  of  the  middle  ages,  patriota  signi- 
fied a  native,  in  contradistinction  to  pere- 
grlnus,  a  foreigner,  that  is,  one  who  did 
not  enjoy  the  rights  of  citizenship.  As  the 
native,  or  citizen,  was  considered  to  be 
attached  by  his  interests  to  the  common- 
wealth, the  word  gradually  received  the 
meaning  of  a  citizen  who  loves  his  coun- 
try. Like  many  other  words,  its  true 
meaning  has  at  times  been  sadly  pervert- 
ed, or  irreverently  used. 

PAT'RIOTISM,  the  love  of  one's  coun- 
try— the  noblest  passion  that  animates 
the  breast  of  a  true  citizen,  either  in  de- 
fending it  from  foreign  enemies,  or  in 
protecting  its  rights  and  maintaining  its 
laws  and  institutions  in  vigor  and  purity 
when  assailed  by  domestic  foes. 

PATROL',  in  war,  a  round  or  march 
made  by  the  guard  in  the  night-time,  tu 
observe  what  passes,  and  to  secure  the 
peace  and  safety  of  a  city  or  camp,  or  oth- 
er place.  The  patrol  generally  consists  of 
a  body  of  five  or  six  men  detached  from 
a  body  on  guard,  and  commanded  by  a 
Serjeant. 

PA'TRON,  in  its  most  general  sense, 
signifies  one  that  specially  countenances 
and  supports  another,  or  lends  his  aid  to 
advance  the  interests  of  some  underta- 
king ;  as  a  patron  of  the  Fine  Arts  ;  the 
patrKjns  of  a  charitable  institution,  <fec. — 
Patron,  (patroniis,)  among  the  Romans, 
was  an  appellation  given  to  any  per- 
son in  power,  under  whose  protection 
a  few  inferiors  put  themselves,  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  obedience  and  personal 
service.  The  persons  protected  were 
calleil  clients.  The  duty  of  the  patrons  was 
to  be  their  clients'  counsellors  in  difficult 
cases,  their  advocates  in  judgments,  their 
advisers  in  matters  of  doubt,  and  their 
overseers  in  all  their  affairs. — Patron 
was  also  a  title  conferred  on  a  master  who 
had  freed  his  slave  ;  the  relation  of  pa- 
tron commencing  when  that  of  master  ex- 
pired. The  patron  was  legal  heir  to  his 
freedmen,  if  they  died  intestate,  or  with- 
out lawful  issue  born  after  their  freedom 
commenced.  By  the  Papian  law,  if  afreed- 
man's  fortune  amounte<l  to  ten  thousand 
sesterces  and  he  had  three  children,  the 
patron  was  entitled  to  a  child's  ])ortion. — 
Patron  in  the  English  canon  ami  common 
law.  a  person  who,  having  the  advowsonof 
a  pa»'sonage,  vicarage,  or  other  spiritual 
promotion  belonging  to  his  manor,  has 
the  gift  and  disposition   of  the  benefice, 


4G0 


CVCLOI'KUIA    OF    LITEliATl'UE 


[I'EC 


and  may  present  to  it  wlienever  it  be- 
comes vacant. —  Patron,  in  the  church 
of  Rome,  a  guardian  or  saint,  whose 
name  a,  person  bears,  or  under  whose  pro- 
tection he  is  placed,  and  whom  he  in- 
vokes :  or  a  saint,  in  whose  name  a 
church  or  order  is  founded  — Larj-patron- 
age  is  a  right  attached  to  a  person  either 
as  founder  or  as  heir  of  the  founder,  or 
as  possessor  of  the  see  to  which  the  pa- 
tronage is  annexed. — Ecclesiastical  pa- 
tronage is  that  which  a  person  is  entitled 
toby  virtue  of  some  benefice  wliich  he 
holds. 

PATRONYMIC,  a  term  applied  to 
such  names  of  men  and  women  as  are  de- 
rived from  those  of  their  parents  or  an- 
cestors ;  as  Tydides,  the  son  of  Tj'deus. 

PAULPCIANS,  in  ecclesiastical  histo- 
ry, a  branch  of  the  ancient  Manichees, 
so  called  from  their  founder,  one  Paul  us, 
an  Armenian.  For  several  centuries  they 
suffered  great  persecution,  and  were  at 
length  wholly  exterminated. 

PAUSA'NIA,  in  Grecian  anti(iuity,  a 
festival,  in  which  were  solemn  games, 
wherein  nobody  contended  but  free-born 
Spartans.  It  was  instituted  in  honor  of 
Pausanias,  the  Spartan  general,  under 
whose  conduct  the  (Ireeks  overcame  Mar- 
donius,  in  the  celebrated  bnttle  at  Plataca. 

PAUSE,  a  character  of  time  in  music, 
marked  thus  ^^,  denoting  that  the  note 
over  which  it  is  placed  is  to  be  drawn  out 
to  a  greater  length  than  usual,  or  to  be 
embellished  with  appoggiatures,  shakes, 
or  other  graces. 

PAVIL  U)X,  in  architecture,  a  kind 
of  turret  or  bull  ling,  usually  insulated 
and  contained  under  a  single  roof:  some- 
times square,  and  sometimes  in  form  of  a 
dome  Sometimes  a  pavilion  is  a  pro- 
jecting part  in  front  of  a  buiMing;  some- 
times it  flanks  a  corner — In  military  af- 
fairs, a  tent  raised  on  posts.  The  word  is 
also  sometimes  used  for  a  flag,  ensign,  or 
banner. 

PAWN'BROKER,  a  species  of  banker, 
who  advances  money  at  a  certain  rate  of 
interest  upon  the  security  of  goods  do- 
posited  in  his  hands ;  having  power  to 
sell  the  gooils  if  the  principal  sum,  and 
the  interest  thereon,  be  not  paid  within 
a  specified  time.  The  practice  of  mlvan- 
cing  money  to  the  poor,  either  with  or 
without  interest,  seems  to  have  been  occa- 
sionally adopted  in  ancient  times  ;  but  the 
first  public  establishinptits  of  this  kind 
were  founded  in  Italy,  under  the  name  of 
Monti  di  I'ieta,  in  the  14th  and  l.'ith  cen- 
turies, and  were  intended  to  countervail 
the  exorbitant  usurious  practices  of  the 


Jews,  who  formed  at  that  period  the  great 
money-lenders  of  Europe.  From  Italy 
these  establishments  gradually  spread 
over  the  Continent,  in  man3'  parts  of 
which  they  still  exist. 

PAX,  an  allegorical  divinity  among 
the  ancients,  worshipped  as  the  goddess 
of  peace.  She  had  a  celebrateil  temple 
at  Rome,  which  was  built  by  Vespasian, 
and  was  consumed  by  fire  in  the  reign  of 
Commodus.  This  term  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  a  small  image  of  Christ,  because, 
in  former  times,  the  kiss  which  the  people 
gave  it  before  leaving  church  wits  called 
the  kiss  of  peace. 

PEACE,  in  a  general  sense,  signifies  a 
state  of  tranquillity  or  freedom  from  dis- 
turbance. In  a  political  sense,  freedom 
from  war  with  a  foreign  power,  or  from 
internal  commotion.  It  likewise  denotes 
a  culm  and  tranquil  state  of  the  mind, 
which  is  the  eiTect  of  a  clear  conscience. 
Also,  that  quiet,  order,  and  security 
which  is  guaranteed  bv  the  laws. 

PEC  ILATOR,  one"  who  defrauds  the 
public  by  appropriating  to  his  own  use 
money  entrusteil  to  his  care. 

PECU  LIAR,  in  the  English  canon  law, 
n  parish  or  church  that  lius  jurisdiction 
within  itself,  and  is  competent  to  the 
granting  probates  of  wills  and  letters  of 
administration,  exempt  from  the  ordinary 
or  bishop's  court — Court  of  Peculiars,  a 
branch  of  the  court  of  arches,  belonging 
to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  which 
takes  cognizance  of  matters  relating  to 
parishes  that  have  a  peculiar  jurisdic- 
tion. 

PED'AGOGUE,  among  the  ancient 
(j reeks,  a  slave  charged  with  the  personal 
care  of  a  boy  from  the  earliest  age  after  in- 
fancy (from  the  milk,  in  the  loose  phrase 
of  Plutarch  ;  fiom  about  the  ago  of  seven, 
MS  it  is  more  aocuratcdy  stated  by 
Av-ehines)  until  he  became  a  youth,  i.e., 
until  the  seventeenth  or  twentieth  year. 
The  pedagogue's  duty  was  to  attend  his 
charge  on  all  Decisions  when  ho  left  his 
f.ither's  house  ;  to  the  lecture-rooms,  of 
masters,  the  theatres,  Ac.  lie  was  also 
entrusted  with  the  duty  of  instructing 
and  disciplining  the  child  in  all  the  inferior 
branches  of  education  and  ordinary  man- 
ners, lie  was,  oonscqucntly,  of  a  very 
superior  order  of  common  slaves. 

PED'ALS,  in  music,  the  keys  played 
by  the  feet,  (hence  the  name,)  by  which 
the  deepest  bass  pipes  of  an  organ  are 
put  in  motion.  A  pedal  is  also  used 
uniler  a  piano,  in  order  to  strengthen  and 
prolong  the  tones.  In  a  harp,  the  podal 
serves  to  elevate  the  notes  half  a  tone. 


penJ 


ANU    TIIK     FINK     ,\I!TS. 


401 


PED'ESTAL,  in  architecture,  the  low- 
est purt  of  a  column  being  thiit  which 
serves  as  its  stam!.  It  consists  of  three 
parts,  viz.,  a  trunk  or  dye,  which  forms 
the  body;  a  cornice,  the  head;  <and  a 
base,  the  foot  of  tiie  pedestal. 

PEDIMENT,  the  triangular  finishing 
above  the  entablature  at  the  end  of  build- 
ings or  over  porticoes.  The  mouldings  of 
the  entablature  bound  the  inclined  sides 
of  the  pediment.  Also  the  triangular 
finishing  over  doors  and  windows.  In  the 
debiised  Konian  style  the  same  name  is 
given   to   these   same   parts,  though  not 


PeJiment. 
triangular  in  their  form,  but  circular,  el- 
liptical, or  interrupted.  In  the  architec- 
ture of  the  middle  ages,  small  gables  and 
triangular  decorations  over  openings, 
niches.  &o.,  are  called  pediments.  These 
have  the  angle  at  the  ape.x  more  acute 
than  the  corresponding  decoration  of  clas- 
sic architecture. 

PEER,  in  England,  a  nobleman  or  peer 
of  the  realm.  The  lords  of  parliament 
are  the  peers  of  each  other;  for  whatever 
formality  of  precedence  may  attach  to 
the  title  of  duke,  carl,  marquis,  or  vis- 
count, it  is  a  barony  which  conve3's  the 
right  to  a  seat  in  parliament,  and  confers 
every  privilege  annexed.  It  is  as  a  baron, 
not  as  a  duke,  bishop,  &c.  that  a  peer 
sits  in  parliament ;  and  the  parliamentary 
rights  are,  at  the  present  day,  the  essence 
of  nobility.  In  compliance  with  an 
ancient  practice,  peers  are  sometimes 
still  created  by  titles  which  convey  the 
idea  of  local  rights  to  which  they  have  in 
reality  no  pretension  ;  but  though  this  is 
a  mere  form,  the  rank  they  gain  is  not 
an  empty  one  ;  it  is  that  of  an  hereditary 
legislator  of  the  realm.  A  peer  is  not  to 
be  put  upon  any  inquest,  even  though 
the  cause  have  relation  to  two  peers  ;  and 
where  a  peer  is  a  defemlant  in  a  court  of 
equity,  he  is  not  to  be  sworn  to  his  answer, 
which  is  to  be  received  upon  the  faith  of 
his  honor ;  but  when  he  is  to  answer  to  in- 
terrogatories, or  to  make  an  affidavit,  or 
to  be  examined  as  a  witness,  he  is  to  be 
sworn  — There  are  two  peculiarities  at- 
tending the  trial  of  a.  peer  :  1st,  the  num- 
ber of  jurors  is  greater  than  onlinarj', 
every  peer  having  a  right  to  sit;  2dly, 
unanimity  is  not  required,  but  the  decir 
sion  dej>ends  upon  the  majority,  which, 
however,  must  aujount  to  twelve. 

PEER  ESS,  a  woman  who  is  noble  by 


descent,  creation  or  marriage.  If  a  peer- 
ess b}'  descent  or  creation  marries  a  per- 
son under  the  degree  of  nobility,  she  still 
continues  noble  ;  but  if  she  has  obtained 
the  dignity  by  marriage  only,  by  a  sub- 
sequent marriage  with  a  commoner  she 
loses  it;  though  by  the  courtesy  of  Eng- 
land, she  always  retains  her  title. 

PEG'ASUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
winged  horse,  produced  by  Neptune  ;  or 
according  to  some  authors,  which  sprung 
from  the  blood  of  Medusa  when  Perseus 
cut  off  her  head. 

PEINE  FORTE  ET  DURE,  a  special 
punishment  inflicted  in  ancient  times  on 
those  who,  being  arraigned  of  felony,  re- 
fused to  put  themselves  on  the  ordinary 
trial,  but  stood  hiute.  It  was  vulgarly 
called  pressing  to  death. 

PELA'GIANS,  a  Christian  sect  who 
appeared  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century.  Pelagius,  the  founder  of  it,  wa,s 
born  in  Wales,  and  his  real  name  wa.s 
Morgan,  which  in  the  Welsh  language 
signifies  sea  born  ;  whence  the  Latin  name 
Pelagius.  Some  of  our  ancient  historians 
pretend  that  he  was  abbot  of  Bangor  ;  but 
this  is  impossible,  because  the  British 
monasteries  were  of  a  later  date.  St 
Austin  gives  him  the  character  of  a  very 
pious  man,  and  a  person  of  superior  birth. 
Among  other  tenets  of  belief,  the  Pelagi- 
ans denied  original  sin,  maintaining  that 
Adam  would  have  died,  whether  he  had 
sinned  or  not ;  while  they  asserteil  the 
doctrine  of  free  will,  and  the  merit  of 
good  works. 

PE'NAL  LAWS,  laws  made  for  the 
punishment  of  criminal  offences. 

PEN'ALTY,  (in  law,)  a  fine  or  forfei- 
ture by  way  of  punishment,  which  is  a 
■pecuniary  penalty  ;  but  the  word  penalty 
is  not  confined  to  this  ;  for  imprisonment, 
whipping,  transportation,  ifco.  are  equally 
penalties,  though  in  the  shape  of  personal 
punishments. 

PENANCE,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  the 
infliction  of  some  pain  or  bodily  sufiering, 
as  fasting,  flagellation,  &c  ;  as  an  exer- 
cise of  re])entance  for  some  sin,  either  vol- 
untary or  imposed. — Penance  is  one  of  the 
seven  sacraments  of  the  Romish  church. 

PENA'TES,  in  Roman  antiquity,  tute- 
lar deities,  either  of  countries  or  of  par- 
ticular houses,  in  which  last  sense  they 
were  tho  same  with  the  lares.  The  Pena- 
tes were  originally  the  tutelar  gods  of 
the  Trojans  ;  but  being  adopted  by  the 
Romans,  they  were  thus  named. 

PEND'ANT,  in  gothic  architecture,  an 
ornamented  polygonal  piece  of  stone  or 
timber  hanging  down  from  the  vault  or 


462 


CYCI.OI'KUIA     OF     LllKllATLKK 


l-EO 


roof  of  a  building.  Of  stone  pendants 
gome  exquisite  examples  may  be  seen  in 
llenrj  VII.'s  chapel  at  Westminster.  In 
ancient  writers  the  sprini;ers  of  arches, 
which  rest  on  shafts  or  corbels,  are  callcil 
poulunls. — In  painting,  Ac.  a  picture  or 
print  which  from  uniformity  of  size  and 
subject  seems  to  hang  up  as  a  companion 
to  another.  The  term  may  also  be  ap- 
plied to  bassi  relievi  of  similar  sizes. 

PEXETRA'LE,  was  a  sacred  room  or 
chapel  in  private  houses,  set  apart  for  the 
worship  of  the  household  gods  among  the 
Komans.  In  temples  also  there  were 
penetralia,  or  apartments  of  peculiar 
sanctitj',  where  the  images  of  the  gods 
were  kept,  and  certain  solemn  ceremonie.s 
peformed. 

PENITEN'TIARY,  in  the  ancient 
Christian  church,  a  name  given  to  certain 
presbyters,  appointed  in  every  church  to 
receive  the  private  confessions  of  the  peo- 
ple, in  order  to  facilitate  public  discipline, 
by  acquainting  them  what  sins  were  to 
be  expiated  by  public  penance,  and  to 
appoint  private  penance  for  such  crimes 
as  it  might  be  deemed  unadvisable  to 
censure  publicly. — Penitentiary,  at  the 
court  of  Rome,  an  ofiBce  in  which  are  ex- 
amined and  delivered  out  the  secret 
bulls,  graces,  or  dispensations  relating  to 
cases  of  conscience,  confessions,  &c.- — The 
title  oi penitentiary  was  also  given  to  an 
officer  in  some  cathedrals,  who  was  vested 
with  power  from  the  bishop  to  absolve  in 
cases  reserved  to  him. — Penitentiary,  the 
name  of  prisons  where  felons  are  kept  to 
hard  labor. 

PEN'ITENTS,  an  appellation  given 
to  certain  fraternities  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries, distinguished  by  their  different 
habits,  and  generally  employed  in  chari- 
table acts. 

PEN'NON,  in  heraldry,  a  small  point- 
ed flag,  borne  by  a  gentleman.  When 
knighthood  was  conferred  upon  him,  the 
point  was  cut  off,  and  the  square  flag  that 
remained  bore  the  name  ot  banner. 

PEN'S  [OX,  an  annual  allowance  of  a 
sum  of  money  to  a  person  by  government, 
in  consideration  of  past  services,  civil  or 
military ;  or,  at  least,  such  a  pension 
ought  to  be. 

PENSIONER,  one  who  receives  an 
annuitj'  from  another,  whether  in  con- 
sideration of  service  jKist  or  jjresent,  or 
merely  as  a  benevolence 

PENTAMETER,  in  Latin  and  Greek 
poetry,  a  verse  consisting  of  five  feet  or 
metres.  The  two  first  may  be  either  dac- 
tyls or  spondees;  the  third  is  always  a 
spondee,  and  the  two  last  anapscsts.     A 


'  pentameter  verse  subjoined  to  an  hex- 
ameter constitutes  what  is  called  elegiac. 
The  pentameter  ha<<  not  been  generally 
introihiced  into  any  mo<lern  language 
with  which  we  are  acquainted;  though 
Goethe  and  Schiller  have  left  us  some 
excellent  specimens  of  the  facility  with 
which  it  might  be  engrafted  on  the  (Jcr- 
man  language.  The  hexameter  and  jien- 
tamer  disticli  is  beautifully  described  in 
the  lines  of  Schiller,  which  are  thus  ren- 
dered by  Coleridge,  who  was  long  con- 
sidered as  the  original  author  : 

In  tlie  hexameter  rises  the  Aiuntuin's  silvery 

ciilumn: 
In  llie  pentameter  aye  falling  in  melody  buck. 

Every  page  of  Ovid's  Ileroides  or  Tristia, 
illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  hex- 
ameter breaks,  as  it  were,  and  falls  back 
in  the  pentameter,  thereby  adding  a  most 
exquisite  grace  to  the  rhythm  ;  indeed 
the  secret  genius  of  the  metre  appears  to 
consist  in  this  play. 

PEN'TASTICH,  in  poetry,  a  compo- 
sition consisting  of  five  verses. 

I'EN  T.\STYLE,  in  architecture,  a 
building  in  which  there  are  live  rows  of 
columns. 

PENTATEUCH,  an  appellation  given 
to  the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, viz.  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy. 

PENTATH'LU M,  in  antiquity,  a  gen- 
eral name  for  the  five  exercises  perform- 
ed at  the  Grecian  games,  namely,  wrest- 
ling, boxing,  leaping,  running,  and  play- 
ing at  the  discus. 

PENTECONTER,  in  antiquity,  a  Gre- 
cian vessel  of  fifty  oars ;  smaller  than  a 
trireme. 

PEN'TECOST,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Jews,  instituted  in  memory  of  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  law,  and  so  named  be- 
cause that  event  took  place  on  the  fiftieth 
day  after  their  departure  from  Egypt. 
It  is  retained  by  us  in  the  Christian  church 
(and  by  us  called  Whitsuntide)  on  account 
of  the  miraculous  descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  on  the  apostles,  which  liajqiened  on 
one  of  the  annual  returns  of  its  celebra- 
tion. 

PENUL'TIMA,  PENULT',  or  Penul- 
timate sYLLAni.E,  in  grammar,  the  last 
syllabic  but  one  of  a  word  ;  and  hence  the 
anti-penultimate  syllable  is  the  last  but 
two,  or  that  immediately  before  the  pe- 
nultima 

PE(.)'PLE,  the  body  of  persons  whocom- 
])oso  a  community,  town,  city,  or  nation. 
We  say,  the  people  of  a  town  ;  the  people 
of  New  York  or  I'aris  ;  the  American  juo- 


'Ek] 


AM)    Tin;     FINK    AUTS. 


463 


pie.  In  this  sen-ic.  the  word  is  not  uscl 
in  the  plural,  but  it  comprchemls  all 
classes  of  inhabitants,  considorel  as  a  col- 
lective bo  ly,  or  any  portion  of  t!ie  inhab- 
itants of  a  city  or  country. 

PERCEI^'TION,  the  act  of  perceiving 
or  of  receiving  impressions  by  the  senses  ; 
or  that  act  or  process  of  the  mind  which 
makes  known  an  external  object.  In 
other  words,  the  notice  which  tiie  mind 
takes  of  external  objects.  We  gain  a 
knowledge  of  the  coldness  and  smoothness 
of  marble  by  perception. — -In  philoso- 
phy, the  faculty  of  perceiving  ;  the  facul- 
ty or  peculiar  part  of  man's  constitution, 
by  which  he  has  knowledge  through  the 
medium  or  instrumentality  of  the  bodily 
organs,  or  by  which  he  holds  communica- 
tion with  the  external  world.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  conception  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  its  objects  are  in  every 
instance  supposed  to  have  an  actual  ex- 
istence. We  may  conceive  things  that 
have  no  reality,  but  we  are  never  said  to 
•perceive  such  things.  Perception  differs 
from  consciousness  in  that  it  takes  cog- 
nizance only  of  objects  without  the  mind. 
We  perceive  a  mm,  a  horse,  a  tree ; 
when  we  think  or  feel,  we  are  conscious 
of  our  thoughts  and  emotions.  It  is  fur- 
ther supposed  in  perception,  that  the  ob- 
jects of  it  are  present  We  can  remem- 
ber former  objects  of  perception,  but  we 
do  not  perceive  them  again  until  they  are 
once  more  present.  The  term  perception., 
however,  is  sometimes  analogically  em- 
ployed in  common  speech  in  reference  to 
truths,  the  evidence  of  which  is  certain. 
Thus  we  n\n,j perceive  the  truth  of  a  math- 
ematical proposition  Various  theories 
of  perception  have  arisen  among  philoso- 
phers. These  have  been  designate  1  by 
the  terms  idealism  and  rcnlisni. 

PERFECTIBEL'ITY,  the  capability 
of  arriving  at  perfection.  Tiiis  word, 
which  is  entirely  modern,  and  scarcely 
as  yet  admitted  in  our  language  on  clas- 
sical English  authority,  is  commonly  used 
in  reasoning  on  the  social  condition  of 
mankind. 

PERFEC'TIOX,  in  the  highest  sen.se 
to  which  this  word  can  be  applied,  means 
an  inherent  or  essential  attribute  of 
supreme  or  infinite  excellence.  If  we 
speak  of  physical  perfection.,  we  mean 
that  a  natural  ol)ject  has  all  its  powers, 
faculties,  or  qualities  entire  and  in  full 
vigor,  and  all  its  parts  in  due  proportion. 
—  Moral  perfection  is  the  complete  pos- 
session of  such  moral  qualities  and  vir- 
tuos  as  the  thing  spoken  of  is  capable  of 
possessing. 


PE'Iir,  in  Persian  mythology,  are  the 
descendants  of  fallen  spirits,  excluded 
from  piradise  until  their  penance  is  ac- 
complished. 

I'ERIB  OLOS,  in  architecture,  a  court 
or  enclosure  entirely  round  a  temple, 
surrounded  by  a  wall.  One  of  the  most 
extraordinary  examples  of  a  pcribolos  is 
at  I'almyra,  where  the  great  temple  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  with  two  rows  of 
interior  columns,  each  side  whereof  is 
from  700  to  800  feet  long. 

PER'IDROME,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, the  space  in  a  peripteral  temple 
between  the  walls  of  the  cell  and  the 
columns.  It  is  a  term  that  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  gallery  of  communication 
round  an  edifice. 

PERIOD,  in  rhetoric,  has  been  defined 
"  a  passage,  i.  e.,  series  of  words,  develop- 
ed in  properly  connected  parts."  In  a 
stricter  sense,  a  period  is  a  sentence  so 
framed  that  the  grammatical  construc- 
tion will  not  admit  a  close,  and  the  mean- 
ing remains  suspended  until  the  end  of 
it.  A  sentence  in  which  the  sense  would 
permit  of  a  stop  before  its  completion  is, 
in  this  sense,  not  a  period.  The  Grreek 
and  Latin  languages  were  much  more 
periodic  than  most  modern  tongues;  that 
is,  they  admitted  of  the  construction  of 
sentences  so  that  a  single  grammatical 
connection  stioul  I  run  through  a  great 
series  of  worl-,  while  a  similar  series,  in 
a  modern  language,  would  be  so  arranged 
as  to  form  several  distinct  grammatical 
wholes. 

PERIOD  ICALS,  in  literature,  com- 
prise the  whole  of  those  publications 
which  appear  at  regular  intervals,  wheth- 
er devoted  to  general  information,  or  es- 
pecially intended  for  some  particular 
class  of  readers.  They  consequently  in- 
clude all  the  newspapers,  reviews,  and 
magazines,  as  well  as  such  works  on  sci- 
ence and  art  as  are  published  in  a  series 
of  volumes,  parts,  or  numbers;  and  while 
they  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  dif- 
fusion of  general  knowledge,  they  have 
done  much  towards  promoting  the  cause 
of  truth,  and  facilitating  the  progress  of 
science. 

PERIPATETICS,  the  followers  of 
Aristotle,  whose  doctrines  arc  distinguish- 
ed by  the  name  oi'  peripatetic  phi/o.-:op!ii/. 
lie  also  was  called  the  Peripatetic  because 
he  delivered  his  lectures  ival'cing  in  the 
Lyceum  at  Athens. 

PERIPU'RA.SLS,  or  PER'IPIIRASE, 
in  rhetoric,  circumlocution  ;  or  the  usa 
of  more  words  than  are  necessary  to  os- 
prcss  an  idea. 


4G4 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[per 


PERIPTEROUS,  in  architecture,  an 
opithet  for  a  place  encompassed  about 
with  enlutnns. 

PERISTYLE,  a  range  of  columns 
surrounding  anything,  as  the  cella  of  a 
temple,  or  any  place,  as  a  court  or  clois- 
ter. It  is  frequently  but  incorrectly  lim- 
ited in  signilication  to  a  range  of  columns 
surrounding  the  interior  of  a  place. 

PER'JURY,  in  law,  is  a  wilful  false 
oath  taken  in  a  court  of  justice,  by  a  wit- 
ness lawfully  required  to  depose  the 
truth  in  a  matter  of  some  consequence  to 
the  point  in  question.  A  false  oath  there- 
tore,  taken  before  no  court,  or  before  a 
court  incompetent  to  try  the  issue  in 
question,  does  not  constitute  the  offence 
of  perjury.  Perjury  is  a  misdemeanor  at 
common  law,  and  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment. — Subornation  of  'perjury 
is  the  offence  of  procuring  a  man  to  com- 
mit perjury. 

PER'MIT,  a  note  given  by  the  officers 
of  customs  to  authorize  the  landing,  deliv- 
ery or  transfer,  of  imported  merchandize. 

■PERORA'TION.  the  concluding  part 
of  an  oration,  in  which  the  speaker  re- 
capitulates the  principal  points  of  his  dis- 
course or  argument,  and  urges  them  with 
greater  earnestness  and  force,  with  a  view 
to  make  a  deep  impression  on  his  audience. 
The  main  e.xcellence  of  a  peroration  con- 
sists in  vehemence,  patho.s,  and  brevity. 

PERPETUITY,  in  the  doctrine  of 
Annuities,  is  the  sum  of  money  which  will 
purchase  a  certain  annuity  to  continue 
forever.  This  is  equal  to  the  product  of 
the  annuity  into  the  number  of  years  in 
which  the  simple  interest  of  any  sum  will 
equal  the  principal.  For  example,  if  the 
rate  of  interest  be  4  per  cent.,  the  simple 
interest  of  any  sum  will  amount  to  a  sum 
equal  to  the  princi|)al  in  twenty-five 
years.  The  value,  therefore,  of  the  per- 
petuity of  8100  per  annum  is  $2500. 
The  number  of  years  is  equal  to  unit  di- 
vided by  the  rate  of  interest,  or  100  divid- 
ed bv  the  rate  per  cent. 

!'EU.<EOU'TION,  the  infliction  of  pain, 
piitiisliincnt,  or  de.ith  upon  others  un- 
justly, more  especially  for  adiicring  to  a 
religious  creed  or  mo  le  of  worship.  The 
history  of  the  world  is  full  of  persecutions  ; 
and  there  is  scarcely  iiny  dominant  sect 
or  party,  religious  or  ])olitical,  wiiieh  has 
not  at  litnes  disgraced  humanity  by  in- 
flicting unjust  punishment  or  penalties 
upon  their  fellow-men,  for  adhering  to 
j)iiiiei|iles  which  their  ciiiiscieneos  dictated 
and  their  iiidgmeiit  ii|)|)i-()Vod. 

PEIl'Sl'^II.S,  son  of  .Jupiter,  and  D.mae, 
one  of  the  most  distin-.rui.^hed  heroes  of 


the  Grecian  mythology.  Ilis  history  is 
too  well-known  to  be  recapitulated  here. 
His  chief  e.tploit  was  the  conquest  of 
Medusa. 

PER.^EVE'RAXCE,  in  theology,  the 
continuance  of  the  elect  in  a  state  of 
grace  to  the  end  of  their  lives,  which,  ac- 
cording to  some  tiieologians,  mustalwaj-s 
be  the  case  with  him  who  has  once  been 
truly  called  into  such  a  state.  Since  God 
is  represented  as  the  image  of  perfection 
and  immutability  in  him;-elf,  so,  it  is  ar- 
gued, having  once  begun  the  preparation 
of  a  human  being  for  a  blessed  eternity, 
he  will  not  leave  his  work  unfinished ; 
but  the  person  concerned  must  necessarily 
persevere  to  the  end  in  a  state  of  accept- 
ance, under  the  absolute  decree  of  which 
he  wag  originally  elected  unto  life. 

PER'SOXAL,  in  Law,  belonging  to  the 
person  and  not  to  the  tiling ;  as  personal 
goods,  opposed  to  real  property  or  estates ; 
personal  action,  an  action  against  the 
person,  wherein  a  man  claims  satisfac- 
tion in  damages  for  an  injury  to  his  per- 
son or  property. — Personal  identity,  in 
metaph3'sics,  sameness  of  being,  of  which 
consciousness  is  the  evidence. 

PER'SONAL  PROP'ERTY,  according 
to  the  division  recognized  by  our  law,  is 
best  defined  negatively,  as  including 
everything  which  may  be  made  the  sub- 
ject of  property,  and  which  is  not  legally 
considered  as  appertaining  to  Land.  The 
original  distinction  was  undoubtedly  be- 
tween things  movable  and  immovable. 

PERSONIFICATION,  the  giving  to 
an  inanimate  object  the  sentiments  and 
language  of  a  rational  being  ;  or  the  rep- 
resentation of  an  inanimate  being  with 
the  affections  and  actions  of  a  person. 
The  more  the  imagination  ])revails  among 
a  people,  the  more  common  are  personifi- 
cations ;  and  as  reflection  acquires  the 
ascendancy  jiersonifications  are  less  used. 

PERSPECTIVE,  the  science  which 
teaches  the  representation  of  an  object  oi 
objects  on  a  definite  surface  so  as  to  affect 
the  eye  when  viewed  from  a  given  point, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  object  or  ob- 
jects themselves.  Correctly  defined,  a 
perspective  delineation  is  a  section,  by 
the  plane  or  other  surface,  on  which  the 
delineation  is  made,  of  the  cone  of  r.ays 
proceeding  from  every  part  of  the  object 
to  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  It  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  arts  of  design, 
and  is  indispensable  in  architecture,  en- 
gineering, fortification,  sculpture,  and 
generally  all  the  mechanical  arts  ;  but  it 
is  particularly  necessary  in  the  art  of 
painting,  as  without  a  correct  observance 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


465 


of  the  rules  of  perspective  no  picture  can 
have  truth  and  lit'p.     Per.<pective  alone 
enables  us   to  represent  foreshortenings 
with  accuracy,   and  it   is  requisite  in  de- 
lineating even  the  simplest  positions  of  ob- 
jects.    Sujipose  we  view  a  point  situated 
bej'ond  an  upright  transijarent  plane,  as 
a  glass  window,  the  spot  where  a  straight 
line  from  the  eye   to  this  point  will   go 
through  the    window   is    the  perspective 
representation  of  it :  for  the  eye  views  all 
objects  by  means   of  rays  of  light,  which 
proceed  from  it,  to   the  different   points 
of  the  object,  in  straight  lines.     Let  us 
then  imagine  a  spectator  to  be  looking 
at  a  prospect  without  doors,  from  witiiin, 
through   a  glass  window ;     he  will  per- 
ceive not  only  the  vast  extent  which  so 
small  an  aperture   will  admit  to  be  seen 
by  his  eye,  but  also  the  shape,  size,  and 
situation  of  every  object  upon  the  glass. 
If  the  objects  are  near  the   window,  the 
spaces  which  they  take  upon  the   glass 
will  be  proportionably  larger  than  when 
they  are  at  a  greater  distance  ;  if  they 
are  parallel  to   the   window,   then  their 
shapes    upon   the  glass  will  be   parallel 
also ;  but  if  they  are  oblique,  then  their 
shapes  will  be  oblique,  and  so   on.     And 
he  will  alwa^'s  perceive,  that  as  he  alters 
the  situation  of  his  eye,   the  situation  of 
the  objects  upon  the  window  will  be  altered 
also  :  if   he    raises  his  eye,  the    objects 
will  seem  to  keep  pace  with   it,   afid  rise 
higher  upon  the  window  ;  and  the  contrary 
if  he  lowers  it.  And  so  in  every  situation 
of  the  eye,  the  objects  upon  the   window 
will  seem  to  rise  higher  or  lower  ;  and  con- 
sequently the  depth  of  the  whole  prospect 
will  be  proportionably  greater  or  less,  as 
the  eye  is  elevated  or  depressed  :  and  the 
horizon    will,    in  every  situation   of  the 
eye,  be  upon  a  level  with  it  :  that  is,  the 
imaginary  line  which  parts  the  earth  and 
sky  will  seem  to  be   raised   as  far  above 
the    ground    upon    which    the    spectator 
stands  as  his  eye   is.     Now  suppose  the 
person  at  the  window,   keeping  his  head 
steady,  draws  the  figure  of  an  object  seen 
through  it  upon  the  glass  with  a  pencil,  as 
if  the  point  of  the  pencil  touched  the  ob- 
ject :  he  would  then  have  a  true  represen- 
tation of  the  object  in  perspective,  as  it  ap- 
pears to  his  eye  :  for  as  vision  is  occasion- 
ed by  pencils  of  rays  coming  in  straight 
lines  to  the  eye  from  every  point  of  the 
visible   object,   it  is  plain  that,   by  join- 
ing the  points   in  the   transparent  plane 
through  which  all   those  pencils  of  rays 
respectively  pass,  an  exact  representation 
must  bo  formed  of  the  object,   as   it  ap- 
pears to  the  eye   in  that  particular  posi- 
30 


tion,  and  at  that  determined  distance. 
Ami  were  pictures  of  things  to  bo  always 
first  drawn  on  transparent  planes,  this 
simple  operation,  with  the  principle  on 
which  it  is  founded,  would  comprise  the 
whole  theory  and  practice  of  perspective. 
Perspective  is  divided  into  two  branches, 
linear  and  airial.  Linear  perspective 
has  reference  to  the  position,  form,  mag- 
nitude, &o.  of  the  several  lines  or  eon- 
tours  of  objects,  &c.  The  outlines  of  such 
objects  as  buildings,  machinery,  and  most 
works  of  human  labor  which  consist  of 
geometrical  forms,  or  whiih  can  be  re- 
duced to  them,  may  be  most  accurately  ob- 
tained by  the  rules  of  linear  pbrspective, 
since  the  intersection  with  an  interposed 
plane  of  the  rays  of  light  proceeding 
from  every  point  of  such  objects  may  be 
obtained  by   the  principles  of  geometrj. 


Oblique  perspeolire. 


Parallel  perspective. 


Linear  perspective  includes  the  various 
kinds  of  projection ;  as  scenographic, 
orthographic,  ichnographic,  stereograph- 
ic  projections,  &c. — Aerial  perspective 
teaches  how  to  give  due  diminution  to 
the  strength  of  light,  shade,  and  colors 
of  objects  according  to  their  distances, 
and  the  quantity  of  light  falling  on  them, 
and  to  the  medium  through  which  they 
are  seen. — Perspective  plane,  the  surface 
on  which  the  object  or  picture  is  delinea- 
ted, or  it  is  the  transparent  surface  or  plane 
through  which  we  suppose  objects  to  be 
viewed  ;  it  also  termed  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection, and  the  plane  of  the  picture. — 
Farallel  perspective  is  where  the  picture 
which  is  supposed  to  be  so  situated,  as  to 
be  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  principal 
object  in  the  picture  ;  as  a  building,  for 
instance. —  Oblique  perspective,  is  when 
the  plane  of  the  picture  is  supposed  to 
stand  oblique  to  the  sides  of  the  object 
represented  ;  in  which  case  the  represen- 
tations of  the  lines  upon  those  sides  will 
not  be  parallel  among  themselves,  but 
will  tend  toward  their  vanishing  point. 
— Isonictrical  perspective,  a  kind  of  per- 


466 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF     LITEUATrHR 


[ruA 


spective  on  the  principles  of  orthographic 
projeotion  invented  by  Professor  Parish 
of  Catnbriili;e,  by  which  soliils,  of  the  form 
of  reetanj^ular  parallcinpipeils,  or  such 
as  are  reilucible  to  tliis  form,  can  be 
represented  with  their  three  pair  of 
planes  in  one  figure,  which  gives  a  more 
intelligible  idea  of  their  form  than  can 
be  done  by  a  separate  plan  and  elevation. 
At  the  same  time,  this  method  admits  of 
their  dimensions  being  measured  by  a 
scale  as  directly  as  by  the  usual  mode  of 
delineation.  As  applieil  to  machinery,  it 
gives  the  elevation  and  ground  plan  in 
one  view.     It  is  considered  for  such  pur- 


poses, to  be  preferable  to  the  methods 
in  common  use,  as  it  is  easier  and  simpler 
in  its  af)plication. 

PE.S'T[LENCE,  any  contagious  or  in- 
fectious disease  that  is  epidemic  and  mor- 
ti'l- — It  is  also  used  to  denote  any  moral 
disease  or  corruption  destructive  of  hap- 
piness. 

rET'ALISM,  in  antiquity,  a  form  of 
pro.scription  or  banishment  practised  at 
Syracuse,  by  writing  the  person's  name 
on  a  leaf;  whence  the  name.  It  differed 
from  the  Athenian  ostracism  merely  in 
being  for  five  years  in.stead  of  ten,  and 
the  name  being  written  on  leaves  instead 
of  shells  or  tiles. 

PETARD,  in  fortification,  a  hollow 
engine  shapcil  like  a  sugar-loaf,  to  be 
loaded  with  j)owder  and  fi.xed  on  a  plank  ; 
made  for  breaking  open  gates,  draw- 
bridges. &c. 

PET' ASUS,  in  antiquity,  a  covering 
for  the  head,  similar  to  a  broad-brimmed 
hat,  used  to  keep  off  the  heat  of  the  sun. — 
In  architecture,  the  cajjola  .-?  a  house,  in 
the  form  of  a  podisus. 

PKT.'M'KIS'T.E,  in  antiipiity,  a  name 
given  to  certain  athletji-,  who  threw  them- 
aelvos  from  a  machine  called  a  /nidiiniin, 


which  was  hung  high  in  the  air,  and  de- 
scended to  the  earth  by  means  of  a  rope. 
PETEK-PKNCE,  the  popular  name 
of  an  iinpiist.  otherwise  teruR-il  '•  the  fee 
of  Rome,"  or,  in  the  Anglo-Saxim, 
"  Romescot :"  originally  a  voluntary 
offering  by  the  faithful  to  the  see  ot 
Rome  ;  afterwards  a  due  levied  in  various 
amounts  from  every  house  or  family  in 
a  country.  Peter-pence  were  paid  in 
France,  Poland,  and  other  realms.  In 
England  this  tax  is  recognized  by  the 
Norman  laws  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
Edward  III.  discontinued  the  paymiMit 
when  the  popes  resided  at  Avignon  ;  but 
it  was  afterwards  revived,  and  finally 
ceased  in  the  reign  of  llenrj'  VIII. 

PETIT,  or  PETTY.  The  former  wo'-d 
occurs  in  our  law  books  in  such  phrases 
as  pelit  junj,  petit  treason,  petit  larceiiif, 
SfC. ;  but  the  practice  is  giving  way  to  the 
use  of  the  English  petty. —  Petit  treason, 
the  crime  of  killing  a  person  to  whom  the 
offender  owes  duty  or  subjection.  Thus 
the  crime  of  murder,  when  a  wife  kills 
her  husband,  or  a  servant  his  master,  has 
this  appellation. —  Petit  larceni/,  the 
stealing  of  goods  of  the  value  of  twelve 
pence,  or  under  that  amount. — Fetil 
jury,  a  jury  of  twelve  freeholders  who 
are  empanelled  to  try  causes  in  a  court  ; 
so  calleil  in  distinction  from  the  grand 
jury,  which  tries  the  truth  of  indictments. 
PETI'TION,  a  formal  supplication  or 
request  made  by  an  inferior  to  a  superior, 
especially  to  one  havingsome  jurisdiction 
Also,  a  paper  containing  a  supplication 
or  solicitation. 

PETITK)  PRINCIP'II,  in  logic,  the 
taking  a  thing  for  true,  and  drawing  con- 
clusions from  it  as  such  ;  when  if  is  either 
false,  or  at  least  requires  to  be  proved 
before  any  inferences  can  be  deduced 
from  it.  In  common  parlance  this  is 
called  "  begging  the  question." 

PIIA'ETON,  in  mythology,  the  son  of 
Apollo  anil  Clymenes,  one  of  the  Oceani- 
des,  accor(ling  to  most  writers.  The  fable 
of  his  adventures  is  well  known.  Taunted 
with  his  doubtful  origin,  he  asked  his  fa- 
ther to  lend  him  the  chariot  of  tli(-  sun 
for  a  day,  as  a  proof  of  his  filial  rights. 
Unable  to  guide  the  fiery  steeds,  he  was 
dashed  to  the  ground  by  Jupiter  with  » 
thunderbolt,  to  prevent  his  consuming 
the  heavens  .and  earth 

PIIALAXSTE'RIANISM,  the  sy.stem 
of  Charles  Fourier,  the  French  socialist; 
who,  as  a  reine<ly  for  the  evils  of  society, 
as  at  present  constituted,  advocated  its 
reorganization  into  so  many  plialayiste- 
rics.   containing  each  from   BOO  to   '2000 


phi] 


AM     iriK     FINK    ARTS. 


467 


persons,  upon  principles  similar  to  those 
of  joint-stock  companies  ;  the  members  to 
live  in  one  spacious  eilifice,  cultivating  a 
common  domain ;  the  proceeds  to  be 
shared  according  to  the  amount  of  capi- 
tal, skill,  or  labor  invested  by  each. 

PIIA'LANX,  in  the  military  affairs  of 
Greece,  a  square  and  compact  battalion 
or  body  of  soldiers,  formed  in  ranks  and 
files  compact  and  deep,  with  their  shields 
joined  and  pikes  cro.-^sing  each  other,  so  as 
to  render  it  almost  impossible  to  break  it. 
At  first  the  phalan.x  consisted  of  4000 
men,  but  was  afterwards  doubled  and 
even  quadrupled.  The  jNIacedonian  pha- 
lanx is  thus  described  by  Polj'bius.  It 
was  a  square  of  pikemen,  consisting  of 
sixteen  in  flank  and  five  hundred  in  front ; 
the  soldiers  stood  so  close  together  that 
the  pikes  of  the  fifth  rank  extended  three 
feet  beyond  the  front :  the  rest,  whose 
pikes  were  not  serviceable  owing  to  their 
distance  from  the  front,  couched  them 
upon  the  shoulders  of  those  that  stood 
before  them,  and  so  locking  them  toge- 
ther in  file,  pressed  forward  to  support 
and  push  on  the  former  rank,  by  which 
means  the  assault  was  rendered  more  vio- 
lent and  irresistible. — -The  word  phalanx 
is  likewise  used  for  any  combination  of 
people  distinguished  for  firmness  or  so- 
lidity of  union. 

PilAR'ISEE.?,  asect  among  the  Jews, 
who  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
zeal  for  the  traditions  of  the  elders,  which 
they  derived  from  the  same  fountain  with 
the  written  word  itself,  pretending  that 
both  were  delivered  to  Moses  on  Mount 
Sinai,  and  were  therefore  both  of  equal 
authority.  From  their  rigorous  observ- 
ance of  these  traditions  they  considered 
themselves  as  more  holy  than  other  Jews, 
and  therefore  separated  themselves  from 
them  ;  and  hence,  from  the  Hebrew  word 
pharis,  which  signifies  to  separate,  they 
had  the  name  o(  pkarisees  ov  separatists. 
The  Pharisees  numbered  in  their  ranks 
the  must  distinguished  lawyers  and  states- 
men in  Judrea ;  and  as  persons  of  all 
conditions  were  admitted  into  their  socie- 
ty, they  gained  a  political  influence  which 
often  decided  the  fate  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion under  the  Maccabees,  and  brought 
into  their  hands  the  power  which  had 
been  left  to  the  great  council  by  the  Ro- 
m.ans  in  the  time  of  Christ.  They  be- 
lieved in  a  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
and  the  existence  of  angels  ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  their  belief  extended  to 
\io  more  than  a  Pyth.agorenn  resurrec- 
tion, that  is,  of  the  soul  only,  by  its  trans- 
>nigration  into  another  bod}'  and  being 


born  anew  with  it.  From  this  resurrec- 
tion they  excluded  all  who  were  notorious- 
ly wicked,  being  of  opinion  that  the  souls 
of  such  persons  were  doomud  to  a  state 
of  everlasting  woe. 

PHA'KOS,  a  light-house  or  lofty  build- 
ing near  the  sea,  where  a  fire  is  kept 
burning  during  the  night  to  serve  as  a 
beacon  to  vessels.  The  Pharos  of  Alex- 
andria, built  in  the  reign  of  Pharos,  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  anti- 
quity, and  from  this  circumstance  the 
name  is  supposed  to  have  been  given  to 
edifices  of  a  similar  description.  Tho 
tower  of  king  Pharos  stood  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Nile  ;  it  consisted  of  several  stories 
or  galleries,  surmounted  with  a  lantern, 
and  was  seen  for  many  leagues  at  sea,  as 
well  as  all  along  the  coast. 

PIIELLOPLA.S'TICS,  the  art  of  repre- 
senting works  of  architecture  on  a  re- 
duced scale  in  cork,  which  afl'ords  very 
fine  models,  and  are  cheaper  than  those 
in  wood,  stone,  gypsum,  &c. 

PlIIDI'TIA.  in  antiquity,  Lacedemo- 
nian festivals,  remarkable  for  the  fru- 
gality of  the  entertainment,  and  the  char- 
itable intention  of  tho  meeting.  They 
were  held  in  public  places,  and  in  tho 
open  air.  Those  who  attended  made  con- 
tributions of  flour,  wine,  cheese,  and  figs. 
Rich  anil  poor  assisted  alike  at  this  feast, 
and  were  upon  the  same  footing ;  the  de- 
sign of  the  institution  being,  like  that  of 
the  Roman  Charistia,  to  reconcile  differ- 
ences, and  to  cultivate  peace,  friendship, 
and  a  good  understanding  among  all  the 
citizens,  of  every  rank  and  degree. 

PHIGA'LIAk  xMARBLES,  (so  called 
from  having  been  discovered  near  the 
site  of  Phigalia,  a  town  of  Arcadia,)  tho 
name  given  to  a  series  of  sculptures  in 
alto  relievo,  now  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum,  where  they  form  part  of  the 
collection  known  by  the  name  of  the  El- 
gin. Marbles.  They  originally  formed 
the  fringe  round  the  interior  of  the  cella 
of  tho  temple  dedicated  to  Apollo  the  De- 
liverer ;  a  title  conferred  on  him  by  the 
Phigalians  in  gratitude  for  his  having 
delivered  them  from  a  pestilence.  They 
represent  the  combat  of  the  Centaurs  and 
the  Lapithi«,  and  that  of  the  Greeks  and 
Amazons.  The  similarity,  both  in  design 
and  execution,  which  they  bear  to  the 
decorations  on  the  Parthenon  leaves  no 
doubt  that  they  arc  the  workmanship  of 
the  sanie  master  minds  which  designed, 
constructed,  and  adorned  that  splendid 
monnmont  of  the  golden  age  of  art. 

PHILANTIIUOPINISM,  a  name  given 
in  Germany  to  the  system  of  education 


468 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEUATL'RE 


[rin 


on  natural  principle?,  as  it  is  termed, 
which  was  promoted  by  Basedow  and  his 
friends  in  the  last  century,  and  mainly 
founded  on  the  notions  of  Locke  and  Rous- 
seau. An  in.^titution  for  the  purposes  »f 
education  founded  under  the  protection 
of  the  Duke  of  Dossau,  in  1774,  was  the 
first  so  called  "  Philanthropin  ''  It  was 
dissolved  in  1793;  and  of  the  similar  in- 
stitutions afterwards  founded,  only  one, 
it  is  said,  has  continued  to  maintain  it- 
self. But  the  influence  of  the  labors  of 
the  Philanthropinists  has  undoubtedly 
entered  largely  into  the  modern  system 
of  education. 

PHILAN'THROPY,  good-will  and  be- 
nevolence towards  the  whole  of  mankind. 
It  differs  from^riendship,  inasmuch  as  it 
has  no  limits  to  its  sphere  of  action, 
whereas  friendship  may  be  confined  to  an 
individual;  but  a  true  philanthrupist  so 
loves  his  fellow-men  that  he  is  continually 
exerting  himself  for  their  welfare. 

PHILIP  PIC,  a  word  used  to  denote 
any  discourse  or  declamation  full  of  acri- 
monious invective.  It  is  derived  from  an 
oration  made  by  Demosthenes  against 
Philip  of  Macedon,  in  which  the  orator 
inveighs  against  the  indolence  of  the 
Athenians.  The  fourteen  orations  of 
Cicero  against  Mark  Antony  are  also 
called  philippics. 

PIIILOL'OGY,  in  its  usual  acceptation, 
is  that  branch  of  literature  which  compre- 
hends a  knowledge  of  the  etymology  or 
origin  and  combination  of  words,  and 
whatever  relates  to  the  history,  affinity, 
and  present  state  of  languages.  In  a 
wider  sense  it  signifies  an  assemblage  of 
sciences,  consisting  of  grammar,  rhetoric, 
poetry,  antiquities,  history,  criticism,  Ac, 
usually  understood  by  the  French  term 
belles  lettres.  Of  late  j-ears,  however,  a 
new  and  very  extensive  province  has  been 
added  to  the  dominion  of  philology ; 
namely,  the  science  of  language  in  a  more 
general  sense,  considered  philosophically 
with  respect  to  the  light  it  throws  on  the 
nature  of  human  intellect  and  progress 
of  human  knowledge;  and  historically, 
with  reference  to  the  connection  between 
different  tongues,  and  the  connection 
thus  indicated  between  different  nations 
and  races.  Some  attempts  have  recently 
made  to  confine  the  use  of  the  word  phi- 
lology to  this  particular  branch  of  learn- 
ing. It  comi)rehenils,  1.  /'Iioiioloi^i/,  or 
the  knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the  iiu- 
inan  voice  ;  whi''h  appears  to  include  or- 
thography, or  the  system  to  be  adopted 
when  we  endeavor  to  render,  by  our  own 
alphabet,   the   sound.s  of  a  foreign    lan- 


guage; 2.  Etymology ;  3.  Ideology,  or  the 
science  of  the  mollification  of  language 
by  grammatical  forms,  according  to  the 
various  points  of  view  from  which  men 
contemplate  the  ideas  which  words  are 
meant  to  express. 

PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE,  a  stone 
or  preparation  which  the  alchymists 
formerly  sought,  as  the  instrument  of 
converting  the  baser  metals  into  pure 
gold.  The  alchymists  held  that  the  baser 
metals  were  all  convertible  into  silver 
and  gold  by  a  long  series  of  processes, 
and  the  instrument  by  which  it  was  sup- 
posed that  this  mighty  change  was  to  bo 
effected,  was  a  certain  mineral  to  be  pro- 
duced by  these  processes,  which  being 
mixed  with  the  base  metal  would  trans- 
mute it,  and  this  was  called  the  philoso- 
pher's stone. 

PHILOSOPHY,  literally,  the  love  of 
wisdom.  But  in  modern  accepfatioii, 
philosophy  is  a  general  term  denoting  an 
explanation  of  the  reasons  of  things  ;  or 
an  investigation  of  the  causes  of  all  phe- 
nomena both  of  mind  and  of  matter. 
When  applied  to  any  particular  depart- 
ment of  knowledge,  it  denotes  the  collec- 
tion of  general  laws  or  principles  under 
which  all  the  subordinate  phenomena  or 
facts  relating  to  that  subject,  are  compre- 
hended. Thus,  that  branch  of  philoso/>hy 
which  treats  of  God,  itc,  is  called  the- 
ology;  that  which  treats  of  nature  is 
called  physics,  or  natural  philosophy  ; 
that  which  treats  of  man  is  called  logic 
and  ethics,  or  moral  philosophy  ;  that 
which  treats  of  the  mind  is  called  intel- 
lectual or  mental  pliilo.tojihy,  or  meta- 
physics. The  term  philusopliy  is  often 
used,  apparently  with  no  great  precision, 
though  it  is  not  iliflicult  to  deduce  from 
the  use  of  this  term  the  general  meaning 
or  notion  which  is  attached  to  it.  We 
speak  of  the  philosophy  of  the  human 
mind  as  being  of  all  philosophies  that  to 
which  the  name  philosophy  is  [)arficularly 
appropriated  ;  and  when  the  terra  philos- 
ophy is  used  absolutely,  this  seems  to  be 
the  philosophy  that  is  spoken  of.  Other 
philosophies  are  referred  to  their  several 
objects  by  qualifying  terms  :  thus  wo 
speak  of  natural  philoso])hy,  meaning 
thereby  the  philosophy  of  nature,  or  of 
material  objects.  Wo  also  speak  of  the 
philosophy  of  positive  law,  understanding 
thereby  the  pliilosophy  of  those  binding 
rules,  properly  called  laws.  The  terras 
philosophy  of  history,  philosophy  of  man- 
ufactures, and  other  such  terms  are  also 
used.  All  objects  then  which  can  occupy 
the  mind  may  have  something  in  common, 


PHI 


AND    THE     FINK     AIM'S. 


4G0 


called  their  philosophy;  which  philos- 
ophy is  nothing  else  than  the  general 
expression  for  that  effort  of  the  mind 
whereby  it  strives,  pursuant  to  its  laws, 
to  reduce  its  knowledge  to  tlie  form  of  ul- 
timate truths  or  principles,  and  to  deter- 
mine the  immutable  relations  which 
exist  between  things  as  it  conceives  them. 
The  philosophy  which  comprises  within 
itself  all  philosophies  is  that  which  labors 
to  determine  the  laws  or  ultimate  prin- 
ciples in  obedience  to  which  the  mind 
itself  operates.  Thus,  every  kind  of 
knowledge,  the  objects  of  which  are  things 
external,  has  its  philosophy  or  principles, 
which,  when  discovered  and  systematized, 
form  the  science  of  the  things  to  which 
they  severally  belong.  But  we  must  as- 
sume that  the  mind  also  has  its  laws  and 
powers  which  may  be  discovered  by  ob- 
servation, as  we  discover  by  observation 
the  laws  or  principles  which  govern  the 
relations  of  things  external  to  the  mind, 
or  conceived  as  external.  Accordingly 
the  human  mind,  by  the  necessity  im- 
printed on  it,  seeks  to  discover  the  ulti- 
mate foundation  of  all  that  it  knows  or 
conceives  ;  to  discover  what  itself  is,  and 
what  is  its  relation  to  all  things,  and  so  it 
strives  to  form  a  system  out  of  all  such 
altimate  laws  or  principles.  Such  a  sys- 
tem may  be  called  a  philosophy  in  the 
proper  and  absolute  sense  of  the  term,  and 
the  attempt  to  form  such  a  system  is  to 
philosophize.  .  Systems  of  philosophy 
have  existed  in  all  nations.  The  objects 
of  philosophy  <are  to  ascertain  facts  or 
truth,  and  the  causes  of  things  or  their 
phenomena ;  to  enlarge  our  views  of 
God  and  his  works,  and  to  render  our 
knowledge  of  both  practically  useful  and 
subservient  to  human  happiness — Fr/t/ia- 
gureaii  philosoplnj,  the  system  taught  by 
Pythngoras,  who  flourished  500  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  lie  described  the 
Deity  as  one  incorruptible,  invisible  being; 
and  differed  from  some  of  the  ancients,  as 
Epicurus,  in  conceiving  a  cornection  be- 
tween God  and  man  ;  that  is,  in  teaching 
the  doctrine  of  a  superintending  provi- 
dence. He  asserteil  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  ;  but  in  a  sense  essentially  peculiar, 
and  which  appears  to  have  been  adopted 
by  Plato,  as  it  is  in  part  at  this  day  by  the 
Hindoos.  In  the  cosmogony  of  Pythago- 
ras, spirit,  however  diffused  through  all 
animals,  was  part  of  the  Divinity  himself, 
separated  only  by  the  gross  forms  of  mat- 
ter, and  ready,  whenever  disengaged,  to 
unite  itself  with  the  kindred  essence  of 
God;  but  God  was  only  purity  ;  and  the 
.•nind  recoiled  from  the  idea  of  uniting  with 


him  a  portion  of  spirit  soiled  with  the  cor- 
ruption of  a  sinful  life.  The  soul,  there- 
fore, once  tainted,  could  never  return  to 
the  Deity  whence  it  emanated,  till  it  had 
again  recovered  its  innocence.  After  hav- 
ing animated  a  human  body  by  which 
crimes  had  been  committed,  it  was  denied 
the  great  object  of  its  desire,  a  union  with 
its  God,  and  forced  to  enter  into  other 
bodies,  till  at  length  it  filled  a  righteous 
one.  To  this  theory  was  added  another, 
by  means  of  which  punishments,  propor- 
tioned to  its  offences,  were  awarded  :  ac- 
cording to  this,  the  soul  of  a  negro-driver 
would  pass  into  the  body  of  an  infant  ne- 
gro; and  that  which  in  one  e.vistence 
plied  the  whip,  in  the  other  would  receive 
the  lash  :  the  soul  of  the  wicked  would 
occupy  the  body  of  some  animal  exposeil 
to  suffering;  and  that  of  a  being  of  few 
foibles  undergo  a  sentence  proportionably 
mild. — Such  is  the  doctrine  of  the  me- 
tempsychosis or  transmigration  of  souls, 
a  leadiiig  feature  in  the  Pythagorean 
sj'stem.  —  Socratic  philosophy,  or  the 
doctrines  of  Socrates,  who  flourisheil  at 
Athens  about  400  years  b.c,  and  died  a 
martyr  in  the  cause  of  natural  religion 
against  paganism.  He  is  said  to  have 
opened  the  career  of  moral  philosophy  in 
Greece,  where  he  preceded  Plato,  from 
the  writings  of  which  latter  the  philoso- 
phy of  Socrates  is  chiefly  known,  for  he 
wrote  nothing  himself.  While  other  phi- 
losophers boasted  of  their  knowledge,  lie 
laid  the  greatest  stress  upon  his  igno- 
rance, asserting  that  he  knew  nothing 
but  this,  that  he  knew  nothing.  Socrates 
led  men  from  the  contemplation  of  uni- 
versal nature  to  that  of  themselves;  a 
branch  of  philosophy  which  was  inculcat 
ed  in  that  famous  inscription.  Know  thy- 
self. The  Socratic  method  of  argument 
was  that  of  leading  an  antagonist  to  ac- 
knowledge a  proposition  himself,  by  dint 
of  repeated  questions,  in  preference  to 
that  of  laying  it  down  authoritatively. — 
Platonic  philosophy,  a  system  of  theology 
and  morals,  delivered  by  Plato  about  'J.'SO 
years  b.c.  Plato,  it  is  said,  labored  to  re- 
establish natural  religion  by  opposing  pa- 
ganism. The  existence  of  the  one  God 
was  zealously  inculcated  bj'  him ;  and 
also  the  immortality  of  the  soulj  the  res- 
urrection of  the  dead,  the  everlasting 
reward  of  righteousness,  and  punishment 
of  sin.  It  w.Ts  Plato,  too,  who  taught 
that  the  world  was  created  by  the  Los^ds 
or  Word;  and  that  through  knowledge 
of  the  word  men  live  happily  on  earth 
and  obtain  eternal  felicity  hereafter. 
From   him,   also,  came   the  doctrine  of 


470 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LI  lERATLTiE 


[pni 


grace,  and  the  inducements  to  monastic 
life ;  for  he  pressed  upon  his  disciples 
that  the  world  is  filled  witli  corruption; 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  rightemis  to  fly 
from  it  and  to  seek  a  union  with  (iod, 
who  alone  is  life  and  health;  that  in  the 
world  the  soul  is  continually  surrounded 
with  enemies:  and  that,  in  the  unceasing 
combat  through  which  it  has  to  struggle, 
it  can  conquer  only  with  the  assistance 
of  Goil  or  of  his  holy  angels.  "  A  happy 
immortality,"  said  Plato,  "is  a  great 
prize  set  before  us,  and  a  great  object  of 
hope,  which  should  engage  us  to  labor  in 
the  acquirement  of  wisdom  and  virtue 
all  the  time  of  our  life."  In  morals,  he 
taught  that  there  is  nothing  solid  and 
substantial  but  piety,  which  is  the  source 
of  all  virtues  and  the  gift  of  God  ;  that 
the  love  of  our  neighbor,  which  proceeds 
from  the  love  of  God  as  its  principle, 
produces  that  sacred  union  which  makes 
families  and  nations  happy;  that  self- 
love  produces  that  discord  and  division 
which  reigns  among  mankind,  and  is  the 
chief  cause  of  our  sins:  that  it  is  better 
to  suffer  wrong  than  to  do  it;  that  it  is 
wrong  to  hurt  an  enemy  or  to  revenge 
an  injury  received;  that  it  is  better  to 
die  than  to  sin;  and  that  ninn  ought 
continually  to  learn  to  die,  and  yet  to  en- 
dure life  with  all  patience  and  submis- 
sion to  the  will  of  God — Tho  AristoCdiari 
phUusopky,  which  succeeded  the  Platonic, 
is  characterized  by  a  systematic  striving 
to  embrace  all  the  objects  of  philosopliy 
by  cool  and  patient  reflection. — The  Epi- 
curiun  philosoplnj.  or  the  system  of  Epi- 
curus, an  Athenian.  This  teacher  laid 
down,  as  the  basis  of  his  doctrine,  that 
the  supreme  good  consists  in  pleasure  ; 
a  proposition  that  soon  suffered  a  two- 
fold abuse.  On  the  one  hand,  by  mis- 
construction, it  was  regarded  as  a  bare- 
faced inculcation  of  sensuality;  on  the 
other,  adopted  by  the  luxurious,  the  in- 
dolent, and  the  licentious,  as  a  cloak  and 
authority  for  their  conduct;  and  hence  it 
has  happened  that  tlio  name  P]picurean 
is  now  used  in  an  absolute  sense  to  desig- 
nate one  minutely  and  luxuriously  at- 
tentive to  his  food.  Epicurus  is  reported 
to  have  written  three  huiidret]  l)ooks,  but 
of  these  none  arc  extant  ;  and  the  partic- 
ulars of  his  philosophy,  which  have  come 
down  to  posterity,  are  chiefly  found  in 
the  writings  of  Ijucretius,  Diogenes,  La- 
ertius,  and  Cicero.  Mis  system,  for  which 
he  is  .said  to  have  been  almost  wholly 
indebted  to  Democritus,  consisteil  of  three 
parts:  canonical,  physical,  and  ethurial. 
Soundness  and  simplicity'  of  sense,  assist- 


ed with  some  natural  reflections,  consti- 
tuted all  the  method  of  Epicurus,  ilis 
search  after  truth  proceeded  only  by  the 
senses,  to  the  evidence  of  which  he  gave 
so  great  a  certainty  that  he  consiaereJ 
them  as  the  first  natural  liglit  of  man- 
kind. It  is  in  the  meanings  allowei  to 
the  words  pleasure  and  pain  that  every- 
thing which  is  important  in  the  moral.< 
and  doubtful  in  the  history  of  the  Epicu- 
rean system  is  cont.ained.  According  to 
Gassendus,  the  pleasure  of  Epicurus  con- 
sisted in  the  highest  tranquillity  of  min  i, 
united  with  the  most  perfect  health  of 
body  ;  blessings  enjoyed  only  throiigli  the 
habits  of  rectitude,  bencvoleMco,  and  tem- 
perance ;  but  Cicero.  Horace,  Plutarch, 
and  several  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian 
church  represent  the  system  in  a  ve'-y  dif 
ferent  point  of  vicu-.  The  disagreement, 
however,  is  easily  reconciled,  if  we  believe 
one  side  to  speak  of  what  E|)icurus  taught, 
and  the  other  of  what  m.iuy  of  his  fv. {low- 
ers, and  still  more  of  those  who  took  sLel- 
ter  under  his  name,  were  accustomed  to 
practise — To  the  foregoing  we  must  add 
the  Stoic  pliiloso/ilnj,  or  the  doctrines  of 
Zeno  the  stoic,  whose  morality  was  of  a 
magnanimous  and  unyielding  kind,  form- 
ed to  resist  toniptali(m  to  evil,  and  to 
render  men  callous  to  adversity  :  thus 
they  maintained,  among  other  things, 
that  a  man  might  be  happy  in  the  midst 
of  the  severest  tortures  ; — the  Cynic  phi- 
losopliy, the  followers  of  whijh  affected  a 
great  contempt  of  riclics  and  of  all  scien- 
ces except  morality  ; — and  the  Skeptical 
philosophy,  under  Pyrrho,  who  affected  to 
doubt  everything. — In  glancing  at  the 
history  of  philosophy,  the  student  has 
abundant  ojjportunities  of  observing  its 
gradual  development  as  a  science,  and 
tracing  the  progress  and  aberrations  of  the 
human  mind — in  themselves  subjects  most 
important  and  instructive.  Departing 
from,  or  only  partially  retaining,  the  con- 
flicting dogmas  of  the  (Jreek  and  Roman 
l)hilosophers,  we  find  the  scholastics  of 
the  middle  ages  engaged  in  a  struggle  for 
the  attainment  of  intellectual  excellence, 
under  the  influence  of  principles  derived 
from  the  ('hrislian  faith  and  doctrine  ;  yet 
the  progress  of  philosophic  truths  was  for 
a  long  time  feeble,  irregular,  and  vacillat- 
ing. During  the  15th  century,  there  arcso 
a  freer  and  more  independent  spirit  of 
inquirj',  penetrating  deeper  into  ultimate 
causes  ;  till  at  length,  the  cool  and  search- 
ing energy  of  IJacon  enabled  him  to  pro- 
duce his  yorum.  OriSanHin.  and  to  give  a 
more  substantial  basis  to  the  elforts  of  the 
intellect,  by  making  observation  and  ex- 


rnoj 


AM)    KIK     PINE     ARTS. 


471 


perience  tho  predominant  character  of 
philosophy.  Some  there  were,  however, 
who  disputed  his  laws,  and  hence  new 
theories  occasionally  obtained  a  tempora- 
ry distinction ;  but  his  doctrines,  in  a 
great  measure,  ultimately  prevailed  ;  and, 
at  no  distant  period,  the  calm  reasoning 
of  Locke  introduced  into  the  study  of  the 
human  mind  the  method  of  investigation 
which  his  great  predecessor  had  pointed 
out.  The  subject,  however,  presents  so 
wide  and  tempting  a  field  for  observation, 
that  we  dare  not  venture  on  it,  lest,  by 
unduly  extending  one  article,  we  may  be 
compelled  to  curtail  others  which  equally 
demand  our  attention  ;  and  enough,  per- 
haps, has  been  already  said  to  direct  the 
inquiring  mind  towards  a  study  which,'  as 
it  were,  embraces  all  nature  in  its  mighty 
grasp. 

l'n(E'XIX,  in  fabulous  history,  a  won- 
derful bird  which  the  ancients  describe  as 
of  the  size  of  an  eagle  ;  its  head  finely 
crested  with  a  beautiful  plumage,  its 
neck  covered  with  feathers  of  a  gold  color  ; 
its  tail  white,  and  its  body  purple.  By 
some  authors  this  bird  is  said  to  come 
from  Arabia  to  Egypt  every  five  hundred 
years,  at  the  death  of  his  parent  bringing 
the  bod}'  with  him,  embalmed  in  myrrh, 
to  the  temple  of  the  sun,  where  he  buries 
it.  According  to  others,  when  he  finds 
himself  near  his  end,  he  prepares  a  nest 
of  myrrh  and  precious  herbs,  in  which  he 
burns  himself;  but  from  his  ashes  he  re- 
vives in  the  freshness  of  youth.  The 
several  eras  when  the  phoenix  has  been 
seen  are  fixed  by  tradition.  The  first,  we 
are  tcdd,  was  in  the  reign  of  Sesostris  ;  the 
second  in  that  of  Amasis  ;  and  in  the  pe- 
riod when  Ptolemy,  the  third  of  the  Ma- 
cedonian race,  was  seated  on  the  throne 
of  Egypt,  another  phnenix  directed  its 
flight  towards  fleliopolis.  From  late  my- 
thological researches,  it  is  conjectured 
that  the  phoenix  is  <a  symbol  of  a  period 
of  ."jOO  j'ears,  of  which  the  conclusion  was 
celebrated  by  a  solemn  sacrifice,  in  which 
the  figure  of  a  bird  was  burnt. 

PIIONET'IC  WRITING,  that  writing 
in  which  the  signs  used  represent  sounds  ; 
in  opposition  to  ideographic,  in  which 
they  represent  objects,  or  symbolically 
denote  abstract  ideas,  as  in  the  figurative 
part  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  The 
signs  representing  sounds  are  usually  ar- 
bitrarj',  or  at  least  have  become  so  in 
process  of  time;  as  in  the  ancient  Roman 
alphabet,  of  which  the  letters  are  for  the 
most  part  derived  from  the  Hebrew  or 
Phoenician,  in  which  languages  they  may 
have  originally  partaken  of  a  symbolical 


chivractcr.  But,  in  a  species  of  phonetic 
writing  which  is  intermixed  with  the 
figurative  hieroglyphics  in  Egyptian  in- 
scriptions, every  letter  is  denoted  by  a 
figure  representing  some  object,  the  name 
of  which  begins  with  that  letter. 

PIIONOL'OGY,  the  science  or  doctrine 
of  the  elementary  sounds  uttered  by  the 
human  voice,  including  its  various  de- 
grees of  intonation. 

PHOTOGENIC  DRAAV'ING,  the  name 
given  by  Mr.  H.  F.  Talbot,  the  inventor  or 
discoverer  of  it,  to  a  "  new  art,"  which, 
though  not  identical,  is  very  simifar  to 
that  of  M.  Daguerre.  The  outline  of  'he 
process  is  as  follows  :  A  piece  of  ct>ppcr 
is  plated  in  the  usual  way  with  silver  b}' 
passing  the  metals  together  through  a 
rolling  mill,  and  is  then  cut  into  pieces 
of  a  proper  size.  The  silver  surface  is 
carefully  polished,  and  cleansed  by  wiping 
it  over  with  a  piece  of  cotton  dipped  in 
dilute  nitric  acid,  washing,  and  drying. 
When  thus  duly  prepared — and  much 
depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  these 
preliminary  operations  are  performed  and 
the  materials  used — the  plate  is  subjected 
to  the  diffused  vapor  of  iodine,  which 
forms  a  slightly  brown  or  yellow  film 
upon  the  silver  ;  it  is  then  ready  to  be 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  image  to 
be  represented,  which  is  thrown  upon  it, 
care  being  taken  to  exclude  all  other  light, 
by  an  instrument  upon  the  principle  of 
the  camera  obscura.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  seconds  or  minutes,  the  requisite 
time  depending  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
light,  the  plate  is  removed;  and  though 
nothing  is  as  yet  visible  upon  it  it  has  re- 
ceived the  image,  which  is  brought  out 
and  rendered  evident  by  subjecting  it, 
inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  45"^,  to  the 
vapor  of  mercury.  This  operation  is  j>er- 
formed  in  a  bo.x  with  a  glass  side,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  is  a  basin  ol  mercury, 
heated  to  about  170°,  so  that  the  operator 
may  see  the  progress  of  the  appearance 
of  the  image,  and  remove  the  plate  when 
it  is  perfect;  but  light  must  be  as  far  as 
possible  excluded,  and  more  especiiiUy 
daylight.  The  plate  is  then  washed  by 
cautious  immersion  in  a  solution  of  hy- 
po-sulphite of  soda,  and  lastly  with  boil- 
ing distilled  water,  and  allowed  to  dry: 
it  is  now  perfect,  may  be  exposed  to  light 
without  injury  ;  but  must  be  carefully 
protected  from  all  friction  by  covering  it 
with  a  glass.  The  action  of  the  various 
shades  of  light  upon  the  film  of  iodine, 
and  the  subsequent  influence  of  the  mer- 
curial vapor  upon  which  the  visibility  of 
the  picture  depends,  have  not  been  satis- 


472 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[PHT 


factorily  explained,  and  require  further 
esjjerimental  elucidatinn.  Tlic  perfection 
of  the  drawing,  and  the  extraordinary 
manner  in  which  the  minutest  details  are 
represented,  we  have  noticed  in  our  for- 
mer article ;  they  must,  however,  be 
seen  to  be  accurately  judged  of  .and  duly 
appreciated. 

PHRASE,  a  short  sentence  or  expres- 
sion ;  said  to  be  complete  when  it  conveys 
complete  sense,  as  "to  err  is  human;" 
and  incomplete  when  it  eonsists  of  several 
words.without  affirming  anything.  Any 
peculiar  sentence  or  short  idiomatic  ex- 
pression is  also  denominated  a  phrase. — 
In  music,  any  regular  symmetrical  course 
of  notes  which  begin  and  complete  the 
intended  expression. 

PHREXOL'OGY,  a  modern  science, 
which  professes  to  teach,  from  the  con- 
formation of  the  human  skull,  the  par- 
ticular characters  and  propensities  of 
men,  presuming  that  the  powers  of  the 
mind  and  the  sensations  are  performed 
by  peculiar  parts  of  the  brain  :  the  front 
parts  being  intellectual,  the  middle  senti- 
mental, and  the  hinder  parts  governing 
the  animal  propensities  :  the  degree  being 
in  proportion  to  the  projection  or  bulk 
of  the  parts.  It  was  long  ago  observed 
by  physiologists,  that  the  characters  of 
animals  were  determined  by  the  forma- 
tion of  tlie  forehead,  and  that  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  animal,  in  most  cases,  rose 
or  fell  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  or 
depression  of  the  skull.  But  it  was  re- 
served to  Drs.  Gall  and  Spurzheim  to  ex- 
pand this  germ  of  doctrine  into  a  minute 
system,  and  to  map  out  the  whole  cranium 
into  small  sections,  each  section  being  the 
dwelling-place,  or  workshop,  of  a  certain 
faculty,  propensity,  or  sentiment,  in  all 
amounting  to  thirty-six,  and  to  which 
certain  names  have  been  given  in  order 
to  mark  their  specific  qualities,  their  uses 
and  abuses. 

PHYLACTERY,  among  the  ancients, 
a  general  name  given  to  all  kinds  of 
spells,  ciiarms,  or  amulets,  which  they 
wore  about  them,  to  preserve  them  from 
disease  or  danger.  It  is  more  particu- 
lai'ly  used  to  signify  a  slip  of  paper  on 
which  was  written  some  text  of  Scripture, 
especially  of  the  Decalogue,  which  the 
more  devout  Jews  wore  on  the  forehead, 
breast,  or  neck,  as  a  badge  of  their  re- 
ligion.— Among  the  primitive  Christians, 
a  'phylactery  was  a  case  in  which  they 
inclosed  the  relics  of  their  dead. 

PHY'L/E,  the  tribes  into  whioh  the 
whole  of  Attica  was  divided  in  antiquity. 
Originally  there   wore  but  four  phyla;, 


which  were  frequently  remodelled,  but 
remained  the  same  in  number  till  soon 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  I'isistradida;, 
when  Cleisthenes  caused  their  number  to 
be  incueased  to  ten.  What  the  precise 
nature  of  the  change  effected  on  this 
occasion  was  is  not  known,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  new  tribes  embraced  a  large 
number  of  citizens  that  had  been  exclu- 
ded from  the  former.  The  phybe  were 
afterwards  increased  to  twelve,  by  the 
addition  of  two  in  honor  of  Antigonous 
and  his  son  Demetrius.  The  Athenian 
senate  was  composed  of  fifty  delegates 
from  eneh  of  these  tribes. 

P1IY'L.A.RC1I,  an  Athenian  officer  ap- 
pointed for  each  phyle  or  tribe,  to  super- 
intend the  registering  of  its  members 
and  other  common  duties.  The  title  ans- 
wers to  that  of  the  Roman  tribune,  but 
its  functions  never  reached  the  same  im- 
portance. 

PHYS'ICAL,  an  epithet  denoting  that 
which  relates  to  nature  or  natural  pro- 
ductions, as  opposed  to  things  moral  or 
imaginary.  We  speak  of  physical  force 
or  power,  with  reference  to  material 
things  :  thus  armies  and  navies  are  the 
physical  force  of  anation  :  whereas  knowl- 
edge, skill,  &c  ,  constitute  moral  force. — 
A  physical  body  or  substance,  is  a  mate- 
rial body  or  substance,  in  distinction  from 
spirit  or  metaphysical  substance. —  Physi- 
cal education,  the  education  which  is 
directed  to  the  object  of  giving  strength, 
health,  and  vigor  to  the  bodily  organs 
and  powers. 

PHYSIOGNOMICS,  among  physi- 
cians, signs  in  the  countenance  which 
serve  to  indicate  the  state,  disposition,  &c., 
both  of  the  body  and  mind  :  and  hence 
the  art  of  reducing  those  signs  to  practice 
is  termed  physiognomv. 

PlIYSlOG'NOMY.Vhe  art  of  discov- 
ering the  predominant  temper  or  other 
characteristic  qualities  of  the  mind  by 
the  features  of  the  face  or  external 
signs  of  the  countenance.  AVhatever  bo 
thought  of  the  possibility  of  laying  down 
strict  rules  for  such  judgments,  it  is  a 
fact  of  e  very-day  occurrence,  that  we  are, 
almost  without  reflection  on  our  part, 
impressed  favorably  or  unfavorably  in 
regard  to  the  temper  and  talents  of  others 
by  the  expression  of  their  countenances. 
No  study,  says  Lavater,  mathematics  ex- 
cepted, more  justly  deserves  to  be  termed 
a  science  than  ])hysiognomy.  It  is  a  de- 
partment of  ])hysics,  including  theology 
and  belles-lettres  ;  and  in  the  same  man- 
ner with  these  sciences  may  be  reduced 
to  rule.     It  may  acquire  a  fixed  and  ap- 


AND    THE     KINK     ARTS. 


4/3 


propriate  character  ;  it  may  be  commu- 
nicated and  taught.  Physiognniiiy,  he 
adds,  is  a  source  of  jmre  an. I  exalted  men- 
tal gratification.  It  affords  a  new  view 
of  the  perfection  of  Deity;  it  displays  a 
new  scene  of  hiirmony  and  beauty  in  his 
works  ;  it  reveals  internal  motives,  which, 
without  It,  would  only  have  been  discov- 
ered in  the  world  to  come.  AVe  all  have 
some  sort  of  intuitive  method  by  which  we 
form  our  opinions  ;  and  though  our  rules 
for  judging  of  men  from  their  appear- 
ance may  often  fail,  we  still  continue  to 
trust  in  them. 

PHYSIOG'NOTYPE,  a  machine  for 
taking  an  exact  imprint  or  cast  of  the 
countenance,  lately  invented  by  a  Pari- 
sian. This  instrument  is  a  metallic,  oval 
plate,  pierced  with  a  large  quantity  of 
minute  holes  very  closely  together,  and 
through  each  of  which  a  wire  passes  with 
extreme  facility.  These  needles  have 
the  appearance  of  a  brush.  The  whole 
is  surrounded  with  a  double  case  of  tin, 
which  contains  warm  water,  in  order  to 
keep  the  instrument  of  a  proper  tempe- 
rature with  the  blood.  If  any  figure  be 
applied  against  this  brush  of  needles,  it 
will  yield  to  the  slightest  pressure,  and 
leave  an  exact  mould,  taking  up  only 
about  two  seconds. 

PIANO-FORTE,  a  musical  stringed 
instrument,  the  strings  of  which  are  ex- 
tended over  bridges  rising  on  the  sound- 
ing-board, and  are  made  to  vibrate  by 
means  of  small  covered  hammers,  which 
are  put  in  motion  by  keys.  It  has  been 
gradually  improved,  till  it  has  become 
one  of  the  most  important  instruments  in 
all  domestic  musical  entertainments. 

PI.\S'TRE,  a  variable  denomination 
of  money.  In  the  West,  its  use  is  nearly 
confined  to  Italy,  and  Spain  with  its  colo- 
nies ;  in  which  it  generally  means  a  dollar, 
or  the  largest  silver  coin  of  those  regions  ; 
but  the  term  is  there  obsolescent.  The 
old  rose  piastre  of  Tuscany  contains  10 
pauls,  or  about  31  O.o  ;  the  olil  two-i^lubed 
piastre  of  Spain,  whether  Mexican  or  Se- 
villan,  is  worth  about  $1.03.  Both  pass  in 
the  United  States  for  a  dollar.  In  the 
East,  on  the  other  hand,  piastre  means  a 
coin  of  scarcely  l-'20lli  the  value  of  the 
foregoinic;  namely,  worth  about  five  cents. 

PIAZZA,  an  Italian  name  fi>r  a  por- 
tico or  covered  walk.  The  word  literally 
signifies  a  broad  open  jil.ice  or  square  ; 
\fhencc  it  came  to  be  aiijilied  to  the  walks 
or  porticos  surrounding  thorn. 

PI'BROCH,  martial  music  produceilby 
the  bag-pipe  of  the  Highlanders.  It  i.s 
said  to  signify  also  the  instrument  itself; 


but  the  former  meaning,  if,  indeed,  there 
are  anij  instances  of  the  latter  to  be  found 
in  any  classical  writer,  has  received  the 
sanction  of  the  two  most  celebrated  poets 
of  their  time,  Loril  Byron  and  Sir  Walter 
Scotr.  The  connoisseurs,  says  the  latter 
writer,  in  pipe-music,  affect  to  discover, 
in  a  well-composed  pibroch,  the  imitative 
sounds  of  march,  conflict,  flight,  pursuit, 
and  all  the  "current  of  a  heady  fight." 

PICARDS',  the  name  of  a  fanatical  and 
immoral  sect  of  Christians,  who  sprang 
up  in  Bohemia  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
They  derived  their  name  from  Picard,  a 
native  of  Flanders,  who  styled  himself 
the  New  Adam,  and  attempted  to  revive 
the  absurdities  of  the  Adamites  of  the 
second  century  in  imitating  the  state  of 
primeval  innocence.  They  were  com- 
pletely annihilated  by  Zisca,  the  great 
general  of  the  Hussites,  who,  struck  with 
their  abominable  practices,  had  marched 
against  ihem. 

PICKET,  or  PIC'QUET,  in  military 
discipline,  a  certain  number  of  men,  horse 
or  foot,  who  do  duty  as  an  outguard,  to 
prevent  surprises  Also,  a  punishment 
which  consists  in  making  the  ofi"ender 
stand  with  one  foot  on  a  pointed  stake. — 
Pickets,  in  fortification,  sharp  stakes, 
sometimes  shod  with  iron,  used  in  laying 
out  ground,  or  for  pinning  the  fascines 
of  a  battery.  In  the  artillery,  pickets 
five  or  six  feet  long  are  used  to  pin  the 
park  lines  ;  in  the  camp,  they  are  used 
about  si.x  or  eight  inches  long  to  fix  the 
tent  cords,  or  five  feet  long  in  the  cavalry 
camp  to  fasten  the  horses. 

PICTS'  WALL,  an  ancient  wall  began 
by  the  emperor  Adrian,  a.d.  123,  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  England,  from 
Carlisle  to  Newcastle,  to  prevent  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Picts  and  Scots.  It  was 
first  made  only  of  turf,  strengthened  with 
palisades  till  the  emperor  Severus  coming 
in  person  into  Britain,  had  it  built  with 
stone  ;  and  Actius,  the  Roman  general, 
rebuilt  it  with  brick,  ad.  430.  Some  re- 
mains of  this  wall  are  still  visible  in  parts 
of  Northumberland  and  Cumberland. 

PICTFRESQUE',  an  epithet  denoting 
that  peculiar  kind  of  beauty  which, 
either  in  a  prospect,  a  painting,  or  a  de- 
scription, strikes  the  mind  with  great 
power,  or  imparts  to  it  agreeable  sensa- 
tions. In  the  theory  of  the  Arts,  the 
word  picturesque  is  used  as  contr.adistin- 
guished  from  poetic  and  plastic.  TIv 
poetical  has  reference  to  the  fumlamental 
idea  to  be  represented — to  the  painter's 
conception  of  his  subject ;  whilst  the  pic- 
turesque relates  to  the  mode  of  express- 


474 


CVCLOl'EDIA     OF     LITERATLKE 


[PU 


ing  the  conception,  the  grouping,  the 
distribution  of  objects,  persons,  and  lights. 
The  poetical  part  of  a  picture,  as  well  as 
its  mechanical  execution,  may  be  ivithout 
fault,  and  yet  the  picture  be  a  total 
failure  as  regards  the  picturesque. 

PIER,  a  very  strong  stone  wall  or 
mass  of  solid  stone-work  running  into  the 
water,  to  resist  the  force  of  the  sea,  to 
support  the  arches  of  a  bridge,  or  the 
quay  of  a  wharf,  and  to  withstand  the 
dashing  of  waves. — Also,  a  part  of  the 
wall  of  a  house  between  windows. 

PIERIAN,  an  epithet  given  to  the 
muses,  from  Mount  I'ierus,  in  Thessaly, 
which  was  sacred  to  the:n  ;  or  from  their 
victory  over  the  nine  daughters  of  the 
Macedonian  king,  Pierus. 

PI'ETIST,  a  person  belonging  to  a 
sect  of  Protestants  which  sprung  up  in 
Germany,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century.  They  professed  great  strictness 
and  purity  of  life,  affecting  to  despise 
learning  and  ecclesiastical  polity,  as  also 
forms  and  ceremonies  in  religion,  and 
giving  themselves  up  to  mystic  theology. 

PI'ETY,  that  holy  principle  which 
consists  in  veneration  accompanied  with 
love  for  the  Supreme  Being;  and  which 
manifests  itself,  in  practice,  by  obedience 
to  God's  will,  and  a  pure  devotion  to  his 
service. — Piety  both  towards  God  and 
man  was  one  of  the  virtues  hold  in  most 
esteem  by  the  ancients,  and  is  therefore 
commemorated  on  innumerable  medals, 
sometimes  under  the  figure  of  a  female 
carrying  children,  or  of  jEneas  bearing 
his  father,  Ac,  but  more  frequently 
under  that  of  a  female  standing  at  an 
dtar. 

PIG'MENTS,  preparations  of  various 
kinds  used  in  painting  and  dyeing,  to  im- 
part the  colors  required.  They  are  ob- 
tained from  animal,  vegetable,  and  min- 
eral substances. 

PIG'MY,  by  ancient  authors  on  nat- 
ural history,  this  name  was  applieil  to  a 
fabulous  race  of  dwarfish  and  deformed 
human  beings ;  it  is  now  restricted  to  a 
species  of  npe,  the  Cliimpanzce.  Ancient 
fable  deseribed  a  nation  of  pigmies  dwell- 
ing somewhere  near  the  shores  of  the 
ocean,  and  maintaining  perpetual  wars 
with  the  cranes ;  of  which  Athenreus 
gives  the  mythological  origin.  Ctesias 
the  Greek  historian,  as  quoted  by  Photius, 
represented  a  nation  of  them  as  inhabit- 
ing India,  and  atteuiling  its  king  on  his 
military  cxfxidit  ions.  Other  ancients  be- 
lieved them  to  inhabit  the  Indian  islands. 

PILAS'TEIi,  adcliased  pillar;  a. square 
pillar  projeoling  from  a  pier,  or  from   a 


Atiiyij^ 

3lH»lliii"'' 


wall,  to  the  extent  of  from  i  to  j  of  its 
breadth.  Pilasters  origi- 
nated in  the  Grecian  antae. 
In  Roman  architecture 
they  were  sometimes  ta- 
pered like  columns,  and 
finished  with  capitals  mo- 
delleil  after  theorderwith 
which  they  were  used. 

PILE'l'S,  in  antiquity, 
a  hat  or  cap  worn  by  the 
Romans,    during   anj'   in- 
disposition which  prevent- 
ed   them   from    appearing 
safely  with  their  heads  un- 
covered, as  was  the  gener- 
al   custom.      The    I'ileus 
was  also  worn  by  such  as 
had  lately  received  their 
freedom,  because  on  hav- 
ing their  liberty  granted, 
thej'  were  constantly  shav- 
ed :  the  Pileiis,  therefore,    ~  " 
being   necessary    on    this  ^=^^"^^"""" 
account,  was  also  esteemed  a  badge  of 
liberty  ;  hence  pileo  cZo'Jori  signifies  to  be 
ma  le  free. 

PILGRIM,  one  that  travels  to  a  dis- 
tance from  his  own  country  to  visit  a  holy 
place  for  devotional  purposes.  In  the 
middle  ages,  kings,  princes,  bishops,  and 
others  made  pilgrimages  to  visit  the  holy 
sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  in  pious  devotion 
to  the  Saviour.  This  was  permitted  while 
Palestine  was  held  by  the  Saracens  ;  but 
when  the  Turks  obtained  possession  of 
that  country,  the  Christian  pilgrims  were 
visited  with  the  greatest  indignities,  and 
their  repeated  complaints  occasioned  the 
excitement  which  led  to  the  crusades.  In 
subsequent  times  pilgrimages  to  Rome, 
Compostella,  Loretto,  Tours,  and  other 
jdaccs  where  the  relics  of  martyrs  and 
saints  attracted  the  notice  of  devotees, 
have  been  common  ;  and  pilgrims  to  this 
day  travel  to  Rome,  where  they  are  pro- 
vided for  in  establislinicnts  founded  es- 
pecially for  their  reception  and  entertain- 
ment. But  pilgrimages  are  not  confined 
to  Christian  nations.  According  to  a  com- 
mand in  the  Koran,  every  good  Mussul- 
man is  enjoined  once  in  his  lifetime  to 
repair  to  Jlccca;  and  there  are  many 
other  places,  especially  in  Persia,  endow- 
ed with  sufficient  sanctity  to  attract  mul- 
titudes of  pilgrims.  The  Hindoos  have 
also  their  i)ilgrimages,  the  most  celebrat- 
ed of  whicli  is  to  the  city  of  Juggernaut, 
whore  stands  the  temple  erected  in  honor 
of  the  deity  of  the  same  name  ;  a  full  ac- 
count of  which  will  be  found  in  the  Geo 
Diet;  art.  "Juggernaut."    Among  exist- 


pisj 


AND    THE    FINK    AKTS. 


475 


ing  Christian  pilgrimages,  the  most  cel- 
ebrated is  that  uf  -Mariaiizell,  in  Austria. 

PIL'LAK,  a  icinil  of  irregular  column, 
either  too  missive  or  toosleiiler  for  reg- 
ular arohitofturo  ;  the  parts  anil  propor- 
tions of  which,  not  being  restricted  to  any 
rules,  are  arbitrary. 

PIL'LORV  ,  an  instrument  of  punish- 
ment, consisting  of  a  frame  of  wood  erect- 
ed oa  posts,  made  to  confine  the  head  and 
liands  of  a  criminal,  in  order  to  expose 
him  to  view,  and  to  render  him  publicly 
infamous. 

Pl'LUM,  a  missile  weapon  used  by  the 
Roman  soliliers,  and  in  a  charge  darted 
upon  the  enemy.  Its  point  was  so  long 
and  small,  that  after  the  first  discharge  it 
was  generally  so  bent  as  to  be  rendered 
useless. 

PINA'CIA,  among  the  Athenians, 
were  tablets  of  brass  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  all  the  citizens  in  each  tribe, 
who  were  duly  qualified  and  willing  to 
be  judges  of  the  court  of  Areopagus. 
These  tablets  were  cast  into  one  vessel 
provided  for  the  purpose,  and  the  same 
number  of  beans,  a  hundred  being  white 
and  all  the  rest  black,  were  thrown  into 
another.  Then  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates and  the  beans  were  drawn  out  one 
by  one  ;  and  they  whose  names  were 
drawn  out  together  with  the  white  beans 
were  elected  judges  or  senators. 

PINACOTIIE'CA,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, the  apartment  in  a  house  for  the 
reception  of  paintings. 

PINDAREES',  the  name  given  in 
British  India  to  the  hordes  of  mounted 
robbers  who,  for  several  years,  (since 
1812,)  infested  the  possessions  of  the  East 
India  Company.  These  freebooters  have 
existed  since  1761,  but  made  themselves 
particularly  formidable  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. They  were  descended  mostly  from 
the  caste  of  Mohammedan  warriors,  which 
formerly  received  high  pay  from  the  In- 
dian princes  ;  and  these  latter,  after  be- 
coming tributary  to  the  British,  secretly 
excited  the  Pindarees  to  attack  the  com- 
pany. In  1817  the  marquis  of  Hastings, 
then  governor-general,  determined  on 
their  destruction,  and  being  attacked  on 
all  sides,  they  were  conquered  and  dis- 
persed. 

PINDAR'IC,  an  ode  in  imitation  of 
the  odes  of  Pindar,  the  prince  of  Greek 
Ivric  poets. 

PI X'- MONEY,  gifts  by  a  husband  to 
his  wife  for  the  purchase  of  apparel,  or- 
naments for  her  person,  or  for  private  ex- 
poniliture.  Usually,  however,  a  sum  of 
money  for  that  purpose  is  secured  by  the 


husband  to  his  wife  by  settlement,  or  by 
articles- executed  before  the  marriage, 
and  such  a  provision  cannot  be  attached 
for  the  husband's  debts. 

PIN'NACE,  a  small  vessel  navigated 
with  oars  and  sails,  and  having  generally 
two  masts  which  are  rigged  like  those  of  a 
schooner  ;  also  one  of  the  boats  belonging 
to  a  man  of  war,  usually  with  eight  oars, 
and  used  to  carry  the  officers  to  and  from 
shore. 

PIN'NACLE,  in  architecture,  the  top 
or  roof  of  a  building,  terminating  in  a 
point.  Among  the  ancients  the  pinnacle 
was  appropriated  to  temples;  their  ordi- 
nary roofs  being  all  llat.  It  was  from 
the  pinnacle  that  the  pediment  took  its 
rise. 

PIONEER',  in  military  tactics,  a  mili- 
tary laborer,  or  one  whose  business  is  to 
attend  an  army  in  its  march,  to  clear  the 
way,  by  cutting  down  trees  and  levelling 
roads  :  as  also  to  work  at  intrenchments, 
or  form  mines  for  destroying  an  enemy's 
works. 

PI'RACY,  the  crime  of  robbery  or  tak- 
ing of  property  from  others  by  open 
violence  on  the  high  seas  without  author- 
ity. It  includes  all  acts  of  robbery  and 
depredation  committed  at  sea,  which,  if 
occurring  vipon  land,  would  amount  to 
felony.  The  word  pirate  signifies  literal- 
ly an  adventurer. —  Piracy  is  also  fre- 
quently used  to  signify  any  infringement 
on  the  law  of  copyright.  It  is  extremely 
difficult  to  lay  down  any  general  principle 
on  which  to  decide  as  to  what  is  and  what 
is  not  piracy.  Generally  it  is  held,  that 
one  writer  may  borrow  the  ideas  or 
theories  of  another :  but  that  he  must 
dress  them  up  and  explain  them  in  a  dif- 
ferent way,  and  in  his  own  language. 
This,  however,  is  often  done  so  as  merely 
to  evade  the  law  :  and  it  were  well,  in 
order  to  make  greater  attention  be  paid 
to  originality,  were  the  law  as  to  piracy 
less  lax  than  it  is  at  present. 

PIROGUE',  a  kind  of  canoe,  used  in 
the  Southern  and  Eastern  seas,  made  from 
a  single  trunk  of  a  tree  hollowed  out. 
Pirogues  are  generally  small,  and  work- 
ed by  paddles  ;  they  are,  however,  some- 
times large,  decked,  rigged  with  sails, 
and  furnished  with  out-riggers. 

PIROUET'TE,  in  dancing,  a  rapid  cir- 
cumvolution upon  one  foot,  which  cm  the 
stage  is  repeated  by  the  dancers  many 
times  in  succession. — In  riding,  it  is  the 
sudden  short  turn  of  a  horse,  so  as  to 
bring  his  head  suildenly  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  where  it  was  before. 

PIS'C.\RY,    in   our    ancient  statutes, 


476 


CVCLOI'EDI.\    OF    LITEUATURE 


[PLA 


the  right  or  liberty  of  fishing  in  another 
man's  waters. 

PITCH,  in  music,  tlic  degree  of  acute- 
ness  or  graveness  of  a  note.  It  may  be 
the  liey-iiote,  or  the  note  on  which  any 
air  or  part  begins.  Any  souml  less  acute 
than  some  other  sound,  is  said  to  be  of  a 
lower  pitch  than  that  otlier  sound,  and 
vice  versa. —  Concert  pitch,  in  musical 
performances,  the  degree  of  acuteness  or 
gravity'  generally  adopted  for  some  one 
given  note,  and  by  which  every  other  note 
is  governed.  It  is  not  regulated  by  any 
fi.ved  standard.  The  opera  pitch  is  high- 
er than  the  concert  pitch. — Pitch  of  a 
roof,  in  architecture,  the  inclination  of 
the  sloping  sides  of  the  roof  to  the  horizon, 
or  the  vertical  angle  formed  by  the  slop- 
ing sides.  It  is  usually  designated  by 
the  ratio  of  its  height  to  its  span. 

PIU',  in  music,  Italian  for  a  little 
more.  It  is  prefi.xed  to  words  to  increase 
their  force,  as  piu  allegra,  a  little  brisk- 
er;  pin  piano,  a  little  softer,  &c. 

PIX,  a  covered  vessel  used  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries  for  holding  the  conse- 
crated host.  Pi.xes  are  most  frequently 
made  of  gold  or  silver,  and  sometimes  are 
in  form  like  a  chalice  Avith  merely  the 
addition  of  a  lid. 

PLACARD,  properly  a  written  or 
printed  paper  posted  in  a  public  place. 
It  seems  to  have  been  formerly  the  name 
of  an  edict,  proclamation,  or  manifesto 
issued  by  authority,  but  this  sense  is,  I 
believe,  seldom  or  never  anne.\od  to  the 
word.  A  placard  now  is  an  advertise- 
ment, or  a  libel,  or  a  paper  intended  to 
censure  public  or  private  characters  or 
public  measures,  jjosted  in  a  public  place. 
In  the  case  of  libels  or  papers  intended 
to  censure  public  or  private  characters, 
or  the  measures  of  government,  these 
papers  are  usually  pasted  up  at  night  for 
secrecy.  It  is  also  used  for  any  paper 
posted  to  give  public  notice,  as  an  adver- 
tisement. 

PLA'CITA,  (Lat.,)  in  the  middle  ages, 
were  public  courts  or  nssemblies,  in  which 
the  sovereign  presided  when  a  consulta- 
tion was  held  ujjon  the  affairs  of  the  state. 

PLAFOND',  the  ceiling  of  a  room  whe- 
ther flat  or  arched  ;  also  the  under  side  of 
the  jirojectiou  of  tlie  larmierof  the  cornice, 
generally  any  sollit. 

PLA'UALMKL'ODIES,  in  niusic,such 
as  have  their  principal  notes  lying  be- 
tween the  fifth  of  the  key  anil  its  octave 
or  twelfth. 

PLA  (JIARISM,  (from  the  Latin  legal 
term  jilagium,  which  signified  the  offence 
of  stealing  a  .slave,  or  kidnapping  a  free 


person  into  slavery.)  A  plagiary,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  is  one  who 
borrows  without  acknowledgment,  in  lit- 
erary composition,  the  thiaghts  or  words 
of  another;  and  the  theft  itself  is  styled 
j  plagiarism. 

PLAGl'E,  a  malignant'and  contagious 
disease  that  often  prevails  in  Egypt,  Sy- 
ria, and  Turkey.  It  generally  proves 
fatal  to  nations  and  great  cities,  but  is 
arrested  by  cleanliness,  or  the  avoiding 
of  putrid  fermentations  of  which  it  seems 
to  be  an  e.\tension. 

PLAIX-SONd,  a  term  in  ancient  ec- 
clesiastical music  signifying  the  plain, 
unvaried  chant  of  churches;  so  called  in 
contradistinction  from  the  prick-song,  or 
variegated  music  sung  by  note.  It  is  an 
extremely  simple  melody  and  admits  but 
one  measure,  the  duple,  and  onlj'  notes 
of  equal  value.  It  is  rarely  allowed  to 
extend  bc^iind  the  compass  of  an  octave. 
It  is  still  used  in  the  Romish  church. 

PLAIN'TIFF,  in  law,  the  person  who 
commences  a  suit  before  a  judicial  tribu- 
nal, for  the  recovery  of  a  claim  ;  opposed 
to  defendant. 

PLAN,  the  representation  of  some- 
thing drawn  on  a,  plane  ;  as  a  map,  chart, 
or  ichnography.  It  is,  however,  more 
particularly  used  for  a  draught  of  a  build- 
ing, as  it  appears,  or  is  intended  to  ap- 
pear on  the  ground;  showing  the  extent, 
division,  and  distribution  of  its  area,  or 
ground  plot,  into  apartments,  rooms,  pas- 
sages, Ac. — A  perspective  plan  is  that 
which  is  exhibited  according  to  the  rules 
of  perspective.  The  word  plan  also  sig- 
nifies a  scheme  or  project;  the  form  of 
something  to  be  done  existing  in  the  mind, 
with  the  several  parts  adjusted  in  idea 
A  plan,  in  this  sense,  may  bo  expressed 
in  words  or  committed  to  writing;  as  a 
plan  of  a  constitution  of  government,  the 
plan,  of  a  military  expedition,  &c. 

PLANTA'GENET,  the  surname  of  the 
royal  family  of  England  from  Henry  II. 
to  Richard  III.  inclusive.  The  origin  of 
the  name  is  involved  in  deo])  obscurity. 
The  best  antiquaries  derive  it  from  the 
well-known  story  of  the  Earl  of  Anjou, 
the  ancestor  of  the  royal  race,  who  hav- 
ing made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  wliere 
he  was  scourged  with  broom  twigs,  as- 
sumed the  name  of  I'lantai^enista,  (lite- 
rally, a  broom  tiris:,)  which  his  desceuil- 
ants  retained.  The  name  I'lantagenet 
belongs  to  the  noble  house  of  Bucking- 
ham. 

PLANTA'TION,  in  the  Tnitcd  States 
and  the  West  Indies,  acuUivated  estate; 
a  farm.   In  the  United  States,  this  word  i.< 


ple] 


AND    THE    I'INE    ARTS. 


477 


applied  to  an  estate,  a  tract  of  land  oncii- 
pieil  and  cultivated,  in  those  states  only 
where  the  labor  is  performed  by  slaves, 
and  where  the  land  is  more  or  less  appro- 
priated to  the  culture  of  tobacco,  rice,  in- 
digo, and  cotton,  that  is,  from  Maryland  to 
Georgia  inclusive,  on  the  Atlantic,  and  in 
the  western  states  where  the  land  is  ap- 
propriated to  the  same  articles,  or  to  the 
culture  of  the  sugar-cane.  From  Mary- 
land, northward  and  eastward,  estates  in 
land  arc  called  farms. — An  original  set- 
tlement in  a  new  country ;  a  town  or 
village  planted. 

PLAS'TIC  ART,  a  branch  of  sculp- 
ture, being  the  art  of  forming  figures  of 
men  and  animals  in  plaster,  clay,  &c.— 
The  word  plastic  signifies  having  power 
to  give  form  or  fashion  to  a  mass  of  mat  • 
ter  ;  as,  the  plastic  hand  of  the  Creator, 
Ac. — Plastic  nature,  a  certain  power  by 
which,  as  an  instrument,  many  philoso- 
phers, both  ancient  and  modern,  supposed 
that  the  great  motions  in  the  corporeal 
world,  and  the  various  processes  of  gene- 
ration and  corruption  were  perpetually 
carried  on. 

PLAT'BAND,  in  architecture,  asquare 
moulding  projecting  less  than  its  height 
or  breadth.  The  fillets  between  the  flutes 
of  columns  are  sometimes  called,  but 
improperly,  by  this  name.  It  is  also 
sometimes  used  to  denote  the  lintel  of  a 
door. 

PLATE,  in  architecture,  a  piece  of 
timber  lying  horizontally  on  a  wall  for 
the  reception  of  the  ends  of  girders, 
joints,  rafters,  &c. 

PLAT'FORM,  in  architecture,  a  row 
of  beams  which  support  the  timber-work 
of  a  roof;  iilso  anj'  erection  consisting  of 
boards  raised  above  the  ground  for  an 
exhibition  or  any  other  temporary  pur- 
pose.— Flalform,  in  the  military  art,  an 
elevation  of  earth  on  which  cannon  are 
mounted  to  fire  on  an  enemy- 

PLATON'IC,  pertaining'to  Plato,  his 
school,  philosophy,  opinions,  etc.  The 
leading  characteristic  of  the  mind  of 
Plato  is  its  comprehensiveness.  This 
quality  discovers  itself  equally  in  the 
form  in  which  his  philosophy  is  commu- 
nicated, and  in  that  philosophy  itself. 
The  form  to  which  we  allude  is,  it  is  well 
known,  that  of  the  dialoirue.  The  Dia- 
logues of  Plato  are  at  once  vivid  repre- 
sentations of  Athenian  life  and  character, 
and  constituent  parts  of  a  system  of  uni- 
versal philosophy;  the  harmonious  pro- 
duction? of  a  genius  which  combined  the 
dramatic  imagination  with  the  scientific 
intellect  in  a  degree  which  has  never  be- 


fiire  nor  since  been  equalled.  Tt  is  in  this 
circumstance  that  we  must  seek  alike  lor 
the  influence  which  Plato's  writings  have 
exerted,  and  for  the  difficulty  of  rightly 
apprehending  their  meaning.  AVliat  has 
been  said  of  history  in  general  may  with 
equal  truth  be  applied  to  the  Platonic 
dialogues — that  they  are  '"  philosophy 
teaching  by  examples."  In  place  of  a 
formal  refutation  of  sophistry,  we  are 
introduccil  to  living  sophists  ;  in  tiie  room 
of  an  elaborate  system  of  philosophy, 
we  meet  the  greatest  philosophers  of  his 
day,  reasoning  and  conversing  with  dis- 
ciples eager  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge — 
with  Athenians  full  of  national  preju- 
dices, with  men  abounding  with  individ- 
ual peculiarities. — Platonic  lore  denotes 
a  pure  spiritual  affection,  for  which  Plato 
was  a  great  advocate,  subsisting  between 
the  different  sexes,  unmi.xed  with  carnal 
affections,  and  regarding  no  other  object 
but  the  mind  and  its  excellencies.  It  is 
also  sometimes  understood  as  a  sincere  dis- 
interested friendship  subsisting  between 
persons  of  the  same  sex,  abstracted  from 
any  selfish  views,  and  regarding  no  other 
object  than  the  individual  so  esteemed. — 
Platonic  year,  or  the  great  year,  a  period 
of  time  determined  by  the  revolution  of 
the  equinoxes,  or  the  space  of  time  in 
which  the  stars  and  constellations  return 
to  their  former  places  in  respect  to  the 
equinoxes.  This  revolution,  which  is  cal- 
culated by  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
is  accomplished  in  aboiijt  25,000  years. 

PLA'TONIST,  one  that  adheres  to  the 
philosophy  of  Plato. 

PLATOON',  in  the  military  art,  a  small 
square  body  of  forty  or  fiftj'  musketeers, 
drawn  out  of  a  battalion  of  foot,  and 
placed  between  the  squadrons  of  horse  to 
sustain  them ;  or  a  small  body  acting 
together,  but  separate  from  the  main 
body  ;  as,  to  fire  by  platoons. 

PLEA,  in  law,  that  which  is  alleged  by 
a  party  for  himself  in  court,  in  a  cause 
there  depending;  but  in  a  more  limited 
sense,  the  defendant's  answer  to  the  plain- 
tiff's declaration  and  demand.  That 
which  the  plaintiff  alleges  in  his  decla- 
ration is  answered  and  repelled,  or  justi- 
fied by  the  defendant's  plea. 

PLEAD'ING.  in  law,  a  speech  deliver- 
ed at  the  bar  in  defence  of  a  cause  :  but, 
in  a  stricter  sense,  pleadings  are  all  the 
allegations  of  the  parties  to  a  suit,  made 
after  the  declaration,  till  the  issue  is 
joined.  In  this  sense  they  express  what- 
ever is  contained  in  the  bar,  replication, 
rejoiner,  Ac.  till  the  question  is  brought 
to  issue,  that  is,  to  rest  on  a  single  point. 


478 


CYCLOl'KDIA     OF    LITERATURE 


I'lK 


— Pleading,  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  was  limiietl  as  to  its  duration, 
by  a  clepsydra  or  hour-glass  of  water  ; 
and  to  see  that  the  orators  had  justice 
done  them,  in  this  respect,  an  officer  was 
appointed  to  distriliute  the  proper  quan- 
tity of  water  to  each. 

PLEASURE,  the  gratification  of  the 
senses  or  of  the  mind ;  agreeable  scnsa- 
tion^  or  emotions;  some  enjoyment  or 
delight  lasting  for  a  time  and  then  ceas- 
ing ;  the  excitement,  relish,  or  happiness 
produced  by  enjoyment  or  the  expecta- 
tion of  good;  opposed  to  pain.  We  re- 
ceive pleasure  from  the  indulgence  of 
appetite ;  from  the  view  of  a  beautiful 
landscape  ;  from  the  harmony  of  sounds ; 
from  agreeable  society  ;  from  the  expec- 
tation of  seeing  an  absent  friend ;  from 
the  prospect  of  gain  or  success  of  any 
kind. — Pleasure,  bodily  and  mental,  car- 
nal and  spiritual,  constitutes  the  whole 
of  positive  happiness,  as  pain  constitutes 
the  whole  of  miserj'. —  Pleasure  is  prop- 
erly positive  excitement  of  the  passions 
or  the  mind  ;  but  we  give  the  name  also 
to  the  absence  of  excitement,  when  that 
excitement  is  painful  ;  as  when  we  cease 
to  labor,  or  repose  after  fatigue,  or  when 
the  mind  is  tranquilliz.ed  after  anxiety 
or  agitation.— P/eosMre  is  susceptible  of 
increase  to  any  degree ;  but  the  word, 
when  unqualified,  expresses  less  excite- 
ment or  happiness  than  delisht  or  joy. 

PLEAS  URE-GROUND,  'that  portion 
of  ground  adjoining  a  dwelling  in  the 
country  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to 
ornamental  and  recreative  purposes.  In 
the  ancient  style  of  gardening,  the  pleas- 
ure-ground was  laid  out  in  straight  walks, 
and  regular  or  symmetrical  forms,  com 
monly  borrowed  from  architecture;  but, 
in  the  modern  style,  it  is  laid  out  in 
winding  walks,  and  in  forms  borrowed 
direct  from  nature.  A  portion  of  lawn 
or  smooth  gra.=.sy  surface  may  be  con- 
side  rcil  as  essential  to  the  pleasure- 
ground  under  both  stales. 

IM/EBE'I ANS,  the  free  citizens  of 
Rome  who  diil  not  come  under  the  class 
of  the  patricians  or  clients.  'J'hough 
always  personally  independent,  they  had 
in  early  times  no  political  power,  the 
government  being  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  rhe  patricians,  who,  with  their  clients 
iiml  the  king,  formed  the  original  people. 
The  class  of  jilebeians  was  of  after- 
growth, and  probably  drew  its  numbers 
from  various  sources,  as  from  clients 
whose  obligations  were  dissolved  by  the 
decay  of  the  houses  of  their  patrons,  nnd 
the  inhabitants  of  conquered  states  who 


where  admitted  to  rights  of  citizenship. 
The  plebeian  families  with  patrician 
names  are  supposed  to  have  arisen  from 
marriages  of  disparagement  contracted 
between  the  higher  ami  lower  classes.  As 
this  body,  from  its  constitution,  naturally 
grew  in  vigor  while  the  patricians  became 
weaker,  it  soon  formed  the  main  strength 
of  the  Roman  armies,  and  became  desir- 
ous of  sharing  in  the  advantages  of  the 
conquests  made  by  its  prowess  ;  while  the 
patricians,  on  their  part,  tenaciously 
clung  to  all  their  privileges,  and,  far 
from  }-ielding  to  the  demands  of  the  other 
part}',  exercised  the  severe  rights  which 
as  creditors  they  possessed  over  the  lib- 
erties of  many  of  its  members.  This 
state  of  things  produced  a  continued  series 
of  collisions  between  the  two  orders,  in 
which  the  latter  gradually  gained  ground, 
till,  in  the  last  ages  of  the  rejiublic,  it 
was  admitted  to  a  full  share  of  all  the 
powers  and  privileges  before  confined  to 
one  order. 

PLEDGE,  something  left  in  pawn ; 
that  which  is  deposited  with  another  as 
security  for  the  repayment  of  money  bor- 
rowed, or  for  the  performance  of  some 
agreement  or  obligation. — In  law,  bail ; 
surety  given  for  the  prosecution  of  a  suit, 
or  for  the  appearance  of  a  defendant,  or 
for  restoring  goods  taken  in  distress  and 
replevied. —  To  pledge,  in  drinking,  is  to 
warrant  a  person  that  he  shall  receive  no 
harm  while  drinking,  or  from  the  draught; 
a  practice  which  originated  with  our  an- 
cestors in  their  rude  state,  and  which  was 
inten<led  to  assure  the  ]ierson  that  he 
would  not  be  stabbed  while  drinking,  or 
poisoned  by  the  liquor.  Notwithstanding 
the  reason  has  long  since  ceased,  the  cus- 
tom still  continues— a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  the  force  of  habit. 

PLENIPOTEN'TIARY,  a  person  in- 
vested with  full  power  to  transact  any 
business;  generally,  an  ambassailorfrom  a 
prince,  invested  with  full  power  to  negoti- 
ate a  treaty  or  conclude  peace  with  an- 
other prince  or  state. 

PLE'ONASM,  redundancy  of  words  in 
speaking  or  writing ;  the  use  of  more 
words  to  express  ideas,  than  are  necessa- 
ry. This  may  be  justifiable  when  we  in- 
tend to  present  thoughts  with  particular 
perspicuity  or  force,  as  '•  I  saw  it  with 
my  own  ej'cs,"  "  I  heard  it  with  my  own 
ears." 

PLETII'RON,  or  PLETII'RUM,  in 
Grecian  antiquity,  a  square  measure,  the 
exact  contents  of  which  are  not  certainly 
known.  Some  suppose  it  to  correspond 
with  tlie  Wnmwn  juger,  or  240  feet ;  oth?ra 


poe] 


AND    THE    FINK     AliTS. 


479 


say  it  was  the  square  of  a  hundred  cu- 
bits. 

PLINTH,    a  flat,  square   member,    in 
form  of  a  brick,  which  serves  as  a    foun- 


(1.  'I'linis.  b.  riinll). 

diition  of  a  column  ;  being  the  flat  square 
table  under  the  moulding  of  the  base  and 
jiedestal,  at  the  bottom  of  the  order. — 
Plinth  of  a  statue,  is  a  base,  flat,  round, 
or  square. — Plintk  of  a  u-atl,  two  or 
three  rows  of  bricks  advanced  from  the 
wall,  in  form  of  a  flatband  ;  and,  in  gen- 
eral, any  flat,  high  moulding,  that  serves 
in  a  front  wall  to  mark  the  floors,  to  sus- 
tain the  eaves  of  a  wall,  or  the  larmier 
of  a  chimney. 

PLOT,  any  stratagem  or  plan  of  a  com- 
plicated nature,  adapted  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  some  mischievous  purpose  ; 
as  a  plot  against  the  government,  or 
against  the  life  of  a  person. — Plot,  in  dra- 
matic writings,  the  fable  of  a  tragedy  or 
c(unedy,  but  more  particularly  the  knot 
or  intrigue,  comprising  a  complication  of 
incidents  which  are  ultimately  unfolded  — 
Flat,  in  surveying,  the  plan  or  draught  of 
any  field,  farm,  &c.  survej'ed  with  an  in- 
strument, and  laid  down  in  the  proper 
figure  and  dimensions. 

PLU'TEUS,  the  wall  sometimes  made 
use  of  to  close  the  intervals  between  the 
columns  of  a  building;  it  was  either  of 
stone  or  some  less  durable  material  when 
it  occurreil  in  the  interior  of  a  buililing. 
The  pUiteus  was  nlso  a  kind  of  podium 
interposed  between  two  orders  of  columns, 
where  one  was  placed  above  the  other. — • 
A  movable  gallery  on  wheels,  shaped  like 
an  arched  sort  of  wagon,  used  by  besieg- 
ers for  the  protection  of  their  archers, 
who  were  stationed  on  it  to  clear  the 
walls  with  their  arrows. 

PLU'TUS,  the  god  of  riches,  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Jasius  and  Deraeter 
or  Ceres.  There  are  no  particulars  known 
as  to  his  worship;  but  he  is  introduced 
as  an  actor  in  the  play  of  Aristophanes 
which  bears  his  name,  and  he  bears  a 
part  also  in  the  Tiinon  nf  Lucian. 

PLU'TO.  in  (ircek  anil  Roman  mythol- 
ogy, the  brother  of  Ju]ilter  and  Neptune, 
and  lord  of  the  infernal  regions.  lie  is 
represented  as  an  old  in:in  with  a.  digni- 
fied but  severe  aspect,  holding  in  his  hand 
a  two-pronged  fork.  lie  was  generally 
called  by  the  Greeks  Hades,  and  by  the 
Romans  Orcus  and  Bis.     His  wife  was 


Pluto  and  Proserpine. 

Proserpine,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and 
Ceres,  whom  Pluto  seized  in  the  island 
of  Sicilj'  while  she  was  plucking  flowers, 
and  carried  to  the  lower  world. 

PO'DIUM,  (Latin,)  in  architecture, 
the  part  in  an  amphitheatre  projecting 
over  the  arena,  above  which  it  was  raised 
about  12  or  1.5  feet :  in  this  part  sat  the 
personages  of  distinction.  The  word  is 
also  used  to  signify  a  balcony. 

PCE'CILE,  a  celebrated  portico  or 
gallery  at  Athens,  where  Zeno  inculcated 
his  doctrines.  The  Poecile  was  adorned 
with  the  statues  of  gods  and  benefactors  ; 
and  the  picture  of  Polygnotus,  so  well- 
known  to  the  classical  reader,  which  rep- 
resented Miltiades  at  the  head  of  the 
1000  Greeks  at  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
was  here  suspended  for  ages. 

PO'EM,  a  metrical  composition;  a 
composition  in  which  the  verses  consist  of 
certain  measures,  whether  in  blank  verse 
or  in  rhyme  ;  as,  the  poems  of  Homer  or 
of  Milton  ;  opposed  to  prose. — This  term 
is  also  applied  to  some  compositions  in 
which  the  language  is  that  of  excited 
imagination  ;  as  the  poems  of  Ossian. 

PO'ET,  one  who  has  a  particular 
genius  for  metrical  composition,  combin- 
ed with  those  higher  requisites  which  be- 
long to  a  lively  imagination,  and  a  keen 
sense  of  the  beauties  of  nature.  Many 
write  verses  who  have  no  just  claim  to 
the  title  of  poets,  and  yet  such  writers 
may  be  many  ilegrees  beyond  those  versi- 
fying scribes  who,  in  derision,  are  termed 
poetasters. 

POET'ICAL  JUS'TICE,  a  term  often 
used  in  speaking  of  dramatic  writings,  to 
denote  a  distribution  of  rewards  and  pun- 


480 


CYCLOI'KniA    OF    LITKIlATr  liE 


ishinenls  to  tlie  several  characters  at  the 
catastrophe  or  close  of  a  piece. 

POET  LAUREATE,  the  appellation 
given  to  a  poet  whose  duty  it  is  to  com- 
pose birth-day  odes,  and  other  poems  of 
rejoicing,  for  the  monarch  in  whose  ser- 
vice he  is  retained.  The  laureate's  post 
in  England  is  at  present  filled  by  Alfred 
Tennyson,  and  the  services  formerly 
required  are  dispensed  with.  The  first 
mention  of  a  king's  poet  in  England,  un- 
der the  title  of  poet  laureate,  occurs  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  Poeta  laiirea- 
tus  was,  however,  also  an  academical  title 
•in  England,  conferred  by  the  universities 
when  the  candidates  received  the  degrees 
in  grammar  (which  included  rhetoric  and 
versification  )  The  last  instance  of  a  !au- 
reated  degree  at  Oxford  occurs  in  1512. 
Ben  Jonson  was  court  poet  to  James  I. 
and  received  a  pension,  but  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  the  title  of  laureate  formal- 
ly granted  him.  Dryden  was  appointed 
laureate  to  Charles  II..  and  afterwards 
to  James  II.,  by  regular  patent  under 
privv  seal.  Nahum  Tate,  Kowc,  Eusdcn, 
Cibbcr,  Whitehead,  T.  Warton,  Pye, 
Southey, Wordsworth,  and  Tennyson,  (the 
last  of  whom  was  appointed  in  1851  ) 

PO'ETRY.  To  produce  a  complete  and 
satisfactory  de6nition  of  poetry  has  been, 
hitherto,  unsuccessfully  attempted  by 
writers  on  taste,  and  by  poets  themselves. 
A  popular  one,  sufficiently  adapted  to 
general  notions,  is  furnished  by  the  doyen 
of  living  critics.  Lord  Jefl'rey  :  "  The  end 
of  poetrj-  is  to  please  ;  and  the  name,  we 
think,  is  strictly  ajiplicable  to  every  met- 
rical composition  from  which  we  derive 
pleasure  without  any  laborious  exercise 
of  the  understanding."  But,  in  the  first 
place,  it  has  been  truly  observed  that 
"verse  is  the  limit  by  which  poetry  is 
bounded:  it  is  the  adjunct  of  poetry,  but 
not  its  living  principle."  "  Poetry,"  says 
Coleridge,  "  is  not  the  proper  antithesis 
to  prose,  but  to  science.  Poetry  is  op- 
posed to  science,  and  prose  to  metre." 
"The  proper  and  immediate  object  of 
Bcience  is  the  acquirement  or  communi- 
cation of  truth  ;  the  proper  and  immedi- 
ate object  of  p"etry  is  the  communication 
of  immediate  pleasure."  It  is  essentially  a 
creative  art :  its  operation  is  "  making," 
not  transcribing.  "Imitation"  it  is,  as 
Aristotle  defines  it;  not  because  it  copies, 
but  because  it  has  its  model  in  nature, 
and  can  never  depart  far  from  it  without 
losing  its  character.  Lord  Bacon  ex- 
]>lains  this  by  saying,  that  poetry  "doth 
raise  and  erect  the  mind,  by  submittin'j; 
the  shoves  of  things  to  the  desire  of  the 


mind"  The  imngination  alters  these 
"shows  of  things"  by  adding  or  subtract- 
ing qualities,  and  poetry  produces  to  view 
the  forms  which  result  from  the  operation. 

1.  Imagination  is,  empiiatically,  the 
great  poetical  faculty.  It  is  "the  first 
moving  orcreative  principle  of  the  mind, 
which  fashions  out  of  materials  previous- 
ly existing,  new  materials  and  original 
truths."  It  is  "  a  complex  i)ower,  in- 
cluding those  faculties  which  are  called 
by  metaphysicians  conception,  abstrac- 
tion, and  judgment :"  the  first  enabling 
us  to  form  a  notion  of  objects  of  percep- 
tion and  knowledge  ;  the  second  "  sepa- 
rating the  selected  materials  from  the 
qualities  and  circumstai\ces  which  are 
connected  with  them  in  nature ;"  the 
third  selecting  the  materials.  Its  opera- 
tions are  most  various,  and  it  exhibits 
itself  in  poetry  in  very  dilTcrent  degrees 
and  forms.  It  may  shine  here  and  there, 
chiefly  in  comparison,  or  in  hold  and 
pleasing  metaphor,  breaking  tlie  chain 
of  a  narrative,  as  in  Homer  and  the 
earlier  poetry  of  most  nations ;  it  may 
hurry  image  on  image,  connected  only 
by  those  exquisite  links  of  thought  which 
are  present  in  the  mind  of  the  poet,  in 
daring,  compressed,  rapid  language,  a^s 
if  language  were  inadequate  to  its  ex- 
pression, as  in  the  inspired  prophets,  in 
^Eschylus,  and  often  in  Shakspeare;  it 
may  preilominate  in  entire  sustained 
conceptions,  grasping  at  general  features, 
as  in  Milton  ;  it  may  cling  more  eiosely 
to  the  "shows  of  things,"  dwelling  in 
particulars,  reproducing  with  startling 
vividness  images  little  altered,  graphic, 
and  minute,  as  in  Dante. 

2.  No  distinction  has  given  critics  more 
trouble,  in  the  way  of  definition,  than 
that  between  imagination  and  fancy. 
"  Fancy,"  it  has  been  said,  "  is  given  to 
beguile  and  quicken  the  temporal  part 
of  our  nature;  imagination  to  incite  and 
supi)ort  the  eternal."  "  Tiie  distinction 
between  fancy  and  imagination,"  says 
another,  "  is  simply  that  the  former  alto- 
gether changes  and  remodels  the  original 
idea,  impregnating  it  with  soinctliing  ex- 
traneous ;  the  latter  leaves  it  undisturbed, 
but  associates  it  with  things  to  which  in 
some  view  or  other  it  bears  a  resem- 
blance." 

3.  Lord  Jeffrey  associates  with  the 
pleasure  of  imagination  that  derived  from 
"the  easy  exercise  of  reason."  This  is 
produced  chiefly  by  the  faculties  of 
thonglit,  wit,  and  reflecf'on.  It  may,  in- 
deed, be  >loul)tcd  whethv,  :  the  expression 
of  tliought,  however  energetic  and  acute, 


toe] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


481 


clad  in  current  poetieal  diction,  is  roally 
poetry.  Certainly  it  is  so,  if  at  all,  in  a 
very  inferior  degree  to  that  of  the  iina- 
giuation. 

4.  The  expression  of  passion,  sentiment, 
or  pathos,  is  the  most  common  and  uni- 
versal of  all  sources  of  poetical  pleasure. 
It  is  the  very  soul  of  all  early  and  simple 
poetry;  it  pervades  no  less  that  of  the 
most  civilized  communities.  Yet  this 
class  of  poetry  is  less  truly  and  emphati- 
cally poetical  than  the  imaginative,  al- 
though more  popular.  The  pleasure  oc- 
casioned by  it  is  of  a  mi.ved  nature  :  it 
arises  from  the  excitement  of  peculiar 
sympathies.,  not  produced,  but  heightened 
only,  by  the  form  in  which  that  excite- 
ment is  conveyed. 

5.  The  dramatic  faculty,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken,  seems  to  consist  in 
acute  powers  of  observation  of  the  varie- 
ties of  human  character,  together  with 
the  rarer  power  of  delineating  it  with 
such  force  as  to  bring  the  imaginary  per- 
son distinctly  before  the  reader.  It  is  the 
wonderful  and  unique  characteristic  of 
Shakspeare,  in  whom  all  individualit}-, 
as  has  often  been  observed,  seems  abso- 
lutely lost. 

6.  The  descriptive  faculty  is  of  the  same 
kind  ;  that  of  bringing  the  objects  of  ex- 
ternal nature,  or  passing  scenes  of  what- 
ever sort,  vividly  before  the  reader's  fancy. 
It  is  obvious  that  this  also  is  a  faculty  com- 
mon to  poets  with  many  others  who  are 
not  so  :  but  sustained  energy  of  descrip- 
tion, as  in  Homer,  forms  a  magnificent 
groundwork  for  strictly  poetical  ornament. 
In  the  poetry  of  modern  times,  especially 
in  this  country,  and  in  Germany,  the 
description  of  external  nature  has  been 
made  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  im- 
agination and  reflection  by  writers  of 
high  genius  ;  and  this  combination  pecu- 
liarly characterizes  the  taste  of  the  ago. 

7.  Lord  Jeffrey  ranks  last  the  pleasure 
derived  from  diction  as  of  a  secondary 
order,  which  it  undoubtedly  is,  and  yet 
almost  essential.  The  highest  poetry, 
without  beauty  of  style,  is  rarely  or  never 
popular.  AVe  have  no  space  to  charac- 
terize minutely  this  poetical  quality  ;  but 
by  way  of  example,  it  may  suffice  to  ob- 
serve that  Virgil  is,  perhaps,  of  all  poets, 
he  of  whose  charm  the  greatest  propor- 
tion is  derived  /rom  simple  beauty  and 
felieity  of  diction  ;  through  a  whole  range 
of  ill-chosen  subjects,  always  graceful, 
always  equable,  and  as  nearly  approach- 
ing to  faultlessness  as  human  skill  can 
construct. 

8.  Lastly,  we  must  not  ohiit  the  pleas- 


ure  of  vichdij  :  not  essential  to  poetry, 
since  there  may  be  poetry  without  verse; 
not  alwaj's  a  merit  of  the  poet's  own, 
since  much  depends  on  the  language  ;  and 
a  Greek  or  Italian  poet,  caitcris  paribus, 
will  ever  be  preferable  to  an  English  or 
German  one  on  this  account  alone  ;  but 
a  grace  which  heightens  the  charm  of 
the  noblest  poetrj',  and  sometimes  capti- 
vates the  sense  even  in  the  most  indiffer- 
ent. 

Dr.  Channingsays,  "In  an  intellectual 
nature,  framed  for  progress  and  for  higher 
modes  of  being,  there  must  be  creative 
energies,  powers  of  original  and  ever- 
growing thought ;  and  poetry  is  th  /  form 
in  which  those  energies  are  chiefly  mani- 
fested. It  is  the  glorious  prerogative  of 
this  art  that  '  it  makes  all  things  new' 
for  the  gratification  of  a  divine  instinct. 
It  indeed  finds  its  elements  in  what  it 
actually  sees  and  experiences  in  the 
worlds  of  matter  and  mind  ;  but  it  com- 
bines and  blends  these  into  new  forms  and 
according  to  new  affinities  ;  breaks  down, 
if  we  may  so  say,  the  distinctions  and 
bounds  of  nature  ;  imparts  to  material 
objects  life,  and  sentiment,  and  emotion, 
and  invests  the  mind  with  the  powers  and 
splendors  of  the  outward  creation  ;  de- 
scribes the  surrounding  universe  in  the 
colors  which  the  passions  throw  over  it, 
and  depicts  the  mind  in  those  moments 
of  repose  or  agitation,  of  tenderness  or 
sublime  emotion,  which  manifests  its  thirst 
for  a  more  powerful  and  joyful  existence. 
To  a  man  of  a  literal  and  prosaic  char- 
acter, the  mind  may  seem  lawless  in 
these  workings  ;  but  it  observes  higher 
laws  than  it  transgresses,  the  laws  of  the 
immortal  intellect;  it  is  trying  and  de- 
veloping its  best  faculties ;  and  in  the 
objects  which  it  describes,  or  in  the  emo- 
tions which  it  awakens,  anticipates  those 
states  of  progressive  power,  splendor, 
beauty,  and  happiness,  for  which  it  was 
created.  We  accordingly  believe  that 
poetry,  far  from  injuring  society,  is  one 
of  the  great  instruments  of  its  refinement 
and  exaltation.  It  lifts  the  mind  above 
ordinary  life,  gives  it  a  respite  from  de- 
pressing cares,  and  awakens  the  conscious- 
ness of  its  affinity  with  what  is  pure  and 
noble.  In  its  legitimate  and  highest 
efforts  it  has  the  same  tendency  and 
aim  with  Christianity;  that  is  to  spiritu- 
alize our  nature.  True,  poetry  has  been 
made  the  instrument  of  vice,  the  pander 
of  bad  passions  :  but,  when  genius  thus 
stoops,  it  dims  its  fires,  and  parts  with 
much  of  its  power;  and,  even  when  poe- 
try is  enslaved  to  licentiousness  or  misan- 


482 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEKATrRE 


[POI. 


thropy,  she  cannot  wholly  forget  her  true 
vocation.  Strains  of  pure  feeling,  touch- 
es of  ten'lcrncss,  images  of  innocent  hap- 
piness, syrnpatliies  with  suffering  virtue, 
bursts  of  scorn  or  indignation  at  the 
hollowness  of  the  world,  \i  ><-^  iges  true  to 
our  moral  nature,  often  escMpe  in  an  im- 
moral work,  and  show  us  how  hard  it  is 
for  a  gifted  spirit  to  divorce  itself  wholly 
from  what  is  good.  Poetry  has  a  natural 
alliance  with  our  best  affections.  It  de- 
lights in  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  the 
outward  creation  and  of  the  soul.  It 
indeed  portrays  with  terrible  energy  the 
e.vcessos  of  the  j)assions  ;  but  they  are 
passions  which  show  n,  mighty  nature, 
which  are  full  of  power,  whicli  command 
awe,  and  c.\cite  a  deep  though  shuddering 
sympathy.  Its  great  tendency  and  ])ur- 
pose  is,  to  carry  the  mind  above  and 
heyond  the  be.aten,  dusty,  weary  walks 
of  ordinary  life  ;  to  lift  it  into  a  purer 
clement,  and  to  breathe  into  it  more  pro- 
found ami  generous  emotion.  It  reveals 
to  us  the  loveliness  of  nature,  brings  back 
the  freshness  of  youthful  feeling,  revives 
the  relish  of  simple  pleasures,  keeps 
unquenchcd  the  enthusiasm  which  warm- 
ed the  spring-time  of  our  being,  refines 
youthful  love,  strengthens  our  interest 
in  human  nuture  by  vivid  delineations 
of  its  tenderest  and  loftiest  feelings, 
spreads  our  sympathies  over  all  classes 
of  society,  knits  us  by  new  ties  with  uni- 
versal being,  and  through  the  brightness 
of  its  prophetic  visions,  helps  faith  to 
lay  hold  on  the  future  life.  It  is  not  true 
that  the  poet  paints  a  life  which  does 
not  exist.  He  only  extracts  and  concen- 
trates, as  it  were,  life's  ethereal  essence, 
arrests  and  cimdenses  its  volatile  fra- 
grance, brings  together  its  scattered  beau- 
ties, and  prolongs  its  more  refined  but 
evanescent  joys  ;  and  in  this,  he  does  well  ; 
for  it  is  good  to  feel  that  life  is  not 
•wholly  usurped  by  cares  for  subsistence 
and  physical  gratifications,  but  admits, 
in  measures  which  may  bo  intlcfinitely 
enlarged,  sentiments  and  delights  worthy 
of  a  higher  being  " 

POINT,  in  music,  a  mark  or  note  an- 
ciently used  to  liistinguish  tones  or 
sounds.  Ilcnce,  simple  counterpoint  is 
when  a  note  of  the  lower  part  answers 
exactly  to  that  of  the  upper  :  and  figura- 
tive counterpoint  is  when  a  note  is  synco- 
pated, ami  f)ne  of  the  ])arts  makes  several 
notes  or  inflections  of  the  voice,  while  the 
other  holds  on  mie.  —  Ii  modern  music,  a 
dot  placed  by  a  note  to  raise  its  value  or 
prolong  its  time  by  one  half,  so  as  to 
make  aseraibreve  equal  to  three  minims  ;  i 


a  minim  equal  to  three  quavers,  Ac. — A 
character  used  to  mark  the  divisions  of 
writing,  or  the  pauses  to  be  observed  in 
reading  or  speaking  ;  as  the  comma,  sem- 
icolon, colon,  and  period.  The  period  is 
called  a/u/Zslop,  as  it  marks  the  close  of 
a  sentence. — Particular  ;  single  thing  or 
subject.  In  what  point  do  we  differ  7  All 
points  of  controversy  between  the  parties 
are  adjusteil.  We  say,  in  point  of  antiqui- 
ty, in  point  of  fact,  in  point  of  excellence. 
The  letter  in  every  point  is  admirable. 
The  treaty  is  executed  in  every  point. 

POLA'CRE,  a  vessel  with  three  masts, 
used  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  masts 
are  usually  of  one  piece,  so  that  they 
have  neither  tops,  caps,  nor  cross-trees, 
nor  horses  to  their  upper  j-.ards. 

POL'EMARCII.  in  antiquity,  ai  Athe- 
nian magistrate  whose  duty  it  was  ;  » take 
care  that  the  children  of  such  as  lost  their 
lives  in  their  country's  service  were  main- 
tained out  of  the  jiublic  treasury.  lie  had 
also  the  care  of  sojourners  and  stran- 
gers in  Athens;  his  authority  over  them 
being  equal  to  that  of  the  archon  over  the 
citizens. 

POLEM'ICS,  controversial  writings, 
particularly  applied  to  controversies  on 
matters  of  divinity. 

POLE'-.STAR,  or  PO'LAR  STAR,  in 
astronomy,  a  star  of  the  second  magni- 
tude, the  last  in  the  tail  of  Ursa  Minor, 
which  is  nearly  vertical  to  the  pole  of  the 
earth.  Owing  to  its  proximity,  it  never 
sets  ;  it  is  therefore  of  great  use  to  nav- 
igators in  the  northern  hemisphere,  in 
determining  the  latitudes,  kc. 

POLICE',  is  a  term  employed  to  desig- 
nate those  regulations  which  have  for 
their  object  to  secure  the  maintenance  of 
good  order,  cleanliness,  health,  itc.  in 
cities  ami  country  districts;  and  it  is  also 
used  to  designate  the  description  of  force 
by  which  these  objects  are' effected.  This 
force  differs  from  military  in  its  being 
commanded  by  civil  ofiioers  and  not  be- 
ing under  military  law  ;  but  it  is  general- 
ly drilled  and  armed  in  a  half  military 
manner,  and  has  a  distinctive  uniform. 
The  police  force  is  employed  alike  to  pre- 
vent and  delect  offences ;  and  may  be 
either  ojjcn  or  secret.  By  an  open  police 
is  meant  officers  dressoil  in  their  ac- 
customed uniform,  and  known  to  every- 
body; while  by  a  secret  police  is  meant 
officers  whom  it  may  be  difficult  or  im- 
possible to  distinguish  from  certain  classes 
of  citizens,  whose  dress  and  manners  they 
may  think  it  expedient  to  assume.  The 
latter  are  employed  that  they  may.  with- 
out exciting  Che  suspicion  of  guilty  par- 


pol] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


483 


ties,  or  of  those  who  are  projecting  some 
outrage,  acquire  their  conruletice,  and  by 
making  themselves  masters  of  their  se- 
crets, secure  their  apprehension  or  pre- 
vent the  outrage. 

POIj'ICV,  in  its  primary  signification, 
is  the  same  as  polity,  comprehemling  the 
fumlainental  constitution  or  frame  of 
civil  government  in  a  state  or  kingdom. 
But  by  usage,  jyoliaj  is  now  more  gen- 
erally used  to  denote  what  is  included 
under  legislation  and  administration, 
and  may  be  defined,  the  art  or  manner  of 
governing  a  nation  ;  or  that  system  of 
measures  which  the  sovereign  of  a  coun- 
try adopts  and  pursues,  as  the  best  adapt- 
ed to  the  interests  of  the  nation.  Thus 
we  speak  of  domestic  policy,  or  the  sys- 
tem of  internal  regulations  in  a  nation; 
J'o)-eign  policy,  or  the  measures  which 
respect  foreign  nations;  commercial  pol- 
icy, or  the  measures  which  respect  com- 
merce.— -Policy,  in  commerce,  the  writing 
or  instruction  by  which  a  contract  of 
indemnity  is  effected  between  the  insurer 
and  the  insured  ;  or  the  instrument  con- 
taining the  terms  or  conditions  on  which 
a  person  or  company  undertakes  to  indem- 
nify another  person  or  company  against 
losses  of  property  exposed  to  peculiar 
hazards,  as  houses  or  goods  exposeil  to 
fire,  or  ships  and  goods  exposed  to  de- 
struction on  the  high  seas.  The  terms 
policy  of  insurance  or  assurance,  are  also 
useil  for  the  contract  between  the  insurer 
and  the  insured.  Policies  are  trained  or 
open  ;  valued,  when  the  property  or 
goods  insured  are  valued  at  prime  cost ; 
open,  when  the  goods  are  not  valued,  but 
if  lost,  their  value  must  be  proved. 

POLITE'NES.S,  polished  manners,  or 
that  conduct  towards  others  wiiich  good 
will  in  the  first  place,  and  good  sense  in 
the  second,  imperiously  dictates.  It 
unites  gracefulness  and  gentility  of  be- 
havior with  an  obliging  willingness  to 
conform  to  the  wants  and  wishes  of 
others.  ^ 

POLIT'ICAL  ARITHMETIC,  the  art 
of  making  arithmetical  calculations  on 
matters  relating  to  a  nation,  its  revenues, 
value  of  lands  and  effects,  produce  of 
lands  or  manufactures,  population,  and 
the  general  statistics  of  a  country. 

POLIT'ICAL  ECON'OMY,  the  science 
of  the  laws  which  regulate  the  production, 
distribution,  and  consumption  of  the  pro- 
ducts, necessary,  useful,  or  agreeable  to 
man,  which  it  requires  some  portion  of 
voluntary  labor  to  produce,  procure,  or 
preserve.  It  must  be  observed,  liowever, 
that    the    limits   of  this    department   of 


I  knowledge  are  not  yet  nccurately  defined  , 
i  hence  much  discussion  has  arisen  among 
j  different  writers  as  to  its  extent,  object, 
and  the  various  subjects  to  be  c(impre- 
hended  under  it.  It  is,  in  genernl,  said 
of  political  economy,  that  its  object  is 
to  ascertain  the  circumstances  most  f;i- 
vorable  for  the  production  of  wealth,  and 
the  laws  which  determine  its  distribution, 
among  the  different  ranks  and  orders  into 
which  society  is  divided  ;  and  this  defini- 
tion seems  quite  unexceptionable,  pro- 
vided it  be  clearly  understood,  that  by 
wealth,  in  this  science,  is  meant  only 
those  articles  or  products  which  require 
some  portion  of  human  industry  for  their 
production,  acquisition,  or  preservation, 
and  which,  consequently,  possess  ex- 
changeable value.  The  principal  topics 
discussed  by  political  economists  are  : — 
1.  The  definition  of  wealth;  2.  of  pro- 
ductive and  unproductive  labor;  3.  on 
the  nature  and  measures  of  value  ;  4.  on 
the  rent  of  land;  5.  the  wages  of  labor; 
6.  the  profits  of  capital ;  7.  the  results 
of  machinery  ;  8.  the  circulating  medium 
or  currency  ;  9  the  nature  and  conditions 
of  commerce,  or  exchange  of  commodities. 
Continental  writers  on  political  economy 
not  only  treat  of  the  principles  which 
govern  the  production  and  accumulation 
of  wealth,  and  its  distribution  and  con- 
sumption, but  also  introduce  in  their 
systems  inquiries  into  the  principles  ac- 
cording to  which  the  governments  of 
states  may  be  organized  so  as  to  promote 
in  the  best  manner  the  well-being  of  those 
subjected  to  their  authority ;  but  this 
last  subject  belongs  properly  to  general 
politics. 

POL'ITICS,  the  science  of  government; 
that  part  of  ethics  which  consists  in  the 
regulation  and  government  of  a  nation 
or  state,  for  the  preservation  of  its  safe- 
ty, peace,  and  prosperity  ;  comprehend- 
ing the  defence  of  its  independence  anil 
rights  against  foreign  control  or  conquest, 
the  augmentation  of  its  strength  and 
resources,  and  the  protection  of  its  citi- 
zens in  their  rights,  with  the  preservation 
and  improvement  of  their  morals — Poli- 
tics, in  its  widest  extent,  is  both  the 
science  and  the  art  of  government,  or 
the  science  whose  subject  is  the  regula- 
tion of  man,  in  all  his  relations  as  the 
member  of  a  state,  and  the  application  of 
this  science.  In  other  words,  it  is  the 
theory  and  practice  of  obtaining  the  enda 
of  civil  society  as  perfectly  as  possible. 
The  subjects  which  political  science 
comprises  have  been  arranged  under  the 
following    heads: — 1.  Natural    law;    2, 


484 


CVCI.OPKDIA    OF    MTKUATniK 


[I'OL 


abstract  politics,  tli;»t  is,  the  object  of  a 
state,  and  the  relations  between  it  and 
individual  citizens  ;  3.  politic;il  economj' ; 
4.  the  science  of  police,  or  municipal  reg- 
ulation :  5.  practical  politics,  or  the 
conduct  of  the  iiuuiediate  public  affairs 
of  a  state;  6.  history  of  politics;  7.  his- 
tory of  the  Eurojiean  system  of  states, 
being  the  only  system  in  which  the 
modern  art  of  politics  has  received  a  prac- 
tical development ;  8.  statistics;  9.  posi- 
tive law  relating  to  slate  affairs,  com- 
luonly  called  constitutional  law;  10.  prac- 
tical law  of  nations  ;  11.  diplomacy;  I'i. 
the  technical  science  of  politics,  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  forms  and  style  of 
public  business  in  different  countries.  In 
common  parlance  we  understand  by  the 
politics  of  a  country  the  course  of  its  gov- 
ernment, more  particularly  as  respects 
its  relations  with  foreign  nations. 

PUL'ITY,  the  form  or  constitution  of 
civil  government  of  a  nation  or  state  ; 
and  in  free  states,  the  frame  or  funda- 
mental system  by  which  the  several 
branches  of  government  are  established, 
and  the  powers  and  duties  of  each  desig- 
nated and  defined.  The  word  seems  also 
to  embrace  legislation  and  administra- 
tion of  government. — 2.  The  constitution 
or  general  fundamental  principles  of  gov- 
ernment of  any  class  of  citizens,  consider- 
ed in  an  appropriate  character,  or  as  a 
subordinate  state. 

POLL,  in  elections,  the  register  of 
those  who  give  their  vote,  containing 
their  name,  place  of  residence,  &c.  Also 
the  place  where  the  votes  are  registered; 
as  "we  are  going  to  the  poll;"  "several 
electors  were  unable  to  get  to  the  poll," 
Ac. 

POLL  TAX.  a  tax  still  levied  in  many 
of  the  continental  states,  and  formerly 
also  in  England,  in  proportion  to  the 
rank  or  fortune  of  the  individual.  In 
England  this  species  of  tax  was  first 
levied  in  1378;  and,  as  is  well  knov.n,  it 
was  from  the  brutality  with  which  the 
levying  of  it  was  accompanied,  that  the 
rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler  took  its  rise  in 
1381.  A'arious  poll  taxes  were  levied  at 
different  ])eriods  in  the  subsequent  his- 
tory of  England;  but  they  were  finally 
iiboli.><hed  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 
i>re  Tax.^tion. 

POLONOISE',  in  music,  a  movement 
of  three  crotchets  in  a  bar,  with  the 
rhvthiniciil  cnstira  on  the  last. 

'P()LYANT()(;'RAI'11Y,  the  act  or 
practice  of  multiplying  copies  of  one's 
own  hand-writing,  by  engraving  on  stone  ; 
u  species  of  lithography. 


POL' Y  ARC  II Y,  a  word  sometimes  u.sed 
by  political  writers  in  a  sense  opposed  to 
monarchy  :  the  government  of  many, 
whether  a  privileged  class  (aristocracy.) 
or  the  jieople  at  large  (democracy.) 

POL'YCIIHUMY,  a  modern  term  used 
to  express  the  ancient  practice  of  color 
ing  statues,  and  the  exteriors  and  inte- 
riors of  buildings.  This  praclice  dates 
from  the  highest  antiquity,  but  probably 
reached  its  greatQst  perfection  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

POLYCj'AMY,  a  plurality  of  wives  or 
husbands  al  the  same  time.  In  some 
countries,  as  in  Turkey  for  instance, 
polygamy  is  allowed  ;  but  by  the  laws 
of  England,  polygamy  is  made  felony, 
except  in  the  case  of  absence  beyond  the 
seas  for  seven  j-ears.  Polygamy  pre- 
vailed among  the  Jewish  patriarchs,  both 
before  and  under  the  Mosaic  law ;  but 
the  state  of  manners  had  probably  be- 
come reformed  in  this  respect  before  the 
time  of  Christ,  for  in  the  New  Testament 
we  meet  no  trace  of  its  practice.  Polyg- 
amy has  been  allowed  under  all  the  re- 
ligions which  have  prevailed  in  Asia. 
By  the  laws  of  Mohammed,  every  Mus- 
sulman is  permitted  to  have  a  plurality 
of  wives:  the  Arabs,  however,  seldom 
avail  themselves  of  this  privilege  The 
ancient  Komans  never  practised  it, 
though  it  was  not  forbidden  among  them  ; 
and  Mark  Antony  is  mentioned  as  the 
first  who  took  the  liberty  of  having  two 
wives.  From  that  time  it  became  fre- 
quent in  the  Roman  empire,  till  the 
reigns  of  Theodosius,  llonorius,  and  Ar- 
eadius,  who  prohibited  it  a.d.  393. 

POL'YlJLOT,  a  word  generally  applied 
to  such  lliblcs  as  have  been  printed  with 
the  text  represented  in  various  languages, 
The  most  ancient  instance  of  this  parallel 
representation  of  various  texts  is  the 
work  of  Origen,  knoun  by  the  name  of 
the  He.i-iiphi,  in  imitatinii  of  which  seve- 
ral similar  editions  of  the  Scriptures  have 
been  pulilishcl  since  the  invention  of 
printing:  of  which  the  most  important 
are,  1.  T/ie  Coinpliitengian,  or  edition 
of  Cardinal  Ximoncs,  priiitc  I  !it  Alcala 
in  Spain,  1515,  in  four  languages,  com- 
prehended in  six  vols.,  fofio.  2.  The  Ant- 
■wcrp  I'vhji^lut,  by  Montanus,  8  vols., 
folio,  15(i».'.3.  The  Puiis  Polyglot,  by 
Le  Jay,  10  vols  ,  folio,  1628-15.  4.  The 
Unglisk  or  Waltou^s  I'ohjslot,  London, 
11557.  These  contain  among  them  the 
Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritar 
texts,  with  Latin  versions  each  :  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  the  (ireek  of  the  New  Testament 
the  Italic  and  the  Vulgate. 


pon] 


AND    TIIK     FINK     AIHS. 


485 


POL'YGRAPir,  an  instrument  for  mul- 
tiplying copies  of  a  writing  with  ease 
and  expedition. 

POLYd'RAPIIY,  the  art  of  writing 
in  various  ciphers,  and  deciphering  tlie 
same. 

POLYHYMNIA,  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  the  muse  that  presided 
over  lyric  poetry,  to  whom  is  attributed 
the  invention  of  mimes  and  pantomimes. 
13y  the  (irecian  artists  she  is  represented 
c.Tverod  with  a  veil,  and  in  a  meditating 
posture.  Her  attributes  are  the  lyre  and 
the  jilectrum.  She  places  the  forefinger 
of  her  xight  hand  upon  her  mouth,  or 
holds  a  scroll. 

P  0  L  Y  M  '  A  T  H  Y,  the  knowledge  of 
many  arts  and  sciences.  Hence  a  person 
who  is  acquainted  with  many  branches 
of  learning  is  styled  a  polijmath. 

POL'YSTYLE,  a  term  applied  to  an 
edifice,  the  columns  of  which  are  too  nu- 
merous to  be  readily  counted ;  which 
reminds  us  of  an  old  tradition  respecting 
the  pillars  at  Stonehenge — namely,  that 
no  two  persons  ever  counted  their  num- 
ber alike  on  the  first  trial. 

POL'YSYLLABLE,  in  grammar,  a 
word  consisting  of  more  syllables  than 
three  ;  for  when  a  word  consists  of  one, 
two,  or  three  syllables,  it  is  called  a 
monosyllable,  dissyllable,  and  trisyllable. 

POLYSYN'DETON,  in  grammar  and 
rhetoric,  a  figure  in  which  a  redundance 
of  conjunctions,  especially  copulative  ones, 
is  used  ;  as,  "'  we  have  armies  and  fleets 
and  gold  and  stores — all  the  sinews  of 
war." 

POLY'TECH'NIC,  an  epithet  denoting 
or  comprehending  many  arts  ;  as,  a. 
polytechnic  school ;  the  Polytechnic  Gal- 
lery.— The  Polytechnic  School,  in 
France,  was  established  by  ii  decree  of 
the  national  convention  of  March  lltli, 
1794,  which  was  passed  by  the  influence 
of  Monge,  Carnot,  Fourcroy,  &c.  It  is 
now  established  in  the  buildings  of  the 
ancient  college  of  Navarre.  Napoleon 
did  much  for  it,  and  under  him  it  re- 
ceived considerable  modifications.  The 
pupils  were  obliged  to  live  in  the  build- 
ing, and  wear  a  uniform.  Its  object  is  to 
diffuse  a  knowledge  of  the  mathematical, 
phj'sical,  and  chemical  sciences,  and  to 
prepare  the  jiupils  for  the  artillery  ser- 
vice and  the  various  departments  of 
engineering,  military,  naval,  and  civil. 
The  number  of  pupils  is  limited  to  300. 
The  terms  for  the  students  not  supported 
on  the  foundation  are  1000  francs  a  year, 
independent  of  the  expense  of  uniform 
and  books.     The   pupil,  at   the   timo  of 


admission,  must  be  more  than  si.vteen 
and  less  than  twenty  years  old.  The 
course  of  studies  lasts  two  years,  in  cer- 
tain cases  three.  A  rigorous  examination 
precedes  admission,  and  another  exami- 
nation takes  place  before  the  pupils 
leave  the  institution,  and  it  is  invariably 
attended  by  the  greater  number  of  the 
marshals  of  France,  together  with  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  scholars. 

POMCE'RIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  space 
of  ground  both  within  and  without  the 
walls,  which  the  augurs  consecrated  oq 
the  first  building  of  any  city. 

POMO'NA,  the  Italian  goddess  of 
fruit-trees.  Her  worship  was  assiduously 
cultivated  at  Rome,  where  there  was  a 
Jlamen  pornoiialis.  who  sacrificed  to  her 
every  year  for  the  preservation  of  the 
fruit. 

POM'PA  CIRCEN'SIS,  or  CEREA'- 
LIS,  in  antiquit}',  a  procession  exhibited 
at  the  Ludi  Cereales  of  the  Romans, 
consisting  of  a  solemn  march  of  the  per- 
sons who  were  to  engage  in  the  exercises 
of  the  circus,  attended  by  the  magistrates 
and  ladies  of  quality  ;  the  statues  of  tho 
gods  and  illustrious  men  being  carried 
along  in  state  on  wagons  called  thenscB. 

PON'TIFEX,  among  the  Romans,  was 
one  of  the  order  of  Pontifices.  who  had 
the  superintendence  and  direction  of 
divine  worship  in  general.  The  Pon- 
tifices were  erected  into  a  college  consist- 
ing of  fifteen  persons,  of  whom  the  eight 
first  had  the  title  of  Majores.,  and  the 
seven  others  of  rontifices  Minores.  They 
made  together  but  one  body,  the  chief  of 
which  was  called  Pontife.v  Maxiinus . 

PONTIFF,  the  high  or  chief  priest  in 
the  Romish  and  Greek  churches.  The 
ancient  Romans  had  a  college  of  pontiff's  ; 
the  Jews  had  their  pontiff's;  and  the 
pope  is  called  a  sovereis^n  pont'iff'. — The 
word  pontificate  is  used  for  the  state  or 
dignity  of  a  pontiff,  or  high-priest  ;  but 
more  particularly  for  the  reign  of  a  pope. 

PONTIFICA'EIA,  the  robes  in  which 
a  bishop  performs  divine  service. 

PONTOONS',  or  PONTOON  BRIDGE, 
a  floating  bridge,  formed  of  flat-bottomed 
boats,  anchored  or  made  fast  in  two  lines, 
and  used  in  forming  bridges  over  rivers 
for  the  passage  of  armies. —  Pontoon  car- 
riage, a  vehicle  formed  of  two  wheels 
only,  and  two  long  side  pieces,  whose  fore- 
ends  are  supported  by  timbers. 

PONT-VOLANT',  in  military  afFairs, 
a  kind  of  bridge  used  in  sieges  for  sur- 
prising a  post  or  outwork  that  has  but 
narrow  moats.  It  is  composed  of  two 
small  bridges  hiid  one  above   tho   other. 


486 


CVCLOI'EDIA    OF     LI  IKIiATlli  E 


[I'OR 


nnd  so  contrived  that,  by  the  aiil  of  cords 
and  pulley?,  the  upper  one  may  be  pushed 
forward  till  it  reaches  the  destined  point. 

POOR,  THE.  in  political  economy,  the 
term  employed  to  designate  those  per- 
rons, or  that  portion  of  tUe  population  of 
any  county,  who,  being  <lestitute  of 
wealth,  are,  through  age,  bodily  or  men- 
tal infirmity,  want  of  emploj-ment,  or 
other  cause,  unable  to  support  them- 
selves, and  have  to  depend  for  support 
on  the  contributions  of  others. 

PO'P>-E,  in  lloman  antiquity,  certain 
officers  of  inferior  rank  who  assisted  the 
priests  at  sacrifices. 

POPE,  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church.  The  appellation  o{ pope  was 
anciently  given  to  all  Christian  bishops; 
but  about  the  latter  end  of  the  eleventh 
century,  in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory 
VII.  it  was  adopted  by  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  whose  peculiar  title  it  has  ever 
since  continued.  The  spiritual  monarchy 
of  Rome  sprung  up  soon  after  the  declen- 
sion of  the  Roman  empire.  The  bishops 
of  Rome  affect  to  owe  their  origin  to  the 
appointment  of  St.  Peter,  who  was  con- 
sidereil  as  transferring  the  keys  of  heaven 
(figuratively  consigned  to  his  keeping,)  to 
these  bishops  as  his  successors ;  hence 
they  assumed  a  supremacy  which  was  ad- 
mitted by  all  the  Western  Christians,  but 
resisted  by  the  Eastern  ones,  who  in 
Greece,  Turkey,  and  Russia,  have  a  sep- 
arate Greek  church.  The  vices  of  the 
clergy  led,  however,  in  the  14th  and  1.5th 
centuries,  to  schisms ;  and  a  personal 
quarrel  between  the  pope  and  Henry 
\'I[I.  induced  the  latter  to  assume  the 
title  of  the  Head  of  the  Anglican  church, 
as  well  as  to  recognize  the  principles  of 
the  Reformers,  which  were  adopted  by 
many  German  princes,  and  the  Northern 
sovereigns.  The  pope  retains  his  spirit- 
ual ascendancj'  throughout  Italy,  France, 
Austria,  Spain,  and  Portugal ;  and  four 
fifths  of  the  Irish  are  Catholics.  He  is 
also  regarded  as  a  sovereign  in  certain 
provinces  contiguous  to  Rome. 

POPULAR,  enjoying  the  favor  of  the 
l^reat  body  of  the  people  ;  as,  a  popular 
ministry.  Also,  whatever  pertains  to  the 
jonunon  people  ;  as  the  popular  voice. — 
[n  law,  a  popular  action  is  one  which 
rives  a  penalty  to  the  person  that  sues 
rl)r  the  same. 

POPl'LA'RES,  the  name  of  a  party  at 
Rome,  who  struggled  to  ingratiate  them- 
ReU'CR  with  the  jjeoplo,  and,  by  extend- 
in^'  /'i«ir  influence  and  power,  to  increase 
their  own.  The  Populares  were  opposed 
to  tiio  Op.\',i^tcs. 


POPULAR'ITY,  the  state  of  possess^ 
ing  the  afi^ections  and  confidence  of  the 
people  in  general.  "  The  man  whose 
ruling  principle  is  duty,  is  never  per- 
plexed with  anxious  corroding  calcula- 
tions of  interest  and  popularity.'' 

POPL'LA  TION,  the  aggregate  num- 
ber of  people  in  any  country.  Owing  to 
the  increase  of  births  above  that  of  the 
deaths,  the  population  is  continually  in- 
creasing in  most  parts  of  the  haliitable 
world.  "  Countries,"  says  Adam  Smith, 
in  his  Wealth  of  Nations,  "  are  populous, 
not  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  peo- 
ple whom  their  produce  can  clolhe  and 
lodge,  but  in  proportion  to  that  of  those 
whom  it  can  feed."  The  law  of  population, 
or  of  the  increase  of  the  human  species, 
has  not,  till  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod, attracted  that  attenti(m  to  which  it 
is  eminently  entitled.  It  was  formerly 
taken  for  granted  that  every  increase  of 
population  was  an  advantage,  and  it  was 
usual  for  legislators  to  encourage  early 
marriages,  and  to  bestow  rewards  on  those 
who  brought  up  the  greatest  number  of 
children.  But  recent  researches  have 
shown  that  every  increase  in  the  numbers 
of  a  people,  occasioned  by  artificial  expe- 
dients, and  which  is  not  either  accompa- 
nied or  preceded  by  a  corresponding  in- 
crease of  the  means  of  subsistence,  can  bo 
productive  only  of  misery  or  of  increased 
mortality;  that  the  difficulty  never  is  to 
bring  human  beings  into  the  world,  but 
to  feed,  clothe,  and  educate  them  when 
there  ;  that  mankind  do  everj-where  in- 
crease their  numbers,  till  their  farther 
multiplication  is  restrained  b}- the  difli- 
culty  of  providing  subsistence,  and  the 
poverty  of  some  part  of  the  society;  and 
that,  consequently,  instead  of  attempting 
to  strengthen  the  principle  of  increase, 
we  shouM  rather  endeavor  to  strengthen 
the  principles  b}'  which  it  is  controlled 
and  regulated. 

PORCH,  in  architecture,  a  kind  of  ves- 
tibule supported  bj'  columns  at  the  en- 
trance of  temples,  halls,  churches,  or 
other  buildings — By  way  of  distinction, 
a  public  portico  in  Athens,  where  Zeno  the 
philosopher  taught  his  disciples,  was  called 
the  porch.  Hence,  the  porch,  in  clas- 
sical literature,  is  equivalent  to  the  school 
of  the  Stoics. 

'  PORTCFL'LTS,  a  strong  grating  of 
timber  or  iron,  resembling  a  harrow, 
made  to  slide  in  vertical  grooves  in  the 
jambs  of  the  entrance  gate  of  a  fortified 
place,  to  protect  the  gate  in  case  of  as- 
sault. The  vertical  bars,  when  of  wood, 
were  pointed  with  iron  at  the  bottom,  for 


AND     MIF,     K!NK     A  UTS. 


487 


tho  purpose  of  striking  into  the   ground 
when  the  grating  was  dropped,  or  of  in- 


Portcullis. 

juring  whatever  it  might  fall  upon.  In 
general  there  were  a  succession  of  port- 
cullises in  the  same  gateway.  It  is  some- 
times called  a  portcliise. 

PORTE,  THE  SUBLIME,  the  official 
title  of  the  government  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  :  said  to  be  derived  from  a  gate 
of  the  palace  at  Broussa,  the  original 
metropolis  of  that  empire,  Bib  Iluma- 
j'oor,  the  sublime  gate. 

PORT'GREVE,  or  PORT'REEVE,  in 
former  times,  a  chief  magistrate  of  a 
port  or  maritime  town.  This  officer  is 
now  styled  either  mayor  or  bailiff.  Ac- 
cording to  Camden,  the  chief  magistrate 
of  London  was  anciently  called  porlgreve, 
but  was  e.Kchingcd  by  Richard  I.  for  two 
bailiffs,  and  these  gave  place  in  the  reign 
of  John  to  a  mayor. 

PORT'lIOLES,  the  openings  or  embra- 
sures in  the  sides  of  ships  of  war,  through 
which  gun.5  are  put. 

POR'TICO,  in  architecture,  a  kind  of 
gallery  on  the  ground,  fupporto  I  by  col- 
umns, where  people  m  ly  walk  under 
cover.  Though  this  word  is  derived  from 
porta,  a  gate  or  door,  yet  it  is  used  for 
any  arrangement  of  columns  which  form 
a  gallery. — The  Athenians  were  curious 
in  their  porticoes,  and  the  poets  and  phi- 
losophers recited  their  works,  anl  held 
their  disputations  there.  The  most  fa- 
mous portico  was  that  called  Pcecile, 
which  was  in  fact  a  picture  gallery  adorn- 
ed with  the  works  of  the  greatest  masters. 

PORT  LAND  VASE,  a  celebrated  cin- 
erary urn  or  vase,  long  in  pas.=ession  of 
the  noble  family  of  the  Barberini  at 
Rome  (whence  it  was  called  the  Barberi- 
ni vase  ;)  from  whom  it  came  into  posses- 
sion of  the  Portland  family,  who  deposit- 
ed it,  in  1810,  in  the  British  Miv-^eum,  of 
which  it  is  one  of  the  rao.st  valuable  re- 
liques.  This  beautiful  specimen  of  ancient 
art  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  Empe- 
ror Alexander  Severus  and  his  mother 
Mammsea. 

PORTRAIT,   in  painting    the    repre- 


sentation of  an  individual,  or,  more  strict- 
ly speaking,  of  a  face,  painted  from  real 
life  Portraits  are  of  full  length,  half 
length,  ite  :  and  a-e  e.xecuted  in  oil  or 
water  colors,  crayons,  &e. 

PORT  ROY'ALISTS,  the  name  popu- 
larly  given  to  the  members  of  the  cele- 
brated convent  of  the  Port  Royal  des 
Champs.  It  was  founded  about  1204,  by 
Matthieu  de  Marli,  on  the  eve  of  his  de- 
parture for  the  Holy  Land  ;  ami,  though 
originally  limited  in  its  means  and  ob- 
jects, it  gradually  acquired  such  impor- 
tance as  to  have  secured  for  it  a  prominent 
place  in  the  history  of  Europe.  It  would 
be  out  of  place  here  to  give  any  details 
of  its  varied  fortunes,  and  the  religious 
controversies  which  it  carried  on  in  the 
17th  century — the  period  of  its  greatest 
importance.  It  was  abolished  by  Louis 
XIV.,  as  a  nest  of  Jansenists  and  heretics. 
Among  the  distinguished  names  connect- 
ed witii  Port  Royal,  are  those  of  Lance- 
lot, Paschal,  Arnauld,  Nicole  de  Sacyj 
and  Tillemont.  The  school  books  which 
were  published  for  the  use  of  that  insti- 
tution, were  translated  into  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  and  maintained  their 
reputation  Imig  after  its  abolition. 

POSID'IUM,  or  POSID'EON,  in  an- 
cient chronology,  the  seventh  month  of 
the  Athenian  year,  which  consisted  of 
thirty  days,  an>wered  to  the  latter  part 
of  December  and  beginning  of  January, 
and  had  its  name  from  a  festival  in  honor 
of  Xeptune  Posidonius  which  was  during 
that  month  celebrated. 

POSTTIOX,  in  painting,  the  placing 
of  the  model  in  the  manner  best  cal- 
culate 1  for  the  end  in  view  by  the  artist. 
Such  positions  as  are  most  natural  and 
easy,  and  which  exhibit  the  peculiar 
habit  of  the  individual,  in  portrait  paint- 
ing, are  preferable. 

POS'ITIVE,  is  used  in  opposition  to 
relative  or  arbitrary  :  thus,  we  say, 
beauty  is  no  positive  thing,  but  depends 
on  different  tastes.  It  is  also  used  in 
opposition  to  natural :  as,  a  thing  is  of 
positive  right,  meaning  that  it  is  founded 
on  a  law  which  depends  absolutely  on  the 
authoritv  of  him  who  made  it. 

POS'SE  COMITA'TUS,  in  law,  the 
armed  power  of  the  county,  or  the  attend- 
ance of  all  persons  charged  by  the 
sheriff  to  assist  him  in  the  suppression 
of  riots,  etc. 

POSSES'SION,  in  law,  the  Iiolding  or 
occupying  of  anything,  either  dejure  or 
de  facto.  Possession  dejure,  is  the  title 
a  man  has  to  enjoy  a  thing,  th  )Ugh  it  be 
usurped  and  in  the  actual   possession  of 


488 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKKATL'KK 


[PHA 


another;  or  where  lands  are  descended 
to  a  person,  and  he  has  not  j'et  entered 
into  them  :  and  possession  de  facto,  or 
actual  possession,  is  where  there  is  an 
actual  and  etfectual  enjoyment  of  a  thing. 
Long  undisturbed  possession  is  presuuij)- 
tive  proof  of  right  or  property  in  the 
possessor. 

POST-DATE,  to  date  after  the  real 
time  ;  as  to  post-date  a  bill  or  a  contract, 
that  is,  to  date  it  after  the  true  time  of 
drawing  the  one  or  making  the  other. 

POST-DILU'VIAN,  a  person  who 
lived  after  the  fiood,  or  who  has  lived 
since  that  event. 

POST-DISSE'IZIN,  in  law,  a  writ  in- 
tended to  put  in  possession  a  person  who 
has  been  disseized  after  a  judgment  to 
recover  the  same  lands  of  the  same  per- 
son, under  the  statute  of  Merton. 

POS'TEA,  in  law,  is  the  return  of  a 
record  of  the  proceedings  in  a  cause  after 
a  trial  and  verdict  by  writ  of  nisi  pj-ius, 
into  the  court  of  common  pleas,  after  a 
verdict ;  and  there  afterwards  recorded. 

POS'TERN,  in  fortification,  a  small 
gate,  usually  in  the  angle  of  a  flank  of  a 
bastion,  or  in  that  of  the  curtain  or  near 
the  orillon,  descending  into  the  ditch. 

POSTHUMOUS,  born  after  the  death 
of  a  father.  Also,  published  after  the 
death  of  the  author ;  as  postlmnwus 
works. 

POS'TIL,  a  marginal  note  ;  originally, 
a  note  in  the  margin  of  the  Bible,  so 
called  because  written  after  the  te.xt. 

POSTLIMINIUM,  or  POSTLIM'I- 
NY,  among  the  Romans,  was  the  return 
of  a  person  to  his  own  country  who  had 
gone  to  sojourn  in  a  foreign  country,  or 
who  had  been  banished  or  taken  by  an 
enemy. — In  the  modern  law  of  nations, 
the  right  of  postliminy  is  that  by  virtue 
of  which,  iicrsnns  and  tilings  taken  by  an 
enemy  in  war,  are  restored  to  tlieir 
former  state,  when  coming  again  under 
the  power  of  the  nation  to  which  they 
belonged.  But  this  cannot  extend  in  all 
r.ises  ti)  personal  efTocts,  on  account  of 
the  difficulty  of  ascertaining  their  iden- 
tity. 

POST'-NOTE,  in  commerce,  a  bank 
note  intended  to  be  transmitted  to  a  dis- 
tant pbvce  by  the  ])ublic  mail,  and  made 
payable  to  o/v/tr  ;  dill'oring  in  this  from 
a  common  bank  note,  which  is  payable 
to  the  hearer. 

POST-OFFICE,  an  establishment  for 
the  reception,  conveyance,  and  delivery 
of  letters,  Ac.  Posts  were  originally 
intended  to  serve  merely  for  the  convey- 
ance of  public  dispatche.-,  and  of  persons 


travelling  by  authority  of  government 
But  the  great  convenience  it  afiForded  to 
individuals,  particularly  as  commercial 
transactions  multiplied  and  cctendud,  to 
have  a  safe,  regular,  and  speedy  commu- 
nication between  distant  parts  of  the 
country,  induced  the  government  to  con- 
vert it  into  a  source  of  revenue. 

POST  POSITION,  in  music,  retarda- 
tions of  the  harmony,  effected  by  placing 
discords  upon  the  accented  parts  of  a  bar 
not  prepared  and  resolved  according  to 
the  rules  for  discords. 

POSTSCE'NIUM,  in  architecture,  the 
back  part  of  the  theatre  behiml  the 
scenes,  furnished  with  conveniences  for 
robing  the  actors  and  depositing  the 
machinery. 

POST'SCRIPT,  an  addition  made  to  a 
letter  after  it  is  concluded  and  signed  by 
the  writer.  Also,  any  addition  made  to 
a  literary  performance  after  it  had  been 
supposed  to  be  finished,  containing  some- 
thing omitted  or  something  new  occur- 
ring to  the  writer. 

POSTULATES,  fundamental  princi- 
ples in  any  art  or  science,  which  are  too 
easy  and  self-evident  to  need  demonstra- 
tion. 

POWER,  in  a  philosophical  sense,  the 
faculty  of  doing  or  performing  anything. 
The  e.\ertion  oi  power  proceeds  from  the 
will ;  and  in  strictness,  no  being  destitute 
of  will  or  intelligence  can  exert  pt)wer. — 
Active  power  is  that  which  moves  the 
body  ;  speculalire  power  is  that  by  which 
we  see,  judge,  remember,  or,  in  general, 
by  which  we  tliink.  Pi)wer  may  e.xist 
without  e.xcrtion  :  wehavepojrer  to  speak 
when  we  are  silent.  1'his  word,  indeed, 
has  an  almost  unlimited  signification, 
whether  as  regards  animal  strength  or 
mental  ability  :  we  speak  of  the  powers 
of  genius;  the  reasoning  p"',/-rs;  the 
power  which  a  man  has  of  rci.^ving  (ho 
distressed  ;  his  moral  power,  quadrate, 
Ac — Power,  in  law,  the  authority  which 
one  man  gives  another  to  act  for  him. 
Tlie  inslrument  or  deed  by  which  this  is 
done  is  cilli>d  »  power  of  attorney. 

PU.EDKPTOKIS,  in  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs, certain  benefices  having  their  name 
from  being  possessed  by  the  more  emi- 
nent Templars,  whom  the  chief  master, 
by  his  authority',  created  and  called 
l'r(i;i;eptores  Tevipli. 

PR/EOIPE  IN  CAP'ITE.  in  law,  a 
writ  issuing  out  of  the  court  of  chancery 
for  a  tenant  who  held  of  the  king  in  cliief, 
as  of  hi.*  crown,  and  not  as  of  any  honor, 
castle,  or  manor. 

PR.'ECOti'NlT.A,     things     proviou.sly 


pue] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


48y 


known  in  order  to  understanl  something 
else.  Thus  a  knowledge  of  the  structure 
of  the  human  body  is  one  of  the  praecog- 
nita  of  medical  science  and  skill. 

PRxEFEC'TlIHE,  in  antiquity,  an  ap- 
pellation given  to  certain  towns  in  Italy, 
whoso  inhabitants  had  the  name  of  Roman 
citizens,  but  were  neither  allowed  to  en- 
joy their  own  laws  nor  magistrates,  being 
governed  by  annual  prefects  sent  from 
Home.  These  were  generally  such  places 
as  were  suspected,  or  had  some  way  or 
other  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
state. — The  title  prcejectus  was  given  to 
many  officers  in  ancient  Rome. 

PRAEMUNIRE,  in  law,  a  writ  granted 
against  a  person  for  introducing  and 
maintaining  the  papal  power,  creating  an 
iinpcriuiii  in  iniperio,  and  yielding  that 
obedience  to  the  mandates  of  the  pope, 
which  constitutionally  belongs  to  our 
rightful  sovereign. 

PR.ENO'iMEX,  among  the  Romans, 
like  our  Christian  name,  served  to  distin- 
guish brothers,  &c.,  from  each  other  :  as 
Caius,  Lucius,  Marcus,  Julius,  &c.  Care 
was  generally  taken,  in  conferring  the 
prcBriomen,  to  give  that  of  the  father  to 
the  oldest,  that  of  the  grandfather  to  the 
seconil,  and  so  on.  The  prcBuomen  was 
not  brought  into  use  till  long  after  the 
nomen,  or  family  name. 

PR.E'TOR,  a  chief  magistrate  among 
the  Romans,  instituted  for  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  in  the  absence  of  the  con- 
suls. The  office  oi  prcctor  was  instituted 
in  the  year  of  the  city  388,  to  administer 
justice  in  the  city,  instead  of  the  consuls, 
who  were  at  that  time  wholly  engaged  in 
foreign  wars.  The  institution  also  was 
intended  to  compensate  to  the  nobility  the 
loss  of  their  exclusive  right  to  the  consul- 
ship, to  which  honor  the  commons  had 
now  put  in  their  claim,  and  succeeded. 
The  praetor  decreed  and  proclaimed  pub- 
lic feasts,  had  the  power  to  make  and  re- 
peal laws,  with  the  approbation  of  the 
senate  and  the  people  ;  and  kept  a  regis- 
ter of  all  the  freed-nien  who  were  en- 
franchised at  Rome.  In  the  absence  of 
the  consuls  he  had  a  right  to  command 
the  armies ;  he  also  commanded  the 
qu<Estors,  who  served  him  as  lieutenants, 
and  were  charged  with  part  of  the  busi- 
ness of  his  office,  lie  was  entitled  to  the 
prcetexta,  the  curule  chair,  and  two  lie- 
tors  to  walk  before  him  in  Rome,  and  six 
when  out  of  the  city. 

PR^ETORIA'NI,or  Pretorlan  Guards, 
were  the  emperor's  guards  who  in  time 
wore  increased  to  ten  thousand.  The 
Praetorian  bands  owe  their  first  institu- 


tion to  Scipio  Africanus,  who  chose  for 
his  guards  a  company  of  the  bravest  men 
in  his  army ;  but  in  time  they  became 
very  inimical  to  the  liberties  of  their 
country. 

PR^TO'RIUM,  among  the  Romans, 
denoted  the  hall  or  court  where  the  prm- 
tor  administered  justice  :  it  was  also  his 
nalace. 

PRAGxMAT'IC  SANCTION,  in  the 
civil  law,  is  a  rescript  or  answer  of  tho 
sovereign,  delivered  by  advice  of  his 
council  to  some  college,  order,  or  body  of 
people,  who  consult  him  in  relation  to  the 
affairs  of  their  community.  A  similar 
answer  given  to  an  individual  is  called 
simply  a  rescript. — The  term  pragmatic 
sanction  was  give""  to  the  settlement 
made  by  Charles  VI.  emperor  of  Germa- 
ny, when,  having  no  sons,  in  1722  he  set- 
tled his  hereditary  dominions  on  his  eld- 
est daughter,  the  archduchess  Maria 
Theresa. 

PRA'TIQUE,  in  commerce,  a  license 
or  permission  to  hold  intercourse  and 
triide  with  the  inhabitants  of  a  place, 
after  having  performed  quarantine,  or 
upon  a  certificate  that  the  ship  did  not 
come  from  an  infected  place. 

PRAX'EANS,  a  sect  of  heretics  that 
sprung  up  in  Asia  in  the  second  century  ; 
so  called  from  their  founder,  Pra.xeas,  an 
Asiatic  haeresiarch.  The  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  this  sect  were  their 
denial  of  plurality  of  persons  in  the  god- 
head, and  their  belief  that  it  was  the 
Father  himself  who  suffered  on  the  cross. 
The  Monarchici,  Sabellians,  and  Patri- 
passians  adopted  these  sentiments. 

PREAD'AMITE,  an  appellation  given 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  who  by 
some  are  supposed  to  have  lived  before 
Adam. 

PRE'AMBLE,  in  law,  the  introduc- 
tory matter  to  a  statute,  which  contains 
the  reasons  for  making  such  an  enact- 
ment. 

PREB'END,  the  stipend  or  mainte- 
nance a  prebendary  receives  out  of  the  es- 
tate of  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church. 
Prebends  are  simple  or  dignitary ;  a, 
simple  prebend  has  no  more  than  the  rev- 
enue for  its  support :  but  a  prebend  with 
dignity,  has  always  a  jurisdiction  anne.\- 
ed  to  it. 

PREB'ENDARY,  an  ecclesiastic  who 
enjoys  a  prebend.  The  difference  be- 
tween a  prebendary  and  a  canon  is,  that 
the  former  receives  his  prebend  in  consid- 
eration of  his  officiating  in  the  church  ; 
but  the  latter  merely  in  consequence  of 
his  being  received  into  the  cathedral. 


490 


CVCLOrEDIA    OF    LIIEIIAI  L' RE 


[VRK 


PRECE  mKXC^  Sy  custom  and  cour- 
tesy, the  liotit  01'  h.kiiij;  place  before 
another,  which  is  r.eitv.niiieil  hy  author- 
ity, and  followcil  exactly  on  all  public 
occasions  of  processions  and  the  like. 

PRE'CEDEXT,  in  law,  a  judicial  de- 
cision, which  serves  as  a  rule  for  future 
determinations  in  similar  or  analogous 
cases  :  thus  the  precedents  of  a  court 
have  the  force  of  laws,  and  no  court  will 
reverse  a  judgment  contrary  to  many 
precedents. —  Precedent  also  frequently 
denotes  an  original  authentic  instrument 
or  writing,  which  serves  as  a  form  to 
draw  others  by. 

PRECEN'fOR,  the  chanter  or  master 
of  the  choir  in  a  cathedral. 

PRE'CEPT,  in  law,  a  command  in 
writing  sent  by  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
Ac,  for  bringing  a  person,  record,  or 
other  matter  before  him. — In  a  general 
sense,  a  precept  signifies  any  command- 
ment or  order  intended  as  an  authorita- 
tive rule  of  action  :  but  applied  particu- 
larly to  commands  respecting  moral  con- 
duct.     Hence  preceptor,  a  teacher. 

PREDESTINA'TIOX,  in  theology,  a 
term  to  denote  the  pre-ordination  of 
men  by  the  Supreme  Being  to  everlast- 
ing happiness  or  miscrj'.  One  who  be- 
lieves in  this  doctrine  is  called  a  predes- 
tinarian. 

I'REDrn'AMEXT,  in  logic,  a  cate- 
gory. The  school  philosophers  distril)ute 
all  the  objects  of  our  thoughts  and  ideas 
into  genera  or  classes,  which  the  (Jreeks 
call  categories,  and  the  Latin  predica- 
ments. 

PREDICATE,  in  logic,  that  part  of  a 
proposition  which  affirms  or  denies  some- 
thing of  the  subject  :  thus,  in  these  prop- 
ositions, "  snow  is  white,  ink  is  not  white," 
whiteness  is  the  predicate  atlirmed  of 
snow,  and  denied  of  ink. 

PRE-EMP'TION,  the  right  of  pur- 
chasing before  others.  Prior  discovery 
of  land  in,.abited  by  uncivilized  tribes  is 
held  to  give  the  discoverer  the  pre- 
emption, or  right  of  purchase  before 
others. 

PRE-EXrST'ENCE,  in  philo.«ophy,  the 
existence  of  anything  before  another  ; 
commonly  used  for  the  existence  of  the 
human  soul,  in  some  former  condition, 
before  it  became  connected  with  its  ])ros- 
ent  bo(ly.  It  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Py- 
thagorean school,  and  connected  with  Ihcir 
peculiar  tenet  of  the  Metempsychosis. 
It  was  also  the  doctrine  of  Plato  ;  and 
ho  uses  in  support  of  it  arguments  which 
have  exorcised  a  strong  influence  on  many 
minds,  and  to  this  day  are  constantly  re- 


curring to  those  who  study  the  subject  on 
independent  principles;  particularly  the 
rapidity  of  learning  in  early  childhood, 
which  he  explains  as  an  effort  of  reminis- 
cence, not  acquisition.  Others  have  en- 
listed into  the  service  those  peculiar  sen- 
sations which  are  sometimes  raised  by 
scenes,  persons,  sounds,  words,  though 
seen  or  heard,  as  our  reasons  would  j)er- 
stiade  us,  for  the  first  time,  as  if  we  were 
conscious  of  some  prior  familiarity  with 
men.  This  poetical,  rather  than  philo- 
sophical view  of  the  subject,  is  beauti- 
fully illustrated  in  a  well-known  ode  of 
Wordsworth. 

PREF'ACE.  the  observations  prefixed 
to  a  work  or  treatise,  intended  to  inform 
the  reader  of  its  plan  and  peculiarities. 
There  are  few  subjects  which  afford  so 
wide  a  field  for  the  display  of  skill  and 
address  as  preface  writing ;  and  those 
who  wish  to  witness  an  unrivalled  exhi- 
bition of  these  qualities  may  consult 
some  of  Dr.  Johnson's  prefaces,  either  to 
his  own  writings  or  to  the  numerous 
works  which  he  edited. 

PRE'FECT,  an  important  political 
functionary  in  modern  France.  Under 
the  old  regime,  the  officers  who  were 
sent  round  to  the  provinces  to  superintend 
the  details  of  administration  on  behalf  of 
the  king  were  at  first  styled  mailres  des 
requetes.  These  were  inade  permanent 
local  officers  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
and  afterwards  attained  many  a<lditional 
])0wers,  with  the  title  of  intendants. 
These  were  abolished  at  the  revolution, 
when  various  attempts  were  made  to 
establish  elective  local  governments.  By 
a  law  of  the  year  1800  prelects  were 
first  appointed  for  the  departments,  with 
powers  similar  in  many  resi)ects  to  those 
of  the  old  intendants,  with  a  council  of 
prefecture,  and  a  general  council  of  the 
deiiartment  ;  which,  however,  fell  into 
disuse.  With  slight  variations,  the  pre- 
fects retain  the  same  jurisdiction.  They 
are,  in  some  respects,  analogous  to  our 
sheriffs:  but  with  far  greater  powers. 
They  possess  not  the  nominal  only,  but 
the  actuil  direction  of  the  police  estab- 
lishment, within  their  re?i)cctive  dejjart 
mcnts,  together  with  extensive  powers 
of  municipal  regulation;  the  arrondissc- 
ments  or  districts  into  which  the  depart- 
ments are  subdivided  are  under  sous- 
prefets  appointed  by  them.  Their  power, 
however,  is  considerably  controlled  by 
that  of  the  council  of  the  prefecture, 
which  acts  in  some  measure  ns  a  court  of 
appeal  from  the  prefect,  taking  cogni- 
i  zance  of  various  cases  within  the  sphere 


pke] 


AND    THE     FINE    ARTS. 


491 


of  his  administrntive  interference,  if  legal 
disputes  arise  upon  it. 

PRE'JUDICE,  decision  neither  found- 
ed upon  nor  consistent  with  reason,  and 
the  error  of  ignorance,  weakness,  or  idle- 
ness. It  is  the  enemy  of  all  truth,  knowl- 
edge, and  improvement ;  and  is  the  blind- 
ness of  the  mind,  rendering  its  powers  use- 
less and  mischievous.  Innumerable  are 
the  prejudices  we  imbibe  in  our  youth  ; 
we  are  accustomed  to  believe  without 
reflection,  and  to  receive  opinions  from 
others  without  examining  the  grounds  by 
which  they  can  be  supported. 

PRE'LATE,  an  ecclesiastic  raised  to 
some  eminent  dignity  in  the  church  ;  as  a 
bishop,  an  archbishop,  or  a  patriarch. 
The  office  or  dignity  of  a  prelate  is  called 
a  prelacy. 

PRELIM'INARY,  in  general,  denotes 
something  to  be  examined  and  determined 
before  an  affair  can  be  treated  of  to  the 
purpose.  The  prelt7ninar{es  of  peace  con- 
sist chiefly  in  settling  the  powers  of  am- 
bassadors, and  certain  points  in  dispute, 
which  must  be  determined  previous  to  the 
treaty  itself. 

PRE'LUDE,  a  short  flight  of  music; 
the  preface  or  introduction  to  a  move- 
ment, and  usually  consisting  of  a  few  bars 
of  harmony  in  the  same  key  as  the  move- 
ment which  it  precedes ;  being,  in  fact,  a 
preparation  to  the  ear  for  what  is  to  fol- 
low.— Something  introductory,  or  that 
shows  what  is  to  follow  ;  something  pre- 
ceding which  bears  some  relation  or  re- 
semblance to  that  which  is  to  follow. 

PRBM'ISES,  in  logic,  the  two  first  prop- 
ositions of  a  sj'llogism,  from  which  the 
inference  or  conclusion  is  drawn.  Also, 
propositions  antecedently  proposed  or 
proved. — Premises,  in  law,  lands,  tene- 
ments, &e.  before  mentioned  in  a  lease  or 
deed. 

PRE'MIUM,  properly,  a  reward  or 
recompense  ;  but  it  is  chiefly  used  in  a 
mercantile  sense  for  the  sum  of  money 
given  to  an  insurer,  whether  of  ships, 
houses,  lives,  &o.  Also  the  recompense 
or  prize  offered  for  a  specific  recovery,  or 
for  success  in  an  enterprise.  It  is  some- 
timoj  synonymous  with  interest ;  but  gen- 
erally it  is  a  sum  per  cent.;  distinct  from 
the  interest,  as,  the  bank  lends  money  to 
government  at  a  premium  of  2  per  cent. 

PREMON'STRAXTS,  a  religious  order 
of  regular  canons  or  monks  of  Premontre, 
in  the  isle  of  France;  instituted  in  1120. 

PREPENSE',  in  law,  premeditation 
and  forethought  as  ap])lied  to  bad  actions  ; 
Jrhence  the  term  malice  prepense. 

PREROG'ATIVE,  an  exclusive  or  pe- 


culiar privilege. — The  roijal  prerogative 
is  that  special  pre-eminence  which  a 
sovereign  has  not  only  over  other  per- 
sons, but  over  the  ordinary  course  of  the 
common  law,  in  right  of  the  legal  dignity. 
Among  these  are  the  right  of  appointing 
ambassadors,  and  of  making  peace  and 
war. — It  is  the  prerogative  of  a  father  to 
govern  his  children.  And  the  right  of 
governing  created  beings  is  the  preroga- 
atire  of  the  Great  Creator. 

PRESBYTER,  in  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian church,  an  elder;  one  who  had  au- 
thority in  the  church,  and  whose  duty 
was  to  watch  over  the  Hock.  The  word 
is  borrowed  from  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament,  where  it  usually 
signifies  a  ruler  or  governor ;  it  being  a 
title  of  office  and  dignity,  not  of  age,  and 
in  this  sense  bishops  are  sometimes  called 
presbyters  in  the  New  Testament. 

PYESBYTE'RIANS,  a  sect  of  Protes- 
tants, so  called  from  their  maintaining 
that  the  government  of  the  church  ap- 
pointed in  the  New  Testament  vyas  by 
presbyteries ;  that  is,  by  ministers  and 
ruling  elders,  associated  for  its  govern 
ment  and  discipline.  The  presbyterians 
stand  opposed  to  the  episcopalians,  the 
latter  preferring  the  hierarchy  of  bishops ; 
and  to  congregational ists  or  independ- 
ents, who  hold  every  pastor  to  bo  as  a 
bishop  or  overseer  of  his  own  congrega- 
tion, independent  of  any  person  or  body 
of  men. 

PRES'BYTERY,  is  that  form  of  eccle- 
siastical polity  according  to  which  there 
is  no  gradation  of  order  in  the  church, 
but  which  vests  church  government  in  a 
societj'  of  clerical  and  lay  presbyters,  or, 
in  common  phraseology,  ministers  and 
lay  elders,  all  possessed  officially  of  equal 
rank  and  power. 

PRESCRIP'TION,  in  law,  a  right  and 
title  to  a  thing  grounded  upon  a  contin- 
ued possession  of  it  beyond  the  memory 
of  man. —  Prescription  differs  from  a  cus- 
tom, which  is  a  local  usage.  Prescription 
is  Apersonai  usage  annexed  to  the  person. 

PRES'ENCE  OF  MIND,  that  calm, 
collected  state  of  the  mind  and  faculties, 
which  enables  a  person  to  speak  or  act 
without  disorder  or  embarrassment  in 
unexpected  difficulties. 

PRESENTA'TION,  in  ecclesiastical 
law,  the  act  of  a  patron  offering  his  clerk 
to  the  bishop,  to  be  instituted  in  a  bene- 
fice of  his  gift.  An  advowson  is  the  right 
of  presentation.  A  patron  may  revoke 
his  presentation  before  institution,  but 
not  afterwards. 

PRESENT'MENT,  in  law,  a  declara- 


492 


CYCI.OrF.DIA    OF    LMKkATU  l{IC 


tion  or  report  maJe  by  jurors  or  others 
of  any  offence  to  be  inquired  of  in  the 
court  to  which  it  is  presented. 

PRES'ENTS,  in  the  plurul  is  used  in 
law,  for  a  deed  of  conveyance,  a  lease,  or 
other  written  in.'^truinent  ;  as  in  the 
phrase,  "  Know  all  men  by  these  jires- 
ents ;"  that  is,  by  the  writing  itself,  per 
presentes. 

PRESIDENT,  an  officer  appointed  to 
preside  over  a  corporation,  company,  or 
assembly  of  men,  to  keep  order,  manage 
their  concerns,  or  govern  their  proceed- 
ings. Also  an  officer  appointed  or  elect- 
ed to  govern  a  province  or  territory,  or 
to  adminster  the  government  of  a  nation. 
The  supreme  executive  officer  of  the 
United  States  of  America  is  styled  presi- 
dent. The  qualifications  required  of  a 
person  raised  to  this  dignity  are,  to  be  a 
natural-born  citizen  of  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  years,  and  to  have  resided  fourteen 
years  within  the  States.  The  election 
is  by  electoral  colleges  in  every  state. 
These  colleges  contain,  in  each  state,  a 
number  of  electors  equal  to  all  the  sena- 
tors and  representatives  of  that  state  in 
congress;  but  their  appointment  varies 
in  different  states,  and  at  different  times  ; 
fometimes  it  is  made  by  their  respective 
legislatures,  sometimes  by  general  elec- 
tion throughout  the  state,  sometimes  part 
of  the  electors  are  chosen  by  district  and 
part  by  general  election.  The  colleges 
in  each  state  vote  by  ballot  for  a  presi- 
dent (and  at  the  same  time  for  a  vice- 
president)  ;  and  the  votes  of  all  the  elec- 
tors, taken  in  this  manner,  are  counted 
by  the  president  of  the  senate  :  when,  if 
any  person  have  an  absolute  majority  of 
votes,  he  is  duly  elected  ;  if  not,  the  elec- 
tion is  made  by  the  house  of  representa- 
tives between  the  three  persons  having 
the  highest  number;  in  which  case  the 
votes  are  taken  by  states,  and  a  majori- 
ty of  all  the  states  is  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  choice. 

PRESS,  is  metaphorically  applied  ei- 
ther to  the  whole  literature  of  a  country, 
or  to  that  jiart  of  it  more  immediately 
connecteil  with  newspapers,  or  other  pe- 
rioilical  publications. 

PREST'-MOXEY,  called  earnest-mo- 
ney, the  sum  given  to  a  soldier  at  the 
time  he  enlists,  so  called  because  it  binds 
the  receiver  to  be  ready  for  service  at  all 
times  appointed. 

PRESU.MPTIVE  EVIDENCE,  in 
law,  is  that  which  is  derived  from  circum- 
stances which  necessarily  or  usually  at- 
tend a  fact,  as  distinct  from  direct  evi- 
dence or  positive  proof 


PRETEN'SIOX,  a  holding  out  the  ap- 
pearance  of  right  or  possession  of  a  thing, 
with  a  view  to  make  others  believe  what 
is  not  real,  or  what,  if  true,  is  not  yet 
known  or  admitted.  There  are  ill-found- 
ed pretensions  and  well-founded  preten- 
sions :  for  instance,  a  man  may  make 
oretensions,  to  rights  which  he  cannot 
maintain,  or  to  skill  which  he  does  not 
possess;  and  he  may  make  pretensions 
to  acquirements  which  he  really  posses- 
ses, but  is  not  known  to  possess. 

PRETERI'TION,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
by  which,  in  pretending  to  pass  over  any- 
thing, we  make  a  summary  mention 
of  it  ;  as,  '•  I  will  not  say  the  prince  is 
noble,  or  that  he  is  as  learned  as  he  is 
accomplished,"  <fec.  The  most  artful 
praises  are  those  bes.owed  oy  way  of 
prelerition. 

PRETERNAT'URAL,  an  epithet  for 
those  events  in  the  physical  world  which 
are  deemed  extraordinary,  but  not  mirac- 
ulous ;  in  distinction  from  events  which 
are  supernatural,  which  cannot  be  pro- 
duced by  physical  laws  or  powers,  and 
must  therefore  be  produced  by  the  direct 
intervention  of  Omnipotence. 

PREVARICATION,  a  deviation  from 
the  plain  path  of  truth  and  fair  dealing  ; 
a  shufiling  or  quibbling  to  evade  the 
truth  or  the  disclosure  of  truth. — In  the 
civil  law,  the  collusion  of  an  informer 
with  the  defendant,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  sham  prosecution. — In  common 
law,  a  seeming  to  undertake  a  thing 
falsely  or  deceitfully,  for  the  purpose  of 
defeating  or  destroying  it. 

I'UEVENT'IVE  SERVICE,  an  ap- 
jiellation  for  the  duty  performed  by  the 
armed  police  officers  engaged  to  watch 
the  coasts,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
smuggling  aud  other  illegal  acts.  The 
men  thus  employed  are  also  sometimes 
termed  the  coast  hluckadc  force. 

PRIAPI'S,  a  divinity  introiluced  into 
Grecian  mythology  after  the  time  of 
Alexander.  He  was  the  god  of  fruitful- 
ness,  and  by  the  Romans  was  looked  on 
particularly  as  the  guardian  of  gardens, 
in  which  indecent  and  rudely  sculptured 
wooden  statues  of  him  were  usually  set 
up. 

PRICE  CURRENT,  in  commerce,  a 
published  list  or  enumeration  of  the  vari- 
ous articles  of  merchandise,  with  their 
prices,  the  duties  (if  any)  payable  there- 
on when  imported  or  exported,  with  the 
drawbacks  occasionally  allowed  upon 
their  exportation. 

PRIEST,  according  to  the  n^oderu  ac- 
ce|)tation  of  the  word,  is  a  jierson  who  ii 


PRiJ 


AND    THE    FINE    AKTS. 


493 


set  apart  or  consecrated  to  the  ministry 
of  the  Qospel.  In  its  most  general  sense 
the  word  includes  all  orders  of  the  clergy 
duly  licensed  according  to  the  forms  and 
rules  of  each  respective  denomination  of 
Christians  :  but  Protestants  are  accus- 
tomed to  apply  the  word  more  especially 
to  clergymen  of  the  Roman  Catholic  per- 
suasion — In  primitive  ages,  the  fathers 
of  families,  princes,  and  kings  were 
priests.  In  the  days  of  Moses  the  office 
of  priest  was  restricted  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  and  the  priesthood- consisted  of 
three  orders,  the  high-priest,  the  priests, 
and  the  Levites  ;  and  the  office  was  made 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Aaron. — 
Among  pagans,  priests  were  persons 
whose  appropriate  business  was  to  offer 
sacrifices  and  perform  other  sacred  rites 
of  religion. 

PRI  M  ACY,  the  chief  ecclesiastical  sta- 
tion or  dignity.  The  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury is  primate  of  all  England. 

PRIM'ITIVE  COLORS,  these  are 
said  to  be  restricted  to  three — namely, 
red,  yellow  and  blue,  from  the  mixtures 
and  combinations  of  which  all  other  col- 
ors, tints,  and  gradations  are  produced 

PRIMOGEN  ITURE,  in  law,  the  right 
of  the  first-born.  This  right  is  an  unjust 
prerogative,  and  contrary  to  the  natural 
right ;  for  since  it  is  birth  alone  gives 
children  a  title  to  the  paternal  succession, 
the  chance  of  primogeniture  should  not 
throw  any  inequality  among  them.  It 
was  not  till  the  race  of  Hugh  Capet,  that 
the  prerogative  of  succession  to  the  crown 
was  appropriated  to  the  first-born.  By 
the  ancient  custom  of  gavel-kind,  still 
preserved  in  Kent,  primogeniture  is  dis- 
regarded, the  paternal  estate  being 
oquallj'  shared  among  the  sons. 

PRINCE,  a  general  title  for  all  sove- 
reigns or  persons  exercising  the  functions 
of  government  in  an  independent  man- 
ner, even  though  they  are  permitted  so 
to  do  by  the  will  of  another. 

PPiIN'CIPAL,  in  commerce,  is  the 
capital  of  a  sum  due  or  lent,  so  called  in 
opposition  to  interest.  It  also  denotes 
the  first  fund  put  by  partners  into  a  com- 
mon stock,  by  which  it  is  distinguished 
from  the  calls  or  accessions  afterwards 
required. — In  law,  the  absolute  perpe- 
trator of  a  crime  is  called  a  principal  in 
the  first  degree  ;  a  principal  in  the 
second  degree,  is  one  who  is  present, 
aiding  and  abetting  ;  distinguished  from 
an  accessary. — In  architecture,  a  main 
timber  in  an  assemblage  of  carpentry. 
Thus,  in  a  roof,  the  strong  rafters  used 
for  trussing  the  beams  are  called  princi- 


pal rafters. — In  the  Fine  Arts,  the  chief 
circumstance  in  a  work  of  art,  to  which 
the  rest  are  to  be  subordinate. 

PRIN  CIPLE,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
origin,  source,  or  jjrimordiiil  substance 
of  anything. — In  science,  a  truth  ad- 
mitted either  without  proof,  or  consideiel 
as  having  been  before  proved.— In  ethics, 
that  which  is  believed,  and  serves  as  a 
rule  of  action  or  the  basis  of  a  s^-stem  ; 
as  the  principles  of  morality ;  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Stoics,  &c. 

PRINCIPLES,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  those 
general  and  fundamental  truths  from 
which  the  rules  and  maxims  of  art  are 
deduced.  To  each  art  particular  princi- 
ples are  attached  on  which  its  theory  is 
founded.  These  principles,  before  they 
can  be  said  to  have  stability,  must  be 
found  to  depend  on  certain  truths,  which, 
recognized  by  every  one,  and  indisputa- 
ble, oblige  the  mind  to  concur  in  the 
deductions  that  result  from  them.  Before 
a  law  in  any  art  is  laid  down,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  trace  it  to  the  principles  from 
which  it  sprirgs,  though  there  may  bo 
causes  which  prevent  those  principles 
being  universally  admitted ;  such  as 
ignorance,  prejudice,  love  of  novelty,  and 
the  like. 

PRI'OR,  the  superior  of  a  convent  of 
monks,  or  one  next  in  dignity  to  an  abbot. 

PRISCIL'LIANISTS,  in  church  histo- 
ry, a  Christian  sect,  so  called  from  their 
leader  Priscillian,  a  Spaniard  by  birth, 
and  bishop  of  Avila.  He  is  said  to  have 
practised  magic,  and  to  have  maintained 
the  principal  errors  of  the  Manichees; 
but  his  peculiar  tenet  was,  that  it  is  law- 
ful to  make  false  oaths  in  the  support  of 
one's  cause  and  interest. 

PRIVATEER',  a  .ship  or  vessel  of  war 
owned  and  equipped  by  private  persons 
at  their  own  expense,  and  who  are  per- 
mitted by  the  government  to  seize  or 
plunder  the  vessels  of  an  enemy  in  war. 
The  owners  of  privateers  must  give  bond 
not  to  break  the  stipulations  of  treaties 
subsisting  with  their  government,  and 
not  to  misuse  their  captives.  If  a  ship 
be  fitted  out  and  act  as  a  privateer  with- 
out being  licensed  or  commissioned  by 
government,  it  is  a  pirate.  That  the 
severest  restrictions  should  be  enforced 
on  privateering  is  manifestly  for  the  in- 
terest of  individuals,  to  whatever  bellig- 
erent power  they  belong..  The  wish  to 
amass  plunder  is  the  only  principle  by 
which  they  are  actuated;  and  such  being 
the  case,  it  would  be  idle  to  suppose  that 
they  should  be  very  scrupulous  about 
abstaining  from  excesses. 


494 


CYCLOPKDIA     OF    LITERATURE 


[I'UO 


PRIVILEGE,  in  law,  some  peculiar 
benefit  granted  to  certain  persons  or 
places,  contrary  to  the  usual  course  of  the 
law,  or  beyond  the  common  advantages 
of  other  citizens.  Thus  the  nobles  of 
Great  Britain  have  the  privilege  of  being 
tried  by  their  peers  only;  and  members 
of  parliament  have  the  privilege  of  ex- 
emption from  arrests  in  certain  cases. 

PRIVITY,  in  law,  is  a  peculiar  mu- 
tual relation  which  subsists  between  indi- 
viduals connected  in  various  ways ;  so  that, 
besides  those  who  are  actually  parties  to 
a  transaction,  others  connected  with  these 
parties  are  said  to  be  privy  to  the  trans- 
action, and  are  bound  by  its  consequen- 
ces. Several  sorts  of  privity  are  enu- 
merated by  writers  on  law;  but  those  of 
most  ordinary  occurrence  are  three  :  privi- 
ty of  blood,  of  estate,  and  of  contract. 
The  former  subsists  between  an  ancestor 
and  bis  heir;  the  second  between  lessor 
and  lessee,  tenant  for  life  and  reversioner 
created  by  the  same  instrument ;  and 
privity  of  contracts  between  those  who  are 
parties  to  a  contract,  which  species  of 
privity  is  personal  only. 

PRIV  Y-COUN'CIL,  in  British  polity, 
an  executive  body,  with  whose  assistance 
the  crown  issues  proclamations,  which,  if 
not  contrary  to  law,  are  binding  on  the 
subject.  Anciently,  the  pririj  council 
was  a  high  court  of  justice  ;  but  in  mod- 
ern times  it  seldom  or  never  interferes 
with  judicial  matters,  confining  itself  to 
the  executive  branch  of  government.  A 
privy-council  is  summoned  on  a  warning 
of  forty-four  hours,  and  never  held  with- 
out the  presence  of  a  secretary  of  state. 
In  debates,  the  lowest  delivers  his  opin- 
ion first;  the  sovereign,  if  present,  last; 
and  though  the  privy-councillors  thus 
give  their  opinions,  it  is  that  of  the  sov- 
ereign alone  which  is  decisive. —  Fririj- 
seal,  a  seal  affixed  by  the  queen,  or  by  the 
lord  keeper  of  the  privy-seal,  to  instru- 
ments that  afterwards  pass  the  great  seal. 
The  word  privy-seal,  is  also  used  ellipti- 
cally  for  the  person  intrusted  with  the 
privy-seal;  as,  "the  qeeen's  sign-man- 
ual is  the  warrant  to  the  privy-seal,  who 
makes  out  a  writ  or  warrant  thereon  to 
the  chancery." 

PRIZE,  anything  captured  by  a  bel- 
ligerent using  the  right  of  war:  in  com- 
mon language,  only  ships  thus  captured, 
with  the  pro])erty  taken  in  them,  are  so 
called.  Prizes  taken  in  war  are  condemn- 
ed by  the  proper  judicature  in  the  courts 
of  the  captors;  such  condemnation  is  hold 
to  divest  the  title  of  the  proprietor  and 
confer  a  new  ownership.     In  order  to  give 


jurisdiction  to  a  court  of  prize  it  isdeemcd 
necessary,  by  the  law  of  n;itions,  that  the 
property  captured,  should  bo  in  posses- 
sion of  the  captors  in  their  own  ports, 
those  of  an  allj',  or  of  a  neutral  ;  but  no 
belligerent  power  has  a  right  to  capture 
in  the  ports  of  a  neutral  country,  or 
within  a  marine  league  of  her  shores  ;  nor 
does  a  capture  made  then  render  the  ad- 
judication vali'l.  Subject  to  capture  are 
hostile  property,  that  is.  the  property 
of  persons  domiciled  in  a  hostile  coun- 
try, and  neutral  propert  t,  contraband  of 
war. 

PRO  and  COX.  i.  e.  pr.j  and  contra,  for 
and  against,  a  phrase  frequently  occur- 
ring in  common  parlance. 

PROBABIL'ITY,  that  state  of  a  ques- 
tion which  falls  short  of  moral  certainty, 
but  inclines  the  mind  to  receive  it  as  the 
truth.  Dem(mstration  jiroduccs  certain 
knowledge;  proof  produces  belief,  and 
probability  opinion  — If  the  chance  that 
a  thing  may  happen  is  less  than  the 
chance  that  it  may  not  happen,  it  is  said 
to  be  probable  ;  and  the  numbers  which 
express  these  variable  chances,  when  as- 
certained, constit\ite  what  is  termed  the 
science  of  probabilities.  As  applied  to 
human  life,  founded  on  tables  of  mor- 
tality, it  serves  as  the  foundation  of 
societies  which,  for  certain  annual  pre- 
miums, varied  according  to  age,  under- 
take to  pay  certain  sums  to  the  heirs  of 
the  party,  whose  life  is  thereby  insured 
for  that  sum. 

PROBATE,  in  law,  the  proof  of  the 
genuineness  and  validity  of  a  will,  or  the 
exhibition  of  the  will  to  the  proper  officer, 
and  such  other  proceedings  as  the  law  pre- 
scribes, as  preliminary  to  the  execution 
of  it  by  the  executor. 

PROB'LEM,  in  logic,  a  proposition 
that  appears  neither  absolutely  true  nor 
false,  and  consequently  may  be  asserted 
either  in  the  affirmative  or  negative. — In 
a  general  sense,  a  problem  may  be  defin- 
ed, any  question  involving  doubt  or  un- 
certainty, and  requiring  some  operation 
or  further  evidence  for  its  solution. 

PROCESS,  in  law,  the  whole  course  of 
proceedings  in  any  cause,  real  or  person- 
al, civil  or  criminal,  from  the  original 
writ  to  the  end  of  the  suit.  In  a  more 
limited  sense,  process  denotes  that  by 
which  a  man  is  first  called  into  any  tem- 
poral court. —  Orisrinal  process  is  the 
means  taken  to  compel  the  defendant  to 
appear  in  court. — Mesne  process  is  that 
which  issues,  pending  the  suit,  upon  some 
collateral  or  interlocutory  matter. —  Final 
process  is  the  process  of  execution. 


Prto] 


AND    THK     FINE     ARTS. 


495 


PROCE'S  VERBAL,  in  tho  language 
of  French  jurispnuleiice,  an  authentic 
written  niinu'e  or  report  of  an  official  act 
or  proceeding,  or  statement  of  facts.  The 
term  is  also  used  lo  signify  minutes  drawn 
up  by  a  secretary  or  other  officer  of  the 
proceedings  of  an  assembjy. 

PRO'CHRONISM,  an  error  in  chronol- 
ogy, when  events  are  dated  anterior  to 
the  time  at  which  thev  happened. 

PROCLAMA'TION,  a  public  notice  or 
declaration  of  anything  in  the  name  of 
the  supreme  magistrate.  Proclamation 
is  used  for  a  solemn  declaration  of  war 
and  peace,  and  in  monarchies  for  the  act 
of  notifying  the  accession  of  a  prince  to 
the  throne  ;  also  for  the  public  declaration 
used  at  the  calling  of  a  court ;  and  for  va- 
rious other  objects. 

PRO  CONFES'SO,  in  law,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  a  defendant  in  chancery  who  ap- 
pears and  is  afterwards  in  contempt  for 
not  answering  ;  wherefore  the  matter  con- 
tained in  the  bill  shall  be  taken  pro  con- 
J'esso,  that  is,  as  though  it  had  been  con- 
fessed. 

PROCON'SUL,  a  Roman  magistrate 
sent  to  govern  a  province  with  consular 
authority.  The  procons^uls  were  appoint- 
ed from  the  body  of  the  senate,  and  their 
authority  expired  at  the  end  of  a  year 
from  their  appointment.  Before  the  pro- 
consul quitted  Rome,  he  went  up  to  the 
Capitol,  offered  sacrifice,  put  on  the  robe 
of  war  called  paludamcntum,  and  then 
departed  from  the  city  in  pomp,  preced- 
ed by  lictors,  with  rods  and  axes,  and  at- 
tended by  his  friends  to  some  distance 
from  Rome.  His  equipage,  consisting  of 
pavilions,  horses,  mules,  clerks,  secreta- 
ries, &c.  was  called  his  viaticuvi,  and  pro- 
vided at  the  public  expense. 

PROCRUS'TES,  in  mytholog.y,  a  fa- 
mous robber  of  ancient  Greece,  who  tor- 
tured his  victims  by  placing  them  on  an 
iron  bed,  which  their  stature  was  made  to 
fit  by  stretching  or  mutilating  them  so  as 
to  suit  its  dimensions;  whence  the  well- 
known  metaphorical  expression,  the  bed 
of  Procrustes.  lie  was  killed  by  Theseus 
near  Ilermione. 

PROCTOR,  a  person  employed  to  man- 
age another's  cause  in  a  court  of  civil  or 
ecclesiastical  law,  as  in  the  court  of  ad- 
miralty, or  in  a  spiritual  court. — Also 
the  magistrate  or  superintendent  of  a 
university. 

PROCURA'TION,  in  law,  a  composi- 
tion paid  by  an  incumbent  to  the  bishop 
or  archdeacon,  to  commute  for  the  en- 
tertainment which  was  to  have  been  given 
him  at  his  visitation.      Also,  tho  instru- 


ment by  which  a  person  is  empowered  to 
transact  the  affairs  of  another. 

PROCURATO'RES,  under  the  Roman 
emperors,  were  officers  sent  into  the  prov- 
inces to  regulate  the  public  revenue,  re- 
ceive it,  and  dispose  of  it  as  the  emperor 
directed.  Such  an  officer  was  Pontius  Pi- 
late in  Judea ;  but  as  the  Jews  were  look- 
ed upon  as  a  rebellious  people,  besides  his 
authority  over  the  revenue,  he  was  in- 
vested with  all  the  power  of  a  pro-consul, 
even  a  power  of  life  and  death. — Prn- 
curatores,  in  the  Roman  courts  of  judi- 
cature, were  properly  such  lawyers  as  as- 
sisted the  plaintiff  in  proving,  or  the  de- 
fendant in  clearing  himself  from  the  mat- 
ter of  fact  alleged.  They  are  often  ;on- 
founded  with  the  adt.K.ates. 

PROD'IGY,  in  ordinary  modern  lan- 
guage, signifies  a  surprising  though  natu- 
ral event ;  in  contradistinction  tomiracle, 
which  is  something  out  of  the  course  of 
nature.  Among  the  Romans,  however, 
any  extraordinary  event  or  appearance 
to  which,  from  insufficient  .acquaintance 
with  natural  history,  they  could  not  as- 
sign a  cause,  was  termed  a  prodigy,  and 
regarded  as  a  supernatural  event,  indica- 
tive of  favorable  or  (more  generally)  of 
unfavorable  dispositions  of  their  gods. 
Ilence  the  number  of  recorded  prodigies, 
many  evidently  false,  some  real  but  mis- 
understood, which  Livy  has  inserted  in 
his  annals. 

PRO'DUCE;  in  an  enlarged  sense,  is 
what  any  country  yields  from  labor,  and 
national  growth,  which  may  serve  either 
for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants,  or  be  ex- 
ported to  foreign  countries.  In  a  more 
limited  sense,  we  speak  of  the  produce  of 
a  farm,  of  a  mine,  of  a  tax,  Ac. ;  but 
when  we  allude  to  a  work  either  of  na- 
ture or  art,  we  use  the  word  production. 

PRO'EM,  preface  ;  introduction  ;  pre- 
liminary observations  to  a  book  or  writ- 
ing. 

PROFES'SION,  a  word  which,  when 
applied  to  a  person's  vocation  or  employ- 
ment, designates  an  occupation  not  mere- 
ly mechanical.  We  say,  the  learned 
professions ;  the  profession  of  a  clergy- 
man, a  lawyer,  a  physician,  a  surgeon,  a 
lecturer,  or  a  teacher.  In  like  manner, 
we  use  the  word  professional  when  speak- 
ing of  literary  and  scientific  studies,  pur- 
suits, or  duties. 

PROFESSOR,  in  its  original  sense, 
signifies  one  who  makes  open  declaration 
of  his  sentiments  or  opinions,  particular- 
ly one  who  makes  a  public  avowal  of  his 
belief  in  the  Christian  doctrine  and  reve- 
lation.— In  its  more  modern  and  common 


496 


CVCLOrEPIA     OF    LITERAIlKE 


PRO 


acceptation,  a  professor  is  one  that  pub- 
licly teaches  any  science  or  branch  of 
learning  ;  as  a  professor  of  natural  his- 
tory, of  mathematics,  of  theology,  &c. 
In  a  university,  some  professors  are  de- 
nominated from  the  arts  they  profess, 
others  from  the  founders  of  the  professor- 
ships, or  those  who  assigned  a  revenue 
for  the  support  of  the  professors. 

PROFILE,  in  general,  the  view  of  an 
object  from  one  of  its  chief  sides,  at  which 
more  or  less  of  the  other  side  is  hidden 
from  the  eye. — Profile,  in  sculpture  and 
painting,  a  head,  portrait,  etc.,  repre- 
sented sideways,  or  in  a  side  vievv.  On 
almost  all  medals,  faces  are  represented 
in  profile. — Profile,  in  architecture,  de- 
notes the  outline  of  a  figure,  building,  or 
member,  also  the  draught  of  a  building, 
representing  it  as  if  cut  down  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  roof  to  the  fuuudation. 

PROF'IT,  in  political  economj',  means 
the  advantage  or  gain  resulting  to  the 
owner  of  capital  from  its  employment, 
in  industrious  undertakings.  It  is  the 
premium,  as  it  were,  on  accumulation. 
Were  there  no  profit  there  would  be  little 
or  no  motive  to  save  and  amass  ;  and  all 
the  vast  advantages  that  society  derives 
from  the  formation  and  employment  of 
capital  would  be  unknown.  But  without 
taking  into  account  the  security  and  con- 
sequence conferred  on  the  possessors  of 
capital  or  wealth,  and  looking  only  at  its 
tangible  results,  profit  consists  of  that 
part  of  the  produce  raised  by  the  agency 
of  ca])ital  employed  in  industrious  under- 
takings that  remains  in  the  hands  of 
those  by  whom  it  is  employed  after  re- 
placing the  capital  itself,  or  such  portions 
of  it  as  may  have  been  wasted  in  the  busi- 
ness, and  every  expense  necessarily  in- 
curred in  superintending  its  employment. 
The  rate  of  profit  is  the  proportion  which 
the  amount  of  profit  derived  from  an  un- 
dertaking bears  to  the  capital  employed 
in  it. 

PROF'IT  AND  LOSS,  in  commerce, 
the  gain  or  loss  arising  from  goods  bought 
and  sold ;  the  former  of  which,  in  book- 
keeping, is  placed  on  the  creditor's  side: 
the  latter  on  the  debtor's  side. — Net  profit 
is  tlic  gain  made  by  selling  goods  at  a 
price  bej'ond  what  they  cost  the  seller, 
and  beyond  all  costs  and  charges  — 
Among  the  many  wise  iireccpts  which 
ajipoar  in  the  pages  of  the  "  Rambler," 
there  are  few  more  worthy  to  be  borne 
in  mind  than  this:  "Let  no  man  antici- 
pate uncertain  profits." 

PROGRAMME,  a  detailed  account  or 
advertisement  ofsome  public  performance. 


In  a  university,  a  billet  or  advertisemen-t 
to  invite  persons  to  an  oration. — In  anti- 
quitj'.  an  edict  posted  in  some  public 
place. 

PRO'HEDRI,  certain  Athenian  officers 
cliosen  to  superintend  the  proceedings  in 
the  two  legislative  assemblies  ;  so  called 
because  they  had  the  privilege  of  sitting 
in  the  front  scats 

PROHIBITION,  in  law,  a  writ  to  for- 
bid any  court  from  proceeding  in  a  cause 
then  depending,  on  suggestion  that  the 
cause  of  il  Joes  not  properly  belong  to 
that  court. 

PROJEC'TURE,  in  architecture,  the 
jutting  or  leaning  outwards  of  the  mould- 
ings and  other  members  of  architecture 
beyond  the  face  of  a  wall,  column,  Ac. 

PROLEGOMENA,  in  literature,  pre- 
liminary or  introductory  observations  or 
dissertations  prefixed  to  anj'  work.  The 
famous  dissertation  prefixed  by  D'Alem- 
bcrt  to  the  Encydopcdie,  and  the  disser- 
tations prefi.\ed  by  Dugald  Stewart. 
Playfair,  Leslie,  and  Mackintosh  to  the 
last  edition  of  the  Enrt/clopadia  Bri- 
tannica,  are  among  the  best  specimens  of 
prolegomena. 

PROLEPSIS,  a  figure  in  rhetoric,  by 
which  the  speaker  anticipates  or  prevents 
objections,  by  alluding  to  or  answering 
them  himself. 

PRO'LOGUE,  in  dramatic  poetry,  an 
address  to  the  audience  previous  to  the 
commencement  of  the  play,  delivered  by 
one  of  the  performers.  It  may  cither  be 
in  prose  or  verse,  but  is  generally  in  the 
latter;  and  it  usually  consists  of  apolo- 
getic remarks  on  the  merits  of  the  piece 
about  to  be  re])resented.  Sometimes  it 
relates  to  the  situation  in  which  the  au- 
thor or  actors  stand  to  the  public,  and 
sometimes  it  contains  allusions  to  subjects 
incidental  to  neither. 

PROLU'SION,  in  literature,  a  term 
formerly  applied  to  certain  pieces  or  com- 
positions made  previously  to  others,  by 
way  of  prelude  or  exercise. 

PROME'TIIEUS,  according  to  the  most 
ordinary  form  of  his  legend  in  Greek  mj'- 
thology,  one  of  the  Titans,  who  was  ex- 
posed to  the  wrath  of  Jupiter  on  account 
of  his  having  taught  mortals  tlie  arts, 
and  especially  the  use  of  fire;  which 
ho  was  said  to  have  stolen  from  heaven, 
concealed  in  'a  pi])e.  According  to  an- 
other story,  Proniotheus  was  actually  the 
creator  of  men  ;  and  in  the  /'rotai^oras 
of  Plato  he  is  made  not  to  have  created, 
but  to  have  inspired  them  with  thought 
and  sense.  His  punishment  was  to  be 
chained  to  a  rock  on  Caucasus,  where  a 


pro] 


AND    THK     FINK     AIMS. 


497 


vulture  perpetually  gnawed  his  liver; 
from  which  he  was  finally  rescued  by  Her- 
cules. This  legend  has  formed  the  sub- 
je<:t  of  the  griindcst  of  all  the  poetical 
illustrations  of  (ireek  supernatural  be- 
lief, the  Prometheus  Bound  of  ^"Esehy- 
lus.  Many  have  recognized  in  the  indom- 
itable resolution  of  this  suffering  Titan, 
and  his  stern  endurance  of  the  evils  in- 
flicted on  him  by  a  power  with  which  he 
had  vainly  warred  for  supremacy,  the 
prototype  of  the  arch-fiend  of  Milton. 
Others  have  sought  for  a  recondite  anal- 
og}', and  discovered  in  the  tortures  en- 
dured by  Prometheus  as  a  sacrifice  for 
mankind,  whom  he  had  benefited,  a  fore- 
shadowing of  the  great  mystery  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

PROMISSORY  NOTE,  a  writing  or 
note  of  hand,  promising  the  payment  of 
a  certain  sura  at  a  certain  time,  in  con- 
sideration of  value  received  by  the  prom- 
iser. 

PROOF,  in  law  and  logic,  that  degree 
of  evidence  which  convinces  the  mind  of 
the  certainty  of  truth  or  fact,  and  pro- 
duces belief.  Proof  differs  from  dem- 
onstration, being  derived  from  person- 
al knowledge  or  conclusive  reasoning; 
whereas  the  term  demonstration  is  ap- 
plicable only  to  those  truths  of  which  the 
contrary  is  inconceivable. — In  printing, 
pn  impression  on  which  the  errors  and 
mistakes  are  marked  for  the  purpose  of 
being  corrected.  Proofs  are — first  proof, 
which  is  the  impression  taken  with  all  the 
errors  of  workmanship.  After  it  is  read 
by  the  copy,  and  the  errors  corrected, 
which  if  not  many,  and  carefully  done, 
another  impression  is  printed  with  more 
care,  to  send  to  the  author  ;  this  is  termed 
a  clean  proof.  On  it  he  makes  his  cor- 
rections and  alterations:  when  those  are 
altered  in  the  types,  another  proof  is 
printed,  and  read  over  carefully,  previ- 
ously to  the  whole  number  being  printed 
off;  this  is  called  the  press  proof. 

PROPAGAX'DA,  during  the  French 
revolution,  was  a  term  applied  to  secret 
societies  whose  object  was  the  propaga- 
tion of  demoeratical  principles  ;  iind  it  has 
since  become  to  signify  any  kind  of  insti- 
tution for  making  proselytes  for  political 
objects —The  name  was  originally  given 
to  those  institutions  which  were  erected 
by  the  papal  court,  for  the  extension  of 
its  own  power  and  the  Ciitholic  religion 
among  those  who  were  not  within  its  pale. 
It  was  called  the  congresratio  de  propa- 
ganda fide,  (society  for  propagating  the 
faith,)  and  was  founded  by  Gregory  XV. 
in  162?. 

•62 


PROP'ERTY.  a  particular  virtue  oi 
quality  which  nature  has  bestowed  on 
some  things  exclusive  of  all  others  :  thus 
color  is  a  property  of  light  ;  extension, 
figure,  divisibility,  and  impenetrability, 
are  properties  of  bodies,  itc. — Property, 
in  law,  is  defined  to  be  the  highest  right 
a  person  has,  or  can  have,  to  anything. 
At  this  day  property  in  lands,  &c.,  is  ac- 
quired either  by  entry,  descent,  law,  or 
conveyance ;  and  in  goods  and  chattels 
property  may  be  gained  various  ways, 
as  by  gift,  inheritance,  or  purchase.  The 
labor  of  inventing,  making,  or  producing 
anything,  constitutes  one  of  the  highest 
and  indefeasible  titles  to  property.  That 
also  is  a  person's  property  to  which  he 
has  a  legal  title,  whether  in  his  posses- 
sion or  not. — Much  has  of  late  been  said 
respecting  the  right  of  an  author  to  his 
literary  productions,  as  a  species  of  abso- 
lute properly;  and  why  the  productions 
of  manual  labor  should  rank  higher  in 
the  scale  of  rights  than  the  productions 
of  the  intellect — or  why  the  former  should 
be  held  without  limitation,  and  the  latter 
be  limited  to  a  term  of  years — will  require 
better  arguments  to  substantiate  than 
have  yet  been  advanced. 

PRO'PIIET,  in  general,  one  who  fore- 
tels  future  events  ;  but  v/hen  we  speak  of 
the  prophets,  we  mean  those  inspired  per- 
sons among  the  Jews  who  were  commis- 
sioned by  Ood  to  decla.-o  his  will  and  pur- 
poses to  that  people.  Among  the  canon- 
ical books  of  the  Old  rTestament,  we  have 
the  writings  of  si.xteen  prophets,  four  of 
which  are  denominated  the  "greater  pro- 
phets," viz.  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
and  Daniel;  so  calle  1  from  the  length  or 
extent  of  their  writings,  which  exceed 
those  of  the  other, ,  viz.  Ilosea,  Joel, 
Amos,  Obadiah,  Jo  las,  Mlcah,  Xahum, 
Habakkuk,  Ilaggai,  Zachariah,  and  Mal- 
achi,  who  are  call  id  the  lesser  "  pro- 
phets." The  deep  sense  and  religious 
fire  of  these  men,  so  far  before  their  age, 
present  a  phenomeuon  that  can  be  ex- 
plained only  by  the  special  action  of  di- 
vine influences.  They  appear,  therefore, 
as  messengers  of  God,  divinely  inspired 
seers ;  and  their  preachings  and  songs 
were  preserved  by  the  Hebrews  as  the 
word  of  (lod,  and  among  them  were  ren- 
dered more  impressive  by  their  connec- 
tion with  ])oetry  and  music.  Their  con- 
stant object  was  the  preservation  of  the 
doctrines  o(  revelation  in  their  purity  : 
and  the  richness,  originality,  and  sub- 
limity of  their  writings  still  awaken  the 
admiration  of  those  who  deny  them  the 
character  of  prophecies.-  The  prophecies 


49S 


CYCLOl'EUIA     OF     LIIEKATLRE 


[pro 


in  general  are  supposed  to  have  had  a 
double  sense,  and  a  double  completion; 
one  sense  referred  to,  which  had  its  ac- 
complishment about  the  time  when  the 
prophets  wrote;  the  other  sense  had  a 
relation  to  distant  times  an\l  events,  to 
which  it  applies  in  a  somewhat  allegori- 
cal manner. 

PIIOPITIA'TION,  in  theology,  an 
atonement  or  sacrifice  otTerod  to  Ood  to  as- 
suage his  wrath,  anil  render  him  proj)!- 
tious.  Among  the  Jews  there  were  both  or- 
dinary and  public  sacrifices,  as  holocausts, 
Ac,  offered  by  way  of  thanksgiving  ;  and 
extraordinary  ones,  offered  by  particular 
persons  guilty  of  any  crime,  by  way  of 
propitiation.  It  was  also  a  feast  among 
the  Jesvs,  celebrated  on  the  10th  of  the 
month  Tisri,  in  commemoration  of  the 
divine  pardon  proclaimed  to  their  fore- 
fathers through  Moses,  who,  as  (rod's 
agent,  remitted  the  punishment  due  to 
the  crime  of  their  worshipping  the  golden 
3alf.  The  Romish  church  believe  the 
mass  to  be  a  sacrifice  of  propitiation  for 
the  living  and  the  dead.  The  reformed 
churches  allow  of  no  propitiation  but  that 
one  offered  by  Jesus  Christ  on  the  cross. 

PROPITIATORY,  or  Mercv-seat, 
the  cover  or  lid  of  the  ark  or  covenant, 
lined  within  and  without  with  plates  of 
gold.  This  is  said  to  have  been  a  tj'pe  of 
Christ. 

PROPOR'TION,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  the 
most  proper  relation  of  the  measure  of 
parts  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole. 
The  Greeks  used  the  word  to  express  this 
idea.  In  many  instances,  proportion  may 
be  considered  almost  synonj'mous  with 
fitness,  though  there  is  a  distinction  be- 
tween them  ;  since  every  form  suscepti- 
ble of  proportion  may  be  considered  either 
with  respect  to  its  whole  as  connected 
with  the  end  designed,  or  with  respect  to 
the  relation  of  the  several  parts  to  the 
end.  In  the  first  case,  fitness  is  the  thing 
considered ;  in  the  second,  proportion. 
Fitness,  therefore,  expresses  the  general 
relation  of  means  to  an  end,  and  propor- 
tion the  proper  relation  of  parts  to  an 
end.  It  is  hence  needless  to  dwell  on  the 
intimate  connection  that  exists  between 
beauty  and  proportion,  in  all  complex 
forms. 

PROPOSITION,  in  logic,  is  defined 
"a  sentence  indicative;"  i  e.,  a  sentence 
which  affirms  or  denies.  Thus,  sentences 
in  the  form  of  command  or  C(,uestion  are 
excluded  from  the  character  of  proposi- 
tions. Logical  propositions  are  said  to 
bo  divided,  first,  according  to  substance, 
into  categorical  and  hypothetical ;  second- 


ly, according  to  quality,  into  aflSrmative 
and  negative;  thirdly,  according  to  quan- 
tit}',  into  universal  and  particular.  1.  A 
categorical  proposition  is  where  the  sen- 
tence affirms  or  denies  absolutely,  as 
"  man  is  mortal."  A  hypothetical  propo- 
sition is  defined  to  be  two  or  more  caio- 
goricals  united  by  a  conjunction,  as  "if 
Crtius  is  man,  he  is  mortal."  There  are 
several  sorts  of  hypothetical  propositions  ; 
conditional,  disjunctive,  casual,  Ac.  2. 
An  atlirmalive  proposition  is  one  whose 
copula  (or  conjunction)  is  affirmative,  as 
"man  is  mortal;"  a  negative  proposition 
has  a  negative  copula,  as  "  man  is  not 
immortal."  3.  An  universal  proposition 
is  when  the  predicate  is  said  of  the  whole 
of  the  subject,  as  "  all  men  are  mortal," 
"  Caius  is  mortal;"  a  particular  when  it 
is  said  of  part  of  the  subject  only,  as 
"some  men  arc  rich."  To  these  two 
species  may  be  ailded  the  indefinite  prop- 
osition, when  the  subject  has  no  sign  of 
universality  or  particularity,  or  is  a  sin- 
gular noun,  which  is  cither  universal  or 
particular  according  to  the  matter. 

PROPRE'FECT,  among  the  Romans, 
the  prefect's  lieutenant,  or  an  officer 
whom  the  praHorium  commissioned  to  do 
anv  part  of  his  dutj'. 

PROPR.E'TOR,  a  Roman  magistrate, 
who,  having  discharged  the  office  of 
prwtor  at  home,  was  sent  into  a  province 
to  command  there  with  his  former  preto- 
rial  authority. 

PROPY'LIeUM,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, the  vestibule  of  a  house.  The 
vestibules  or  porticoes  of  Athens,  leading 
to  the  Acropolis  were  thus  denominated. 

PRO  RA'TA,  in  commerce,  a  term  some- 
times used  by  merchants  for  in  propor- 
tion ;  as  each  person  must  reap  the  profit 
or  sustain  the  loss  pro  rata  to  his  interest, 
that  is,  in  proportion  to  his  stock. 

PRO  RE  NA'TA,  according  to  exigen- 
cies or  circumstances. 

PROROGA'TIOX,  a  term  used  at  the 
conclusion  of  a  session  of  parliament,  de- 
noting its  continuance  from  one  session  to 
another;  as  an  adjournment  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  session  from  day  to  daj-. 

PROSCE'NIUM,  in  the  Grecian  and 
Roman  theatres,  was  the  stage  or  place 
before  the  scene,  whore  the  pulpitum 
stood,  into  which  the  actors  came  from 
behind  the  scenes  to  perform. 

PRO.'^CRIP'TION,  a  punishment  in  use 
among  tlie  Romans,  whieli  had  some  anal- 
ogy to  our  outlawry.  The  names  of  the 
proscripti.  or  persons  suffering  under 
proscription,  were  posted  up  in  tablets  at 
the  forum,  to  the  end  that  they  might  be 


pro] 


ANU    THE    i'lNE    ARTS. 


499 


"brought  to  justice,  a  reward  being  pro- 
poseil  to  those  who  took  them,  and  a  pun- 
ishment to  those  who  concealed  them. 
Under  the  triumvirate  many  of  the  lest 
Koman  citizens  fell  b^v  proscription. 

PROSE,  in  literature,  all  language  not 
in  verse.  Prose  diction,  to  be  good,  or 
even  admissible,  in  ordinary  criticism, 
must  be  conformable  to  the  rules  of  com- 
position as  to  style,  cadence,  &c. 

PllOSECU'TiON,  in  law,  the  institu- 
tion and  carrying  on  a  suit  in  a  court  of 
law  or  equity ;  or  the  process  of  exhibit- 
ing formal  charges  against  an  offender 
before  a  legal  tribunal,  and  pursuing 
them  to  final  judgment. — The  person  who 
institutes  and  carries  on  a  criminal  suit  is 
called  the  prosecutor. 

PROS  ELYTE,  a  new  convert  to  some 
religion,  system  or  party.  Thus  a  pagan 
converted  to  Christianity  is  a  "proselyte  ; 
and,  although  the  word  primarily  refers 
to  converts  to  some  religious  creed,  we 
speak  familiarly  of  proselytes  to  the  theo- 
ries of  Lavoisier,  Black,  &c. 

PROSERPINE,  the  Latin  form  of 
Persephone,  the  name  of  a  Grecian  god- 
dess, sprung  from  Jupiter  and  Ceres. 
She  was  stolen  from  her  mother  by  Pluto, 
who,  enamored  of  her  beauty,  carried  her 
off  from  the  plains  of  Enna  in  Sicily,  while 
sporting  with  her  companions,  to  the  in- 
fernal regions,  where  she  became  his 
queen.  The  wanderings  of  Ceres  in  search 
of  her  daughter  were  much  celebrated  by 
the  ancient  poets.  When  she  at  last  dis- 
covered the  place  of  her  concealment,  a 
compromise  was  entered  into,  by  which 
Proserpine  was  allowed  to  spend  two 
thirds  of  the  j'ear  with  her  parents  and 
the  rest  with  Pluto  in  his  empire. 

PROS'ODY,  the  science  which  treats 
of  quantity,  accent,  and  the  laws  of  har- 
moiu',  both  In  metrical  and  prose  com- 
position. In  the  (Jreek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages every  syllable  had  its  determinate 
value  or  quantity,  and  verses  were  con- 
structed bj'  systems  of  recurring  feet, 
each  foot  containing  a  definite  number  of 
syllables  possessing  a  certain  quantity 
and  arrangement.  The  versification  of 
raovlern  European  languages,  in  general, 
is  constructed  simply  by  accent  and  num 
ber  of  syllables.  They  have,  therefore, 
no  prosody  strictl}'  so  called.  The  Ger- 
mans, however,  have  labored  to  subject 
their  language  to  the  ancient  metrical 
svstem,  but  with  indifferent  success. 
'  PROSONOMA'SIA,  a  figure  in  rheto- 
ric, wherein  allusion  is  made  to  the  like- 
ness of  a  sound  in  several  names  or  words  : 
a  kind  of  pun. 


PROSOPOG'RAPIIY,  in  rhetoric,  a 
word  used  by  some  critical  writers  to  sig- 
nify' the  description  of  animated  objects. 
Of  this  figure  the  portraits  of  the  horse 
and  the  leviathan  in  the  book  of  Job  are 
well-known  and  beautiful  examples. 

PROSOPOLEP'SY,  a  premature  opin- 
ion or  prejudice  against  a  person,  formed 
by  a  view  of  his  external  appearance. 

PROSOPOPE'IA,  a  figure  in  rhetoric 
by  which  things  are  represented  as  per- 
sons, or  by  which  things  inanimate  are 
spoken  of  as  animated  beings,  or  by  which 
an  absent  person  is  introduced  as  speak- 
ing, or  a  deceased  person  is  represented 
as  alive  and  present.  It  includes  per- 
sonification, but  is  more  extensive  in  its 
signification. 

PROSPECTUS,  the  outline  or  plan  of 
a  literary  work,  containing  the  general 
subject  or  design,  with  the  necessary  par- 
ticulars as  to  the  mode  of  publication. 
The  word  prospectus  has  recently  been 
adopted  in  announcing  many  undertak- 
ings and  schemes  which  are  not  purely 
literary. 

PRO'STYLE,  in  architecture,  a  range 
of  columns  in  the  front  of  a  temple. 

PRO'TASIS,  in  grammar  and  rhetoric, 
every  properly  constructed  period  is  said 
to  be  naturally  divisible  into  two  parts; 
of  which  the  first  is  termed  protasis,  the 
second  apodosis.  In  the  ancient  drama, 
the  protasis  was  the  exposition,  usually 
contained  jn  the  first  part  of  the  piece, 
either  by  way  of  soliloquy  or  dialogue, 
serving  to  make  known  the  characters 
and  the  plot  to  the  audience. 

PROTEST,  a  formal  and  solemn  dec- 
laration of  opinion,  given  in  writing,  com- 
monly against  some  act  ;  as,  the  formal 
and  recorded  dissent  of  a  minority  against 
the  majority  of  any  public  body. — Pro- 
test, in  commerce,  a  formal  declaration 
made  by  a  notary-public,  at  the  request 
of  the  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  for 
non-acceptance  or  non-payment  of  the 
same,  protesting  against  the  drawer  and 
others  concerned,  for  the  exchange,  char- 
ges, damages,  and  interest.  This  protest 
is  written  on  a  copy  of  the  bill,  and  no- 
tice given  to  the  indorser  of  the  same, 
by  which  he  becomes  liable  to  pay  the 
amount  with  charges  and  interest :  also, 
a  similar  declaration  against  the  drawer 
of  a  note  of  hand  for  non-payment  to  a 
banking  firm,  &c. — There  is  also  another 
kind  itf  protest,  viz.  a  writing  attested  by 
a  justice  of  the  peace  or  consul,  drawn 
by  the  master  of  a  vessel,  stating  the  se- 
verity of  the  voyage  by  which  the  ship 
has  suffered,  and  showing  that  the  dam- 


600 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[I'RO 


age  was  not  occasioned  by  his  misconduct 
or  neglect. 

PKOT'ESTAXT,  in  church  history,  a 
name  first  given  in  (Jerniany  to  those 
who  adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  Luther: 
because,  in  1529,  they  protested  against 
a  decree  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and 
the  diet  of  Spires,  declaring  that  they 
appealed  to  a  general  council.  This 
name  was  afterwards  e.\tended  to  the 
Calvinists,  and  is  now  become  common  to 
all  who  belong  to  the  refoYuied  churches. 

I'KUTESTA'TIOX,  in  huv,  a  declara- 
tion in  pleading,  by  wliich  the  party  in- 
terposes an  oblique  allegation  or  denial 
of  some  fact,  protesting  that  it  does  or 
does  not  exist. 

PRO'TOCOL,  in  the  French  language, 
signifies  the  forniulsB  or  technical  wortls 
of  legal  in.struments ;  in  German^',  it 
has  been  used  to  denote  the  minutes  or 
rough  draught  of  an  instrument  or  a, 
transaction.  It  is  in  the  latter  .sense  that 
the  word  has  been  borrowed  by  diplo- 
macy, in  which  it  signifies  the  original 
copy  of  any  dispatch,  treaty,  or  other 
document. 

PRO'TOMARTYR,  a  term  applied  to 
Stephen,  the  first  Christian  martyr;  and 
used  also  for  the  first  sutTercr  in  any 
cause,  religious  or  political. 

PRO'TOPOPE,  the  imperial  confessor, 
an  officer  of  the  holy  directing  synod, 
the  supreme  spiritual  court  of  the  Greek 
church  in  Russia. 

PRO'TOTYPE,  an  original  or  model 
after  which  anything  is  formed. 

PROVERB,  a  familiar  saying,  which 
has  been  variously  defined.  In  point  of 
form,  there  are  two  species  of  proverbs  ; 
one  containing  a  ma.xim  directly  express- 
ed in  a.  concise  and  familiar  style;  the 
other,  in  which  a  maxim  is  expressed 
metaphorically,  e.g.  "  lioncsty  is  the  best 
policy,"  or,  rather,  allegorically,  c.  g. 
"  strike,  while  the  iron  is  hot."  In  point 
of  substance,  proverbs  are  for  the  most 
part  rules  of  moral,  or,  still  more  prop- 
erly, of  prudential  conduct.  In  dra- 
matic literature,  chiefly  French,  the 
term  has  been  a|iplied  In  short  pieces, 
in  which  some  proverb  or  popular  say- 
ing is  taken  as  the  foundation  of  tlie 
plot.  They  originated  in  tlio  fondness 
of  the  higher  cla.ss  of  Franco  for  private 
theatricals,  which  became  a  sort  of  ))as- 
sion  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
Carmantelli  was  the  most  successful  wri- 
ter of  proverbs  at  the  time  of  Ihnir  high- 
est popularity.  Those  of  .M.  Theodore 
Loclerccj,  at  the  jjre.xent  time,  have  mot 
with  considerable  success. —  I'rorcrh:^,  llu\ 


of  Solomon,  one  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  According  to  the 
arrangement  in  its  present  shape,  the 
first  nine  books  form  a  species  of  intro- 
duction ;  those  from  the  tenth  to  the 
twenty-fourth  contain  the  proverbs  of 
Solomon,  properly  so  called  ;  and  the  re- 
mainder furnishes  a  kind  of  appendix; 
including  the  thirtieth  and  thirty-first, 
which  contain  the  proverbs  of  .\gur,  the 
son  of  Jakch,  and  of  king  Lemuel. 

PROV'IDEXCE,  in  theology,  the  care 
and  superintendence  which  God  exercises 
over  his  creatures.  A  belief  in  divine 
providence  is  founded  on  this  rational 
principle,  that  the  same  power  which 
caused  a  thing  to  exist  is  necessary  to 
continue  its  existence. 

PROVINCE,  among  the  Romans,  a 
country  of  considerable  extent,  which,  be- 
ing reduced  under  their  dominion,  was 
new  modelled  according  to  the  pleasure 
of  the  conquerors,  subjected  to  the  com- 
mand of  annual  governors  sent  from 
Rome,  and  obliged  to  pay  such  taxes  and 
contributions  as  the  senate  thought  fit  tv- 
demand.  These  provinces  had  the  appel- 
lations of  consular  or  prcctoruin,  accord- 
ing as  they  were  governed  b^-  consuls  or 
prastors. — .\mong  the  moderns,  a  country 
belonging  to  a  kingdom  or  state,  either 
by  conquest  or  colonization,  usually  situ- 
ated at  a  distance  froui  the  kingdom  or 
s.tate,  but  more  or  less  dcpoadunl  on  and 
.subject  to  it. 

PROVINCIALISM,  a  mode  of  speech 
peculiar  to  a  province  or  district  of  coun- 
try remote  from  the  principal  country  or 
from  the  metropolis. 

PROVIS  lONAL,  j)rovidedfor  present 
need  or  for  a  temporary  occasion  ;  as,  a 
procisio'ial  government,  a  provisional 
treaty,  etc. 

PliOV^I'SO,  in  law,  an  article  or  clause 
in  any  statute,  agreement,  contract,  &c., 
by  which  a  conditional  stipulation  is  in- 
troduced. 

PKOVI'SOR,  the  title  in  the  ancient 
French  universities,  of  an  officer  charged 
with  the  management  of  their  external 
affairs,  both  spiritual  and  temporal,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  with  their  iliscipline 
also.  The  provisor  of  the  .Surbonne  was 
an  officer  of  high  importance  among  the 
clergy.  The  |)rincipals  of  Napoleon's 
Lyceum,  had  the  title  of  ))rovi;-or.'-,  anil 
the  modern  royal  colleges  retain  it  for 
the  same  functionary. 

PROVOST,  in  a  general  sense,  a  per- 
son who  is  appointed  to  preside  over  or 
sii])orintend  ;  as,  (lie  proro.-it  i\{  a  college. 
--The  proi-o.4-iniir.-i/iul  of  an  army,  i-;  an 


P8Y 


AND    THE    FINE    A  UTS. 


501 


officer  appointed  to  arrest  and  secure 
deserters  and  other  criminals,  to  hinrlcr 
the  soldiers  from  pillaging,  to  regulate 
weights  and  measures.  <tc.  There  is  a 
similar  officer  in  the  English  navy,  who 
has  the  charge  of  the  prisoners  taken  at 
sea. 

PROXI'MATE  CAUSE,  that  which 
immediatel}'  precedes  and  produces  the 
effect,  as  distinguished  from  the  remote  or 
predisposing  cause. 

PIlUX  Y,  the  agency  of  another  who 
acts  as  a  substitute  for  his  principal. — -In 
England,  any  member  of  the  house  of 
lords  may  cause  another  peer  to  vote  for 
him  as  his  proxy  in  his  absence. 

PRYTANE'UAI,  in  Grecian  antiquity, 
the  senate-house  in  Athens,  where  the 
council  of  the  prylanes  assembled,  and 
where  those  who  had  rendered  anj-  signal 
service  to  the  commonwealth  were  main- 
tained at  the  public  e.xpense. —  Pryta- 
neuin  was  also  a  name  given  to  all  places 
sacred  to  Vesta.  Hence  those  widows 
called  prytanides,  who  took  care  of  the 
sacred  fire,  received  their  name. 

PSALM,  a  divine  song  or  hymn  ;  but 
chiefly  appropriated  to  the  hundred  and 
fifty  Psalms  of  Darid  a  canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament.  iMost  of  these 
psalms  have  a  particular  title,  signifying 
either  the  name  of  the  author,  the  person 
who  was  to  set  it  to  music  or  sing  it,  the 
instrument  that  was  to  be  used,  or  the 
subject  and  occasion  of  it.  Some  have 
imagined  that  David  was  the  sole  author 
of  the  Book  of  Psalms  ;  but  the  titles  of 
many  of  them  prove  the  contrary.  Some 
of  the  psalms  were  apparently  written  by 
Solomon ;  a  few  belong  to  the  reigns  of 
the  kings  immediately  succeeding  him  ; 
and  several  to  the  mournful  days  of  the 
Babylonish  captivity  and  of  the  return, 
especially  those  headed  "  for  the  sons  of 
Korah,"  most  of  which  are  probably  by 
the  same  author.  Finally,  a  few  seem  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  the  Maccabees.  The 
'•  Psalms  of  David,"  whether  actually 
composed  by  him,  or  merely  of  his  time, 
probably  const  ituteil  an  earlier  collection, 
which  extended  to  the  seventy-second. 
But,  by  whomsoever  penned,  they  are 
among  the  highest  and  sublimest  efforts 
cf  poetrj';  and  the  holy  light  of  revela- 
tion, the  inspiring  belief  in  the  eternal 
true  God,  spreads  over  them  a  bright 
splendor,  and  fills  them  with  a  deep  and 
holy  fervor. 

PSAL'TERY,  a  musical  instrument 
used  by  the  Hebrews,  the  true  form  of 
which  is  not  now  known.  That  which  is 
now  used  is  a  flat  triangular  instrument, 


truncated    at   the    top,   and   strung  with 
thirteen  chords  of  wire. 

PSEUDEPIG'RAPIIY,  the  ascription 
of  false  names  of  authors  to  works.  This 
was  carried  to  a  great  extent  among  the 
Christians  of  the  fourth  and  following 
centuries. 

PSEU'DO,  a  prefi.\-  (from  the  Greek) 
used  in  the  composition  of  many  words 
to  denote. /(j/se,  ovspurious ;  as,  Apseudo- 
apostlo,  or  false  apostle  ;  apseuf/o-proph- 
et,  or  false  prophet,  &c. 

PSY'CIIE,  in  mythology,  the  daughter 
of  Sol  and  Constancy.  She  was  so  loved 
as  to  be  taken  for  Venus  herself.  This 
goddess  becoming  jealous  of  her  rival 
charms,  ordered  Cupid  to  inspire  her 
with  love  for  some  contemptible  wretch. 
But  Cupid  fell  in  love  with  her  himself. 
Many  were  the  trials  Psyche  underwent, 
arising  partly  from  her  own  indiscretion, 
and  partly  from  the  hatred  of  Venus, 
with  whom,  however,  a  i  econciliation 
was  ultimately  effected.  Psyche,  by  Ju- 
piter's command,  became  immortal,  and 
was  forever  united  with  her  beloved. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  in  its  larger  accepta- 
tion, may  be  taken  as  synonymous  with 
mental  philosophy.  The  word  is  more 
frequently  used  in  reference  to  the  lower 
faculties  of  the  mind,  and  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  phenomena  which  they  present. 
All  psj-chology  is  built  on  experience, 
either  immediate,  or  revived  by  the  mem- 
ory and  imagination.  But,  in  reflect- 
ing on  our  intellectual  faculties,  we  dis- 
cover in  them  certain  laws,  which,  as 
soon  as  they  are  presented  to  us,  we  at 
once  recognize  as  universal  and  necessary; 
certain  conditions  without  the  fulfilment 
of  which  we  are  sensible  that  no  act  of  in- 
tellection could  have  taken  place.  This 
universality  is  something  very  different 
from  the  empirical  truth,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  which  we  attribute  to  the  laws  of 
association,  which  are,  indeed,  universal, 
but  which  might,  for  aught  we  can  see, 
have  been  different  from  what  they  are. 
Corresponding  to  this  distinction,  German 
writers  have  discriminate<l  between  a 
higher,  or  rational,  and  a  lower,  or  em- 
pirical psychology  ;  the  first,  that  of 
Kant,  who  sought,  in  all  our  mental  fac- 
ulties, to  determine  that  only  which  is 
necessary  and  immutable  ;  the  second,  that 
of  Hartley,  who  treats  all  our  intellec- 
tual acts  as  alike  objects  of  mere  history, 
dependent  for  their  validity  only  on  the 
fact  that  they  do  really  recur  in  such  and 
such  order.  The  psychology  of  Aristotle 
was  of  the  latter  description.  He,  conse- 
quently, regarded  the  science  as  forming 


502 


CYCLOrKDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[pun 


one  of  the  physical  sciences,  or  those 
which  are  conversant  with  the  contingent 
and  cliangeable.  Many  pregnant  psy- 
chological truths  are  discoverable  in  that 
philosopher's  work  on  the  soul  ;  in  partic- 
ular, the  doctrine  of  association,  the  nins- 
ter-light  of  all  sound  experimental  psy- 
chology, owes  its  first  enunciation  to  him. 
Among  later  writers  who  have  made 
valuable  contributions  to  the  science  may 
be  enumerated  Hobbes,  Locke,  Hartley, 
and  Sir  Thomas  Brown.  The  value  of 
these  authors'  writings  in  this  peculiar 
province  cannot  be  too  highly  apprecia- 
ted. It  is  only  when  psychology  intrudes 
upon  the  domain,  or  usurps  the  attributes 
of  the  higher  philosophy,  that  its  claims 
need  to  be  resisted.  As  a  preparation 
for  metaphysical  and  theological  thought, 
and,  indeed,  as  an  indispensable  requisite 
for  the  science  of  man,  whether  history, 
politics,  or  ethics,  it  is  not  easy  to  exag- 
gerate its  importance. 

PIIB'LICAN,  among  the  Tlomans,  a 
farmer  of  the  taxes  and  public  revenues, 
the  inferior  officers  of  which  class  were 
deemed  oppressive ;  they  were  conse- 
quently regarded  by  the  Jews  and  other 
tributary  nations  with  no  small  degree 
of  detestation.  Under  the  modern  term 
of  publicans  are  comprised  inn-keepers, 
hotel-keepers,  alehouse-keepers,  keepers 
of  wine  vaults.  <fce. 

PUB'LICIST,  a  writer  on  the  laws 
of  nations. 

PUCK,  in  mediaeval  mythology,  the 
"merry  wanderer  of  the  night,"  "whose 
character  and  attributes  are  so  beauti- 
fully depicted  in  the  Midsummer  7V"ij^///'.s 
Bream.  This  celebrated  fairy  is  known 
by  a  variety  of  names  ;  as  Bohln  Good- 
fellow  and  Friar  Rush  in  England  ;  and 
in  Germany,  as  Knecht  Riipre.cht ;  but 
it  is  by  his  designation  of  Puck,  that  he 
is  most  generally  known  both  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  the  more  northern 
nations.  He  was  the  chief  of  the  do- 
mestic tribe  of  fairies,  or  brownies,  as 
they  are  called  in  Scotland  ;  and  innu- 
merable stories  are  told  of  his  nocturnal 
exploits,  among  which,  drawing  the  wine, 
and  cleaning  the  kitchen  while  the 
family  were  asleep,  arc  the  most  promi- 
nent. The  word  is  probably  derived 
from  the  old  Scandinavian  puki,  a  boij ; 
it  is  also  synonymous  with  pug,  or 
monkey,  whoso  form  this  fairy  is  .said  to 
have  most  frequently  assumed. 

PUL'PIT,  an  elevated  pl.ico  or  inclosed 
stage  in  a  church,  in  which  the  preacher 
Btands.  It  is  called  also  a dcs/t".  Pulpits 
in  modern  churches  are  of  wood,  but  in 


ancient  times  some  were  m.ade  of  stone, 
others  of  marble,  and  richly  carved. 

PUN,  a  species  of  wit  wliich  has  been 
gravely  pronounced  "low;"  but  surely 
it  is  both  fastidious  and  cynical  thus  to 
define  it.  A  pun  is  an  expression  in 
which  two  different  applications  of  a  word 
present  an  odd  or  ludicrous  idea  ;  but  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  th.it  the  ideas 
to  which  it  gives  rise  shall  be  loir,  that 
is,  vulgnr.  That  they  often  are  so,  we 
admit ;  but  he  must  be  of  an  incorrigibly 
saturnine  disposition  who  would  declare 
that  all  the  mirth-insjiiring  puns  which 
the  inimitable  Hood  draws  from  his  e.x- 
haustless  quiver  are  to  be  accounted  low. 
An  inveterate  punster,  who  is  constantly 
on  the  watch  for  opportunities  to  torture 
every  exiiression  into  a  quibble,  is  not  to 
be  tolerated  in  decent  society' ;  but  it 
would  be  hard  indeed  if  the  laws  of  de- 
corum were  so  strict,  as  to  debar  us  from 
cheering  the  dull  realities  of  life  with  an 
occasional  scintillation  of  wit.  even  at 
the  hazard  of  perpetrating  a  bad  pun. 

PUNCTUA'TION,  in  grammar,  tho 
discriminating  use  of  certain  marks 
adopted  to  distinguish  the  clauses  of  a 
period,  sometimes  with  reference  to  the 
sense,  ami  at  others  to  the  grammatical 
construction.  Thus,  a  full  point  (.) 
closes  a  perfect  sentence;  a  colon  (:) 
indicates  an  adjunct;  a  semicolon  (;) 
distinguishes  its  principal  part  ;  and  a 
comma  (,)  parts  subordinate  to  the 
semicolon.  A  sentence,  which  may  in- 
clude several  periods,  terminates  a 
branch  of  the  subject  or  argument.  A 
question  is  indicated  by  (?);  an  ex- 
clamation by  (!);  and  it  is  sometimes 
convenient  to  include  a  collateral  circum- 
stance in  a  parenthesis  (  ). — The  an- 
cients were  altogether  unacquainted  with 
punctuation. 

PU'NIC,  pertaining  to  tlic  Carthagin- 
ians or  their  language. — Also,  a  term 
implying  treacherous,  deceitful ;  tispunic 
faith". 

PUN'ISIIMEXT,  the  infliction  of  pain, 
or  personal  sulTcring  according  to  law, 
for  crimes;  intended  as  an  example,  to 
deter  others  and  to  correct  the  offen- 
der. The  punishment  of  crimes  against 
the  laws  is  inflicted  bj-  the  supreme  power 
of  the  state  in  virtue  of  tiie  right  of  gov- 
ernment vested  in  the  legislature,  and 
belongs  only  to  persons  clot  lied  wirh  au- 
thority. Some  punishments  <M]nsist  of  ex- 
ile or  tr.'vnsportation,  others  in  loss  of  lib- 
erty by  imprisonment.  Locke  observes, 
"The  rewards  and  punishments  of  an- 
ther life,  which  the  Alioightl^' has  estab- 


PYC] 


AND    THE    FINK    AWTS. 


503 


lisbed  ns  the  enfcirceinents  of  his  law,  are 
of  weight  enough  to  determine  the  choice 
iigainst  whatever  pleasure  or  pain  this 
life  can  show." 

PUKUA'TION,  the  act  or  operation  of 
clearing  one's  self  of  a  crime  ;  a  mode  of 
trying  persons  accused  of  any  crime, 
which  was  formerly  in  practice. 

PUR'GATOKV,"a  place  appointed  for 
the  satisfaction  of  temporal  j)unishments, 
which,  according  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  are  distinguished  from  the  cter- 
li.il,  of  which  the  hitter  only  are  remitted 
to  us  by  the  death  of  Christ.  There  is 
none,  perhaps,  of  the  peculiar  articles  of 
the  llomish  faith  in  favor  of  which  so 
little  can  be  advanced  from  the  language 
of  Scripture  ;  and  it  may  be  safely  averred 
that  it  was  not  from  that  source  that  the 
opinion  ever  gained  possession  of  men's 
minds.  It  seems  to  be  a  natural  but  too 
strict  an  inference  from  the  imperfectly 
disclosed  economy  of  the  divine  judg- 
ments, which  we  find  to  admit  of  every 
degree  of  severity  in  this  life,  ami  are 
liai)le  to  conclude  from  analogy  must  be 
subject  to  some  equivalent  adjustment  in 
the  next.  Accordingly,  we  discover  some 
imperfect  recognitions  of  the  idea  in  in- 
dividual writers  several  centuries  before 
it  can  be  proved  that  it  formed  an  estab- 
lished article  of  faith.  Augustin  is  con- 
sidered the  earliest  of  these  ;  and  he  speaks 
vaguely  and  inconsistently.  It  was  first 
inculcated  as  a  doctrine  by  Gregory  the 
Great,  who  seems  to  have  connected  it 
with  the  then  popular  belief  that  the 
world  was  closely  approaching  to  its  end. 

PURIFICATION,  in  religion,  the  act 
or  operation  of  cleansing  ceremonially, 
by  removing  any  pollution  or  defilement. 
Purification  by  washing  was  common  to 
the  Hebrews  and  to  Pagans;  and  the  Mo- 
hammedans always  use  it  previous  to  de- 
votion. 

PU'RIM,  among  the  Jews,  the  feasts 
of  lots,  instituted  to  commemorate  their 
deliverance  from  the  machinations  of 
II  am  an. 

PU'RIST.  a  name  sometimes  applied 
to  rigorous  critics  of  purity  in  literary 
style. 

PURITAN,  the  name  by  which  the 
dissenters  from  the  church  of  England 
were  generally  known  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  and  the  first  two  Stuarts.  The 
name  Puritan  was  given  (probably  in 
derision)  to  them  on  account  of  the  supe- 
rior purity  of  doctrine  or  discipline  which 
the  more  rigid  reformers  claimed  as  their 
own  ;  maintaining  that  they  followed  the 
word  of  God   aloue  in  opposition   to  all 


human  inventions  and  superstitions,  of 
which  they  believed  the  English  church 
to  retain  a  considerable  share,  notwith- 
standing its  alleged  reformation.  Hume 
gives  this  name  to  three  parties  :  the  po- 
lilical purUaiLS,  who  maintained  the  high- 
est principles  of  civil  liberty  ;  the  purl- 
tans  in  discipline,  who  were  averse  to 
the  ceremonies  and  government  of  the 
episcopal  church  ;  and  the  doctrinal  puri- 
tans, who  rigidly  defended  the  specula- 
tive system  of  the  first  reformers. 

PURLIN,  in  architecture,  a  piece  of 
timber  extending  from  end  to  end  of  a 
building  or  roof,  across  and  under  the 
rafters,  to  support  them  in  the  middle. 

PUR'SER,  in   the   navy,  an  officer  on 
board  a  man-of-war,  who  takes  charge  of 
the  provisions,  and  attends  to  their  pres- . 
ervation  and  distribution  among  the  offi- 
cers and  crew. 

PUR'SUIVANT,  in  heraldry,  the  low- 
est order  of  officers  at  arms.  The  pur- 
suivants are  properly  attendants  on  the 
heralds  when  they  marshal  public  cere- 
monies. 

PU'SEYISM,  in  the  church  of  England, 
the  name  given  to  certain  new  doctrines 
promulgated  of  late  years  by  Dr.  Pusey, 
in  conjunction  with  other  divines  of  O.k- 
ford,  in  a  series  of  pamphlets,  entitled 
"Tracts  for  the  Times  "  These  doctrines 
have  manifestly  a  strong  tendency  to- 
wards Romanism,  and  accordingly  many 
of  their  advocates  have  already  gone  over 
to  the  church  of  Rome  ;  they  relate  chiefly 
to  the  exclusive  clarim  of  episcopacy  to 
the  apostolical  succession  ;  the  denial  of 
the  validity  of  ordination  or  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments  by  all  who 
cannot  prove  their  claim  to  unbroken 
apostolical  descent  in  the  episcopal  line; 
the  alleged  virtue  of  such  ordination  in 
conferring  efiicacy  on  the  sacraments  in 
the  simple  opus  operatum,  or  rite  ad- 
ministered; the  exclusive  authority  of 
the  church,  as  based  on  tradition  ;  the 
introduction  into  the  church  of  England 
of  many  of  the  observances  of  Romanism  ; 
the  doctrine  of  Reserve,  (see  Tract,  No.  90,) 
and  such  kindred  matters,  believed  by 
protestants  to  be  contrary  to  Scripture, 
and  identical  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
church  of  Rome;  leading  to  the  same  in- 
terference between  the  human  conscience 
and  the  direct  authority  of  the  word  of 
God. 

PYC  NOSTYLE,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, a  building  where  the  columns  stand 
very  close  to  each  other  ;  only  one  diame- 
ter and  a  half  of  the  column  being  al- 
lowed to  each  intercolumniation 


)04 


CVCLOPEUIA     OF     LITEliATUKE 


[o.Ui 


PYR'AMID,  a  solid  boily  standing  on 
a  triangular  square,  or  polygonal  bnse. 
and  terminating  in  a  vertex  or  point  at 
the  top.  Or,  in  other  words,  it  is  formed 
by  the  meeting  of  three  or  more  planes 
at  a  point  termed  the  apex. — The  J'l/ra- 
mids  of  Egypt  are  noble  inonuments  of 
Egyptian  grandeur,  about  forty  in  num- 
ber, near  Memphis.  The  largest  is  491 
feet  in  height,  measured  perpendicularly, 
and  the  area  of  its  base  includes  eleven 
acres.  The  object  of  this  kind  of  monu- 
ment was,  undoubtedly,  eitherto  perpetu- 
ate the  recollection  of  some  memorable 
event,  or  to  stand  as  a  testimony  of  the 
glory  and  splendor  of  deceased  monarchs. 
That  it  was  principally  sepulchral  has 
been  rendered  tolerably  evident.  Among 
other  reasons,  because  it  was  held,  from 
its  shape,  symbolical  of  immortality. 

PYROMANCY,  among  the  classical 
ancients,  a  species  of  divination  by  means 
of  the  fire  of  the  sacrifice  ;  in  which,  if  the 
■flames  immediately  took  hold  of  and  con- 
sumed the  victims,  or  if  thej'  were  bright 
and  pure,  or  if  the  sparks  rose  upward  in 
a  pyramidal  form,  success  was  said  to  be 
indicated.  If  the  contrary  took  place, 
misfortunes  were  said  to  be  presaged. 

PYR'RHIC  DANCE,  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Pyrrhica  Saltatio,  a  species  of  war- 
like dance,  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Pyrrhus  to  grace  the  funeral  of  his 
father  Achilles,  though  this  point  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity.  This  dance  consist- 
ed chiefly  in  such  an  adroit  and  nimble 
turning  of  the  body  as  represented  an 
attempt  to  avoid  the  strokes  of  an  enemy 
in  battle,  and  the  motions  necessary  to 
])erform  it  were  looked  upon  as  a  kind  of 
training  for  the  field  of  battle.  This  dance 
is  supposed  to  be  described  by  Homer  as 
engraved  on  the  shield  of  Achilles.  Lord 
Byron  describes  the  Suliotes  as  still  per- 
forming this  dance. 

PYRR'lIONISTS,  a  sect  of  ancient 
philosophers,  so  called  from  Pyrrho,  a 
native  of  Elis,  in  Peloponnesus.  The 
opinions  of  these  philosophers,  who  were 
also  called  skeptics,  terminated  in  the 
incomprehensibility  of  all  things,  in  which 
they  found  reason  both  for  afiirming  and 
denying  ;  they  accordingly  seemed  to  bo 
always  in  search  of  truth,  without  ever 
acknowledging  that  they  had  found  it : 
hence  the  art  of  disputing  upon  all  things, 
without  ever  going  further  than  suspend- 
ins  our  judgments,  is  called  pijrrhonism  . 

PYTHAtiO  REANS.  a  sect  of  ancient 
philosophers,  so  called  from  being  the 
followers  of  Pythagoras  of  Samos,  who 
lived  in   the    reign   of  Tarquin,  the   last 


1  king  of  Rome.  The  doctrine  of  metemp- 
sychosis, or  the  transmigration  of  souls 
through  different  orders  of  animal  exist- 
ence, is  the  main  feature  by  which  the 
Pythagorean  philosophy  is  popularly 
known.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means 
certain  that  the  genuine  Pythagoreans 
held  this  doctrine  in  a  literal  sense.  It 
may  have  been  only  a  mythical  way  rif 
communicating  their  belief  in  the  indi- 
viduality and  post  mortem  duration  of 
the  soul. 

PYTiriA,  or  PYTirONESS,  in  an- 
tiquity, the  priestess  of  Apollo,  who  de- 
livered oracular  answers  at  Delphi,  in 
Greece. 

PYTH'IAN  GAMES,  one  of  the  four 
great  national  festivals  of  (Jreece,  cele- 
brated every  fifth  j'ear  in  honor  of  Apol- 
lo, near  Delphi.  Their  institution  is 
variously  referred  to  Amphictyon,  son  of 
Deucalion,  founder  of  the  council  of  Am- 
phictyons,  and  Diomed,  son  of  Tydeus  ; 
but  the  most  common  legend  is,  that  they 
were  founded  by  Apollo  himself,  after  he 
had  overcome  the  dragon  Python.  The 
contests  were  the  same  as  those  atOlym- 
pia,  and  the  victors  were  rewarded  with 
apples  and  garlands  of  laurel. 


Q. 


Q,  the  seventeenth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  is  not  to  be  found  either  in 
the  Greek,  old  Latin,  or  Saxon  alphabets ; 
is  never  sounded  ahrnc,  but  in  conjunction 
with  w,  and  never  ends  any  English  word. 
For  qu  in  English,  the  Dutch  use  kir,  the 
Germans  qu,  and  the  Swedes  and  the 
Danes  qv.  It  appears,  in  short,  that  q  is 
precisely  k,  with  this  diflference  in  use, 
that  q  is  always  followed  by  u  in  English, 
and  k  is  not.  As  a  numeral  Q  stands  for 
.'jOO,  and  with  a  dash  over,  it  stands  for 
500,000.  Q  is  used  as  an  abbreviaticjn 
for  question  ;  it  also  stands  for  quantity, 
or  quantum,  as  q.  pi.  quantum  placil,  as 
much  as  you  please;  and  q.  s.  quantuni 
siifficit,  i.  c.  as  much  as  is  necessary. 
Among  mathematicians,  t^.  E.  D.  stand.3 
for  quod  erat  demonstrandum ,  that  is, 
which  was  to  be  demonstrated  ;  and  Q.  E. 
F.  quod  erat  faciendum,  which  was  to  be 
done. 

QUACK'ERY,  the  boastful  pretensions 
of  an  empiric  or  ignorant  quack. 

QUADRAGESIMA,  lent;  so  called 
because  it  consists  of  forty  days. 

QUADRANGLE,  in  architecture,  any 


QUA 


AND    TIIR    FIXE    AUTS. 


50.^. 


range  of  houses  or  buiMings  with  four 
sides  in  the  form  of  a  square. 

QirADRI'GA,  in  antiquity,  a  car  or 
chariot  ilra-.vn  by  four  hordes.  On  the  re- 
verses of  medals,  we  freijuently  see  the 
emperor  or  Victory  in  a  quailriga,  hold- 
ing the  reins  of  the  horses  ;  whence  these 
eoins  are,  among  numismiitologists,  called 
itumini  quadrtLrati  and  victoriatl. 

QIJADIUUE.ME',  a  species  of  the 
naves  lunae  use  I  by  the  Romans  and  also 
by  the  Greeks,  being  a  galley  with  four 
benches  or  banks  of  rowers. 

QU  AD'ROOX,  the  name  given  in  South 
America  to  the  offspring  of  a  mulatto 
woman  by  a  white  man. 

QLLE'RE,  a  term  expressive  of  doubt, 
and  calling  for  further  information. 

QLLES'TIO,  in  logic,  the  third  proposi- 
tion in  a  syllogism,  which  contains  the 
question  to  be  proved. 

QIJ.E.STOR,  an  oflicer  among  the  Ro- 
mans who  had  the  management  of  the 
public  revenue  or  treasury.  The  quaestor- 
skip  was  the  first  office  any  person  could 
fill  in  the  commonwealth. 

QUA'KERS,  or  Friends,  a  religious 
sect  which  made  its  first  appearance  in 
England  during  the  protectorate  of  Crom- 
well. Their  founder  was  George  Fox,  a 
native  of  Draj'ton,  in  Leicestershire.  He 
proposed  but  few  articles  of  faith,  insist- 
ing chiefly  ou  moral  virtue,  mutual  char- 
ity, the  love  of  God,  and  a  deep  atten- 
tion to  the  inward  motions  and  secret  ope- 
rations of  the  spirit.  lie  required  a  plain 
simple  worship,  and  a  religion  without 
ceremonies,  making  it  a  princijial  point 
to  wait  in  profound  silence  the  directions 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Although  at  first  the 
Quakers  were  guilty  of  some  extravagan- 
cies, these  wore  off,  and  they  settled  into 
q,  regular  body,  professing  a  great  aus- 
tcritj'  of  behavior,  a  singular  probity 
ami  uprightness  in  their  dealings,  a  great 
frugality  at  their  tables,  and  a  remark- 
able plainness  and  simplicity  in  their 
dress.  Their  sj'stera,  or  tenets,  are  laid 
down  by  Robert  Barclay  (one  of  their 
members,)  in  a  sensible,  well-written 
"  apology,"  addressed  to  Charles  II. 
Their  principal  doctrines  are, — that  God 
has  given  to  all  men,  without  exception, 
supernatural  light,  which  being  obe.yed 
can  save  them  ;  and  that  this  light  is 
Christ,  the  true  light,  which  lighteth 
every  man  that  cometh  into  the  world  : — 
that  the  Scriptures  were  indeed  given  by 
inspiration,  and  are  preferable  to  all  the 
other  writings  in  the  world  ;  but  that  they 
are  no  more  than  secondary  rules  of  faith 
and  practice,  in  subordination  to  the  light 


or  spirit  of  God,  wliich  is  the  primary 
rule  : — that  immediate  revelation  has  not 
ceased,  a  measure  of  the  spirit  being 
given  to  every  one: — that  all  supersti- 
tions and  ceremonies  in  religi(m,  of  mere 
human  institution,  ought  to  be  laiil 
aside  : — that  in  civil  society,  the  saluting 
one  another  b^'  pulling  off  the  hat,  bend- 
ing the  bod}',  or  other  humiliating  pos- 
ture, should  be  abolished;  and  tiiat  the 
use  of  the  singular  pronoun  thou  when 
addressing  one  person,  instead  of  the  cus- 
tomary you,  should  be  strictly  adhered 
to.  They  further  laid  it  down  as  a  solemn 
obligation,  not  to  take  an  oath,  encourage 
war,  engage  in  private  contests,  nor  even 
carry  weapons  of  defence. — The  society  is 
governed  by  its  own  code  of  discipline, 
which  is  enacted  and  supported  by  meet- 
ings of  four  degrees,  for  discipline  ;  name- 
ly, preparative,  monthly,  quarterly,  and 
yearly  meetings.  The  preparative  digest 
and  prepare  the  business  for  the  monthly 
meetings,  in  which  the  executive  power 
is  principally  lodged,  subject  however  to 
the  revision  and  control  of  the  quarterly 
meetings,  which  are  subordinate  and  ac- 
countable to  it,  and  subject  to  its  supervi- 
sion anil  direction.  Its  authoritj'  is  par- 
amount, and  it  possesses  the  sole  power  to 
make  or  amend  the  discipline.  There  are 
at  present  ten  yearly  meetings,  namely, 
London,  Dublin,  New  England,  New- 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  Ohio,  and  Indiana.  The 
number  of  Quakers  in  the  United  States 
is  about  150,000. 

QUALIFICA'TIOX,  any  natural  en- 
dowment, or  any  acquirement  which  fits 
a  person  for  a  place,  office,  or  employ- 
ment.— Also  any  property  or  possession 
which  gives  one  a  right  to  exercise  the 
elective  franchise,  or  furnishes  one  with 
any  legal  power  or  capacity. 

QUAL'ITY,  in  the  philosophy  of  Kant, 
the  second  category,  (there  being  four  in 
all,)  comprising  the  notions  of  existence 
or  reality,  non-existence  or  negation,  and 
limitation. 

QUAX'TITY,  in  prosody,  the  amount 
of  time  in  a  syllable.  Syllables  are  either 
short  or  long  ;  the  former  being  the  unit 
or  smallest  measure  of  time,  the  latter 
consisting  of  two  times.  This  distinction 
is  clearly  marked  in  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, in  which  some  syllables  are  ne- 
cessarily long  or  short  by  position,  others 
by  the  nature  of  the  vowels  which  they 
contain ;  and,  in  the  Latin  language, 
some  common,  or  susceptible  of  being 
sounded  as  long  or  short,  according  to 
certain  rules  of  elegance  or  convenience 


oOG 


CYCLOrEDlA    OF    I.I  rrCifVILiiK 


[gfs 


All  the  metrical  system  of  the  ancient 
languages  is  founded  on  quantitj'.  In 
most  modern  languages  there  is,  strictly 
speaking,  no  quantity,  as  distinct  from 
€:nphasis  or  accent ;  the  long  syllables 
being  those  which  receive  the  arsis,  the 
short  those  which  receive  the  thesis.  In 
the  German  language,  however,  critics 
have  endea^orel^  to  estnblish  a  conven- 
tional s_v.stern  of  quantity,  and  thus  to 
al:ii)t  that  language  to  regular  versifi- 
cation in  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
metre.'?. 

QUAX'TUM,  [Lat  ]  the  quantity.— 
Quantum,  meruit  (as  much  as  he  de- 
served,) in  law,  an  iiction  grounded  on  a 
promise  that  the  defendant  would  pay  to 
the  phiintifF  for  his  service  as  much  as  he 
should  deserve. —  Quantum  valebal,  an 
action  to  recover  of  tlie  defendant  for 
goods  sold,  as  much  as  they  were  worth. 

QUAR'.4NTIXE,  the  restraint  of  in- 
tercourse to  which  a  ship  arriving  in  port 
is  subjected,  on  the  presumption  that  she 
may  be  infected  with  a  malignant,  con- 
tagious disease.  This  is  either  for  forty 
days,  or  for  any  other  limited  term,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  A  ship  thus 
situated  is  said  to  be  performing  quar- 
antine. The  term  is  derived  from  the 
Italian  quaranta,  forty  ;  it  being  gener- 
ally supposed  that  if  no  infectious  dis- 
ease breaks  out  within  forty  days,  or  si.'? 
weeks,  no  danger  need  be  apprehended 
from  the  free  admission  of  the  individuals 
under  quarantine.  During  this  period 
all  the  goods,  clr^hes,  ko.  that  might  be 
supposed  capable  of  retaining  the  infec- 
tion, are  subjected  to  a  process  of  purifi- 
cation, which  is  a  most  imjjortant  part 
of  the  quarantine  sj'stera. — In  law,  the 
period  of  forty  days,  during  which  the 
widow  of  a  man  dying  possessed  of  land, 
has  the  privilege  of  remnining  in  the 
principal  messua(;e  or  mansion  house. 

QUARTER-BAY >',  the  days  which  be- 
gin the  four  quarters  of  the  year,  namely, 
the  25th  of  March,  or  Lady  Day;  the 
24th  of  June,  or  Midsummer  Day;  the 
29th  of  September,  or  Michaelmas  Daj' ; 
and  the  2.5th  of  December,  or  Christmas 
D:iv. 

QI:AR'TER-.SES'.^I0N.«,  a  court  of 
justice,  held  quarterly,  before  magistrates 
of  the  district  to  try  minor  offences  by 
jury,  after  bills  found  by  a  graml  jury. 
The  leg'il  powers  of  these  are  often  very 
great,  but  the  questions  ma}'  in  many 
cases  be  renioved  to  superior  courts. 

QUARTET'TO,  in  music,  Italian  for 
a  piece  for  four  voices  or  four  instru- 
inents. 


QUARTO,  in  printing  and  bookbiud- 
ing,  a  size  made  by  twice  folding  a  sheet, 
which  then  makes  four  leaves. 

QU.\.SiriXG,  in  law,  the  overthrowing 
and  annulling  of  anything  :  as,  to  quash 
an  inilictment. 

QUASI  CONTRACT,  in  the  civil 
law,  an  act  which  has  not  the  strict  form 
of  a  contract,  but  yet  has  the  force  of 
one.  Thus,  if  one  person  does  another's 
business  in  his  absence,  without  his  pro- 
curation, and  it  has  succeeded  to  the 
other  person's  adv;intage  ;  the  one  may 
have  an  actitm  for  what  he  has  disbursed, 
and  the  other  to  make  him  give  an 
account  of  his  administration ;  which 
amounts  to  a  quasi  contract. 

QUATRAIN',  in  poetry,  a  piece  con- 
sisting of  four  verses,  the  rhymes  usually 
alternate  ;  sometimes  also,  especially  in 
French  poetry,  intermi.\ed,  the  first  and 
fourth,  second  and  third,  rhyming  to- 
gether. 

QUA'VER,  in  music,  a  measure  of 
time  equal  to  half  a  crotchet,  or  an 
eighth  of  a  semibreve.  Also  a  shake  or 
rapiil  vibration  of  the  voice. 

QUEEX,  a  woman  who  holds  a  crown 
singly  ;  or,  by  courtesy,  one  who  is  mar- 
ried to  a  king.  The  former  is  distin- 
guished by  the  title  of  queen  remnant ; 
the  latter  by  that  of  queen  consort.  A 
queen  consort  is  a  subject,  though  as  the 
wife  of  the  king  she  enjoys  certain  pre- 
rogatives. The  widow  of  a  king  is  called 
a  queen  dowager. 

QUE.S'TIOX,  the  application  of  torture 
to  prisoners  under  criminal  accusation, 
according  to  the  laws  of  France  before 
the  Revolution.  The  question  was  of 
two  kinds  :  one,  where  strong  evidence, 
but  insufiicient  of  itself  to  justify  a  con- 
demnation to  death,  e.^iisted  against  a  pris- 
oner on  a  capital  charge  ;  he  might  then  be 
subjected  to  torture  to  produce  confession. 
This  was  termed  tlie  question  prepara- 
toire.  It  was  abolislieil  by  an  ordinance 
of  Louis  XVI.  in  1780.  The  other,  termed 
question  prealable  or  definitive,  was  ap- 
plied to  the  prisoner  when  convicted  of  a 
capital  olfonce,  in  order  to  make  him 
discover  supposed  accomplices.  It  was 
abolished  by  the  National  Assembly. 

QUE.ST'-MEX,  in  law,  persons  chosen 
to  inquire  into  abuses  and  misdemeanors, 
especially  such  as  relate  to  weights  and 
measures. 

QUE.S'TUS,  in  law,  land  which  does 
not  descend  by  hereditary  right,  but  is 
acquired  by  one's  own  labor  and  indus- 
trv. 

QUID  PRO  QUO,  iu  law.  an    equiva- 


QUI  I 


AND    TIIK    FINE    ART&. 


jo: 


lent,  or  the  mutual  consideration  and 
reciprocal  performance  of  both  parties  to 
a  contract. 

QUID'NUXC,  one  who  is  curious  to 
know  everything  that  passes,  and  is  con- 
tinually askin;:  "  AVhat  now  7"  or  "  What 
news?"  one  who  i<nows  or  pretends  to 
know  all  occurrences;  a  new?  gossiper. 

QUI'ETISTS,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
a  sect  of  mystics,  originated  by  Molino, 
a  Spanish  priest,  wlio  niaint;iinod  that 
religion  consists  in  the  internal  rest  ami 
meditation  of  the  minii,  wholly  employed 
in  contemplating  Uod  and  submitting  to 
his  will.  This  doctrine  was  termed 
quietism.  Its  leading  feature  was  the 
description  of  the  happiness  of  a  soul  re- 
posing in  perfect  quiet  on  God,  so  as  to 
become  conscious  of  His  presence  only, 
and  untroubled  by  external  things.  He 
even  advanced  so  far  as  to  maintain  that 
the  soul,  in  its  highest  state  of  perfection, 
is  removed  oven  beyond  the  contempla- 
tion of  God  himself,  and  is  solely  occu- 
pied in  the  passive  reception  of  divine 
influences. 

QUIXDECEM'VIRl,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquity, a  college  of  fifteen  magistrates, 
whose  business  it  was  to  preside  over  the 
sacrifices.  They  were  also  the  interpre- 
ters of  the  .Sibyl's  books  ;  which,  however, 
they  never  consulted  but  by  an  e.xpress 
order  of  the  senate. 

QUINQUAGEXA'RIUS,  in  Roman 
antiquity,  an  officer  who  had  the  com- 
mand of  fifty  men. 

QUINQl^'AGE.S'IMA,  or  Shrove  Sun- 
day, so  called  as  being  about  the  fiftieth 
day  before  Easter. 

QUINQUA'TRI  A,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
festivals  celebrated  in  honor  of  Minerva 
with  much  the  same  ceremonies  as  the 
Panatheii!«a  were  at  Athens. 

QUINQUENNA'LIA,  in  antiquity, 
Roman  games  that  were  celebrated  ev- 
ery live  years. 

QUIX'QUIREME,  in  antiquity,  a  gal- 
ley having  five  seats  or  rows  of  oars. 

QUIXTI'LIS,  in  chronology,  the  month 
of  July,  so  called  because  it  was  the  fifth 
month  i)f  Romulus's  year,  which  began 
in  .March.  It  received  the  name  of  July 
from  Marc  Antony,  in  honor  of  Julius 
Caesar,  who  reformed  the  calendar. 

Ql'IRINA'LIA,  in  .antiquity,  a  feast 
celeb-.-ated  amon.g  the  Unmans  in  honor 
of  Romulus,  who  was  called  Quirinus. 
These  feasts  were  held  on  the  13th  of 
the  calends  of  .March. 

QUIRI'TES,  in  antiquity,  a  name 
given  to  the  populace  of  Rome  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  soldiery. 


QUI-TAM,  in  law.  a  term  for  an  action 
brought,  or  information  exhibited,  at  the 
suit  of  the  king,  on  a  penal  statute 
wherein  half  the  penalty  is  directed  t* 
fall  to  the  suer  or  informer. 

(il  IT-RENT,  in  law,  a  small  rent 
payable  by  the  tenants  of  most  manors, 
whereby  they  go  quit  and  free  from  all 
other  services. 

QUI  VIVE,  (French,)  literally,  '■■ivlto 
lices?"  The  challenge  of  the  French 
sentries  to  those  who  approach  their 
posts;  equivalent  to  the  English  ''Who 
goes  there  ?"  Hence,  to  be  on  the  qui 
rive,  is  to  be  on  the  alert ;  to  be  all  ac- 
tivity. 

QUIZ,  an  obscure  question  ;  something 
to  puzzle. — One  whom  an  observer  can- 
not make  out ;  an  odd  fellow.  The  more 
general  use  of  the  word,  however,  is 
to  signify  one  addicted  to  mockery  and 
jesting  in  simulated  gravity  ;  and  also 
the  act  itself.  This  word  and  its  deriva- 
tives are  used  only  in  colloquial  or  vul- 
gar language.  It  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated in  a  joke.  Daly,  the  manager 
of  a  Dublin  play-house,  wagered  that  he 
would  make  .a  word  <jf  no  meaning  to  be 
the  common  talk  and  puzzle  of  the  city 
in  twenty-four  hours  ;  in  the  course  of 
that  time  the  letters  q,  u,  i,  z  were 
chalked  or  pasted  on  all  the  walls  of 
Dublin,  with  such  an  effect  that  the 
wager  was  won. 

QUOAD  HOC,  a  term  used  frequently 
in  law  reports  to  signify  that  "  as  to  the 
thing  named,"  the  law  is  so,  Ac. 

QUOD'LIBET,  (Lat.  what  you  please,) 
in  the  language  of  the  schoolmen,  ques- 
tions on  general  subjects  within  the  range 
of  their  inquiries  were  tjermed  questiones 
quodlibeticce.  or  miscellaneous.  In  French 
the  word  quodlibet,  or  quolibet,  is  retain- 
ed, in  the  sense  of  a  slight  jeu  d'esprit, 
pun,  &c.  What  is  termed  in  music  a 
"  pot-pourri"  was  also  called  in  Germany 
a  quodlibet. 

QUOD  PERMIT'TAT,  in  law,  a  writ 
for  the  heir  of  him  that  is  disseized  of 
common  pasture,  against  the  heirs  of  the 
disseizor. 

QUO  JU'RE,  in  law,  a  writ  that  lies 
for  a  person  who  has  lands  wherein  an- 
other claims  common  of  pasture  time  out 
of  mind ;  and  is  brought  in  order  to  com- 
pel the  person  to  show  bj'  what  title  ho 
challenges  it. 

QUO'RUM,  in  law,  a  word  frequently 
mentioned  in  our  statutes,  and  in  com- 
missions both  of  justices  of  the  peace  and 
others.  By  it  is  generally  understood, 
such  a  number  of  justices  as  are  compe- 


i08 


ovci.orKniA   of  i-iteuatlre 


[rai 


tent  by  law  to  transact  business.  The 
term  is  derived  from  tl*3  words  of  the 
comtnission,  quorum  A.  B.  unuin  esse 
volian  us. 

QUOTA'TIOX,  !i  passiigo  quoted  or 
cited  ;  the  part  of  a  book  or  writiiif;  named, 
repeated,  or  adduced  as  evidence  or  illus- 
tration.—  In  mercantile  language,  the 
current  price  of  commodities  or  stocks, 
published  in  prices-current,  itc. 

QUO  WAIUIAN'TO,  in  law,  the  name 
of  a  writ  which  lies  against  any  particular 
persons,  or  bodies  politic  or  corporate, 
who  usurp  or  make  an  improper  use  of 
any  franchise  or  liberty,  in  order  to  ob- 
li;^e  them  to  show  by  what  right  and  title 
they  hold  or  claim  such  franchise. 


11. 


R,  the  eighteenth  letter  of  our  alpha- 
bet, is  numbered  among  the  liquids  and 
semi-vowels,  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
canine  letter.  Its  sound  is  formed  by  a 
guttural  extrusion  of  the  breath,  which 
in  some  words  is  through  the  mouth,  with 
a  sort  of  quivering  motion  or  slight  jar 
of  the  tongue.  In  words  which  we  have 
received  from  the  Greek  language  we  fol- 
low the  Latins,  who  wrote  h  after  ?•,  as 
the  representative  of  the  aspirated  sound 
with  which  this  letter  was  pronounced  by 
the  Greeks  ;  as  in  rhapsody,  rhetoric,  Ac  ; 
otherwise  it  is  always  followed  by  a  vowel 
at  the  beginning  of  words  and  syllables. 
As  an  abbreviation,  R  in  English,  stands 
for  rex  and  regina  ;  as  George  11. ;  Victo- 
ria R.  In  the  notes  of  the  ancients,  R. 
or  RO.  stands  for  Roma;  R.C.  llomana 
civ  Has  ;  R.G  C.  rei  gerendcc  causa;  R.F. 
ED.  rede  factum  ct  dictum  ;  IIG.F.  regis 
Jllius ;  II. P.  respublica,  or  llomani  prin- 
cipes.  Asanumeral,  R,  in  Latin  authors, 
stands  for  80,  and  with  a  dash  over  it,  for 
80,000. 

RAB'BI,  or  RAB'BIN,  a  title  assumed 
by  the  pharisces  and  doctors  of  the  law 
among  the  Jews,  which  literally  signifies 
master  or  lord.  There  were  several  gra- 
dations before  they  arrived  at  the  dignity 
of  a  rabbin  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
there  was  any  fi.Ked  ago  or  previous  ex- 
amination necessary  ;  when,  however,  a 
man  had  distinguished  himself  by  his 
skill  in  the  written  an.l  oral  law,  and 
])assed  through  the  subordinate  degrees, 
ho  was  saluted  a  rabbin  by  the  ]iublic 
voice.  In  their  schools  the  rabbins  sat 
upon  raised  chairs,  and  their  scholars  at 
their  feet :    thus  St.  Paul  is  said  to  have 


studied  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel.  Such  of 
the  doctors  as  studied  the  letter  or  text 
of  the  scripture  were  called  caraites,  those 
who  studied  the  cabballa,  cabhalists,  and 
those  whose  study  was  in  the  traditions 
or  oral  law,  were  called  rabbinisls.  The 
customary  July  of  the  rabbins,  in  general, 
was  to  pray,  preach,  and  interpret  the  law 
in  the  synagogues.  Among  t!;e  modern 
Jews,  the  learned  men  retain  no  other 
title  than  that  o(  rabbi ;  they  have  great 
respect  paid  them,  have  the  first  places 
or  seats  in  their  synagogues,  determine 
all  matters  of  controversy,  and  frequently 
pronounce  upon  civil  affairs. 

RAB'DOMANCY,  in  antiquity,  a  sort 
of  divination  by  means  of  rods,  according 
to  their  manner  of  falling  when  they  were 
set  up. 

R  AC  A,  a  Syriac  word  signifying  empty, 
foolish,  beggarly  ;  a  term  of  extreme  con- 
tempt. The  Jews  used  to  ]ironounce  the 
word  with  certain  gestures  of  indignation, 
as  spitting,  turning  away  the  head,  &c. 
Our  Saviour  intimates  that  whosoevpr 
should  call  his  neighbor  raca,  should  bo 
condemned  by  the  council  of  the  Sanhe- 
drim. 

RACE,  the  lineage  of  a  faniilj',  or  the 
series  of  descendants  indefinitely  continu- 
ed. All  mankind  are  called  the  race  of 
Adam  ;  the  Israelites  are  of  the  race  of 
Abr.aham  ;  and  in  like  manner,  we  say, 
the  Capetine  or  the  Carlovingian  race  of 
kings,  (tc. 

RACK,  a  horrid  engine  of  torture,  fur- 
nished with  puUej's  and  cords,  &c.,  for  ex- 
torting confession  from  criminals  or  sus- 
pected persons.  Its  use  is  entirely  un- 
known in  free  countries. 

R.VCO'Vf  AX."^,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
the  Unitarians  of  Poland  are  sometimes 
so  called  ;  from  llacow,  a  small  city  of 
that  country,  where  Jacobus  a  Sienna, 
its  head,  erected  a  public  seminary  for 
their  church  in. 1600.  Here  the  '•  Racov- 
ian  Catechism,"  originally  composed  by 
Soi'inus,  anil  revised  by  his  most  eminent 
followers,  was  published. 

RA'DIX.  in  etymology,  a.  primitive 
wor'l  I'rdio  which  s|)ring  other  words. 

r>.\l''  THUS,  the  iiieccs  of  timber  ex- 
tending from  the  plate  of  a  building  so  as 
to  meet  in  an  angle  at  the  top,  and  form 
the  roof. 

RAIL,  in  architecture,  the  horizontal 
part  in  any  piece  of  framing  or  panelling. 
Thus,  in  a  door,  the  horizontal  pieces 
between  which  the  ])anels  lie,  are  called 
rails,  whilst  the  vertical  pieces  between 
which  the  panels  are  inserted  are  called 
slijles. 


rat] 


AND    TllK     FINK     AIM'S. 


509 


RA'JAII,  one  of  the  ancient  hercditai-y 
princes  of  India,  before  its  conquest  by 
tlio  Moguls  ;  some  of  whom  arc  tributary 
to  Europeans,  and  some  are  said  to  bo  in- 
depemleut. 

RALLEXTAN'DO,  in  music,  an  Ital- 
ian term,  implying  that  the  tune  of  the 
passage  over  which  it  is  placed  is  to  be 
gradually  decreased. 

RAiM'ADAN,  tlie  name  given  to  the 
great  fast  or  Lent  of  the  Mohainmediins. 
It  commences  with  the  new  moon  of  the 
ninth  month  of  the  Mohammedan  year  ; 
and,  while  it  continue*,  the  day  is  spent 
uninterruptedly  in  pra\ers  and  other  de- 
votional exercises.  Even  the  night  is 
passed  by  the  more  rigid  of  the  faithful  in 
the  mosques,  which  are  splendidly  illu- 
minated on  this  occasion  ;  but,  generally 
speaking,  the  arrival  of  sunset  is  the  sig- 
nal for  a  more  than  usually  unlimited 
indulgence  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table  ; 
and,  on  the  third  evening  of  the  fast,  the 
grand  vizier  commences  a  series  of  official 
banquets.  The  Ramadan  ends  on  the  day 
preceding  the  only  other  great  festival  of 
the  Mohammedans — the  Bairuni  equiva- 
lent to  our  Easter. 

RAMAYA'NA,  the  oldest  of  the  two 
great  Sanscrit  epic  poems,  describes  the 
life  and  actions  of  tlie  hero  llama,  and 
his  wife  Sita;  and  especially  Rama's  ex- 
pedition to  Cej'lon,  to  rescue  Sita  from 
the  tyrant  Rawana.  The  poem  is  thought 
to  have  been  composed  before  the  Chris- 
tian era ;  but  there  is  no  certain  indica- 
tion of  its  age. 

RA'MISTS,  in  philosophy,  the  parti- 
sans of  Pierre  Rame,  better  known  by  his 
Latin  name  of  Ramus,  royal  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  philosophy  at  Paris,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  lie  perished  in  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  Ilis  system 
of  logic  was  opposed  to  that  of  the  Aris- 
totelian party  ;  and  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  16th  century  a  vehement  contest 
was  maintained  between  their  respective 
adherents  in  Pr;.'.ice,  Germany,  and  other 
parts  of  Europe. 

RAM'PART,  in  fortification,  an  eleva- 
tion or  mound  of  earth  round  a  place,  capa- 
ble of  resisting  the  cannon  of  an  enemy  ; 
and  formed  into  bastions,  curtains,  .tc.  Sol- 
diers continually  keep  guard  upon  the 
ram))arts,  and  pieces  of  artillery  are 
idanted  there  for  the  defence  of  the  place. 
— Riimpart,  in  civil  architecture,  is  used 
for  the  space  left  between  the  wall  of  a 
city  and  the  nearest  houses. 

RAN'(3ER,  in  England,  an  officer 
whose  duty  it  was  to  walk  through  the 
forest,  and  present  all  trespassers  at  the 


next  forest  court.  The  office  of  ranger 
is  not  of  the  same  importance  as  former- 
ly, but  tiie  situation  is  still  filled,  and  his 
duties  are  of  a  similar  kind. 

RANK,  the  degree  of  elevation  which 
one  man  holds  in  respect  to  another. 
This  is  [jarticiilarly  defined  in  regard  to 
the  nobility  in  monarchical  countries,  as 
also  in  all  oQices  of  state,  as  well  as  in  the 
officers  of  the  army  and  navy. — Rank,  in 
militarj'  tactics,  the  straight  line  which 
the  soldiers  of  a  battalion  or  squadron 
make  as  they  stand  side  by  side. — Rank 
and  file,  a  name  given  to  the  men  carry- 
ing firelocks,  and  standing  in  the  ranks, 
in  which  are  included  the  corporals. 

RANSOM,  money  ■paid  for  redeeming 
a  captive,  or  for  obta.ning  the  liberty  of 
a  prisoner  of  war. 

RAN'TERS,  a  sect  of  dissenters,  origi- 
nating in  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1807, 
and  marked  by  the  extravagance  of  their 
religious  enthusiasm.  They  sprang  from 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  from  whom 
they  separated,  and  by  whom  they  are 
disowned.  They  hold  camp  meetings 
annually,  and  differ  from  the  parent 
stock  in  many  of  their  outward  ceremo- 
nies, but  they  still  assimilate  to  the  origi- 
nal connection  in  their  religious  opinions. 

RANZ  DE  VACHE,  in  music,  a  favor- 
ite national  air  among  the  Swiss  shep- 
herds, which  they  play  upon  their  bag- 
pipes while  tending  their  flocks  and 
herds.  It  consists  of  a  few  simple  inter- 
vals, is  entirely  adapted  to  the  primitive 
life  of  these  people  and  their  instrument 
(the  Alpenhorn,  horn  of  the  Alps,)  and 
has  an  uncommon  eflfeet  in  the  echoes  of 
the  mountains.  This  effect  becoming  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  locality  of 
Switzerland,  explains  the  many  anecdotes 
of  the  home-sickness  caused  by  the  sound 
of  the  Txanz  dcs  Vaches,  when  heard  by 
the  Swiss  in  foreign  countries. 

RASKOL'NIKS,  the  name  of  the  largest 
and  most  important  body  of  dissenteri 
from  the  Greek  Church  in  the  Russian 
dominions.  They  designate  themselves 
Starowerzi,  or  the  Orthodox ;  but  diffei 
from  the  Greek  church  only  in  the  out 
ward  forms  of  religion,  and  in  maintain 
ing  a  more  strict  ecclesiastical  discipline 
This  body  was  formerly  subjected  ti 
persecution;  but  it  is  now  treated  with 
comparative  toleration,  though  its  mem- 
bers are  still  excluded  from  the  servioQ 
of  the  state.  Their  number  is  said  to  be 
about  300,000. 

R.VTE,  in  English  law,  an  assessmenl 
by  the  ])ouud  for  jiublic  purposes  ;  as,  for 
the  poor,  the  higliways,  church  repairs. 


510 


CYCLOrEDIA     OF    LITKKA  TL'KE 


[re; 


eountj  expenses,  &c.  In  the  navj,  the 
order  or  class  of  a  ship,  according  to  its 
magnitude  or  force. 

KA'TION,  the  proportion  or  fixed  al- 
lowance of  provisions,  drink,  forage,  etc., 
assigned  to  each  soldier  for  his  daily  sub- 
Bistence,  and  for  the  subsistence  of  horses. 
Seamen  in  the  navy  also  have  rations  of 
certain  articles. 

RATIONALE,  the  account  or  solution 
of  any  phenomenon  or  hypothesis,  ex- 
plaining the  principles  on  which  it  de- 
pends, and  every  other  circumstance. 

IIA'TIONALISM,  the  interpretation 
of  scripture  truths  upon  the  principles  of 
human  reason  ;  which  has  become  famous 
in  the  present  day  by  the  theological 
systems  to  which  it  has  given  birth  in 
Germany.  The  history  of  the  progress 
of  the  opinions  of  the  reformed  churches 
of  that  country  may  be  found  in  Dr. 
Pusey's  essay  upon  this  subject.  lie  con- 
ceives the  polemical  discussions  which 
prevailed  throughout  those  communities 
in  the  17th  and  first  half  of  the  following 
century  to  have  prepared  the  way  for  the 
reception  of  the  low  views  of  Christianity, 
as  a  moral  system,  which  were  derived 
from  the  writings  of  the  concealed  or 
avowed  deists  of  England.  From  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  there  have 
arisen  in  Germany  a  succession  of  di- 
vines— Baumgarten,  Michaelis,  Semler, 
Eichhorn,  Paulus,  Bretschneider,  &c.,  who 
have  endeavored  either  to  affi.x  a  lower  and 
more  human  character  to  the  invisible 
operations  of  God  upon  men  through 
Christianity,  or  to  reduce  the  accounts 
which  we  have  of  the  foundation  of  our 
religion  to  the  mixture  of  truth  and 
error  natural  to  fallible  men.  They  have 
questioned  the  genuineness  of  almost  all 
the  separate  parts  of  Scripture,  and  the 
accuracy  of  all  their  supernatural  narra- 
tives. The  discredit  into  which  these 
theologians  ap[)ear  to  have  fallen  arises, 
in  a  great  measure,  from  the  inability 
they  have  shown  to  produce  a  connected 
and  consistent  system  of  religion  upon 
the  low  ground  which  they  have  taken  up. 
Of  later  years  a  much  more  spiritual  con- 
ception of  the  nature  of  Scripture  promises 
and  Christian  assistances  is  observable  in 
the  writings  of  German  divines,  under  the 
operation  of  which  their  theological  eriti- 
•sism  has  already  assumed  a  more  dig- 
nified and  exalted  tone.  The  sensa- 
tion created  by  Strauss's  Jjife  of  Christ. 
the  latest,  and  in  some  respects  the  most 
remarkable  production  of  the  Rationalist 
Bchooi.  may  probably  have  aided  in  this 
raaction 


RAVELINS,  in  fortification,  detached 
works  composed  of  two  faces,  forming 
salient  angles,  and  raised  before  the 
counterscarp. 

RE,  in  grammar,  a  prefix  or  insepara- 
ble particle  at  the  beginning  of  words,  to 
repeat  or  otherwise  modify  their  mean- 
ing ;  as  in  re-action,  re-export,* <tc. 

REACH,  in  sea  language,  signifies  the 
distance  between  any  two  points  of  land, 
l^'ing  nearly  in  a  right  line. 

REA'DER,  in  ecclesiastical  matters, 
one  of  the  five  inferior  orders  in  the  Ro- 
mish church.  In  the  Church  of  England, 
a  reader  is  a  deacon  appointed  to  do  di- 
vine service  in  churches  and  chapels  of 
which  no  one  has  the  cure.  There  are 
also  readers  (priests)  attached  to  various 
eleemosynary  and  other  foundations. 

RE'ALISM,  in  ])hilosophy,  is  the  op- 
posite of  idealism,  and  is  that  philosophi- 
cal system  which  conceives  external  things 
to  exist  independently  of  our  conception 
of  them  ;  but  realism  becomes  material- 
ism if  it  considers  matter,  or  physical 
substance,  as  the  only  original  cause  of 
things,  and  the  soul  itself  as  a  material 
substance. 

RE'ALISTS,  in  philosophy,  a  sect  of 
school  philosophers  formed  in  opposition 
to  the  Nominalists,  who  held  that  words, 
and  not  things,  were  the  objects  of  dialec- 
tics. 

REALM,  a  royal  jurisdiction  or  extent 
of  a  king's  dominions. 

REAL  PRESENCE,  in  the  Romish 
church,  the  actual  presence  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  or 
the  conversion  of  the  substance  of  the 
bread  and  wine  into  the  real  body  and 
blooil  of  Christ. 

REAR,  a  military  term  for  behind. — 
Rear-guard,  a  body  of  men  that  marches 
in  the  roar  of  the  main  bodj'  to  protect 
it. — Rear-rank,  the  last  line  of  men  that 
are  drawn  up  two  or  more  deep. — The 
7-ear  is  also  a  naval  term  applied  to  the 
squadron  which  is  hindermost. 

REA'SON,  that  particular  faculty  in 
man  of  which  either  the  exclusive  or  the 
more  intense  enjoyment  distinguishes 
him  from  the  rest  of  the  animal  creation. 
Like  most  of  the  terms  in  the  science  of 
mind,  that  of  reason  has  been  employed 
in  a  great  variety  of  significations.  Du- 
gald  Stewart  takes  it  in  its  widest  sense, 
and  comprises  under  it  all  the  operations 
of  the  intellect  upon  the  materials  of 
knowlcilge  which  are  furnished  in  the 
first  instance  by  sense  and  perception. 
Its  office  is  to  distinguish  the  true  from 
the  false,  right  from  wrnng,  and  to  com- 


RKB 


AXD     rilE    FINK    AltTS. 


511 


bine  means  for  the  attainuent  of  partic- 
ular ends.  According  to  this  definition, 
therefore,  the  province  of  rc.ison  is  coex- 
tensive with  the  range  of  human  activity, 
and  it  directs  itself  to  the  tlirec  supreme 
objects  of  desire  to  man — the  good,  the 
beautiful,  and  the  true  iMr.  Hume, 
however,  withdraws  the  discernment  of 
right  and  wrong,  and  of  the  beautiful 
and  its  contrary,  from  the  domain  of  rea- 
son ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  also,  denies 
the  certainty  of  the  truth  which  it  enun- 
ciates, and  limits  its  convincing  force 
merely  to  a  certain  weight  of  probability. 
Locke's  usage  of  the  term,  again,  par- 
taking as  it  does  of  the  general  looseness 
of  his  phraseology,  is  very  different.  In 
one  passage  reason  is  declared  to  be  the 
faculty  which  finds  out  the  means,  and 
rightly  applies  them,  to  discover  either 
the  certain  agreement  or  disagreement 
of  two  ideas,  or  their  probable  connection. 
But,  in  another  place,  it  is  said  to  be 
conversant  with  certainty  alone ;  while 
the  discovery  of  what,  as  probable,  en- 
forces a  contingent  assent  or  opinion,  is 
ascribed  to  an  especial  faculty,  which  is 
called  the  judgment.  Bird,  on  the  other 
hand,  confines  the  latter  term  to  the  ap- 
prehension of  intuitive  truth  ;  but  agrees 
so  far  with  Locke  as  to  make  it  one  part 
of  reason,  whose  other  part  is  reasoning, 
both  demonstrative  and  moral.  On  the 
whole,  however,  it  is  clear  that  in  the 
mind  of  Locke  the  terms  rea.soning  and 
reason  were  nearly,  if  not  quite  equiva- 
lent. But  reasoning  and  deduction  are 
evidently  not  the  source  either  of  the 
dignity  or  the  authority  of  the  human 
intellect.  The  discursive  faculty  can 
never  establish  any  other  than  a  condi- 
tional truth,  which  predisposes  some  an- 
terior and  pre-established  verity  as  its 
basis  and  verification.  If  tliore  were  not 
in  the  human  mind  something  primary, 
unconditional,  and  absolute,  to  which  all 
reasonings  might  be  referred,  as  to  their 
source  and  foundation,  the  discursive  pro- 
cess would  proceed  into  infinity,  and  its 
conclusions  be,  as  Hume  asserts  that  they 
are,  without  any  power  to  enforce  assent. 
But  there  are  unquestionably  in  the  hu- 
man mind  certain  necessary  and  univer- 
sal principles,  which,  shining  with  an 
intrinsic  light  of  evidence,  are  themselves 
above  proof,  but  the  authority  for  all 
mediate  and  contingent  principles.  That 
which  is  thus  above  reasoning  is  the  rea- 
son. In  the  language  of  English  philoso- 
phy, the  terms  reason  and  understanding 
are  nearly  identical,  and  are  so  used  by 
Stewart ;  but  in   the  critical  philosophy 


of  Kant  a  broad  distinctic  n  has  been 
drawn  between  them.  Reason  is  tho 
principle  of  principles  ;  either  specula- 
lively  verifies  every  special  princi|)le,  or 
practically  determines  the  proper  ends 
of  human  action.  Api)ro.>:imately,  it 
may  bo  called  the  sum  of  what,  in  Scotch 
philosophy,  has  been  denominated  tho 
laws  of  man's  intellectual  constitution. 
Tho  undenstanding,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
coextensive  with  the  vernacular  use  of 
reason.  It  is  that  which  conceives  of 
sensible  objects  uniler  certain  general 
notions,  which  again  it  compares  one 
with  another,  or  with  particular  repre- 
sentations of  them,  or  with  the  objects 
themselves.  It  is,  therefore,  t^he  faculty 
of  reflection  and  generalization.  But  the 
act  of  comparison  is  called  a  judgment ; 
and  the  understanding,  when  it  enunci- 
ates its  conceptions,  becomes  also  the 
faculty  of  judging.  But  the  truth  of  a 
proposition  which  is  not  identical,  or  the 
enunciation  of  a  primary  truth,  cannot 
be  immediately  certain.  To  prove  it, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  other  proposi- 
tions previously  admitted;  the  under- 
standing, that  i.^,  must  deduce  one  judg- 
ment from  another,  and  so  becomes  the 
discursive  faculty,  or  reasoning.  Farther, 
in  discovering  these  mediate  truths,  and 
in  the  regular  and  methodical  disposition 
of  them  for  the  purpose  of  conclusion,  as 
well  as  in  the  selection  of  means  for  the 
accomplishment  of  its  ends,  it  e.xhibits 
itself  as  a  power  of  adaptation. 

RE'BEC,  a  Moorish  word,  signifying  a 
stringed  instrument  somewhat  similar  to 
the  violin,  having  three  strings  tuned  in 
fifths,  and  played  with  a  bow.  It  was 
introduced  by  the  jMoors  into  Spain.  It 
appears  to  have  been  much  used  at 
festive  entertainments. 

REB'EL,  one  who  revolts  from  the 
government  to  which  he  owes  allegiance, 
either  by  openly  renouncing  the  authori- 
ty of  that  government,  or  by  taking  arms 
and  openly  opposing  it. 

IIEBEL'LION',  an  open  and  avowed 
renunciation  of  the  authority  of  the 
government  to  which  one  owes  allegiance. 
Rebellion  differs  from  insurrection ;  for 
insurrection  may  bo  a  rising  in  opposi- 
tion to  a  particular  act  or  law,  without  a 
design  to  renounce  wholly  all  subj(!Ction 
to  the  government.  It  may  lead  to,  but 
is  not  necessarily  in  the  first  instance 
rebellion.  Rebellion  differs  also  froni 
inutiny,  that  being  an  insurrection  of 
solilicrs  or  sailors  against  the  authority 
of  their  officers. — Rebellion,  the  threat, 
the    revolt    of     the     Lonir    Parliament 


512 


CVCLOTEUIA    OF    1.1  I  lii:  AIL' HE 


[kkc 


against  the  authority  of  Charles  I.,  in 
English  history,  is  commonly  so  denomi- 
nated. 

RE'BUS,  an  enigmatical  representa 
tion  of  some  name,  &c.  by  using  figures 
or  pictures  instead  of  words. — Camden 
tells  us  the  rebus  was  in  great  esteem 
among  our  forefathers,  and  he  was  no- 
body who  could  not  hammer  out  of  his 
name  an  invention  by  this  wit-craft,  and 
picture  it  accordingly. —  In  heraldry,  a 
coat  of  arms  which  bears  an  allusion  to 
the  name  of  a  person. 

IIEBL TTEU,  in  law,  the  defendant's 
answer  to  the  plaintiflTs  sur-rejoinder,  in 
a  cause  depending  in  the  court  of  chan- 
cery, &c.     • 

RECAPTION,  in  law,  the  taking  a 
second  distress  of  one  formerly  distrain- 
ed for  the  same  cause  during  the  plea 
grounded  upon  the  former  distress.  It  is 
also  the  name  of  a  writ  which  lies  for  the 
party  thus  distrained,  to  recover  dam- 
ages, <tc. 

RECEIPT',  in  commerce,  an  acquit- 
tance or  discharge  in  writing  for  money 
received,  or  other  valuable  considera- 
tion. 

IIE'CII.A,BITES,  a  religious  order 
among  the  ancient  Jews,  instituted  by 
Jonadab,  the  son  of  Rechab,  from  whom 
they  derived  their  name.  It  comprised 
onlj'  the  family  and  posterity  of  the 
founder,  who  was  an.xious  to  perpetuate 
among  them  the  nomadic  life  ;  and  with 
this  view  prescribed  to  them  several 
rules,  the  chief  of  which  were— to  abstain 
from  wine,  from  building  houses,  and 
from  planting  vines.  These  rules  were 
observed  by  the  Kechabites  with  great 
strictness.  In  recent  times,  a  branch  of 
the  Temperance  society  has  assumed  the 
name  of  Rechabites. 

RECIP'IIOCAL,  in  general,  something 
that  is  mutual,  or  which  is  returned  cciual- 
ly  on  both  sides,  or  that  affects  both  p:ir- 
ties  alike. —  Reciprocal  terms,  in  b>gic, 
are  those  which  have  the  same  significa- 
tion ;  a-nd  consequently  arc  convertible 
and  may  be  used  for  each  other. 

RECr  TATIVE,  language  delivered  in 
musical  tones;  or,  as  the  Italians  define 
it,  speaking  music.  It  is  used  in  operas, 
Ac.  to  e.\press  some  action  or  passion,  or 
to  relate  a  story  or  reveal  a  secret  or  de- 
sign. It  differs  from  an  air  in  having  !io 
fi.ved  time  or  measure;  and  it  is  not  gov- 
erned by  any  princi))al  or  predominant 
key,  though  its  final  cadence  or  close 
must  be  in  some  cognate  key  of  the  air 
which  follows,  or,  at  least,  in  no  very  re- 
mote key.    There  are  two  kinds  of  recita- 


tive, unaccompanied  and  accompanied. 
The  first  is  when  a  few  occasional  chords 
are  struck  by  the  piano-furte  or  violon- 
cello to  give  the  singer  the  pitch,  and  in- 
timate to  him  the  harmony.  The  second 
is  when  nil,  or  a  considerable  portion,  of 
the  instruments  of  the  orchestra  accompa- 
ny the  singer,  either  in  sustained  chords 
or  florid  passages,  in  order  to  give  the 
true  expression  or  coloring  to  the  passion 
or  sentiment  to  be  expressed. 

RECK'ONIXG,  in  navigation,  an  ac- 
count of  the  ship's  course  and  distance 
calculated  from  the  log-board  without 
the  aid  of  celestial  observation.  This  is 
called  the  dead-rcrkonins;. 

RECOG'NIZANCE,  in  law,  a  bond  or 
obligation  acknowledged  in  some  court, 
or  before  some  judge,  with  condition  to 
do  some  particular  act,  as  to  appear  at 
the  assizes,  to  keep  the  peace,  &c.  The 
person  who  enters  into  such  bond  is 
called  the  recognizor ;  the  person  to 
whom  one  is  bound  is  the  recognizee. 

RECOLLEC  TIOX,  the  act  of  recalling 
to  the  memory,  as  ideas  that  have 
escaped;  or  the  operation  by  which  ideas 
are  recalled  to  the  memory  or  revived  in 
the  mind.  Recollection  differs  from  re- 
membrance, as  it  is  the  consequence  of 
volition,  or  an  effort  of  the  mind  to  revive 
ideas  ;  whereas  remembrance  implies  no 
such  volition.  We  often  remember  things 
without  any  voluntary  effort.  Recollec- 
tion is  called  also  reminiscence. 

RECOLLECTS,  monks  of  the  order  of 
St.  Francis  under  a  reformed  rule.  The 
first  separation  from  the  original  body 
seems  to  have  taken  ])lace  towards  the 
end  of  the  14th  century,  wiien  some  reli- 
gious persons,  desirous  of  returning  to 
stricter  discipline,  assumed  the  title  of 
Brothers  of  the  Observance.  From  these 
originated  the  Recollects.,  ('-^-ing  in  a 
state  of  recollection,  or  rcclu.sion,)  first 
established  in  Spain  by  the  Count  de 
Belalca/.ar,  about  1484,  and  .afterwards 
introduced  into  Italy.  After  much  oppo- 
sition, they  acquired  tlie  possession  of 
great  wealth  and  court  favor  in  France, 
durin^tlic  Kith  and  17th  centuries. 

RECOXXOI'TKK,  in  military  bin- 
gu;>g(',  means  to  inforui  one's  self  by 
ocular  inspection  of  the  situation  of  an 
enemy,  or  the  nature  of  a  piece  of  ground. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  depart- 
ments of  the  military  art,  and  must 
precede  every  considerable  movement. 
Reeonnoitcring  not  unfrequently  brings 
on  engagements,  and  considerable  bodies 
of  f  roops  march  out  to  cover  the  rceon- 
noitering  party,   and    to  make  prisoners 


red] 


AND    THE    FINE    AtUS. 


513 


if  possible,  in  orJer  to  obtiiin  information 
from  the  111. 

KEC'OKD,  a  register;  an  authentic  or 
official  copy  of  any  writing,  or  account  of 
any  facts  and  procceilings  whether  public 
or  yjrivate,  entered  in  a  book  for  pres- 
ervation ;  or  the  book  containing  such 
copy  or  account ;  as,  the  records  of 
statutes  orof  judicial  courts  ;  the  records 
of  a  town  or  parish  ;  the  records  of  a 
family. — In  a  popular  sense,  the  term 
records  is  applied  to  all  public  documents 
preserved  in  a  recognized  repository; 
but,  in  the  legal  sense  of  the  term,  rec- 
ords are  contemporaneous  statements 
of  the  proceedings  of  those  higher  courts 
of  law  which  tire  distinguished  as  courts 
of  record,  written  upon  rolls  of  parch- 
ment. Records  are  said  to  be  of  three 
kinds: — 1.  judicial  records;  2.  ministe- 
rial records  on  oath,  being  offices  or 
inquisitions  found;  3.  records  made  by 
conveyance  or  consent,  as  fines,  recover- 
ies, or  deeds  enrolled. — In  the  court  of 
session,  a  record  is  a  judicial  minute 
subscribed  by  the  counsel  of  the  parties 
in  a  cause,  and  by  the  lord  ordinary, 
whereby  the  parties  mutually  agree  to 
hold  certain  pleadings,  as  containing 
their  full  ami  final  statement  of  facts  and 
pleas  in  law.  This  record  forms  the  basis 
of  the  future  argument,  and  of  the  deci- 
sion of  the  cause.— The  terra  records,  in 
Scotch  law,  is  usually  applied  to  public 
registers  for  decrees  of  courts,  deeds,  in- 
struments, and  probative  writings  of 
every  kind. — Authentic  memorial;  as, 
the  records  of  past  ages. — Court  of 
record,  is  a  court  whose  acts  and  judicial 
proceedings  are  enrolled  on  parchment  or 
in  books  for  a  perpetual  memorial ;  and 
their  records  are  the  highest  evidence  of 
facts,  and  their  triJth  cannot  be  called 
in  question. — Debt  of  record,  is  a  debt 
which  appears  to  be  due  by  the  evidence 
of  a  court  of  record,  as  upon  a  judgment 
or  a  recognizance. —  Trial  by  record  is 
where  a  matter  of  record  is  pleaded,  and 
the  opposite  party  pleads  that  there  is  no 
such  record.  In  this  case,  the  trial  is  by 
inspection  of  the  record  itself,  no  other 
evidence  being  admissible. 

RECORDER,  a  person  whom  the 
mayor  and  other  magistrates  of  a  city  or 
corporation  associate  with  them  for  their 
better  direction  in  matters  of  justice,  and 
proceedings  in  law.  He  also  speaks  in 
their  name,  upon  public  occasions. 

RECOVERY,  in  law,  the   obtaining  a 

right  to    something    by    a    verdict    and 

judgment   of    court    from    an    opposing 

party  in  a  suit ;  as,  the  recovery  of  debt, 

33 


damages,  and  costs,  by  a  plaintiff;  the 
recovery  of  land  in  ejectments,  Ac. 

RECTOR,  in  Great  Britain,  a  term 
applied  to  the  possessors  of  several  oBi- 
cial  situations  ;  as,  I.  a  clergyman  who 
has  the  charge  and  cure  of  a  parish,  and 
the  property  of  the  tithes,  Ac;  2.  the 
chief  elective  oflicer  in  several  universi- 
ties; 3.  the  head  master  of  large  public 
schools  in  Scotland;  4.  the  governor  in 
several  convents ;  5.  the  superior  of  a 
seminary  or  college  of  the  Jesuits. 

RECTUS  IN  CU'RIA,  in  law,  one 
who  stands  at  the  bar,  no  person  objecting 
anything  against  him.  Also,  one  who 
has  reversed  an  outlawry,  and  can  there- 
fore partake  of  the  benefit  of  the  law. 

RECURRENT  VERSES,  in  poetry, 
verses  that  read  the  same  backwards  as 
they  do  forwards. 

RECU'SANT,  in  English  history,  one 
who  refuses  to  acknowledge  the  kingly 
supremacy  in  matters  of  religion  ;  as  a 
popish  recusant,  who  acknowledges  only 
the  supremacy  of  the  pope. 

RED'DIDIT  SE,  a  law  term,  used  in 
cases  where  a  man  renders  himself  in 
discharge  of  his  bail. 

REDEMP'TION,  in  law,  the  liberation 
of  an  estate  from  a  mortgage  ;  or  the 
purchase  of  the  right  to  re-enter  upon  it 
by  paying  the  principal  sum  for  which 
it  was  mortgaged,  with  interest  and  costs  ; 
also,  the  right  of  redeeming  and  re-enter- 
ing.— In  war  and  in  commerce,  the  act  of 
procuring  the  deliverance  of  persons  or 
things  from  the  possession  and  power  of 
captors  by  the  payment  of  an  equivalent  ; 
as,  the  redemption  of  a  ship  and  cargo. — 
In  theology,  the  ransom  or  deliverance 
of  sinners  from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  the 
penalties  of  God's  violateil  law  by  the 
atonement  of  Christ. 

REDEMP'TORISTS,  a  religious  order 
founded  in  Naples  by  Liguori,  in  1732, 
and  revived  in  Austria  in  1820.  They 
are  bound  by  the  usual  monastic  vows, 
and  devote  themselves  to  the  education 
of  youth  and  the  propagation  of  Catholi- 
cism. They  style  themselves  members  of 
the  order  of  the  Holy  Redeemer,  whence 
their  name  ;  but  they  are  also  often 
called  Liguorists,  from  the  name  of  their 
founder. 

REDONDIL'LA,  formerly  a  species  of 
versification  used  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
consisting  of  a  union  of  verses  of  four,  six, 
and  eight  syllables,  of  which  generally 
the  first  rhymed  with  the  fourth,  and  the 
second  with  the  third.  At  a  later  period, 
verses  of  six  and  eight  syllables  in  gene- 
ral, in   Spanish  and  Portuguese  poetry, 


5U 


CVCLOrKDIA     OF     LIT'lEHATUKE 


REP 


were  called  redondillas,  whether  they 
nia'le  perfect  rhymes  or  assonances  only. 
These  became  common  in  the  dramatic 
poetrv  of  Spain. 

REDOUBT',  in  fortification,  a  small 
square  fort  without  any  defence  but  in 
front :  used  in  trenches,  lines  of  circuru- 
vallatioD,  contravallation,  and  approach, 
to  defend  passages,  &c. 

REDUCE',  to  copy  a  picture,  a  drawing, 
or  print,  diminishing  its  size,  and  at  the 
tame  time  carefully  preserving  its  pro- 
portions. This  is  done  either  hy  the 
artist  adopting  himself  a  smaller  scale,  or 
by  the  employment  of  mechanical  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  pantograph. 

REDUC'TIO  AD  ABSUR'DUM,  in 
logic,  a  mode  of  argument  by  which  the 
truth  of  a  proposition  is  proved  by  show- 
ing the  absurdity  of  the  contrary. 

REDUPLICATION,  in  logic,  a  kind 
of  condition  expressed  in  a  proposition 
indicating  or  assigning  the  manner  where- 
in the  predicate  is  attributed  to  the 
subject. 

REFECTION,  among  certain  ecclesias- 
tics, a  spare  meal  or  repast  just  suffic- 
ing for  the  support  of  life  ;  hence  the  hall 
in  convents,  and  other  comuiunitics,  where 
the  monks,  nuns,  &c ,  take  their  refec- 
tions or  meals  in  common,  is  called  the 
refectory. 

REFEREE',  one  to  whose  decision  a 
thing  is  referred  ;  particularly,  a  persim 
appointed  by  a  court  to  hear,  examine, 
and  decide  a  case  between  parties,  pend- 
ing before  the  court,  and  make  report 
thereon. 

REF'ERENCE,  in  law,  the  act  of  re- 
ferring a  matter  in  dispute  to  the  decision 
of  an  arbitrator.  Also,  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  the  referring  a  matter  to  a 
master. — Reference,  in  printing,  a  mark 
In  the  text  of  a  work  referring  to  a  simi- 
lar one  in  the  side  or  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page. 

REFEREN'DARIES,  in  the  early  mon- 
archies of  Europe,  after  the  fifth  century, 
public  officers  charged  with  the  duty  of 
procuring,  executing,  and  despatcliing 
diplomas  and  charters.  The  office  of 
great  referendary,  in  the  French  mon- 
archy, became  merged  in  that  of  chan- 
cellor. 

REFLECTION,  the  operation  of  the 
mind  by  which  it  turns  its  views  back 
upon  itself  and  its  ojierations  ;  the  review 
or  reconsideration  of  past  Ihouglit.^,  opin- 
ions, or  decisions  of  the  mind,  or  of  past 
events. 

RE'FLEX,  in  painting,  is  a  term  used 
to  denote  those  places  in  a  picture  wliioli 


are  supposed  to  be  illuminated  by  a 
light  reHeeted  from  some  other  body, 
represented  in  the  same  i)iece. 

REFORM',  PARLIA.MEN'TARY,  a 
change  to  some  considerable  e.vtent  in  the 
representative  part  of  the  English  consti- 
tution, by  an  extension  of  the  elective 
franchise  to  modern  large  towns,  such 
as  Manchester,  Rirraingham,  Ac,  whicli 
heretofore  sent  no  members  to  parlia- 
ment and  by  taking  away  the  francliise 
from  places  which  had  long  since  become 
insignificant. 

REFORMA'TION,  the  term  applied 
by  Protestants,  universally,  to  denote  the 
change  from  the  Roman  Cathcdic  to  the 
Protestant  religion,  which  •^vas  first  set  on 
foot  in  Germany  by  Luther,  a  d.  1517, 
but  had  been  begun  in  Englaml  by  Wick- 
lifTe,  and  was  afterwards  completed  by 
Henry  VIII.  who  assumed  tlie  title  of 
Head  of  the  Church.  Of  all  the  errors, 
frauds,  and  superstitions  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  the  one  which  proved  most  injuri- 
ous to  religion  and  morals,  and  that  which 
was  most  deplored  by  enlightened  and 
conscientious  men,  was  the  facility  with 
which  riches  were  allowed  to  purchase 
salvation  !  Wealth  was  invested  in  mon- 
asteries, shrines,  and  chantries;  and 
few  persons  who  had  any  property  at  their 
own  disposal  went  out  of  the  world  with- 
out bequeathing  some  of  it  to  the  clergy 
for  saying  masses,  in  number  proportion- 
ed to  the  amount  of  the  bequest,  for  the 
benefit  of  their  souls.  Thus  were  men 
taught  to  put  their  trust  in  riches  ;  their 
wealth,  being  thus  invested,  became  avail- 
able to  them  beyond  the  grave ;  and  in 
whatever  sins  they  indulged,  provided 
they  went  through  the  pro[ier  forms  and 
obtained  a  discharge,  they  might  pur- 
chase a  free  passage  ihrough  purgatory, 
or,  at  least,  an  abbreviation  of  the  term 
and  a  mitigation  of  its  torments  while 
they  lasted.  But  purgatory  was  not  the 
only  invisible  world  over  which  the  au- 
thority of  the  church  extended  ;  for  to  the 
pope,  as  to  the  representative  of  St.  Peter, 
it  was  pretended  that  the  keys  of  heaven 
and  hell  were  given  ;  a  portion  of  this 
power  was  delegated  to  every  priest,  and 
they  inculcated  that  the  soul  which  de- 
jiarted  without  confession  and  absolution, 
bore  with  it  the  weight  of  its  deadly  sins 
to  sink  it  to  perdition.  To  this  let  us  add, 
that  the  arrogance  of  the  priests  had  ex- 
asperated the  princes  ;  the  encroachments 
of  the  mendicant  friars  ilid  injury  to  the 
secular  ecclesiastics  ;  and  a  thousand  in- 
nocent victims  of  the  inquisition  called 
for    venc'cance.     Other   causes   also  con- 


BEU] 


AND    THE     !'INE     ARTS. 


515 


spired  to  bring  on  thfi  day  of  religious 
freedom  :  the  means  of  information  were 
vastly  increaseii  by  the  art  of  printing; 
materials  for  thinking  wore  laid  before 
the  people  by  instructive  works  in  the 
vulgar  tongues;  the  nuuibc-r  of  learned 
man  increased;  and  the  intelligence  for 
which  the  Reformation  was  to  open  a  way 
began  to  act  generally  and  powerfullj. 
The  centre  of  Europe,  together  with  the 
north,  which  had  long  submitted  with  re- 
luctance to  Rome,  was  ready  to  counte- 
nance the  boldest  measures  for  shaking 
otf  tlie  priestly  yoke,  of  which  the  best 
and  most  retiecting  men  had  become  im- 
patient. But  no  one  anticipated  the 
quarter  whence  the  first  blow  would  be 
struck.  Leo  X.  was  created  pope  in  1.'513  ; 
and.  little  affected  by  the  universal  dc- 
eire  for  reformation  in  the  church,  he 
seemed  placed  at  its  head  merel}'  to  era- 
ploy  its  revenues  in  the  gratification  of 
his  princely  tastes.  Albert,  elector  of 
Mentz  and  archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  a 
prince  of  a  similar  character,  received 
from  Leo,  in  1516,  permission  to  sell  in- 
duls^eaces  within  his  own  jurisdiction,  on 
condition  of  sharing  the  profits  with  the 
pope.  In  this  traffic,  Albert  employed, 
among  others,  John  Totzcl,  a  Dominican 
monk  of  Leipsic,  who  went  about  from 
place  to  place,  carrying  on  his  trade  with 
the  most  unblushing  impudence,  and  ex- 
tolling his  certificates  .above  the  papal 
bulls  (which  required  repentance,)  as  un- 
conditional promises  of  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  in  time  and  eternity.  Luther,  an 
Augustine  monk  of  Erfurt, — a  man  of 
powerful  mind,  and  distinguished  more 
for  his  deep  piety  and  strong  love  of  truth, 
than  for  deep  erudition, — set  his  face 
against  this  ii-buse,  first  in  his  sermons, 
and  afterwards  in  ninety-five  theses,  or 
questions,  which  he  afli.xed  to  the  door  of 
the  church,  Oct.  31,  1517.  This  led  to 
several  public  disputations,  in  which 
he  had  such  a  decided  advantage  over  his 
antagonists,  that  this  man,  who  was 
hardly  known  before,  became  the  public 
champion  of  all  enlightened  men  who  la- 
mented the  degeneracy  of  the  church  of 
Christ.  The  respect  for  the  Roman  court, 
which  was  perceptible  in  liis  earlier  writ- 
ings, he  now  discarded,  as  the  injustice  of 
the  papal  pretensions  had  become  clear  to 
him.  The  most  complete  success  attend- 
ed his  endeavors  ;  and  wherever  the  re- 
formed religion  found  its  way,  the  worship 
of  (lod  recovered  that  simplicity,  and 
warmth,  and  sincerity,  wliich  had  char- 
acterized it  among  the  first  Christians. 
Religion  was  no  longer  a  mere  subject  of 


the  imagination,  but  appealed  to  the  rea- 
son and  feelings  of  men,  ami  invited  close 
investigation.  The  reformation  also  had 
an  important  influence  on  morals.  While 
the  reformers  abolished  the  principle  of 
blind  obedience  to  the  pope  and  other  ec- 
clesiastical dignitaries,  denied  the  merit 
of  penances,  fasts,  and  alms,  and  rejected 
the  possibility  of  acts  of  supererogation, 
by  which  saints  had  enriched  the  treasury 
of  the  church,  they  again  awakened  the 
smothered  moral  feelings  of  men,  and  in- 
troduced that  more  elevated  morality 
wliich  requires  holiness  of  heart  and  pu- 
rity of  conduct. 

REFORMED  CHURCH,  comprises  in 
a  general  sense,  all  those  bodies  of  Chris- 
tians that  have  separated  from  the  church 
of  Rome  since  the  era  of  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  but  it  is  applied  in  a  restricted 
sense  to  those  Protestant  churches  which 
did  not  embrace  the  doctrines  and  disci- 
pline of  Luther,  and  more  particularly  to 
the  Calvinistic  churches  on  the  Continent. 

REFUGEE',  in  political  history,  a  term 
applied  to  the  French  protestants,  who, 
on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
fled  from  the  persecution  of  Franco.  The 
same  terra  was  also  applied  to  the  French 
priests  and  other  royalists  who  sought  an 
asylum  in  this  country  at  the  commence- 
ment of  tlie  revolution. 

IIEGA'LIA,  in  law,  the  rights  <aml 
prerogatives  of  the  sovereign  power ; 
also  the  ensigns  of  royalty,  the  crown, 
sceptre,  Ac,  worn  by  our  kings  and 
queens  at  their  coronation. —  Regalia  of 
the  church,  are  the  rights  and  privileges 
which  cathedrals,  Ac.  enjoy  by  royal 
grants.  This  term  is  particularly  used 
for  such  lands  and  hereditaments  as  have 
been  given  by  different  sovereigns  to  the 
church. 

RE(t.A.RD'ER,  in  England,  an  ancient 
officer  of  the  king's  forest,  whose  business 
is  to  inquire  into  all  offences  and  defaults 
committed  within  the  forest,  and  to  ob- 
serve whether  the  other  officers  execute 
their  respective  duties. 

REGAT'TA,  a  name  given  to  yacht 
and  boat  races.  The  word  is  adopted 
from  the  regatta  in  Venice,  where  boats, 
containing  one  person  only,  contest  for 
prizes  on  the  canals  that  intersect  that 
city.  It  is  generally  a  very  gay  and 
attractive  spectacle,  from  the  number  of 
spectators  present  in  ornamented  gondo- 
15.S 

REGEXERA'TION,  in  theology,  the 
new  birth  of  man  unto  righteousness, 
following  on  the  abolition  of  the  original 
corruption  of  his   nature-     Similar  Ian- 


610 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OF     LITERATURE 


[reh 


guago  was  used  respecting  the  admission 
of  proselytes  to  the  privilege  of  Judaism  : 
so,  also,  in  other  religions.  The  Sanscrit 
name  for  a  Brahmin  is  said  to  signify 
"twice-born;"  and  Tertullian  says  that 
the  heathens  used  baptism  in  their  mys- 
teries, "  in  regenerationem."  When  our 
Saviour  admonished  Nicodemus  not  to 
marvel  at  his  words,  "  Ye  must  be  born 
again,"  he  added,  with  reference,  doubt- 
less, to  the  doctrines  already  taught 
among  the  Jews,  "Art  thou  a  master  of 
Israel,  and  knowest  not  these  things  ?" 
Jiut  whether  the  new  birth  to  which  allu- 
sion is  made  in  these  solemn  pass;iges  of 
Scripture,  actually  takes  place  by  and 
through  baptism  ;  whether  baptism,  duly 
administered  by  those  authorized,  is  in 
itself  an  "  opus  operatum,"  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  schools  ;  or  whether  the  re- 
generation spoken  of  as  the  condition  of 
our  salvation  takes  place  after,  and  inde- 
pendent of  baptism,  by  the  operation  of  the 
Spirit  on  the  inner  man — this  is  a  ques- 
tion on  which  Protestants  have  never 
agreed  among  themselves,  and  which 
divides  the  English  church  at  this  day. 
The  former  is  the  commonly  received  or 
Catholic  doctrine  ;  and  has  been  so  from 
very  early  times,  as  far  as  we  can  con- 
clude from  the  langunge  of  the  fathers 
and  ancient  forms  of  the  church.  But  it 
does  not  appear  to  be  positively  declared 
by  the  Church  of  England,  though  infer- 
red from  various  passages  in  the  baptis- 
mnl  service. 

IIE'GENT,  one  who  governs  a  kingdom 
during  the  minority  or  absence  of  the 
riglitful  monarch. — In  English  universi- 
ties, a  master  of  arts  under  five  years' 
standing,  and  a  doctor  under  two. — A 
member  of  a.  board  or  corporate  body  in 
the  state  of  New  York,  who  have  power 
to  grant  acts  of  incorporation  for  colle- 
ges, and  to  visit  and  inspect  all  colleges, 
academies,  and  schools  of  the  state. 

RE(t'ICIDE,  the  offence  of  slaying  a 
king  or  other  sovereign.  The  early  Greek 
republics,  unaccnstomed  to  the  legitimate 
rule  of  monarchs,  saw,  in  the  occasional 
subjugation  which  they  underwent  from 
successful  partisans,  a  mere  usurpation, 
or  tyranny ;  and  tyrannicide  was  with 
them  only  the  slayingof  a  public  enemy. 

RE(i'rMEX,  ttie  regulation  of  diet,  or, 
in  a  more  general  sense,  of  all  the  non- 
naturals,  with  a  view  to  preserve  or  re- 
store health. — In  grammar,  that  part  of 
»ynta.\,  or  construction,  which  regulates 
•he  dependency  of  words,  and  the  altera- 
'<ons  which  one  occasions  or  rcijnires  in 
another  in  connection  with  it 


BEC'IMENT,  in  military  affairs,  a 
body  of  troops,  either  horse,  foot,  or  artil- 
lery; the  infantry  consisting  of  one  or 
more  battalions,  and  commanded  bj'  a  colo- 
nel or  lieutenant-colonel. — Ret^cimeritals. 
the  uniform  clothing  of  the  army. 

REG'ISTER,  an  official  account  of  the 
proceedings  of  a  public  body,  or  a  book 
in  which  are  entered  and  recorded  me- 
moirs, acts,  and  minutes,  to  be  had  re- 
course to  occasionallj',  as  well  as  for  pre- 
serving and  conveying  to  future  times 
an  exact  knowledge  of  transactions  — 
Register,  in  printing,  such  an  accurate 
arrangement  of  the  lines  and  pages,  that 
those  printed  on  one  side  of  the  sheet 
shall  fall  exactly  on  those  of  the  other, 

RE'GIUS  PROFESSOR,  in  literature, 
a  title  given  to  each  of  the  five  readers  or 
lecturers  in  the  university  of  Oxford,  so 
called  from  king  Henry  VIII.,  by  whom 
these  professorships  were  founded. 

REG  LET,  or  RIG  LET,  in  architec- 
ture, a  flat  narrow  moulding,  used  chiefly 
in  pannels  and  compartments,  to  separate 
the  parts  or  members  from  each  other, 
and  to  form  knots,  frets,  and  other  orna- 
ments.— In  printing,  a  ledge  or  thin  slip 
of  wood  exactly  planed,  used  to  separate 
lines  and  make  the  work  more  open. 

REG'NUJI  ECCLESIAS'TICUM,  in 
law,  the  absolute  and  independent  power 
which  was  possessed  and  exercised  by  the 
clergy  previous  to  the  reformation,  in  all 
spiritual  matters;  in  distinction  from  the 
resnum  seculare. 

REGRA'TER,  one  who  buys  and  re- 
sells in  the  same  fair  or  market;  nfore- 
s^rt //<;;•  being  one  who  buys  on  the  road  to 
the  market. 

REG'ULA,  in  archeology,  the  book  of 
rules  or  orders  of  a  monastery. 

REG'UL.\RS,  in  military  affairs,  that 
part  of  the  army  which  is  entirely  at  the 
disposal  of  government. — In  ecclesiasti- 
cal history,  i-es^ulars  are  such  as  live 
under  some  rule  of  obedience,  and  lead  a 
monnstic  life. 

RE  II A  B 1  LIT A'TION,  in  foreign  crim- 
inal law,  is  the  reinstatement  of  a  crim- 
inal in  his  personal  rights  which  he  has 
lost  by  a  ju<licial  sentence.  Thus,  in 
Scotland,  a  pardon  from  the  king  is  said 
to  rehabilitate  a  witness  laboring  under 
infamia  juris.  In  France,  persons  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  or  compulsory 
labor  may  demand  their  rehabilitation 
five  years  after  the  expiration  of  their 
penalty  :  the  demand  is  considered  by  the 
cour  royalc  of  the  district,  and  jjronoun- 
ceil  upon  by  the  king  in  his  privy  council. 
Various  singular  forms  were  attached  to 


REL 


AND    THE     FINK     AliTS. 


il7 


the  process  of  rehabilitation  in  ancient 
times.  There  are  extant  letters  of  Charles 
VI..  given  in  1333,  permiltini^  a  criminal 
whose  hantl  hacl  been  cut  off  for  homi- 
cide to  replace  it  by  another  made  in 
such  fashion  as  he  may  clioose. 

RBHE.\R'SAL,  the  recital  in  private 
of  an  opera,  oratorio,  or,  in  short,  any 
dramatic  work,  previously  to  public  e.\- 
hibition. 

IIEI'XECKE,  (the  fox,)  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  popular  German  epic  poem, 
which,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  middle 
ages  and  early  centuries  of  modern  times, 
enjoyed  an  almost  European  reputation. 
It  became  first  known  through  the  medi- 
um of  a  Low  German  version  in  the  1.5th 
century;  and  it  has.  with  few  interrup- 
tions, ever  since  involved  the  German 
literati  in  discussions  as  to  its  origin, 
which  are  yet  apparently  far  from  being 
settled.  It  contains  a  humorous  and  sa- 
tirical account  of  the  adventures  of  Rei- 
necke  (the  fox)  at  the  court  of  King  Nodel 
(the  lion;)  exhibits  the  cunning  of  the 
former,  and  the  means  which  he  adopted 
to  rebut  the  charges  preferred  against 
him,  and  the  hypocrisy  and  lies  by  which 
he  contrived  to  gain  the  favor  of  his  sove- 
reign, who  loaded  him  with  honors.  The 
king,  the  officers  of  his  court,  and  all  his 
subjects  are  represented,  as  in  Esop's 
Fables,  under  the  names  of  the  animals 
best  suited  to  their  respective  characters  ; 
and  the  poem  is  an  admirable  satire  on 
the  intrigues  practised  at  a  weak  court. 
The  most  successful  versions  of  this  poem 
are  those  of  Goethe,  in  hexameters;  of 
Soltau,  in  the  measure  of  the  original; 
and  the  more  recent  attempt  of  Ortlepp. 
This  poem  appears,  in  some  form  or 
other,  to  have  been  known  tliroughout 
Europe. 

RELS-EFFEN'Or,  the  name  given  to 
one  of  the  chief  Turkish  officers  of  state. 
He  is  chancellor  of  the  empire  and  min- 
ister of  foreign  iiffairs,  in  which  capacity 
he  negotiates  with  the  ambassadors  and 
interpreters  of  foreign  nations. 

REJOIN'DER,  in  law,  the  defendant's 
answer  to  the  ])l:iintitf 's  reply. 

REL.A.'TrON,  in  logic,  one  of  the  ten 
predicaments  or  accidents  belonging  to 
bubstance. —  Relation,  inharmonical,  in 
music,  a  term  to  express  that  some  harsh 
and  displeasing  discord  is  produced  in 
comparing  the  present  note  with  that  of 
another  part. 

REL'ATIVE,  in  general,  a  term  sig- 
nifying not  absolute,  but  considered  as 
belonging  to  or  respecting  something 
else.  —  Relative,   in    grammar,   a   word 


I  which  relates  to  or  represents  another 
I  word,  called  its  antecedent,  or  to  a  sen- 
tence, or  member  of  a  sentence,  or  to  a 
series  of  sentences,  which  constitutes  its 
j  antecedent.  —  Relative  terms,  in  logic, 
terms  which  imply  relation,  as  guardian 
and  ward  ;  husband  and  wife  ;  master  an  I 
servant. 

RELAY',  a  supply  of  horses  ready  on 
the  road  to  relieve  others,  in  order  that 
a  traveller  may  proceed  without  delay. 
In  hunting,  relaij  signifies  fresh  sets  of 
dogs,  or  horses,  or  both,  placed  in  readi 
ness,  in  case  the  g.ame  comes  that  way, 
to  be  cast  off,  or  to  mount  the  hunters  in 
lieu  of  the  former. 

RELEASE',  in  law,  is  a  discharge  or 
conveyance  of  a  person's  right  in  lands 
or  tenements,  to  another  who  has  some 
former  estate  in  possession.  The  words 
generally  used  therein,  are,  "  remised, 
released,  and  forever  quit-claimed." 

REL'ICS,  in  the  Romish  church,  are 
the  remains  of  saints  and  holy  men,  or  of 
their  garments,  &c.,  which  are  enjoined 
to  be  held  in  veneration,  and  are  consid- 
ered, in  many  instances,  to  be  endued 
with  miraculous  powers.  They  are  pre- 
served in  the  churches,  to  which  they  are 
often  the  means  of  attracting  pilgrimages, 
and  in  very  ignorant  times  and  places 
have  been  actually  made  objects  of  ado- 
ration. The  virtues  which  are  attributed 
to  them  are  defended  by  such  instances 
from  Scripture  as  that  of  the  miracles 
that  were  wrought  by  the  bones  of  Elisha. 

RELIEF',  (RELIEVO,)  in  sculpture, 
that  species  of  sculpture  in  which  the 
figures  are  engaged  on  or  rise  from  a 
ground.  There  are  three  sorts  of  relievo 
— basso-relievo,  in  which   the  figures  or 


other  objects  have  but  small  projection 
from  the  ground  on  which  they  are  sculp- 
tured ;  mezzo-relievo,  in  which  the  figures 
stand  out  about  half  their  natural  j)ro- 
portions.  the  other  half  appearing  im- 
mersed in  the  groun.l  ;  and  lastly,  alto- 
relievo,  in  which  the  figures  stnnd  com- 
pletely out  from  tlio  ground,  being 
attached  to  it  only  in  a  few  places,  and 
in  others  worked  entirely  round  like  single 


518 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIIEKATURE 


statues;  such  are  the  metopae  of  the 
Elgin  marbles  in  the  British  Museum, 
ivhich  marbles  also,  in  the  Panathenaic 


procession,  exhibit  some  exquisite  ex- 
amples of  basso-relievo. —  Relief,  in  ar- 
chitecture, the  projection  of  a  figure  or 
ornament  from  the  ground  or  plane  on 
■which  it  is  sculpturerl — In  painting,  the 
appearance  of  projcRtion,  or  tlio  degree 
of  boldness  which  a  figure  exhibits  to 
the  eye  at  a  distnnce. — In  feudal  law, 
a  fine  or  composition  which  the  heir  of 
a  tenant,  holding  by  knight's  service  or 
other  tenure,  paid  to  the  lord  at  the 
death  of  the  ancestor,  for  the  privilege 
of  tnking  up  the  estate  which,  on  strict 
feudal  principles,  had  lapsed  or  fallen  to 
the  lord  on  the  death  of  the  tenant. 
This  relief  consisted  of  horses,  arms, 
money,  and  tho  like,  the  amount  of 
which  was  originally  arbitrary,  but  after- 
ward fixed  at  a  certain  rate  by  law.  It 
is  not  payable,  unless  the  heir  at  the 
death  of  his  ancestor  had  attained  to  the 
age  of  twenty-one  years. 

KELIEF'"SYN6d,  a  respectable  body 
of  Presbyterian  dissenters  in  Scotland, 
whose  ground  of  separation  from  the 
established  church  was  the  violent  exer- 
cise of  lay  patronage  which  obtained  in 
the  latter.  Though  patronage,  or  the  ap- 
pointment of  clergymen  to  church  bene- 
fices by  presentations  had  been  establish- 
ed by  act  of  Parliament  in  17P2,  yet  a 
minority  of  the  clergy  wore  opposed  to 
that  measure  ;  or  at  least  to  the  intrusion 
of  a  minister  into  parochial  charge  con- 
trary to  the  sentiments  of  the  people. 
The  majority  of  tho  church,  however,  en- 
tertained different  views,  nnil  rigorously 
enforced  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  1712. 
With  this  state  of  tilings  the  peojile  gene- 
rally, but  particularly  in  rural  districts, 
Were  dissatisfied;  and  hence  tho  origin  of 
the  Secession  church,  and  llio  Rrdief. 

RELI'GION,  tliat  worship  and  homage 
which  is  due  to  («od,  consiilerod  as  our 
creator,  preserver,  and  most  bountiful 
benefactor.      It  is  divided  into  natural 


and  revealed.  By  natural  religion  is 
meant,  that  knowledge,  veneration,  and 
love  of  God,  and  the  practice  of  those 
duties  to  him,  our  fellow-creaturos,  ai.d 
ourselves,  which  are  discoverable  from 
the  right  exercise  of  our  rational  f.icul- 
ties,  from  considering  the  nature  and 
perfections  of  God,  and  our  relation  to 
him  and  to  one  another.  By  revealed  re- 
ligion is  meant,  natural  religion  explain- 
ed, enforced,  and  enlarged,  from  the  ex- 
press declarations  of  (iod  himself,  from 
the  mouths  or  pens  of  his  prophets,  &c. — 
Religion,  in  a  more  contracted  sense,  is 
used  for  any  system  of  faith  ami  worship  ; 
and  even  for  the  various  sects  into  wliich 
each  religion  is  divided.  Ueligion  is  dif- 
ferent from  Hieology,  inasmuch  as  the 
latter  is  speculative  and  the  former  prac- 
tical. Religion  is  a  system  of  duties ; 
thcolog}'  a  system  of  opinions.  Theology 
inquires  into  the  nature  of  the  power  or 
powers  to  whom  all  visible  things  are 
in  subjection  ;  religion  is  the  sentiment 
which  springs  from  that  inquiry.  The 
slightest  knowledge  of  history  is  sufficient 
to  inform  us  thiit  religion  li.is  evei  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  moulding  the  sen- 
timents and  iiiiinners  of  men.  In  one 
region  or  age  it  has  been  favorable  to 
civilization  and  refinement;  in  another 
it  hfis  been  so  directed  as  to  fetter  genius 
or  warp  the  human  mind.  That,  however, 
depends  on  the  purity  of  the  doctrine  and 
the  liberality  of  its  teachers. 

RELI'GIOUS  HOUSES,  different  asyla 
or  habitations  for  priests,  nuns,  and  poor, 
still  existing  in  C.itholic  countries,  and 
before  the  Rijformation  abounding  in  Eng- 
land. They  consisted  of  ablioys,  monas- 
teries, priories,  hospitals,  friaries,  and 
nunneries,  supported  by  lands  and  be- 
quests left  them  by  pious  persons,  which 
became  enormous.  Nearly  the  whole 
(above  3000)  were  dissolved,  nnd  their 
wealth  seized  by  Henry  the  Eighth  ;  the 
monks,  nuns,  and  officers  being  allowed 
pensions. 

RIjLIQ'UiE,  in  Rom.m  antiquity,  the 
ashes  and  bones  of  the  dead,  remaining 
aftei'  burning  their  bodies;  which  were 
gathered  up,  put  into  urns,  and  after- 
wards dejiosited  in  tombs.  . 

RE'LItiUARY,  the  rcceptiiclo  for  the 
relics  venerateit  in  Uom.iu  Catholic 
churches.  The  difference  between  a  rcli- 
quanj  and  a  rase  used  for  the  same  pur- 
I>ose  is,  that  the  former  is  smaller  in  di- 
mensions, and  contains  only  small  frag- 
ments; the  latter,  in  many  instances,  en- 
tiro  bodies. 

REMAIN'DER,  in   law,  .an  cst.atc  in 


rep] 


AM)    THE    FINE    A  UTS. 


ClU 


lands,  tenements,  or  rents,  not  to  be  en- 
joyed till  after  a  term  of  years  or  an- 
other person's  decease.  There  is  this 
difference  between  a  remainder  and  a 
reversion  ;  in  case  of  a  reversion,  the  es- 
tate granted,  after  the  limited  time,  re- 
verts to  the  grantor  or  his  heirs  ;  but  by 
a  remainder  it  goes  to  some  third  person 
or  a  stranger. 

REMINISCENCE,  that  faculty  of  the 
mind  by  which  ideas  formerly  received 
into  it,  but  forgotten,  are  recalled  or  re- 
vived in  the  memory. 

REMON'STRANCE,  a  strong  repre- 
sentation of  reasons  against  a  measure, 
either  public  or  private;  and  when  ad- 
dressed to  a  public  body,  prince  or  magis- 
trate, it  may  be  accompanied  with  a  peti- 
ti(m  or  supplication  for  the  removal  or  pre- 
vention of  some  evil  or  inconvenience. 

RE.MON'STRANTS,  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  the  appellation  given  to  the  Ar- 
minians  who  remonstrated  against  the 
decisions  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  in  1618. 

REM'PHAN,  an  idol  worshipped  by 
the  Israelites  while  in  the  wililerness, 
according  to  the  language  of  St.  Stephen, 
as  recorded  in  the  acts,  '•  Ye  took  up  the 
tabernacle  of  Moloch,  and  the  star  of 
your  god  Remphan."  In  this  passage 
commentators  are  agreed  that  St.  Ste- 
phen quotes  the  words  of  Amos,  "  Ye  have 
borne  the  tabernacle  of  your  Moloch  and 
Chiun,  your  images."  Chiun  and  Rem- 
phan are,  therefore,  the  same,  and  both 
are  thought  to  be  personifications  of  Sir- 
ius,  ihe  Dog-star. 

RENT,  in  law,  a  sum  of  money  issuing 
yearly  from  lands  and  tenements  ;  a  com- 
pensation or  return,  in  the  nature  of  an 
acknowledgment,  for  the  possession  of  a 
corporeal  inheritance. —  Rack-rent,  is  a 
rent  of  the  full  value  of  the  tenement,  or 
near  it. — A  fee- farm  rent,  is  a  rent  charge 
issuing  out  of  an  estate  in  fee,  of  at  least 
one-fourth  of  the  value  of  the  lands  at  the 
time  of  its  reservation. 

RENT'AL,  a  schedule  in  which  the 
rents  of  manors  are  set  down.  It  contains 
the  lands  let  to  each  tenant,  with  their 
names,  and  the  several  rents  arising. 

RENT  CHARGE,  in  law,  a  charge  of 
rent  upon  land,  with  a  clause  of  distress 
m  case  of  ncn-payment. 

REPEAT  ,  in  music,  a  character  show- 
ing that  what  was  last  played  or  sung 
inuat  be  repeated. 

REPENT'ANCE,  in  a  religious  sense, 
sorrow  or  deep  contrition  for  sin,  as  an  of- 
fence and  dishonor  to  God,  and  a  violation 
of  his  holy  law  ;  but  to  render  it  accepta- 
6le,  it   must  be  followed  by  amendment  I 


of  life.  Legal  repentance,  or  such  as  is 
e.xcited  by  the  terrors  of  legal  penalties, 
may  e.xist  without  an  amendment  of 
life". 

REP'ERTORY,  a  place  in  which  things 
are    disposed    in  an  orderly  manner,  so 
that  they  can  be  easily  found,  as  the  in- 
de.K  of  a  book,  a  common-place  book,  <tc. 
REPLEVIN,  in  law,  n  remedy  grant- 
ed on  a  distress,  by  which  a  person,  whose 
effects  are  distrained,  has  them  restored 
to  him  again,  on  his  giving  security  to 
the  sheriff  that  he  will  pursue  his  action 
against  the  party  distwiining,  and  return 
the  goods  or  cattle   if  the  taking  them 
shall  be  adjudged  lawful. 
j       REPLICA'TION,  in  logic,  the  assum- 
ing or  using  the  same  term  twice  in  the 
I  same  proposition. 

j      REPOSE  .  in  the  Fine  Arts,  the  absence 
of  that  agitation  which  is  induced  by  the 
.  scattering  and  division  of  a  subject  into 
j  too  many  unconnected  parts,  in  which  case 
1  a  work  is  said  to  want  repose.  Where  re- 
pose  is   wanting   from    this  cause,   "the 
I  eye,"  says  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "  is  per- 
I  ple.xed  and  fatigued,  from  not  knowing 
[  where  to  rest,  where  to  find  the  principal 
action,  or  which  is  the  principal  figure  ; 
for  where  all  are  making  equal  preten- 
sions to  notice,  all  are  in  danger  of  neg- 
lect." 

REPORTING,  the  act  of  giving  ac- 
count of  anything,  of  relating,  or  of  mak- 
ing statements  of  facts  or  of  adjudged 
cases  in  law. — Newspaper  reporting,  the 
name  given  to  that  system  ly  which  the 
Congressional  debates  and  proceedings, 
and  the  proceedings  of  public  meetings, 
Ac,  are  promulgated  throughout  the 
country. 

REPRESENTATION,  in  politics,  the 
part  performed  by  a  deputy  chosen  by  a 
constituent  body  to  support  its  interests, 
and  act  in  its  name  on  a  public  occasion. 
Thus  a  plenipotentiary  represents  the 
sovereign  or  the  state  which  delegates 
him  at  a  foreign  court.  But  the  most  or- 
dinary use  of  the  word  is  to  express  the 
principal  function  of  the  delegate  of  a 
constituency  in  a  legislative  assembly. 
Representation,  in  this  sense,  was  un- 
known to  the  political  systems  of  the  an- 
cients, and  seems  to  have  originated  in 
the  necessities  and  usages  of  feudal  times  ; 
the  lord  not  being  able  to  levy  aid  from 
his  vassals  without  their  consent,  it  be- 
came customary  for  these  to  delegate  pow- 
ers to  individuals  from  among  their  num- 
bers to  attend  his  summons,  and  confer 
with  him  respecting  the  aid  required. 
Hence,  in  our  own  country,  the  represen- 


520 


CYCLOrEDlA    OF    LITKUATL'RE 


[res 


tation  of  county  freeholders  by  knights, 
of  communities  by  their  chosen  burgesses, 
in  parliament.  The  most  complete  early 
moJel  of  a  representative  feudal  assem- 
blj'  is  to  be  found  in  the  parliament  of  the 
Sicilies  under  the  .Suabian  kings;  but 
England  is  the  only  country  in  which  it 
has  expanded  regularly  into  a  legislature. 

REPKE-SEN'TATIVe,  one  who  law- 
fully represents  another  for  the  perfor- 
mance of  any  duty,  according  to  the 
wishes  of  the  other  and  to  his  own  honest 
judgment.  A  member  of  the  house  of 
commons  is  the  representative  of  his  con- 
stituents and  of  the  nation.  In  matters 
concerning  his  constituents  onh',  he  is 
supposed  to  be  bound  by  their  instruc- 
tions ;  but  in  the  enacting  of  laws  for  the 
nation,  he  is  supposed  not  to  be  bound 
by  their  instructions,  as  he  acts  for  the 
whole  nation.  Any  other  construction  of 
his  duty  would  be  derogatory  to  him  as  a 
free  and  independent  member  of  the 
senate. 

REPRIEVE',  in  law,  a  warrant  for 
suspending  the  execution  of  a  malefactor. 

REPRI'SALS,  LETTERS  OF,  in  na- 
tional law,  the  capture  of  property  be- 
longing to  the  subjects  of  a  foreign  power 
in  satisl'action  of  losses  sustained  by  a 
citizen  of  the  capturing  state.  Letters  of 
reprisal  are  granted  by  the  law  of  na- 
tions, where  the  subject  of  one  state  has 
been  oppressed  or  injured  by  the  subjects 
of  another,  and  where  justice  has  been  re- 
fused on  application  by  letters  of  request. 

REPRI'SES,  inlaw,  deduction  or  pay- 
ments out  of  the  value  of  lands  ;  such  as 
rent-charges,  or  annuities. 

REPROBA'TION,  in  theology,  is  a 
term  commonly  apjjlied  to  the  supralap- 
sarian  tenet  of  the  consignment  of  all 
mankind  to  eternal  punishment,  with  the 
exception  of  those  whom  (Jod  has  arbi- 
trarily selected  for  eternal  happiness. 

REPUB'LIC,  that  form  of  government 
in  which  the  supreme  power  is  vested  in 
the  people.  A  republic  may  be  either  an 
aristocracy  or  adcinoeraey  :  the  supreme 
power,  in  the  former,  being  consigned  to 
the  nobles  or  a  few  privileged  individuals, 
as  was  formerly  the  case  in  Venice  and 
Genoa  ;  while,  in  the  latter,  it  is  ])laced 
in  the  hands  of  rulers  chosen  by  ami  from 
the  whole  body  of  the  people,  or  by  their 
representatives  assembled  in  a  congress 
or  national  assembly.  The  free  towns  of 
the  Continent,  Hamburg,  Frankfort,  Lii- 
beck,  and  Bremen,  are  instances  of  this 
latter  form  of  government  ;  but  the  most 
perfect  example  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  soron  of  the  South 


American  confederations  which  have 
shaken  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  In  .Swit- 
zerland, aristocracy  is  partially  blended 
with  democracy  in  the  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

REQUESTS',  COURT  OF,  in  law,  a 
convenient  court  for  the  recovery  of  small 
debts,  held  by  commissioners  duly  quali- 
fied, who  try  causes  by  the  oath  of  par- 
ties and  of  other  witnesses. 

REQUIEM,  in  music,  a  prayer  in  the 
Romish  church,  which  begins  with  Re- 
quiem a'ternam  dona  eis domine ;  whence, 
"  to  sing  a  requiem,^'  is  to  sing  a  mass 
for  the  rest  of  the  souls  of  deceased  per- 
sons. 

RESCRIPT,  the  answer  of  an  empe- 
ror, when  consulted  by  particular  persons 
on  some  difficult  question.  This  answer 
serves  as  a  decision  of  the  question,  and 
is  therefore  equivalent  to  an  edict  or  de- 

RES'CUE,  in  law,  the  forcible  retaking 
of  a  lawful  distress  from  the  distrainor, 
or  from  the  custody  of  the  law  :  also,  the 
forcible  liberation  of  a  defendant  from 
the  custody  of  the  officer. 

RESERVA'TIOX,  in  law,  a  clause 
or  part  of  an  instrument  bj-  which  some- 
thing is  reserved,  not  conceded  or  grant- 
ed.— Mental  reservation,  is  the  withhold- 
ing of  expression  or  disclosure  of  some- 
thing that  affects  a  proposition  or  state- 
ment, and  which  if  disclosed  would  mate- 
rially vary  its  import. 

RESERVE',  or  Corps  de  beserve,  in 
military  affairs,  the  third  or  last  line  of 
an  army  drawn  up  for  battle  ;  so  called 
because  they  are  reserved  to  sustain  the 
rest,  as  occasion  requires,  and  not  to  en- 
gage but  in  case  of  necessity. 

RESIDEX'TIARY,  a  canon  or  other 
ecclesiastic  installed  into  the  privileges 
and  profits  of  a  residence. 

RESIDUARY  LEGATEE',  in  law, 
the  legatee  to  whom  the  residue  of  a 
personal  estate  is  given  by  will,  after 
deducting  all  debts  and  specific  legacies. 

RESOLUTION,  the  operation  or  pro- 
cess of  separating  the  parts  which  com- 
pose a  complex  idea  or  a  mixed  body. — 
The  determination  or  decision  of  a  legis- 
lative body;  or  .a  formal  proposition 
offered  for  legislative  determination. — 
Resolution,  in  music,  tlic  writing  out 
of  a  canon  or  fugue  in  partition  from 
a  single  Vine.— Resolution  of  a  discord, 
the  descent  by  a  tone  or  a  semitone,  ac- 
cording as  the  mode  may  require,  of  a 
discord  which  has  been  heard  in  the  pre- 
ceding harmony. 

RESONANCE,  in  music,  the  returning 


KKlJ 


AND    THE    FIN'E    AIMS. 


521 


of  sound  by  the  air  acting  on  the  bodies 
of  strinsod  iniisieal  instruiiionts 

RESPOND  EXT,  in  Imw,  one  that  an- 
swers in  a  suit,  particularly  a  chancery 
suit. — In  the  schools,  one  who  maintains 
a  thesis  in  ro^y,  and  whose  province  is 
to  refute  objections  or  overthrow  argu- 
ments. 

RESPONSE',  an  answer;  but  more 
particularly  used  to  denote  the  answer  of 
the  congregation  to  the  priest,  in  the 
litany  and  other  parts  of  divine  service. — 
In  the  Romish  church,  a  kind  of  anthem 
sung  after  the  morning  lesson. 

RESSEN'TI,  a  word  employed  in  the 
arts  connected  with  drawing,  to  signify 
whatever  is  pronounced  or  expressed  with 
force.  Thus  wc  speak  of  muscles  resaenti, 
or  a  manner  ressenti.  Nature  exhibits  all 
the  varieties  of  form,  but  these  are  only 
occasionally  to  be  so  denominated.  Wo- 
men, children  and  men  of  delicate  hab- 
its or  profession,  display  only  muscles 
lightly  shaped  and  unmarked  Isy  strenu- 
ousness,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  men 
exercised  to  robust  employments  present 
this  style  of  person.  Who  is  not  struck 
with  the  contrast  between  the  Farnese 
Hercules  and  the  Belvedere  Apollo  or  the 
Antinous  ?  Among  the  moderns,  Raf- 
faelle  is  perhaps  the  greatest  painter  to 
be  cited  for  the  precision  and  variety  of 
the  shapes  which  he  has  adapted  to  differ- 
ent figures,  as  well  as  for  superiority  in 
the  art  in  general. 

REST,  in  music,  a  pause  or  interval 
of  time,  during  which  there  is  an  inter- 
mission of  the  voice  or  sound.  A  rest 
may  be  for  a  bar,  or  more  than  a  bar,  or 
for  a  part  of  a  bar  imly.  The  pause  or 
cessation  of  sound  is  equal  in  duration 
to  the  note  represented  by  the  rest.  As 
there  are  six  musical  characters  called 
notes,  so  there  are  as  many  rests. 

RESTORATION,  renewal;  revival; 
re-establishment.  In  England,  the  re- 
turn of  King  Ch.-irlos  1 1.,  in  16G0.  \s  byway 
of  eminence  en  lied  f'le  Restoration  ;  and 
the  29th  of  May  is  kept  as  an  anniver- 
sary festival,  in  commemoration  of  the 
re-establishment  nf  monarch  v. 

RESCRRECTION,  the  history  of  the 
r<'surrection  of  our  Saviour  is  detailed 
in  the  separate  narration  of  eaoli  of  the 
f(»ur  Evangelists,  and  is  also  referred  to 
and  insisted  on  in  the  .Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
and  in  every  one  of  the  Epistles.  The 
importance  of  this  history,  as  an  evidence 
of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  is  pointeil  out 
in  a  peculiar  manner  by  Paley  ;  namely, 
that  it  was  alleged  from  the  beginning  by 
all  the  propagators  of  Christianity,  and 


relied  on  as  the  great  test  of  the  doc- 
trines which  they  taught  :  consequently, 
if  the  fact  be  untrue,  they  must  all  have 
been  either  deceivers,  or  deceived  in  a 
point  on  which  it  is  morally  impossible 
thev  could  be  so. 

RETAIN'ER,  in  old  English  law,  a 
servant  not  dwelling  in  the  master's 
house  or  emplo3'ed  by  him  in  any  distinct 
occupation,  but  wearing  his  livery  (i.  e., 
hat,  badge,  or  suit,)  and  attending  on 
particular  occasions  ;  an  important  relic 
of  the  times  of  private  warfare.  The 
giving  liveries,  or  retaining  this  class  of 
servants,  was  forbidden  by  mauj'  statutes 
with  little  effect. — In  the  language  of  the 
bar,  a  fee  given  to  a  counsel  to  secure  his 
services  :  or  rather,  as  it  has  been  said, 
to  prevent  the  opposite  side  from  engag- 
ing them  A  special  retainer  is  for  a 
particular  case  expected  to  come  on.  A 
general  retainer  is  given  by  a  party  de- 
sirous of  securing  a  priority  of  claim  on 
the  counsel's  services  for  any  case  which 
he  may  have  in  any  court  which  that 
counsel  attends.  The  effect  of  it  is  mere- 
ly this,  that  if  a  counsel  having  a  general 
retainer  receive  a  special  retainer  on  the 
other  side,  he  cannot  accept  it  until 
twenty-four  hours  after  notice  shall  have 
been  given  of  its  arrival  to  the  party  so 
generally  retaining  him  ;  when,  if  he  does 
not  receive  a  brief  or  a  special  retainer 
from  the  latter,  he  is  bound  to  accept  it. 
The  same  word  in  its  strict  legal  accepta- 
tion signifies  the  engagement  of  an  attor- 
ney by  his  client,  which  enhances  the 
mutual  duties  implied  by  the  law  between 
them. 

RETIA'RIUS,  the  name  of  a  class  of 
Roman  gladiators  armed  in  a  peculiar 
way.  The  retiarius  was  furnished  with  a 
trident  and  net,  with  no  more  covering 
than  a  short  tunic  ;  and  with  these  im- 
plements he  endeavored  to  entangle  and 
despatch  his  adversary,  who  was  called 
secutor  (from  sequi,  to  follow,)  and  was 
armed  with  a  helmet,  a  shield,  and  a 
sword. 

RETTCENCE,  or  RET'ICENCY,  in 
rhetoric,  a  figure  by  which  a  person 
really  speaks  of  a  thing,  while  he  makes 
a  show  as  if  he  would  say  nothing  on  the 
subject. 

RETICULATED  WORK,  in  architec- 
ture, that  wherein  the  stones  are  square 
and  laid  lozengewise,  resembling  the 
meshes  of  a  net.  This  speeies  of  masonry 
is  scarcely  ever  practised  in  the  present 
day  :  but  it  was  very  common  among  the 
ancients. 

RE  TIRADE',  in  fortification,  a   kind 


522 


CVCLOPEDIA     OF     LITERATURE 


[rev 


of  retrenchment  in  the  body  of  a  bnstion 
or  other  work,  which  is  to  be  flisputed 
inch  by  inch,  alter  the  defences  are  dis- 
mantled. 

KETRAX'IT,  in  law,  the  withdrawing 
or  open  renunciation  of  a  suit  in  court, 
by  which  the  plaintiff  loses  his  action.  A 
retraxit  is  a  bar  to  any  future  action, 
which  a  nonsuit  is  not 

RETREXCH'MEXT,  in  the  art  of  war, 
any  kind  of  work  raised  to  cover  a  post 
and  fortify'  it  against  the  enemy,  such  as 
fascines  loaded  with  earth,  gabions,  sand- 
bags, &c- 
*  RE'TRO,  a  prefix  to  many  words,  as  in 
retrocession,  retrogradation,  &c.  :  imply- 
ing a  going  backward. 

RE'TURN,  in  law,  a  certificate  from 
sheriffs  and  bailiffs  of  what  is  done  in  the 
execution  of  a  writ. — -Return  days,  certain 
days  in  term  time  for  the  return  of  writs. 
— In  militarj'  and  naval  affairs,  an 
official  account,  report,  or  statement  ren- 
dered to  the  commander  ;  as,  the  return 
of  men  fit  for  duty ;  or  the  return  of  pro- 
visions, ammunition,  &c. — Returns,  in 
commerce,  that  which  is  returned,  wheth- 
er in  goods  or  specie,  for  merchandise 
sent  abroad.  Also,  the  return  of  money 
laid  out  in  the  way  of  trade  ;  as,  "  small 
profits  bring  quick  returns." — Returns 
of  a  mine,  in  fortification,  the  windings 
and  turnings  of  a  gallery  leading  to  a 
mine. — Returns,  in  military  affairs,  state- 
ments given  in  by  the  officers  of  regi- 
ments, companies,  &c,  of  the  number, 
condition,  &c.,  of  their  men,  horses,  Ac. 

REVE  ILLE,  in  military  affairs,  the 
beat  of  drum  about  break  of  day,  to  give 
notice  that  it  is  time  for  the  soldiers  to 
rise  and  for  the  sentinels  to  forbear  chal- 
lenging. 

REVELA'TION,  the  act  of  revealing, 
or  making  a  thing  public  tliat  was  before 
unknown.  It  is  also  used  for  the  dis- 
coveries made  by  (Jod  to  his  prophets, 
and  by  them  to  the  world ;  and  more 
particularly  for  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament.  Tho  principal  tests  of 
the  truth  of  any  revelation  are,  its  being 
worthy  of  God,  and  consistent  with  his 
known  attributes ;  and  in  its  having  a 
tendency  to  refine,  purify,  and  oxalt  the 
mind  of  man  to  an  imitation  of  the  Deity 
in  his  moral  perfections 

REVELS,  MA.STER  OF  THE,  or 
LORD  OF  MISRULE,  the  name  of  an 
officer  formerl}'  attached  pro  tempore  to 
royal  and  other  distinguished  houses, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  preside  over  the 
Christma.s  entertainments.  This  office 
was  first  permanenlly  instituted   in  the 


I  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,   and    appears  to 
I  have  gone  out  of  fashion  towards  the  end 

of  the  17th  century. 

I      REVEXDICA'TION,   a    term  of  the 

civil    law,    signifying    a    claim    legally 

I  made  to  recover  property,  by  one  claim- 

I  ing   as    owner.     The    righf  of   property 

must,   generally  speaking,  be   complete, 

to  proceed  to  the  action  of  revendication  ; 

I  thus,  no  such   action  can    be  brought  for 

I  corporeal  things  until  after  delivery,  by 

which  they  pass. 

REV  KXUE,  in  a  general  sense,  is  an 
annual  or  continual  income,  or  the  yearly 
profit  that  accrues  to  <a  man  from  his 
lands  or  jjossessions  ;  but  in  modern 
usage,  revenue  is  generallj'  applied  to 
the  annual  produce  of  taxes,  excise,  cus- 
toms, duties,  &c.  which  a  nation  lt  state 
collects  or  receives  into  the  treasury  for 
public  use. 

REVEREND,  a  title  of  respect  given 
to  the  clergy.  In  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries the  members  of  the  different  reli- 
gious orders  are  styled  reverend.  In 
England,  deans  are  veri/  reverend,  bishops 
right  reverend,  and  archbishops  most 
reverend.  In  Scotland,  the  principals  of 
the  universities  and  the  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  for  the  time  being  are 
styled  verij  reverend. 

REVERIE,  a  loose  or  irregular  train 
of  thoughts,  occurring  in  musing  or  medi- 
tation ;  or  any  wild,  extravagant  conceit 
of  the  fancy  or  imagination. 

REVER'SION,  in  law,  is  when  the 
possession  of  an  estate  which  was  parted 
with  for  a  time  returns  to  the  donor  or 
his  heirs.  Also  tho  right  which  a  person 
has  to  any  inheritance,  or  place  of  profit, 
after  the  decease  of  another. 

REVET'MENT,  in  fortification,  a 
strong  wall  on  the  outside  of  a  rampart, 
inten(led  to  support  the  earth. 

REVIEW,  in  military  tactics,  the  dis- 
play of  a  body  of  troops,  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibiting  the  state  of  their  appear- 
ance and  discipline  before  some  superior 
officer  or  illustrious  personage. —  Kevieic, 
in  literature,  a  critical  examination  of  a 
new  publication.  Also  a  periodical  pub- 
lication containing  critical  examinations 
and  analyses  of  new  works.  The  person 
who  performs  this  duty  is  called  the  re- 
viewer.— Revieir,  (bill  of.)  in  chancery,  a 
bill  where  a  cause  has  been  heard,  but 
some  errors  in  law  appearing,  or  some 
new  matter  being  discovered  after  the 
decree  was  made,  this  bill  is  given  for  a 
fresh  examination  into  the  merits  uf  tbe 
cause. 

REVISE',   a   second    i)roof-sheet  of  a 


rhy] 


AND    THE    FINK    AIITS. 


523 


work,  for  the  revis;il  or  re-examination 
of  ttie  errors  corre  ted. — The  act  of  revi- 
sing a  book  or  writing  for  publication,  is 
termed  a  revision. 

REVIVOR,  in  law,  the  reviving  of  a 
suit  which  is  abated  by  the  death  of  any 
of  the  parlies.  This  is  done  by  a  bill  of 
revivor. 

REVOKE',  to  reverse  or  repeal.  A 
law.  decree,  or  sentence  is  revoked  b}'  the 
same  authority  which  enacted  or  passed 
it.  A  devise  may  be  revoked  by  the 
devisor,  a  use  by  the  grantor,  and  <a  will 
by  the  testator. — .\  law  may  cease  to 
operate  without  an  e.Kpress  revocation. 

REVOLU'TIOX,  in  politics,  a  material 
or  entire  change  in  the  constitution  of 
government.  Thus  the  revolution  in 
England,  in  1688,  was  produced  by  the 
abdication  of  King  James  II.  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  house  of  Orange  upon 
the  throne,  and  the  restoraticm  of  the 
constitution  to  its  primitive  state.  In 
like  manner,  though  with  very  different 
consequences,  the  revolution  in  France 
effected  a  change  of  constitution.  In  the 
Unite  1  States,  the  war  of  1776,  which 
achieved  the  independence  of  the  thirteen 
states,  is  known  as  The  Revolution. 

REX  SACRORUM,  among  the  Ro- 
mans, was  a  person  appointed  to  preside 
in  certain  sacred  duties.  He  generally 
performed  such  office  as  the  kings  of 
Rome  had  reserved  to  themselves  before 
the  abolition  of  their  power.  He  was 
chosen  by  the  augurs  and  pontifices.  at 
the  establishment, of  the  commonwealth, 
that  the  name  of  king  might  not  be  wholly 
extinct;  and  in  order  that  his  power 
might  never  be  dangerous  to  civil  liberty, 
he  was  not  permitted  to  have  the  least 
share  in  civil  affairs. 

RHABDOMANCY,  properly,  divina- 
tion by  a  rod  or  wand.  Some  persons  have 
been  believed  to  be  endowed  by  nature 
with  a  peculiar  sense  or  perception,  by 
which  they  are  enabled  to  discover  things 
hid  in  the  earth,  especially  metals  and 
water.  But  a  more  prevalent  opinion 
has  been,  that  the  discovery  of  these 
substances  might  be  effected  by  means  of 
a  divining  rod.  A  divining  rod  is  a  branch 
of  a  tree,  generally  hazel,  forked  at  the 
end,  and  held  in  a  particular  way,  by  the 
two  ends,  in  the  hands  of  the  adept  ;  and 
is  supposed  to  indicate  the  position  of 
the  substance  sought  by  bending  towards 
it  with  a  slow  rotatory  motion,  the  adept, 
according  to  modern  practice,  being  placed 
in  contact  with  some  metallic  or  other 
magnetic  sub;tance.  The  art  is  said  to 
be  occasionally  practised  in  the  south  of 


France  and  Italy,  under  the  names  of 
metalloscopy,  hydroscopy,  &c. 

RHAPSODI,  in  antiquity,  a  name 
given  to  such  poets  as  recited  or  sung 
theic  own  works,  in  det;xchc  1  pieces,  from 
town  to  town.  Hence  the  term  rhapso- 
dies was  particularly  applied  to  the 
works  of  Homer,  which  were  so  rehearsed. 
— In  modern  usage,  a  collectio  i  of  pas- 
sages, composing  a  new  piece,  but  with- 
out necessary  dependence  or  natural  con- 
nection, is  called  a  rhapsody. 

RHEX'ISH,  pertaining  to  the  river 
Rhine,  or  to  Rheims,  in  France  :  as  Rhen- 
ish wine. 

RHE'TIAN,  pertaining  to  the  ancient 
Rhffiti,  or  to  Rhaitia,  their  country',  as 
the  Rhetian  Alps,  now  the  country  of 
T^'rol  and  the  Grisons. 

RHET  ORIC,  the  art  of  speaking  with 
propriety,  elegance,  and  force  ;  or,  as 
Lord  Bacon  defines  it,  the  art  of  ap- 
plying and  addressing  the  dictates  of 
reason  to  the  fancy,  and  of  recommending 
them  there  so  as  to  affect  the  will  and 
desires.  Rhetoric  and  oratory  differ  from 
each  other  as  the  theory  from  the  prac- 
tice; the  rhetorician  being  the  one  who 
describes  the  rules  of  eloquence,  and  the 
orator  he  who  uses  them  to  advantage. 
The  parts  of  rhetoric  are,  invention,  dis- 
position, and  elocution.  The  forms  of 
speech  by  which  propriety  and  elegance 
are  produced,  are  denominated  tropes 
and  figures.  The  general  manner  iu 
which  the  orator  employs  his  words  for 
the  formation  of  his  speech  is  called  ■'<tylr, 
which  is  variously  distinguished.  Rheto- 
ric divides  an  oration  or  speech  into  five 
parts  :  the  exordium,  narration,  confirma- 
tion, refutation,  and  peroration.  The 
exordium  is  the  part  in  which  the  speaker 
prepares  the  minds  of  the  auditors  for 
what  he  is  about  to  advance.  It  ought 
to  be  e.xprcssed  with  considerable  care 
and  perspicuity,  and  the  matter  and  man- 
ner should  be  to  the  purpose,  brief,  and 
modest.  The  narration  is  the  recital  of 
facts  or  events ;  and  should  have  the 
qualities  of  clearness,  probability,  brevi- 
ty, and  consistency.  The  confirmation 
establishes  the  proofs  of  a  discourse,  and 
arranges  them  in  the  manner  best  adapt- 
ed to  enforce  conviction.  The  refuta- 
tion, or  anticipation,  furnishes  arguments 
to  answer  the  assertions  that  m.ay  be  op- 
posed to  the  narration.  The  peroration, 
or  conclusion,  should  recapitulate  the 
whole  with  condensed  force  and  energy. 

RHYME,  in  poetry,  the  correspond- 
ence of  sounds  in  the  last  words  or  sylla- 
bles  of  verses.     The   latter  is  the   true 


524 


Ci'Ol.Ol'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[KIN 


rb, me  of  modern  European  languages. 
There  are  rhymed  verses  in  the  Latin 
classical  poets,  where  the  jingle  seems 
intentional,  and  more  distinct  examples 
of  it  in  the  fragments  of  Roman  military 
songs,  (fee.,  which  have  come  down  to  us. 
But  in  the  earlier  pieriod  of  the  decay  of 
the  Latin  language,  when  accent  was  sub- 
stituted for  metre  in  the  rhythmical  ar- 
rangement of  the  verse,  rhyme  made  its 
way  into  the  composition  of  church  hymns, 
Ac.  It  has  been  attempted  with  little 
success,  to  deduce  this  innovation  from 
the  (Joths,  and  from  the  Arabians;  but 
the  former,  like  the  old  Teutonic  races, 
probably  used  alliteration,  but  no  rhyme 
in  their  verses;  and  the  latter  could  not 
have  influenced  European  literature  until 
a  period  long  after  that  in  which  rhyme 
first  appears.  A  rhyme  in  which  the 
final  syllables  only  agree  {strain,  com- 
plain,) is  called  a  male  rhyme;  one  in 
which  the  two  final  syllables  of  each  verse 
agree,  the  last  being  short  (motion, 
oce«n,)  female  ;  and  the  latter  is  some- 
times extended  in  Italian  poetry  to  three 
syllables  {femore,  immemore,)  when  the 
verse  is  called  sdrucciolo.  In  English 
such  a  license  is  hardly  permissible,  ex- 
cept in  burlesque  poetry  (see  Hudibras 
and  Don  Juan  for  instances )  By  the 
strict  rules  of  French  prosody,  the  male 
and  female  species  of  rhymes  must  be 
alternately  used,  however  intricate  the 
'lisposition  of  the  verse  may  be  ;  although 
the  last  short  syllable  is  generally  mute, 
or  very  slightly  sounded.  Rhj'mes  which 
extend  not  only  beyond  the  three  last 
syllables,  but  through  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  the  lines,  are  u.--ed  in  Arabian  and 
Persian  poetry.  Rhymes  in  which  the 
consonants  of  the  last  syllabic  in  each 
verse  are  identical,  (dress,  address,)  are 
vicious  in  English,  but  rather  admired  in 
French  poetry.  One  more  singularity  of 
English  poetry  deserves  notice :  while, 
from  the  irregularity  of  our  spelling, 
many  syllables  rhyme  with  each  other, 
allhough  widely  ilissimilar  in  orthograyihy 
(u'oo,  j)ursue,)  there  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  rhymes  which  spcalj  to  the  eye, 
and  not  to  the  ear  ;  i.  e.,  in  wliieii  the 
orthography  of  the  rhyming  syllables  is 
the  same,  but  the  pronunciation  dilferent; 
as,  wind,  find ;  i^onr,  alone.  This  is  a 
license  only  rendered  admissible  by  pre- 
cedent. 

1111YM0P(E'IA,  in  ancient  music,  that 
part  of  the  science  which  prescribed  the 
laws  of  rhyme,  or  what  appertained  to 
♦  1>«)  rhythmic  art. 

RJIYTilM,   in    music,   variety   in   tho 


movement  as  to  quickness  or  slowness, 
or  length  and  shortness  of  the  notes ;  or 
rather  the  proportion  which  the  parts  of 
the  motion  have  to  each  other. — Metre; 
verse  ;  number. — Pihythm  is  the  conso- 
nance of  measure  and  time  in  poetry, 
prose  composition,  and  music,  and  by  an- 
alogy, dancing. — In  poetry,  it  is  the  rela- 
tive duration  of  the  moments  employed 
in  pronouncing  the  syllables  of  a  verse  ; 
and  in  music,  the  relative  duration  of 
the  sounds  that  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  an  air.  Prose  also  has  its  rhythm, 
and  the  only  difference  (so  far  as  sound 
is  concerned)  between  verse  and  prose  is, 
that  the  former  consists  of  a  regular  suc- 
cession of  similar  cadences,  or  of  a  limit- 
ed variety  of  cadences,  divided  by  gram- 
matical pauses  and  emphases  into  pro- 
portional clauses,  so  as  to  present  sensi- 
ble r.esponses  to  the  ear,  at  regular  pro- 
portioned distances ;  prose,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  composed  of  all  sorts  of  cadences, 
arranged  without  attention  to  obvious 
rule,  and  divided  into  clauses  which  have 
no  obviously  ascertained  proportion,  and 
present  no  responses  to  the  ear  at  any 
legitimate  or  determined  intervals.  In 
dancing,  the  rhythm  is  recognized  in  the 
sound  of  the  feet. 

RIDEAU',  in  fortification,  a  rising 
ground  commanding  a  plain :  also  a 
trench  covered  with  earth  in  form  of  a 
parapet  to  shelter  soldiers. 

Rl'DER,  or  RIDER-ROLL,  in  law,  a 
schedule,  or  sm.\ll  piece  of  parchment, 
often  added  to  some  part  of  a  record  or 
act  of  parliament. 

RI'DINCi,  in  England,  one  of  the  three 
jurisdictions  into  which  the  county  of 
York  is  divided,  anciently  under  the 
government  of  a  reeve. 

RIFACIMEN'TO,  an  Italian  word,  of 
late  often  used  in  English,  to  denote  a 
remaking  or  furbishing  up  anew.  Its 
most  usual  application  is  to  the  process 
of  recasting  literary  works,  so  as  to  adapt 
them  to  a  somewhat  different  purpose  or 
to  a  changed  state  of  circumstances. 

RKHIT  OF  PROPERTY,  in  political 
economy,  the  right  which  states,  bodies 
of  individuals  and  individuals  have  to 
the  exclusive  use  and  enjoyment  of  such 
lands,  natural  powers,  and  products  as 
have  been  ap|)ropriated  or  sot  apart  for 
any  ))eculiar  |)urpose. 

RINFORZAN'DO.  in  music,  a  direc- 
tion to  the  i)erformer,  denoting  that  the 
sound  is  to  be  increased.  It  is  mnrkcd 
tlius<;;  when  the  sound  is  to  be  dimin- 
ished this  mark  >  is  used. 

RINd'LEADER,   the    leader   of    any 


rogJ 


AND    TIIK     FINK     ARTS. 


525 


association  of  men  engaged  in  violation 
of  law  or  an  illegal  enter[irise,  as  rioters, 
mutineers,  anrl  the  like.  Aceonling  to 
some  this  name  isderiveil  from  the  prac- 
tice which  men  associating  to  oppose  law 
have  sometimes  ailopted,  of  signing  their 
names  to  articles  of  agreement  in  a  rinp^, 
that  no  one  of  their  number  might  be 
distinguished  as  the  leailer.  According 
to  others  it  signified  origiuallj-,  one  who 
took  the  lead  in  forming  the  rins^  of  a 
dance. 

KINGS,  FAIRY,  a  name  given  to  ir- 
regular circles  in  pastures  and  lawns  on 
which  agarics  spring  up,  and  which  be- 
come much  more  verdant  than  the  sur- 
rounding grass.  They  are  caused  by  the 
centrifugal  growth  of  the  spawn  of  the 
agaric,  which  radiates  from  a  common 
centre,  and  bears  the  fructification, 
which  is  what  appears  above  ground, 
only  at  the  circumference.  The  verdure 
of  the  grass  where  these  fungi  grow 
seems  to  be  caused  either  by  their  ma- 
nuring the  ground  when  they  decay,  or 
by  the  nitrogen  they  give  off,  which  is  an 
active  stimulant  to  vegetation.  The  ap- 
plication oi  fairy  rings  was  given  to  this 
phenomenon  from  their  being  regarded 
as  the  pl.aces  where  the  fairies  held  their 
nocturnal  revels. 

RI'OT.  in  law,  is  said  to  be  a  tumult- 
uous disturbance  of  the  peace  by  three 
persons  or  more  assembling  together  of 
their  own  authority  in  order  to  assist 
each  other  against  any  one  who  shall 
oppose  them  in  the  execution  of  a  private 
purpose,  and  afterwards  executing  the 
same  in  a  violent  and  turbulent  manner. 
A  rout  is  said  to  be  a  disturbance  of  the 
peace  by  persons  as^embled  together  to 
do  a  thing,  which,  if  executeil,  would 
make  them  rioters,  and  making  some 
motion  towards  that  object;  an  unlawful 
assembly,  a  similar  disturbance  by  per- 
sons who  neither  execute  their  purpose, 
nor  make  any  actual  motion  towards  the 
execution  of  it. 

RIPIE'XO,  in  music,  a  term  signifying 
full,  and  is  used  in  compositions  of  many 
parts,  to  distinguish  those  which  fill  up 
the  harmony  and  play  only  occasionally, 
from  those  that  play  throughout  the 
piece. 

RITE,  a  formal  act  of  religion  or  other 
solemn  duty  ;  the  manner  of  performing 
divine  service  as  established  by  law  or 
custom. 

IIITORXEL  LO,  in  music,  a  passage 
which  is  played  whilst  the  principal 
voice  puuses  :  it  often  signifies  the  intro- 
duction to  an  air   or  any    musical   piece. 


This  ritornello  is  often  repeated  after  the 
singing  voice  has  concluded;  hence  the 
name. 

RIT'UAL,  a  book  containing  the  rites, 
or  directing  the  order  and  manner  to  be 
observed  in  celebrating  religious  cere- 
niimies,  and  performing  divine  ser\ice  in 
the  church. 

ROBES,  MASTER  OF  THE.  an  offi- 
cer in  the  royal  household  of  England, 
whose  duty,  as  the  designation  implies, 
consists  in  ordering  the  sovereign's  robes. 
Under  a  queen,  this  office,  which  has 
always  been  one  of  great  dignitj',  is  per- 
formed by  a  lady,  who  enjoys  the  highest 
rank  of  the  ladies  in  the  service  of  tho 
queen. 

ROB'IN-GOOD'FELLOAY,  an  old  do- 
mestic goblin,  called  in  Scotland  a 
brownie. 

ROC,  the  well-known  monstrous  bird 
of  Arabian  mythology,  of  the  same  fabu- 
lous species  with  the  simurg  of  the  Per- 
sians. In  the  notes  to  vol.  iii.  of  Mi. 
Lane's  edition  of  the  Arabian  Nights' 
Entertainments  are  some  curious  ex- 
tracts from  the  writers  of  old  voyages  of 
that  nation  ;  showing  that  the  tale  was 
either  founded  on,  or  supported  b}',  the 
wonderful  accounts  of  travellers.  Even 
Sinbad's  well-known  adventure,  when  his 
crew  broke  the  roc's  egg,  and  were  attack- 
ed in  consequence  by  the  enraged  pair  of 
birds,  is  borrowed  from  the  serious  narra- 
tion of  Ibn-El-Wardee.  The  roc  is  also 
described  by  Marco  Paulo.  The  size  of 
this  infamous  monster  is,  of  course,  de- 
scribed with  all  the  luxuriance  of  oriental 
imagination.  Ibn-El-Wardee  makes  one 
of  its  wings  10,000  fathoms  long.  Mr. 
Lane  appears  to  think  that  this  extrava- 
gant fiction  was  suggested  by  the  condor  ; 
but  the  size  and  power  of  that  bird  are 
much  exaggerated,  even  in  the  common 
accounts.  The  bearded  vulture  of  Egypt 
seems  a  better  archetype  of  the  roc.  In 
a  drawing  from  an  illuminated  Persian 
MS.,  which  ^Ir.  Lane  hasco])ied,  the  roc, 
or  rather  simurg,  which  is  represented  as 
performing  the  slight  operation  of  carry- 
ing off  three  elephants  in  its  beak  and 
claws,  is  something  like  a  cock,  with 
eagle's  wings  and  an  extravagnnt  tail. 
The  simurg  is  a  creature  of  importance 
in  Persian  mythology  :  it  is  the  phoenix 
of  oriental  fable,  one  only  living  at  a 
time,  and  attains  the  age  of  1700  years. 

RODOMONTADE',  a  term  that  has 
passed  into  most  European  languages ; 
from  Rodomont,  a  boisterous  character  in 
Orlando  Furloso. 

RO'OA,  in  antiquity,  a  present  which 


»2C 


CVCl.OI'KDIA     OK     l.IIKIiATLliE 


KOM 


the  emperors  made  to  the  senators,  magis- 
trates, and  even  to  the  people.  These 
roga  were  distributed  liy  the  emjjerors 
on  the  first  day  of  the  year,  on  their  l)irth- 
day,  or  on  the  nalalis  dies  of  the  cities. 

ROGA'TIOX,  in  the  Roman  jurispru- 
dence, a  demand  made  by  the  consuls,  or 
tribunes  of  the  people,  when  a  law  was 
proposed  to  be  passed. — Rofratio  is  also 
used  for  the  decree  itself  made  in  conse- 
quence of  the  people  giving  their  assent 
to  this  demand,  to  distinguish  it  from  a 
senatuscuKriltum,  ordecree  of  thesenate. 

ROUA'TION-AVEEK,  the  week  pre- 
ceding Whitsunday,  thus  called  from  the 
three  rogation-dar/i  or  feasts  therein,  viz. 
Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday,  on 
each  of  which  extraordinary  prayers  and 
processions  were  made  for  the  fruits  of 
the  earth.  The  word  roi?'a/(o;i  is  derived 
"  a  rogando  Deum,"   "  petitioning  God." 

ROLL',  an  official  writing;  a  list,  regis- 
ter, or  catalogue  ;  as  a  muster  roll,  a  court 
roll,  &c. —  Roll  call,  the  calling  over  the 
names  of  the  men  who  compose  any  part 
of  a  military  body. —  Rolls  of  parliament, 
the  manuscript  registers,  or  rolls  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  ancient  English  parlia- 
ments, which  before  the  invention  of 
printing  were  all  engrossed  on  parch- 
ment, and  proclaimed  openly  in  every 
county.  In  these  rolls  are  also  contained 
a  great  many  decisions  of  difficult  points 
of  law,  which  were  frequently  in  former 
times  referred  to  the  decision  of  that  high 
court. 

ROLL  MOULD'IXG,  in  architecture, 
a  round  moulding  divided  longitudinally 
along  the  middle,  the  upper  half  of  which 
projects  over  the  lower.     It  occurs  often 


in  the  early  Gothic  decorated  style,  where 
it  is  jirofusely  used  for  drip-stones  string- 
courses, abacuses,  Ac. —  Roll  and  fillet 
moulding,    a    round    moulding    with    a 

h 


^v 


square  fillet  on  the  face  of  it.     It  is  most 
usual  in  the  early  decorated  style,   and 


appears  to  have  passed  by  various  grada- 
tions into  tiie  ogee. 

ROMAN,  a  native  or  citizen  ot  Rome  ; 
or  something  pertaining  to  the  place,  its 
jjcople,  or  their  religion. — One  of  the 
Christian  church  at  Rome  to  which  St. 
Paul  addressed  an  epistle,  consisting  of 
converts  from  Juda'sm  or  Pag.inisiu. — 
In  literature,  the  ordinary  printing  ciiar 
aeter  now  in  use,  in  distinction  from  the 
Italic. 

ROMAN  CATH'OLICS,  that  society 
of  Christians  whose  members  acknowledge 
the  pope  as  visible  hearl  of  the  church. 
The  Roman  doctors  hold  that  the  Scrip- 
ture is  not  sufficient  for  its  own  interpre- 
tation. The  bioks  which  compose  the 
canon  of  the  New  Testament  are,  they 
conceive,  desultory  and  incomplete ; 
being  many  of  them  written  for  special 
occasions,  at  a  period  considerably  later 
than  the  foundation  of  the  religion  in 
various  districts,  in  some  of  which  whole 
generations  of  believers  may  have  passed 
away  without  having  seen  or  heard  of 
their  precious  contents.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed,  however,  that  doctrines  so  im- 
portant as  those  shadowed  forth  in  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  or  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John,  could  have  been  left  untaught  to 
the  churches  which  flourished  before  their 
publication  or  beyond  their  reach.  It 
must  be  admitted,  therefore,  they  argue, 
that  the  first  preachers  of  Christianity 
must  have  been  commissioned  and  in- 
structed to  deliver  these  same  doctrines 
orally  ;  and  it  is  affirmed  that  several 
important  doctrines  are  imperfectly  de- 
veloped in  Scripture,  and  would  not  be 
understood.  e.\cept  for  some  such  illustra- 
tion by  the  way,  the  result  of  which  is 
conveyed  in  the  crce  Is  of  the  first  centu- 
ries. It  is  also  affirmed  that  the  practice 
of  the  primitive  church,  the  infallibility 
of  which  is  assumed,  authenticates  various 
articles  of  Roman  belief,  of  which  only 
very  slight  hints  are  to  be  found  in  Scrip- 
ture. 

ROMANCE',  in  literature,  a  tale  or 
fictitious  history  of  extraordinary  adven- 
tures, intended  to  e.xcite  the  passions  of 
wonder  and  curiosity,  and  to  interest  the 
sensibilities  of  the  heart.  The  romance 
differs  from  the  novel,  as  it  treats  of  great 
actions  and  extravagant  adventures, 
soaring  beyond  the  limits  of  fact  and  real 
life.  Romances  have  of  late  years  given 
way  to  historical  novels  ;  and  even  such 
as  are  occasionally  jiublished  are  very 
different  from  tlmso  of  the  olden  time,  in 
which  the  blandishments  of  beauty  and 
the  enterprises  of  chivalry  were  incon- 


xom] 


AND    TlIK    KINK    AIMS. 


o27 


gruously  blendeJ  with  fictions  exceeding 
all  bounds  of  human  croilulity.  The 
earliest  moilern  romances  were  collections 
of  chivalrous  adventures,  chiefly  founded 
on  the  lives  and  achievements  of  the  war- 
like adherents  of  two  sovereigns,  one  of 
whom,  porhaiis,  had  only  a  fabulous  ex- 
istonco,  while  the  annals  of  the  other 
have  given  rise  to  a  wonderful  series  of 
fables-=-Arthur  and  Charlemagne.  These 
romances  were  metrical  compositions  in 
that  branch  of  the  modern  French  lan- 
guage termed  the  langue  d'oU,  which  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  north  of  France, 
and  especially  in  Normandy.  Besides 
these  agreat  variety  of  smaller  tales,  some 
chivalrous,  some  marvellous,  some  simply 
ludicrous,  termed  ./a6/iau.r,  exist  in  the 
same  language.  The  date  of  these  com- 
positions extend  from  the  12th  to  the  1.5th 
centuries.  From  the  hands  of  these 
rhymers  the  tales  of  chivalry  passed  first 
into  those  of  prose  compilers,  who  re- 
duced them  into  a  form  more  resembling 
that  of  our  modern  romances.  The 
French  prose  romances  of  chivalry,  still 
confined  to  the  same  classes  of  subjects, 
belong  to  the  1  Ifh  and  1.5tli  centuries. 

RO.MANCE'RO,  in  Spanish,  the  gene- 
ral name  for  a  collection  of  the  national 
ballads  or  romances ;  so  called  from  the 
Roman  or  Romanic  tongue,  which  in  the 
early  part  of  the  miildle  ages,  seems  to 
have  been  the  common  appellation  of  all 
the  dialects  spoken  from  the  Alps  to  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Romancero  General,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  these  collections,  was  published 
in  1604-14. 

ROMANES'QUE,  in  painting,  apper- 
taining to  fable  or  romance.  In  histori- 
cal painting,  it  consists  in  the  choice  of  a 
fanciful  subject  rather  than  one  founded 
on  fact.  The  rumunesque  is  different 
from  romantic,  because  the  latter  may  be 
foundeil  on  truth,  which  the  former  never 
is. —  Romanesque,  in  literature,  is  applied 
to  the  common  dialect  of  Languedoc  and 
some  other  districts  in  the  south  of  Fr.anco, 
which  is  a  remnant  of  the  old  Romanee 
language,  now  nearly  extinct.  This  term 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Romaic, 
which  is  used  to  signify  the  language  of 
modern  Greece. 

RO'MAX  LAW,  the  name  given  to  the 
law  which  was  Eounded  originally  upon 
the  constitutions  of  the  ancient  kings  of 
Rome  ;  next  upon  thg  twelve  tables  of 
the  decemviri;  then  upon  the  laws  or 
statutes  enacted  by  the  senate  or  bv  the 
people  ;  the  edicts  of  the  prcetor  and  the 
responsa  prudentum,  or  the  opinions  of 


learned  lawyers ;  and  lastly  upon  the 
imperial  decrees  or  constitutions  of  the 
emperors.  The  principles  of  the  Romair 
law  are  incorporate!  in  a  remarkable 
degree  with  those  of  the  law  of  Scotland, 
and  they  have  exerted  an  extraordinary 
influence  ever  every  system  of  jurispru- 
dence in  Europe. 

RO'MAN  SCHOOL.  This  school  of 
painting,  which,  like  the  Florentine,  ad- 
dressed itself  to  the  mind,  is  formed  upon 
antique  models.  Its  style  '.vas  poetical ; 
embellished  with  all  the  grandeur,  pathos, 
and  freedom  from  common  matters  that 
the  happiest  im.igination  could  conceive. 
In  touch  its  masters  were  easy,  correct  in 
drawing,  learned  and  full  of  grace.  In 
composition  it  is  sometimes  whimsical, 
yet  always  elegant.  The  heads  of  the 
figures  are  always  drawn  with  great 
respect  to  truth  and  expression,  and  it 
exhibits  great  intelligence  in  contrasting 
attitudes.  It  is  in  coloring  that  it  dis- 
plays the  greatest  marks  of  negligence, 
while  in  draperies  it  is  eminently  success- 
ful. At  the  head  of  this  school  was 
Raffaelle  ;  and  among  its  other  principal 
masters  were  Giulio  Romano,  Zuccaro, 
M.  A.  Caravaggio,  Baroocio,  Andrea 
Sacchi  (perhaps  the  best  colorist  of  this 
school) 

ROMAN'TIC.  By  romantic  is  under- 
stood that  singular  intermixture  of  the 
wonderful  and  the  mysterious  with  the 
sublime  and  beautiful  which  introduces 
us  into  an  enchanted  existence,  and 
raises  us  above  the  bare  realities  of  life 
by  its  dazzling  peculiarities.  Antiquity 
was  a  stranger  to  this  feeling,  nor  had 
the  classic  languages  any  term  to  express 
it.  The  term  romanticism — .an  offshoot 
of  romantic — is  of  recent  invention,  and 
is  applied  chiefly  to  the  fantastic  and 
unniitural  productions  of  the  modern 
French  school  of  novelists,  at  the  head 
of  which  are  Victor  Hugo,  Balzac, 
'•  George  Sand,"  &o.,  and  their  imitators 
in  France  and  other  countries. 

ROMANZIE'RI,  in  Italian  literature, 
a  series  of  poets  who  took  for  the  subject 
of  their  compositions  the  chivalrous  ro- 
mances of  France  .and  Spain  ;  and,  with 
one  or  two  exceptions  only,  those  relating 
to  the  exploits  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
fabulous  Paladins.  The  earliest  of  these 
poets  flourished  in  the  latter  end  of  the 
l.'ith  century.  Boiardo,  although  not 
absolutely  the  first  in  order  of  time,  is 
considered  as  having  laid  the  ground- 
work, in  his  OrlaJido  Innamorato,  of  the 
edifice  of  fiction  raised  by  his  successors. 
Pulci,  in  the   Morgante  Maggiure,  waa 


CYCLOl'KDIA    OF    LITEUATURE 


[kos 


the  first  who  allied  the  romantic  inci- 
dents and  sentiments  of  cliivalr}'  with 
light  and  humorous  satire.  Berni  re- 
modelled the  work  of  Boiardo.  Ariosto, 
in  the  Orlando  Farioso,  carried  this 
species  of  poetry  to  the  highest  degree 
of  perfection.  These  are  the  four  princi- 
pal Koinanzieri ;  but  many  other  poets 
of  the  same  school  flourislied  until  the 
end  of  the  16th  century.  Tasso  composed 
one  of  his  early  poems  (7/  Rinaldo)  on 
the  common  model.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  ISth  centur.y,  the  Abate  Fortigu- 
crra  compiled  his  Ricciardello,  a  poem 
of  a  semi-burlesque  character,  intended 
originally  as  a  parody,  but  completed  as 
a  serious  composition  ;  and  thus  closes 
the  list  of  the  Romanzieri.  All  these 
poets  adopted  the  ottava  rima,  invented 
by  Boccaccio.  In  their  poems  the  thread 
of  the  main  narration  is  frequently  in- 
terrupted by  a  multiplicity  of  minor 
adventvires  and  intrigues;  and  this  com- 
plication of  plot  appears  to  have  con- 
stituted one  of  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  chiviilrous  epic. 

RONDEAU,  a  species  of  poetry, 
usually  consisting  of  thirteen  verses,  of 
which  eight  have  one  rhyme,  and  five 
another.  It  is  divided  into  three  coup- 
lets, and  at  the  end  of  the  second  and 
third,  the  beginning  of  the  rondeau  is 
repeated  in  an  equivocal  sense,  if  po.«si- 
ble. 

RON'DO,  in  music,  either  vocal  or 
instrumental,  generally  consists  of  three 
strains,  the  first  of  which  closes  in  the 
original  key,  while  each  of  the  others  is 
so  constructed  as  to  reconduct  the  ear  in 
an  easy  and  natural  manner  to  the  first 
str.iin. 

ROPOROG'RAPIIY,  a  kind  of  Ara- 
besque style  of  decoration,  found  in 
Pomi)eii,  in  which  slender  columns, 
formed  of  parts  of  plants  and  animals,, 
are  the  chief  characteristic. 

RO'SARY,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  a  string  of  beads,  or  a  chaplet 
consisting  of  five  or  fif.teen  decades  of 
beads,  to  direct  the  recitation  of  so  many 
Ave  Marias,  or  prayers  addressed  to  the 
Virgin  Mary.  The  rosary  serves  not 
only  to  ascertain  the  number  of  recitals, 
but  is  intended  also  to  keep  the  thoughts 
alive  to  the  act  of  devotion. 

ROSE.S,  FESTIVAL  OF,  a  rural  fes- 
tival of  some  parts  of  France,  in  which 
the  best  behaveil  maiden  of  the  town  or 
village  (called  La  Rosiere)  is  annually 
crowned  with  roses  in  the  church,  whither 
she  is  conducted  with  great  pomp  by  the 
villagers.  These  festivals  were  originally 


celebrated  on  the  8th  of  June  at  Salency, 
a  village  of  Picardy,  under  Louis  XIII  , 
but  they  were  afterwards  introduced 
into  Surftne,  near  Paris,  whence  they 
e.xtended  to  many  other  places,  and  hiive 
latterly  even  penetrated  to  iMoravia. 
The  Persians  have  also  an  annual  festi- 
val of  roses  which  consists  of  bands  of 
youth  parading  the  streets  with  music, 
and  offering  roses,  as  the  Italians  during 
the  carnival  confetti,  to  all  they  meet, 
for  which  thev  receive  a  trifling  gratuitj-. 

ROSES,  WHITE  AND  RED,  in  Eng- 
lish history,  the  well-known  ftuds  that 
prevailed  between  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster  are  so  called,  from  the 
emblems  adopted  by  their  respective 
partisans  ;  the  adherents  of  the  house  of 
York  having  the  white,  those  of  Lancas- 
ter the  red  rose,  as  their  distinguishing 
symbol.  These  wars  originated  with  the 
descendants  of  Edward  III.,  and  after 
extending  over  a  period  of  more  than 
eighty  years,  during  which  England 
formed  an  almost  uninterrupted  scene 
of  bloodshed  and  devastation,  were  at 
last  put  an  end  to  by  the  victory  of 
Henry  Tudor,  earl  of  Richmond,  over 
Richard  III.,  in  148.5,  the  victor  uniting 
in  his  own  person  the  title  of  Lancaster 
through  his  mother,  and  that  of  York  by 
his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  Since  that  period  the  rose  has 
been  the  emblem  of  England,  as  the 
thistle  and  shamrock  (see  those  terms) 
are  respectively  the  symbols  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland. 

ROSE  WINDOW,  in  architecture,  a 
circular  window  divided  into  compart- 
ments by  mullions  or  tracery  radiating  or 
branching   from   a  centre.     It   is  called 


also   Catherine    AVheel    and    Mary-gold 
window. 


nou] 


AND    THK     KINK     A  UTS. 


529 


ROSET'TA  STONE,  the  name  given  to 
a  stone  in  the  rjritish  museum,  originally 
found  by  the  French  near  the  Rosetta 
mouth  of  the  Nile.  It  is  a  piece  of  black 
basalt,  anil  contains  part  of  three  distinct 
inscriptions,  the  first  or  highest  in  hiero- 
glyphics, the  secoml  in  enchorial  charac- 
ters, and  the  third  in  Greek.  According 
to  the  Greek  inscription  the  stone  was 
erected  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Epipha- 
ncs,  about  193  years  before  Christ.  The 
inscriptions  however  are  much  mutilated, 
and  they  have  led  to  no  imi)ortant  dis- 
covery. 

ROSICRU'CIAN.S,  a  sect  of  visionary 
ppeculators  who  existed  in  Germany  about 
the  beginning  of  the  I7th  century.  They 
ascribed,  indeed,  a  much  higher  antiquity 
to  themselves  ;  hut  it  is  probal)le  that  if 
any  boily  of  philosophers  who  adopted 
this  title  ever  existed  in  reality,  they 
were  the  alchemists,  fire  philosophers, 
or  Paracelsists  of  the  16th  century,  who 
adopted  this  mode  of  giving  vogue  and 
fashion  to  their  tenets.  Germany  was 
inundated  with  tracts,  from  1600  to  1630, 
purporting  to  come  from  supporters  or 
from  enemies  of  this  sect,  in  which  their 
opinions  and  intentions  are  canvassed, 
but  generally  in  a  wild  and  unintelligible 
manner.  From  one  of  these,  a  Treatise 
on  the  Laws  of  the  Rosicriicians,  by 
Rittor  von  Maier  (1618.)  we  learn  that 
the  fraternity  had  six  fundamental  laws  : 
— 1.  That  their  chief  end  and  object  was 
to  cure  the  sick  without  fee  or  reward.  2. 
That  in  travelling  they  were  to  change 
their  habits  and  dress,  so  as  to  accommo- 
date themselves  to  those  of  the  countries 
in  which  they  sojourned.  3.  To  meet 
once  a  j'ear  on  a  certain  day  and  at  a 
certain  place,  kept  secret  from  the  rest 
of  the  world.  4.  To  fill  up  vacancies  in 
their  body  by  electing  members.  5.  To 
use  the  letters  R  C  as  their  common  sym- 
bol. 6.  That  the  fraternity  should  re- 
main undivulged  for  one  hundred  years 
from  its  foundation.  It  appears  proba- 
ble that  the  device  of  the  rose  issuing  out 
of  the  cross,  which  was  the  same  with 
Martin  Luther's  seal,  was  adopted  for 
the  purpose  of  attracting  the  notice  of 
the  religious:  the  rose  was  explained  to 
represent  the  blood  of  Christ.  It  would 
appear  from  these  laws  that  some  species 
of  Freemasonry  was  intended;  and  the 
Rosicrucians  have  been  by  some  connect- 
ed with  the  Freemasons  ;  but  there  is,  in 
point  of  fact,  no  evidence  that  any  such 
focioty  existed  at  all,  and  the  name  and 
other  circumstances  were  probably  only 
the  device  of  some  alchemists,  who  usually 
34 


conveyed  their  own  notions  under  cover 
of  symbolical  language. 

ROS'TRA,  in  antiquity,  a  part  of  the 
Roman  forum,  where  orations,  pleadings, 
funeral  harangues,  &c.,  were  delivered. 
It  was  so  called  from  rostrum,  the  beak 
of  a  ship,  because  it  was  made  of  the 
beaks  of  the  ships  taken  at  Antium. 

ROS'TRUM,  an  important  part  of  the 
ancient  ships  of  war.  which  were  henco 
denominated  naves  rostratcc.  The  ros- 
trum, or  beak,  was  made  of  wood  and 
brass,  and  fastened  to  the  prow  to  an- 
noy the  enemy's  vessels.  The  first 
rostra  were  made  long  and  high ;  but 
they  were  afterwards  made  short  and 
strong,  and  placed  so  low  as  to  pierce  the 
enemy's  ships  under  water. — The  rostra 
taken  by  the  Roman?  from  their  enemies, 
and  hung  up  as  trophies  of  victory  in  the 
forum,  occasioned  the  pulpit,  or  place  for 
the  orators,  to  be  called  rostra. 

RO'TA,  the  name  of  an  ecclesiastical 
court  at  Rome,  composed  of  twelve  pre- 
lates. This  is  one  of  the  most  august 
tribunals  in  Rome,  taking  cognizance  of 
all  suits  in  the  territory  of  the  church,  by 
appeal;  and  of  all  matters  beneficiary 
and  patrimonial. 

ROTLTN'DA,  a  name  given  to  any 
building  that  is  round  both  on  the  outside 
and  inside  ;  but  more  particularly  to  a 
circular  buiMing  at  Rome,  which  was  an- 
ciently called  the  Pantheon. 

ROUE,  a  term  applied  to  a  person,  in 
the  fashionable  world,  who,  regardless  of 
moral  principle,  devotes  his  life  to  sen- 
sual pleasures. 

ROUN'DEL  AY,  a  sort  of  ancient  poem, 
consisting  of  thirteen  verses,  of  which 
eight  are  in  one  kind  of  rhyme,  and  five 
in  another.  It  is  divided  into  couplets ; 
at  the  end  of  the  second  and  third  of 
which,  the  beginning  of  the  poem  is 
repeated,  and  that,  if  possible,  in  an 
equivocal  or  punning  sense. — Roundelay, 
also  signifies  a  song  or  tune  in  which  the 
first  strain  is  repeated,  and  a  kind  of 
dcincB. 

ROUND'IIEADS,  in  British  history, 
a  name  given,  during  the  civil  war,  to  the 
Puritans  or  members  of  the  parliament 
party,  from  the  practice  which  prevail- 
ed among  them  of  cropping  the  hair 
round. 

ROUND'ROBIN,  a  term  applied  to  a 
memorial  or  remonstance  drawn  up  by 
any  body  of  men  (though  the  practice  is 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  army  and 
navy,)  who  have  determined  to  stand  by 
each  other  in  making  a  statement  of  their 
common  grievances  to  the  government, 


rSO 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF     I.ITEKAURK 


or  some  person  high  in  authority.  The 
term  is  supposed  to  be  corrupted  from 
ruban  rond,  because  their  signatures 
are  written  round  the  remonstrance,  or 
in  a  circular  form,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
seen  who  signed  it  first. 

ROUND  TABLE,  KXIGHTS  OF  THE, 
the  name  given  to  the  famous  order  of 
knights  that  existed  in  England  under 
the  reign  of  King  Arthur,  by  whom  it 
was  founded.  The  members  of  this  order 
are  said  to  have  been  forty  in  number, 
and  derived  their  name  from  a  huge 
r'  und  marble  table,  round  which  they 
were  accustomed  to  sit.  Their  adven- 
tures form  the  themes  of  much  of  the 
early  romantic  poetry  and  baUads  of 
Erfgland. 

ROY'AL,  pertaining  to  or  becoming 
one  who  is  invested  with  regal  power. — 
Among  seamen,  a  small  sail  spread  im- 
mediately above  the  top-gallant  sail  ; 
sometimes  termed  the  tojj-gallant  royal. 
— Royal  Suciett/,  a  society  incorporated 
by  Charles  I[.  under  the  name  of  "  The 
President,  Council,  and  Fellows  of  the 
Royal  Society,  for  the  Improvement  of 
Natural  Philosophy  " — Royal  Academy 
of  London,  a  corporation  instituted  by 
George  III.  for  the  advancement  of  draw- 
ing, painting,  engraving,  sculpture,  mod- 
elling, and  architecture. — Royal  Institu- 
tion, a  corporation  erected  in  the  year 
1800  ;  the  great  object  of  which  is  to  ren- 
der science  applicable  to  the  comforts 
and  conveniences  of  mankind. 

RU'BEZAIIL,  the  name  of  a  famous 
spirit  of  the  Riesengebirge  in  (xermany, 
who  is  celebrated  in  innumerable  sagas, 
ballads,  and  tales,  and  represented  under 
the  various  forms  of  a  miner,  hunter, 
monk,  dwarf,  giant,  itc.  He  is  said  to 
aid  the  poor  and  oppressed,  and  shows 
benighted  wanderers  their  road;  but 
wages  incessant  war  with  the  pnuid  and 
wicked.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  ob- 
scure. 

RU'IilCON,  a  small  river  which  sep- 
arated Italy  from  Cisalpine  Gaul,  the 
province  allotted  to  Cicsar.  When  Caesar 
cro.ssed  that  stream,  he  invaded  Italy, 
with  the  intention  of  reducing  it  to  his 
power.  Hence  the  phrase  to  pass  the 
R-ibicon,  signifies  to  take  a  desperate 
step  in  an  enterprise,  or  to  adopt  a  meas- 
ure from  which  one  cannot  recede,  or 
from  which  he  is  determined  not  to  re- 
cede. 

RU'JiRIC,  in  the  langu.age  of  the  old 
copies  of  manuscripts,  and  of  modern 
printers,  any  writing  or  printing  in  red 
ink.     The  djto  and  place  on  a  title-jjagc 


being  frequently  in  red  ink,  the  word 
rubric  has  come  to  signify  the  false  name 
of  a  place  on  a  title-page.  ^lany  books 
printed  at  Paris  boar  the  rubric  of  Ge- 
noa, London,  Ac.  But  the  most  common 
use  of  the  word  is  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters. In  M.S.  Missals,  the  directions  pre- 
fi.ted  to  the  several  prayers  and  otRces 
were  written  or  printed  in  red  ink  ;  and 
hence,  the  rubric  familiarly  signifies  the 
order  of  the  liturgy,  in  Roman  Catholic 
countries  as  well  as  in  England. 

RL'HY,  a  precious  stone,  ne.Kt  to  the 
diamond  in  hardness  and  value.  Its  con- 
stituent parts  are  alumina,  silica,  carbo- 
nate of  lime,  and  o.^yde  of  iron.  The  most 
esteemed,  and,  at  the  same  time,  rarest 
color,  of  the  oriental  ruby,  is  pure  car- 
mine, or  blood  red  of  considerable  intensi- 
ty, forming,  when  well  polished,  a  blazo 
of  the  most  exquisite  and  unrivalled  tint. 
It  is,  however,  more  or  less  pale,  and 
mi.\ed  with  blue  in  various  proportions; 
hence  it  occurs  rose-red  and  reddish  white, 
crimson,  peach-blossom  red,  and  lilac 
blue^the  latter  variety  being  named 
oriental  amethyst.  A  ruby,  perfect  both 
in  color  and  transparency,  is  much  less 
common  than  a  good  diamond,  and  when 
of  the  weight  of  three  or  four  carats,  is 
even  more  valuable  than  that  gem.  The 
king  of  Pegu,  and  the  monarchs  of  Siam 
and  Ava,  monopolize  the  rarest  rubies  ; 
the  finest  in  the  world  is  in  the  possession 
of  the  first  of  these  kings  :  its  purity  has 
passed  into  a  ]>roverb,  and  its  worth, 
when  compared  witii  gold,  is  inestimable. 

RUDIMENTS,  the  first  elements  or 
principles  of  anj'  art  or  science. — In  bot- 
any the  gerinen,  ovary  or  seed-bud,  is 
the  rudiment  of  the  fruit  3'et  in  embryo; 
anil  the  sec  I  is  the  rudiment  of  a  now 
plant. 

RUDOL'PHINE  TABLES,  a  celebra- 
ted set  of  astronomical  tables,  published 
by  Kepler,  and  thus  entitled  in  honor  of 
the  emperor  Rudolph  or  Rudolphus. 

RU'INS,  a  term  peculiarly  applied  to 
magnificent  buildings  fallen  into  decay 
by  length  of  time,  and  whereof  there  only 
remains  a  confused  heap  of  materials. 
Such  are  the  ruins  of  the  tower  of  Belus, 
two  days'  journey  from  ]5agd,at  in  Syria, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  ;  which  are 
now  no  more  than  a  heap  of  bricks,  ce- 
mented with  bitumen,  and  whereof  wo 
only  perceive  the  plan  to  have  been 
square.  Such  also  are  the  ruins  of  a  fa- 
mous teinjilc,  or  palace,  near  Schiras,  in 
Persia,  wliicli  the  anli<(uaries  will  main- 
tain to  have  been  built  by  Ahasuerus,  and 
which  the  Persians  now  call  Tchelminar, 


AXn    THK    FINK    ARTS. 


531 


or  Cheluiinar,  q.  d.  the  Forty  Columns, 
on  account  of  so  many  columns  remaining 
pretty  entire,  together  with  the  traces  of 
others,  a  great  quantity  of  bassi  rilievi, 
and  unknown  characters,  sufficient  to 
show  the  magnificence  of  the  antique 
architecture.  The  most  reniarkable  ru- 
ins still  existing  of  entire  cities  are  those 
of  Palmyra  ami  Persepolis,  of  Hercula- 
neura  and  Pompeii. 

RULE,  that  which  is  established  as  a 
principle,  or  settled  by  authority  for  guid- 
ance and  direction.  Thus,  a  statute  or 
law  is  a  rule  of  conduct  for  the  citizens  of 
a  state  ;  precedents  in  law  are  rules  of 
decision  to  judges. — Rule,  in  monasteries, 
sorporations,  or  societies,  a  law  or  regula- 
tion to  be  observed  by  the  society  and  its 
particular  members. — -In  grammar,  an 
established  form  of  construction  in  a  par- 
ticular class  of  words. 

RUNES,  are  properly  the  signs  or  let- 
ters of  the  ancient  alphabet  peculiar  to 
the  northern  nations  (Germans  and  Scan- 
dinavians.) Selilegel  deduces  this  alpha- 
bet from  the  Phoenicians.  Others  have 
supposed  it  to  have  been  derived  from 
that  of  the  Romans  ;  but  its  originally 
consisting  only  of  si.tteen  letters  has  been 
urged  as  an  argument  against  this  hy- 
pothesis The  runen  in.scriptions  found  in 
Germany  (especially  Northern  Saxony,) 
are  thought  by  some  to  have  tokens  of  an 
origin  somewhat  different  from  the  Scan- 
dinavian. The  antiquity  of  both  has  been 
much  disputed.  Of  those  found  in  Goth- 
laud,  it  is  said  that  the  oldest  are  not 
earlier  than  ad.  1200,  the  latest  1449; 
1300  stones  with  Runic  inscriptions  have, 
it  is  said,  been  discovered  in  Sweden  ; 
many  in  Denmark;  none  in  Lapland  or 
Finland.  Runic  staves  arc  massive  sticks. 
generally  of  willow,  inscribed  with  Runic 
characters,  probably  of  magical  import. 

RUNNING-TI'TLE,  in  printing,  the 
title  of  a  book  that  is  continued  from 
page  to  page  on  the  upper  margin,  called, 
a'nong  printers,  the  heads. 

RUN'NYMEDE,  a  celebrated  meadow 
where  the  conference  was  held  June  15th, 
1215,  between  John  and  the  English  ba- 
rons, in  which  the  former  was  compelled 
to  sign  Mai^iia  Charta  and  the  Cliarta  de 
Foresta.  It  is  five  miles  east  of  Windsor, 
and  is  now  divided  into  several  enclosures 

RUPEE',  a  coin  current  in  the  Mogul 
empire,  and  other  parts  of  India.  The 
gold  rupee  is  worth  about  2«  Qid  sterling. 
Of  the  silver  rupees  the  new  and  old  are 
of  different  values. 

RU'RAL  ECON'OMY,  the  gener.al 
man.agemeut  of  territorial  property,  ei- 


ther by  the  proprieter  or  his  agent.  On  a 
small  scale,  the  agent  is  termed  a  bailitf 
or  farm  servant  ;  and  on  a  large  scale,  a 
land  steward  or  factor.  The  duties  of  the 
latter  are  to  collect  the  rents,  and  see 
that  the  different  clauses  in  the  leases 
by  which  the  tenants  hold  their  lands  are 
fulfilled;  and  of  the  former,  to  cultivate 
the  land  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce 
the  greatest  profit,  or  to  fulfil  the  inten- 
tions of  the  proprietor  as  to  the  kind  of 
produce  which  he  considers  it  desirable 
to  obtain. 

RUSSIA  COM'PANY,  a  regulated 
company  for  conducting  the  trade  with 
Russia  ;  first  incorporated  by  charter  of 
Philip  and  Mary,  sanctioned  by  act  of 
parliament  in  1566. 

RUSTICATION,  in  universities  and 
colleges,  the  punishment  of  a  student  for 
some  offence,  by  compelling  him  to  leave 
the  institution  and  reside  for  a  time  in 
the  country. 

RUS'TIC-WORK,  in  abuilding,  a  term 
used  when  the  stones,  &e.,  in  the  face 
of  it  are  hacked  and  indented  so  as  to  be 
rough. 

RUTH.  BOOK  OF,  a  canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament,  being  a  kind  of  ap- 
pendix to  the  Book  of  Judges,  and  an  in- 
troduction to  those  of  Samuel.  If.s  title 
is  derived  from  the  person  whose  story  is 
therein  principally  related. 

RY'OT,  in  Hindostan,  a  renter  of  land 
by  a  lease  which  is  considered  as  perpet- 
ual, and  at  a  rate  fixed  by  ancient  sur- 
veys and  valuations.  The  ryots  or  peas- 
ants may  be  considered  as  the  cultivators 
of  the  soil  in  India,  having  a  perpetual 
hereditary  and  transferable  right  of  occu- 
pancy, so  long  as  they  continue  to  pay 
the  share  of  the  produce  of  the  land  de- 
manded by  the  government. 


s. 


S,  the  nineteenth  letter  and  fifteenth 
consonant  of  our  alphabet,  is  a  sibillnnt 
articulation  ;  the  sound  being  formed  by 
driving  the  breath  through  a  narrow 
passage  betweer.  the  palate  and  the 
tongue  elevated  near  it,  together  with  a 
motion  of  the  lower  jaw  and  teeth  towards 
the  upper.  The  sound  of  this  letter 
varies,  being  strong  in  some  words,  as  in 
this,  thus,  Ac,  and  soft  in  words  which 
have  a  final  e,  as  muse,  wise,  &e.  It  is 
generally  doubled  at  the  end  of  words, 
whereby  they  become  hard  and  harsh,  as 
in  kiss,    loss,  &e.     In  a  few  words  it  is 


532 


CVCLOl'EDFA     OF    l.lTKRATLliE 


[sac 


silent,  as  in  isle  anl  viscount.  As  an 
abbreviation  in  music,  S  stan  Is  for  solo. 
In  boi)ks  of  navigati  in,  and  in  common 
usa^e,  S  Stan  Is  for  su«//i,  S.E  for  soutli- 
cast,  S.W.  t'or  south-tccst,  .S..S.E  for  soutli- 
xoat'i-east,  S.S.W".  for  south-sout.'i-tcest. 
Ln  the  notes  of  the  ancients,  S  stanls  for 
Se.vtufi ;  Sp.  for  Spurlus ;  and  S. P. Q. 11. 
for  senat'is  populusquc  Ilumanus. 

SAB.E'ANS,  or  SA  UIANS,  idolaters 
of  the  East,  who,  in  all  ages,  whether 
converted  in  part  to  Judaism  Christian- 
ity, or  Mohammedanism,  or  unacquainted 
with  either,  have  worshipped  the  stars. 
Some  of  the  Sabicans,  who  acknowledge 
the  name  of  Christ,  are  distinguished  by 
tlie  title  of  "  Christians  of  St.  John,"  on 
account  of  their  attachment  to  the  bap- 
tism of  that  forerunner  of  the  Messiah. — ■ 
Sabaism  bears  the  marks  of  a  primitive 
religion ;  to  the  adoration  of  the  stars,  it 
joins  a  strong  inculcation  of  respect  for 
agriculture.  This  belief  prevailed  in 
very  remote  ages  in  the  Asiatic  countries 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  and  Chaldaja,  the  native  land  of 
astronomy,  was  its  most  celebrated  seat. 
Many  allusions  are  made  to  this  species  of 
worship  in  the  Old  Testament,  especially 
in  the  invectives  of  the  prophets  against 
the  various  forms  of  idolatry  borrowed  by 
the  Jews  from  their  heathen  neighbors. 

SA»3'A0T1I,  a  word  of  Hebrew  deri- 
vation, signifying  armies.  It  is  nsed. 
Rona.  ix.  29  ;  James  v.  4,  "  the  Lord  of 
Sabaoth." 

SABA'SIA,  in  ancient  mythology,  fes- 
tivals in  honor  of  various  divinities,  en- 
titled Sabasii  ;  the  origin  of  which  term 
is  not  clear.  Mithras,  the  sun,  is  called 
Sabasius  in  ancient  monuments,  whence 
the  word  seems  to  have  some  connection 
with  the  root  of  Sab'iism  ;  but  l>acchus  was 
also  thus  denominated,  according  to  some, 
from  the  Sabx,  a  people  of  Thrace  :  and 
the  nocturnal  Sabasia  were  celebrated  in 
his  name. 

SABBATA'RIANS,  a  sect  of  baptists 
who  are  only  remarkable  for  adhering  to 
the  Jud.iic  sabbath,  the  observance  of 
which  they  contend  was  not  annulled  by 
the  ("iiristian  dispensation. 

SABBATH,  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week,  a  day  appointed  by  the  Mosaic  law 
for  a  total  cessation  from  labor,  and  for  the 
service  of  (Jod,  according  to  the  divine 
jommand,  "  Remembur  that  ye  keep  holy 
the  Sabbath  day,"  Ac.  From  the  accounts 
we  have  of  the  religious  service  practised 
in  the  patriarchal  age,  it  appears  that 
immediately  after  the  fall,  when  Adam 
was  restored  to  favor  through  a  mediator, 


a  stated  form  of  public  worship  was  insti- 
tuted, which  man  was  required  to  observe, 
in  testimony,  not  only  of  his  dependence 
on  the  Creator,  but  also  of  his  faith  and 
hope  in  the  promise  made  to  our  first 
parents,  and  seen  afarotf.  In  the  earliest 
times  of  Christianity,  the  ilesire  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  Christian  from  the  Jewish 
observance,  gave  rise  to  the  celebration 
of  Sunday,  the  first  day  of  the  week,  as 
a  sacred  festival  in  commemoration  of 
our  Saviour's  resurrection — hence  em- 
phatically called  "  the  Lord's  day."  The 
converts  from  Judaism,  however,  retained 
the  celebration  of  the  Sabbath,  though 
they  adopted  also  that  of  Sunday;  and 
thus  in  course  of  time  the  strict  solemni- 
ties of  the  one  became  blended  with  the 
cheerful  piety  of  the  other.  But  inde- 
pendent of  the  divine  injunction,  a  sabbath, 
or  weekly  day  of  rest  and  pious  medita- 
tion, is  an  institution,  on  whichever  day 
kept,  highly  conducive  to  the  happiness 
and  comfort  of  mankind. — We  may  here 
observe,  that  this  septenary  division  of 
time  has  been,  from  the  earliest  ages, 
uniformly  observed  over  all  the  eastern 
world.  The  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Ara- 
bians, and  Persians,  made  use  of  a  week 
consisting  of  seven  days.  Many  futile 
attempts  have  been  made  to  account  for 
this  uniformity  ;  but  a  practice  so  gener- 
al and  prevalent  could  never  have  taken 
place  had  not  the  soptcn;iry  distribution 
of  time  been  instituted  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  handed  down  by  tradition. 

SABBAT'ICAL  YE.AR,  in  the  Jew- 
ish economy,  was  every  seventh  year,  in 
which  the  Israelites  were  commanded  to 
suffer  their  fields  and  vineyards  to  rest  or 
to  lie  without  tillage.  The  first  sabbatical 
year,  ccieliratcd  by  the  ehil  Ircn  of  Israel, 
was  the  fourteenth  year  after  their  coming 
into  the  land  of  Canaan  ;  because  they 
were  to  be  seven  years  in  miking  them- 
selves ma.'ilers  of  it,  and  seven  more  in 
divid  ng  it  am  ing.-;t  themselvos.  This 
year  was  rcckoncil  from  Tisri  or  Sep- 
tember, and  for  several  reasons  was  called 
the  year  of  relciise  :  1.  because  the  ground 
remained  entirely  nntillod  ;  2.  because 
such  debts  as  had  been  contractcil  during 
the  si.K  preceding  years,  were  remitted 
and  cancelled ;  and  3.  because  all  He- 
brew slaves  were  then  set  at  liberty. 

SA15E1/L1  ANS,  a  sect  of  Christians 
founded  by  Sabelliiis,  at  Ptolemais,  in 
the  third  century.  Their  doctrine  taught 
that  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit 
are  names  of  the  one  God  under  different 
circumstances. 

SAC,  in  law,  the  privilege   enjoyed  by 


sag] 


AND    THE     FINE     A  UTS. 


533 


the  lord  of  a  manor,   of  hoMing  courts, 
trying  causes,  and  imposing  fines. 

SACK,  a  wine  much  esteemed  by  our 
ancestors.  It  was  brought  from  Spain, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  very  simi- 
lar to  sherry  or  canary. 

SACK'BUT,  a  wind  instrument  of  the 
trumpet  species,  but  differing  from  the 
common  trumpet  in  form  and  size.  It  is 
of  low  or  bass  pitch,  and  is  drawn  out  or 
shortened  by  means  of  sliders,  according 
to  the  acuteness  or  gravity  of  the  tone 
to  be  i)roduced.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  trom- 
bone of  the  Italians. 

SACRAMENT,  in  Christian  rituals,  is 
defined  an  outwardsign  of  aspiritual  grace 
annexed  to  its  use.  The  Roman  church 
recognizes  seven  sacraments :  baptism, 
confirmation,  the  eucharist,  penance,  ex- 
treme unction,  ordination,  and  marriage. 
The  Sabrean  Ciiristians  reduce  the  sacra- 
ments to  four  ;  the  eucharist,  baptism,  or- 
dination, and  marriage.  The  Protestant 
churches  acknowledge  only  two,  the  eu- 
charist or  Lord's  supper,  and  baptisiu ; 
but  they  agree  with  the  Roman  church 
in  styling  the  eucharist.  pre-eminently, 
the  holy  sacrament.  The  eucharist  is 
also  known  in  the  Roman  church  by  the 
name  of  "  the  host." 

SACRAMEXTA'LIA,  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  certain  sacramental  offerings  for- 
merly paid  to  the  parish  priest  at  Easter, 
&c. 

SACRAMEN'TUM  MILTTA'RE,  in 
antiquity,  the  name  of  the  oath  taken  by 
the  Roman  soldiers  after  the  levies  were 
completed. 

SACRIFICE,  a  solemn  act  of  religious 
worship,  consisting  in  the  dedication  or 
offering  up  something  animate  or  inani- 
mate on  an  altar,  by  the  hands  of  the 
priest,  either  as  an  expression  of  grati 
tude  to  the  Deity  for  some  signal  mercy, 
or  to  acknowledge  our  depenilence  on  him, 
and  conciliate  his  favor.  The  Jews  had 
two  sorts  of  sacrifices,  taking  the  word  in 
its  most  extensive  signification  :  the  first 
were  offerings  of  tithes,  first-fruits,  cakes, 
wine,  oil,  honey,  Ac,  and  the  last,  offer- 
ings of  slaughtered  animals.  The  prin- 
cipal sacrifices  of  the  Hebrews  consisted 
of  bullocks,  sheep,  and  goats ;  but  doves 
and  turtles  were  accepted  from  those  who 
were  not  able  to  bring  the  other;  and 
whatever  the  sacrifice  mi^ht  be,  it  must 
be  perfect  and  without  blemish.  The 
rites  of  sacrificing  were  various,  all  of 
which  are  very  minutely  described  in  the 
books  of  Moses. 

SAC'RILE(5E,  the  criiue  of  violating 
or  profaning  sacred  things  ;  or  the  alien- 


ating to  laymen  or  to  common  purposes 
what  has  been  appropriated  or  conse- 
crated to  religious  persons  or  uses. 

SACRISTY,  in  architecture,  an  apart- 
ment attached  to  a  church,  in  which  the 
consecrated  vessels  of  the  church,  and  the 
garments  in  which  the  clergyman  offici- 
ates, <tc.,  are  deposited. 

SADDER,  a  work  in  the  modern  Per 
sian  tongue,  comprising  a  summary  of 
various  parts  of  the  Zendatesta,  orsacrec 
books  of  the  ancient  Persians.  The  au 
thority  and  character  of  the  Sadder  ar  , 
supposed  to  be  very  small ;  some  attribu',4 
it  to  the  Parsees,  and  give  it  an  antiquity 
of  several  centuries  ;  others  consider  it  a 
more  modern  forgery. 

SAD'DUCEES,  a  sect  among  the  an- 
cient Jews,  esteemed  as  free-thinkers, 
rather  than  real  Jews,  though  they  as- 
sisted at  all  the  ceremonies  of  worship  in 
the  temple.  Their  origin  and  name  is 
derived  from  one  Sadoc,  who  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
about  263  years  b  c.  They  denied  the 
immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  all  spiritual  and  immaterial  be- 
ings. They  acknowledged,  indeed,  that 
the  world  was  formed  by  the  power  of 
Crod,  and  superintended  by  his  providence; 
but  that  the  soul  at  death  suffered  one 
common  extinction  with  the  body.  They 
held  the  Scriptures  alone  to  be  of  divine 
authority,  and  obligatory  upon  men,  as  a 
system  of  religion  and  morals;  and  paid 
no  regard  to  those  traditionary  maxims 
and  human  institutions  which  the  Jews  in 
general  so  highly  extolled,  and  the  Phari- 
sees reverenced  even  more  highly  than 
the  Scriptures  themselves. — The  tenets 
of  the  Sadducees  are  called  Sadducistn. 
SAFE-COX'DUCT,  a  pass  or  warrant  of 
security  given  by  the  sovereign  under  the 
great  seal  to  a  foreigner,  for  his  safe  com- 
ing into  and  passing  out  of  the  kingdom. 
Generally  speaking,  passports  have  super- 
seded the  use  of  special  safe-conducts. 

SA'GA,  the  general  name  of  those  an- 
cient compositions  which  comprise  at  once 
the  history  and  mythology  of  the  north- 
ern European  races.  Their  language  is 
different  from  the  modern  Danish,  Swed- 
ish, and  Norwegian,  and  is  more  power- 
ful and  expressive  than  either  of  these 
later  dialects.  Of  the  mythological  sagas 
the  most  famous  are  the  saga  of  Regnar, 
Lodbrok,  the  Hervarar  saga,  the  Voluspa 
saga,  and  the  Wilkinasaga.  The  histori- 
cal are  very  numerous  ;  the  Jomsvilkingia 
saga  and  the  Xaflinga  saga  comprehend 
much  of  the  early  annals  of  Norway  and 
Denmark  ;  and  the  Eyrbiggia  saga  is  the 


534 


CVCLul'EUIA    OF    LITEUATLUE 


[SAI 


3hief  historical  document  of  ancient  Ice- 
land. It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered, 
that  the  chief  object  of  the  rehitors  is  the 
interest  of  the  narrative  ;  so  that  as  mere 
histories  they  are  of  imperfect  value. 
Manj'  of  them  are  collected  in  the  great 
work  of  Snorre  Sturleson  called  Ileiin- 
skrlngla.  The  most  classical  period  of 
these  compositions  is  considered  by  anti- 
quaries to  fall  within  the  12lh  and  I'ith 
centuries. 

SAGITTA'RII,  in  the  Roman  army 
under  the  emperors,  were  young  men 
armed  witli  bows  and  arrows,  who,  toge- 
ther with  the  Funditores,  were  generally 
sent  out  to  skirmish  before  the  main  body. 
SAINT,  in  a  limited  but  the  most  usual 
sense  of  the  word,  signifies  certain  indi- 
viduals whose  lives  were  deemed  so  emi- 
nently pious,  that  the  church  of  Home 
has  authorized  the  rendering  of  public 
worship  to  them.  In  its  widest  sense,  it 
signifies  the  pious,  who  in  this  world 
strictly  obey  the  commands  of  God,  or 
enjoy,'  in  the  eternal  world,  that  bliss 
which  is  the  reward  of  such  a  life  on 
earth. — The  doctrine  of  saints,  an'l  the 
ideas  and  usages  which  grew  out  of  it, 
form  one  of  the  main  points  of  difference 
between  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics. In  all  probability,  the  veneration 
paid  to  saints,  relics,  &c.  originated  from 
the  virtues  displayed  by  the  early  Chris- 
tian martyrs;  and  it  is  also  very  natural 
to  suppose,  that  in  ages  when  information 
was  transmitted  chiefly  by  tradition,  facts 
easily  became  exaggerated,  without  in- 
tentional violation  of  the  truth  ;  and  many 
miracles  were,  accordingly,  reported  to 
have  been  wrought  by  their  relics  or  in- 
tercession. 

SAINT  JOHN,  KNIGHTS  OF,  or 
HOSPITALLERS,  a  military  order  of 
religious  persons.  They  derived  their 
name  from  a  church  and  monastery 
dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist,  founded 
at  Jerusalem  about  lOlS,  by  merchants 
from  Amalfi,  the  brotherhood  of  its  mem- 
bers being  devoted  to  the  <luty  of  taking 
care  of  poor  and  sick  pilgrims.  The  order 
was  instituted  as  a  military  brotherhood 
by  Raymond  du  Puy,  its  principal,  early 
in  the  r2th  century.  It  was  divided  into 
three  ranks — knights,  chaplains,  and  .ser- 
vitors ;  and  in  its  military  capacity  it 
was  bouml  to  defend  the  church  against 
the  infidels.  It  possessed  various  posses- 
sions and  settlements  at  different  times 
indifferent  parts  of  the  East.  In  the  13th 
century,  being  driven  from  I'alestine, 
the  knights  of  tiiis  order  li.'ied  their  prin- 
cipal seat  first  in  Cyprus,  and  afterwards 


at  Rhodes,  where  they  remained  from 
1309  to  1.522,  when  the  island  was  cap- 
tured by  Solyman  II.  After  several 
changes  of  j^ettlement,  thcj*  were  fixed  in 
1530  by  Charles  V.  at  JIalta  and  irs  de- 
pendent i.*lands,  whence  they  took  the 
name  of  Knights  of  Malta.  Here  they 
maintained  themselves  until  1798,  when 
the  island  was  taken  by  Napoleon.  The 
order,  however,  continued  to  subsist, 
notwithstanding  the  loss  of  its  sovereign 
possessions  both  in  Malta  and  in  Tuscany  . 
the  seat  of  the  chapter  is  now  at  Eerrara. 
Before  the  French  Revolution  the  num- 
ber of  knights  was  estimated  at  3000. 
The  temporal  powers  of  the  order  were 
chiefly  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  the 
grand  master  ;  but  he  was,  in  fact,  con- 
trolled by  the  governors  of  the  eight 
languages.  These  were,  of  Provence, 
Auvergne,  France,  Italy,  Aragon,  Ger- 
many, Castile,  and  England.  The  lands 
were  divided  into  priories,  commander- 
ies,  and  bailliages.  The  spiritual  power 
was  exercised  by  the  chapter,  consisting 
of  eight  ballivi  conventuales.  The  knights 
were  under  the  rules  of  the  order  of  St. 
Augustine;  but  Protestants  were  nut 
bound  to  celibacy.  They  were  required 
to  be  necessarily  of  good  descent ;  but 
those  whose  proofs  of  noble  ancestry 
were  unquestionable  were  termed  cara- 
lieridi  giusiizia,  wliile  others  who  could 
not  show  such  proofs  might  be  admitted 
on  account  of  their  merits  as  cavalieri  di 
grazia. 

SAINT  SIMO'NIANS.  Claude  Henri, 
Count  de  S.  Simon,  of  the  ancient  family 
of  that  name,  born  in  1760,  was  engaged 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  a 
series  of  unsuccessful  commercial  enter- 
prises, a  traveller,  and  in  the  early  por- 
tion of  his  life  a  soldier  in  America;  but 
having  dissipated  a  considerable  fortune, 
and  been  unable  to  draw  the  attention 
of  the  public  to  a  variety  of  schemes,  po- 
litical and  social,  which  he  was  constantly 
pubTLvhing,  he  attempted  suicide  in  1820; 
he  lived,  however,  a  few  years  longer, 
and  died  in  182.5,  leaving  his  papers  and 
projects  to  Olinde  Rodriguez.  St.  Simon's 
views  of  society  and  the  destiny  of  man- 
kind are  contained  in  a  variety  of  works, 
and  cspocially  in  a  short  treatise  entitled 
the  Noureau  Christianismc,  published 
after  his  death  by  Rodriguez.  This  book 
<loes  not  contain  any  scheme  for  the 
foundation  of  a  new  religion,  such  as  his 
disciples  afterwards  invented.  It  is  a 
diatribe  against  both  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  sects  for  their  neglect  of 
the   main  princij)lc  of  Christianity,  the 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


535 


elevation  of  the  lower  classes  of  society  ; 
aud  inveighs  .igainst  "  Sexploitation  de 
i'honnuo  par  rhomnio,"  the  existing 
system  of  individual  industry,  under 
which  capitalist  and  laborer  have  oppo- 
site interests  and  no  common  object.  The 
principle  of  association,  and  just  division 
of  the  fruits  of  common  labor  between  the 
members  of  society,  he  imagined  to  be 
the  true  remedy  for  its  present  evils. 
After  his  death  these  ideas  were  caught 
up  by  a  number  of  disciples,  and  formed 
into  something  resembling  a  sj-stem. 
The  new  association,  or  St.  Simonian 
famlbj,  was  chiefly  framed  by  Rodri- 
guez, Bazar,  Thierry,  Chevalier,  and 
other  men  of  talent.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  July,  1830,  it  rose  rapidly  into 
notoriety,  from  the  sympathy  between 
the  notions  which  it  promulgated  and 
those  entertained  by  many  of  the  repub- 
lican party.  In  1831.  the  society  had 
about  3000  members,  a  newspaper  (the 
Globe,)  and  large  funds.  The  views  of 
the  St.  Simonian  family  were  all  directe  1 
to  the  abolition  of  rank  and  property  in 
society,  and  the  establishment  of  associa- 
tion, (such  as  the  followers  of  .Air.  Owen 
have  denominated  co-operative.)  of  which 
all  the  members  should  work  in  common 
and  divide  the  fruits  of  their  labor.  But 
with  these  notions,  common  to  many 
other  social  reformers,  they  united  the 
doctrine,  that  the  division  of  the  goods 
of  the  community  should  be  in  due  pro- 
portion to  the  merits  or  capacity  of  the 
recipient.  Society  was  to  be  governed 
by  a  hierarchy,  consisting  of  a  supreme 
pontiff,  apostles,  disciples  of  the  first, 
second,  and  third  order.  On  the  22d 
Jan.,  1832,  the  family  v/as  dispersed  by 
the  government. 

SALARY,  the  sti[iend  or  remunera- 
tion made  to  a  man  for  his  services — 
risually  a  fixed  annual  sum  ;  in  distinc- 
tion from  leasees,  which  is  for  day  labor; 
and  patj,  which  is  for  military  service. 

SAL'IC,  or  SAL'IQT'E  LAW,  an  an- 
cient and  fundamental  law  of  France, 
usually  supposed  to  have  been  made  by 
Pharamond,  or  at  least  by  Clovis,  by 
virtue  of  which  males  only  can  inherit 
'.he  throne.  Though,  by  this  law,  the 
■jrown  of  France  is  prevented  from  being 
worn  by  a  woman,  the  provision  was  a 
general  one,  without  particular  regard 
to  the  royal  family;  as  the  crown  of 
England  descends  to  the  eldest  son,  by 
the  seneral  right  of  primogeniture. — The 
Salic  Franks,  from  whom  this  term  was 
derived,  settled  in  Gaul  in  the  reign  of 
Julian,  who  is  said  to  have  given  them 


lands  on  condition  of  their  personal  ser- 
vice in  war.  The  historian  JMillot  ob- 
serves, there  is  no  ground  for  believing 
that  the  Salic  law  expressly  settled  the 
right  of  succession  to  the  crown  ;  it  only 
says  that,  with  relation  to  the  Salic  land, 
women  have  no  share  of  heritage,  without 
restricting  it  to  the  royal  family,  for  all 
those  Salic  lands  which  were  held  by 
right  of  conquest. 

SAL'LY,  in  the  military  art,  the  issu- 
ing out  of  the  besieged  from  a  town 
or  fort,  and  falling  upon  the  besiegers  in 
their  works,  in  order  to  cut  them  off  or 
harass  and  exhaust  them. — ''  To  cut  off 
a  salhj"  is  to  get  between  those  that 
made  the  sally  and  their  town. 

SAL'LY-PORT,  in  fortification,  a  post- 
ern gate,  or  a  passage  underground  from 
the  inner  to  the  outer  works,  such  as  from 
the  higher  flank  to  the  lower,  or  to  the 
communication  from  the  middle  of  the  cur- 
tain to  the  ravelin. — Salltj-porls  are  also 
doorways  on  each  quarter  of  a  fire-ship, 
out  of  which  the  men  make  their  escape 
into  the  boats  as  soon  as  the  train  is 
fired. 

S.\LOOX',  a  spacious  and  lofty  sort  of 
hall,  vaulted  at  top,  and  usually  compre- 
hending two  stories,  with  two  ranges  of 
windows.  The  saloon  is  a  grand  room  in 
the  middle  of  a  building,  or  at  the  head 
of  a  gallery,  <tc.  Its  faces  or  sides  should 
all  have  a  symmetry  with  each  other; 
and  as  it  commonly  takes  up  the  height 
of  two  stories,  its  ceiling  should  be  with  a 
moderate  sweep.  The  saloon  is  a  state- 
room much  used  in  the  palaces  of  Italy, 
where  the  balmy  and  luxuriant  nature  of 
the  climate  renders  airy  and  spacious 
apartments  desirable  ;  and  from  thence 
it  travelled  into  France  and  England. 
People  of  distinction  are  generally  re- 
ceived by  the  master  of  a  bouse  in  the 
saloon.  It  is  sometimes  built  square, 
sometimes  round  or  oval,  sometimes  oc- 
tagonal, and  sometimes  in  other  forms. 

SALUTE',  in  military  discipline,  a 
testimony  or  act  of  respect  performed  in 
diflTerent  ways,  according  to  eircumstan 
ces.  In  the  army,  the  officers  salute  by 
dropping  the  point  of  the  sword;  also  by 
lowering  the  colors  and  beatingthe  drums. 
In  the  navy,  salutes  are  made  by  dis- 
charges of  cannon,  striking  the  cilors  or 
top-sails,  or  by  volleys  of  small  .arms. 
Ships  always  salute  with  an  odd  number 
of  guns  ;  and  galleys  with  an  even  num- 
ber. The  vessel  under  the  wind  of  the 
other  fires  first. 

SAL'VAGE,  in  commerce,  allowance 
or  compensation  made  to  those  by  whose 


536 


CVCLOl'EUIA     OF     LITKUATL'KE 


[sAN 


exertions  ships  or  goods  have  been  saved 
from  the  dangers  oi'  the  seas,  fire,  pirates, 
or  enemies.  The  crew  of  a  ship  nre  not 
entitled  to  salvage  for  any  extraordinary 
efforts  they  may  have  made  in  saving  her, 
but  passengers  are  entitled  to  recompense 
for  extraordinarj'  services  performed  in 
the  hour  of  danger.  If  the  salvage  bo 
performed  at  sea,  or  within  high  or  low 
water  mark,  the  JIarineCourt  has  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  subject,  and  will  fix  the  sum 
to  be  paid,  and  adjust  the  proportions, 
which  vary  according  to  circumstances. 
In  cases  where  the  party  cannot  agree, 
the  salvors  may  retain  the  property  un- 
til compensation  is  made  ;  or  they  may 
bring  an  action  or  commence  a  suit  in 
court,  against  the  proprietors  for  the 
amount  claimed. 

SAMARITAN,  an  inhabitant  of  Sa- 
maria, or  one  that  belonged  to  the  sect 
which  derived  their  appellation  from  that 
city.  After  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  the  people  remaining  in  its  terri- 
tory (consisting  of  the  tribes  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  mingled  with  some  Assy- 
rian colonists,)  were  called  Samaritans 
by  the  Greeks,  from  the  city  of  Samaria, 
around  which  the^'  dwelt.  When  the 
Jews,  on  their  return  from  captivity,  re- 
built the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  Sa- 
maritans desired  to  aid  in  the  work  ;  but 
their  offers  were  rejected  by  the  Jews, 
who  looked  upon  them  as  unclean,  on  ac- 
count of  their  mixture  with  heathens; 
and  the  Samaritans  revenged  themselves 
by  hindering  the  building  of  the  citj  and 
temple.  Hence  the  hatred  which  jre- 
vailed  liel  ween  the  Jews  and  Samaritans, 
which,  in  the  time  of  Jesus,  when  the 
latter  were  confined  to  a  narrow  strip  of 
country  between  Judea  and  Cialilee,  pre- 
vented all  intercourse  between  them,  and 
still  continues.  In  their  religious  opin- 
ions and  usages  they  resemble  those  Jews 
who  reject  the  Talmud,  and  differ  IVom 
the  rabbinical  Jews,  in  receiving  only  the 
Pentateuch  and  bctok  of  Joshua,  ami  in 
rejeiling  all  the  other  portions  of  the 
Bible,  as  well  as  the  Talmud  and  rabbin- 
ical traditions:  but  in  their  manners, 
rites,  and  r(!liglous  ceremonies,  thej'  ad- 
hero  strictly  to  the  Mo.s.iic  law. 

SA'MIEL,  the  Arabian  name  for  a  hot 
BufTocating  wind  j)eculiar  to  the  deseit  of 
Arabia.  It  1h<iws  over  the  deserts  in  the 
month  of  July  and  August  :  it  approaches 
the  very  gates  of  IJagdat,  but  is  ?aid  never 
to  afi'ect  a  person  within  its  walls.  It  fre- 
quently ])asses  with  the  velocity  of  light- 
ning, and  there  is  no  way  of  avoiding  its 
dire  effects,  but  by  falling  on  the  ground. 


and  keeping  the  face  close  to  the  eaith. 
Those  who  are  negligent  of  this  precau- 
tion ex])erience  inst.-.nt  sulToeation. 

S.\iMXITES',  in  antiquity,  a  sort  of 
gladiators  who  derived  their  name  from 
their  armor.  They  arc  mentioned  by 
Cicero  and  others. 

SAiM'UEL,  the  books  of,  two  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called,  as 
being  usually  ascribed  to  the  prophet 
Samuel.  The  books  of  Samuel,  and  the 
books  of  Kings,  are  a  continued  history  of 
the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Ju- 
dah. — The  first  book  of  Samuel  compre- 
hends the  transactions  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Eli  and  Samuel,  and  under  Saul 
the  first  king;  and  also  the  acts  of  David 
while  he  lived  under  Saul.  The  second 
book  is  wholly  occupied  in  relating  the 
transactions  of  David's  reign. 

SAX-BEX'ITO,  a  kind  of  linen  gar- 
ment, painted  with  hideous  figures,  and 
worn  by  persons  condemned  by  the  in- 
quisition. Also  a  coat  of  sackcloth  used 
by  penitents  on  their  reconciliation  to  the 
church. 

SANCTIFICA'TIOX,  in  an  evangeli- 
cal sense,  the  act  of  God's  grace  by  which 
the  affections  of  men  are  purified  or 
alienated  from  sin  and  the  world,  and  ex- 
alted to  a  supreme  love  of  God. 

SANCTUARY,  in  a  general  sense,  any 
sacred  asylum  ;  but  more  especially  sig- 
nifying the  S.'^nctum-Sanctorum,  the 
most  retired  i)art  of  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem, called  also  the  Holy  of  Holies,  in 
which  was  kept  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
and  into  which  no  person  was  iiertnitted 
to  enter  except  the  high-priest,  and  that 
only  once  a  year,  to  intercede  for  the 
people.  From  the  time  of  Constantino 
downwards,  certain  churches  have  been 
set  apart  in  many  Catholic  countries,  to 
be  an  asylum  for  fugitives  from  the  hands 
of  justice.  In  England,  particul  uly  down 
to  the  l?eformation,  any  person  who  liad 
taken  refuge  in  a  sanctuary  was  secured 
against  punishment,  if  within  the  space 
of  forty  (lays  he  gave  signs  of  repentance, 
and  subjected  himself  to  banishment. — In 
Scotland,  the  Abbey  of  llolyroodhouso 
and  its  precincts,  as  having  been  a  royal 
residence,  have  the  privilege  of  giving 
sanctuary  to  debtors  in  civil  debts.  When 
a  person  retires  to  the  sanctuary  he  is 
jirotected  against  personal  violence, 
which  iirolection  continues  for  twenty- 
four  hours;  but  to  enjoy  it  longer  the 
person  must  enter  his  name  in  the  biwks 
kept  by  the  baillio  of  the  Abbey.  This 
sanctuary  does  not  protect  a  crown  debt- 
or, nor  a  fraudulent  bankrupt. 


sar] 


AND    THE    FIXE    AliTS. 


537 


SAN'DAL,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  cost- 
ly slij  per,  worn  by  the  (Jreck  and  Roman 
ladies,  uiaJe  of  silk  or  other  precious 
Btufl's,  and  ornamented  with  gold  or  silver. 

SANU  FllOII),  [Fr.  cold  blood,]  free- 
dom from  agitation  or  excitement  of 
mind 

SAN'dlAC,  the  title  of  a  provincial 
governor  in  Turkey,  next  in  authority  to 
a  bey  or  viceroy. 

SANHEDRIM,  a  word  said  to  bo  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  and  signifying  the 
great  public  council,  civil  and  religious, 
of  the  ancient  Jewish  republic  or  hierar- 
chy. This  council  consisted  of  seventy 
elders,  who  received  appeals  from  other 
tribunals,  and  had  power  of  life  and 
death. 

SANS'CRIT,  the  learned  language  of 
Hindostan.  The  literal  meaning  of  the 
word  Sanscrita  is  polished,  and  it  is  used 
by  grammarians  in  the  sense  of  "  regu- 
larly inflected  or  formed."  And  it  is  a 
question  whether,  in  its  present  form,  it 
was  ever  a  spoken  language,  although 
the  theory  of  Schlegel  is,  that  it  was  im- 
ported by  the  conquering  or  Brahminical 
caste.  It  constitutes  the  most  ancient 
literature  of  the  Hindoos,  and  is  radically 
connected  with  the  various  dialects  of 
Hindostan,  so  that  they  may  be  regarded 
as  more  or  less  deflected  from  it.  Cole- 
brooke,  however,  is  of  opinion  that  "  there 
seems  no  good  reason  for  doubting  that 
it  was  once  universally  spoken  in  India  ;" 
and  he  says,  that  "  those  who  are  learned 
in  Sanscrit,  at  the  present  day,  deliver 
themselves  with  such  fluency  as  is  suf- 
ficient to  prove  that  it  may  have  been 
spoken  in  former  times  with  as  much 
facility  as  the  contemporary  dialects  of 
the  Greek  language,  or  the  more  modern 
dialects  of  the  Arabic  tongue."  Nine 
tenths  of  the  "Hindustani,"  it  is  said, 
may  be  traced  to  the  Sanscrit  ;  the  re- 
maining tenth  is  thought  to  be,  perhaps, 
founded  on  the  old  "  Hindi"  language, 
which  Sir  W.  Jones  thought  anterior  to 
it,  conceiving  the  Sanscrit  to  have  been 
introduced  by  conquerors  in  some  very 
distant  age.  In  the  Hindoo  drama,  the 
gods  and  saints  are  made  to  speak  in 
Sanscrit ;  while  women,  benevolent  genii, 
Ac,  speak  another  dialect,  and  the  lower 
personages  a  third. 

SANS-CULOTTES,  [from  sans,  without, 
and  culottes,  breeches,]  the  name  given 
in  derision  to  the  popular  party,  by  the 
aristocratical,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
French  revolution  of  1789  ;  but  though 
in  the  first  instance  applied  by  way  of 
contempt,  yet  when  the  fiercest  principles 


of  republicanism  prevailed,  sans-culol- 
tism  became  a  term  of  honor  ;  and  some 
of  their  bravest  generals  in  their  di.s- 
patches  announcing  their  victories,  gloried 
in  the  name. 

SAPPHIC,  pertaining  to  Snppho,  a 
Grecian  poetess;  as  Sapphic  odes,  Ac 
The  Sapphic  verse  consists  of  eleven 
syllables  in  live  feet,  of  which  the  first, 
fourth,  and  fifth,  are  trochees,  the  second 
a  spondee,  and  the  third  a  dactyl,  in  the 
first  three  lines,  of  each  stanza,  with  a 
fourth  consisting  only  of  a  dactyl  and  a 
spondee. 

SAP'PHIRE,  a  precious  stone  of  a 
fine  blue  color.  In  hardness  it  is  only 
inferior  to  the  diamond  ;  and  the  sapphire 
which  is  found  in  the  same  mines  with 
the  ruby,  is  nearly  allied  to  that  gem. 
They  are  found  in  various  places ;  as 
Pegu,  Calicut,  Cananor,  and  Ceylon,  in 
Asia  ;  and  Bohemia  and  Silesia,  in  Eu- 
rope. The  most  highly  prized  varieties 
are  the  crimson  and  carmine  red  ;  these 
are  the  oriental  ruby  of  the  jeweller: 
the  next  is  sapphire ;  and  the  last  is 
sapphire,  or  oriental  topaz.  The  aste- 
rias,  or  star-stone,  is  a  very  beautiful 
variety,  in  which  the  color  is  generally 
of  a  reddish  violet,  with  an  opalescent 
lustre. 

SAP'PING,  in  sieges,  &c.,  the  act  of 
working  underground  to  gain  the  descent 
of  a  ditch,  counterscarp,  &c. 

SAR'AI3AND,  in  music,  a  composition 
in  triple  time  very  similar  to  a  minuet. 
When  denoting  music  for  the  dance,  it  is 
to  the  same  measure  which  usually  ter- 
minates when  the  beating  hand  rises; 
being  thus  distinguished  from  the  courant, 
which  ends  when  the  hand  falls. 

SAR'ABITES,  a  kind  of  oriental  monks 
or  cwnobites,  described  by  Cassian  in  his 
Institutions ;  and  supposed  to  be  the 
same  with  those  called  Remoboth  by  St. 
Jerome  and  Eust.,  and  characterized  as 
vicious  and  ignorant.  They  seem  to  have 
been  seceders  from  the  ordinary  monastic 
life,  which  formed  a  species  of  society 
rather  resembling  that  of  the  Moravians 
of  the  present  day,  and  without  commu- 
nity of  goods. 

SARACEN'IC  ARCHITECTURE. 
Egypt  and  .Syria  present  many  specimens 
of  Saracenic  architecture,  which  form  a 
striking  contrast  with  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tian and  Greek  styles.  The  Saracens,  in 
Egypt,  have  borrowed  but  little  (if  any) 
of  their  style  from  the  aborigines  of  the 
country.  The  style  called  Saracenic, 
which  is  justly  supposed  to  have  been  the 
parent  of  the  Gothic,  is  distinguished  by 


538 


CVCLOl'EDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[sat 


the  boldncjs  ami  loftiness  of  its  vaultings  ; 
the  peculiar  inixeJ  form  of  its  curves; 
the  slenderness  of  its  columns;  the  va- 
riety of  its  capitals  ;  the  prodigious  mul- 
tiplicity of  its  mouldings  and  ornaments  : 
presenting  a  strong  assemblage  of  friezes, 
mosaics,  foliage,  and  arabesques,  inter- 
laced with  flowers,  and  disposed  alto- 
gether with  much  skill.  The  E^ijptian 
Saracenic  differs  from  the  Spanisk  prin- 
cipally in  the  form  of  the  arch,  as  may 
be  seen  by  comparing  the  gate  of  Cairo 
with  that  of  the  Alhambra  in  Grenada, 
or  the  great  church  at  Cordova.  Among 
the  principal  remains  of  the  former  style 
are  the  walls  of  Alexandria,  built,  in 
878,  by  the  Caliph  Motahwakkel  ;  several 
arcades  of  the  aqueduct-  of  Alexandria, 
■which  are  distinguisiied  by  the  medley 
of  the  capitals ;  the  greater  and  the 
smaller  pharos,  the  mosque  and  the  an- 
cient palace  of  the  sultans,  in  the  same 
city:  there  are  also  several  buildings  of 
the  sultan  Saladin,  whose  real  name  was 
Joseph  or  Jussuf,  which  bear  his  latter 
appellation,  as  the  walls  at  Cairo,  the 
Granaries,  &c. 

SARCOPII'AG US,  a  species  of  lime- 
stone of  which  ancient  coflins  were  made, 
and  which,  according  to  I'liny,  had  the 
power  of  destroying  within  forty  days  the 
corpses  put  into  them.  This  quality 
brought  the  stone  into  use  for  coffins,  and 
thus  the  name  came  to  be  applied  to 
all  coffins  of  stone,  though  often  used  for 
a  contrary  purpose  to  that  which  the 
name  expresses  Of  the  great  number 
of  sarcopliagi  which  have  come  down  to 
us,  several  are  known  by  particular 
names;  as,  the  sarcophagus  of  Homer, 
in  the  Besborodko  gardens  at  St.  Peters- 
burg;  and  that  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
in  the  British  museum,  once  in  the  mosque 
of  St.  Athanasius  at  Alexandria.  It  was 
taken  by  the  British  from  the  French, 
during  their  memorable  campaign  in 
Kgypt. 

SARDONIC  LAUGH,  (risus  sardoni- 
cits,)  so  called  from  the  herb  sardonia, 
which  being  eaten  is  said  to  cause  a  dead- 
ly convulsive  laughter,  or  spasmodic 
grin. 

S.\R'DONYX,  a  genus  of  semi-pellueid 
gems,  of  the  onyx  structure,  zoned  ortab- 
ulate<l,  and  composed  of  tiio  matter  of 
the  onyx  variegated  with  that  of  the  red 
or  vellow  carnelian. 

SAS'TRA,  among  the  Ilin'loos,  a  book 
containing  sacred  ordinances.  The  six 
great  Sa.ifrns,  in  the  opinion  of  the  lUm- 
doos,  contain  all  knowledge,  human  and 
iivine.   These  arc  called  the  Veda,  Upa- 


veda,  Vedanga.  Purana,  Dherma,  and 
Dersana. 

SA'TAX,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
enemy  or  adversary,  and  used  as  such, 
without  any  reference  to  the  Evil  Power 
itself,  in  one  or  two  passages  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.  The  equivalent 
term  in  Greek  for  this  word  is  literally 
one  iri'iu  accuses  or  calumniates ;  whence 
the  word  deril  is  derived. 

SAT'IRE,  in  literature,  a  species  of 
writing,  generally  poetical,  the  object  of 
which  is  always  castigation.  It  presup- 
poses not  merely  much  natural  wit,  but 
also  acute  observation,  and  much  variety 
of  life  and  manners  to  call  this  wit  into 
exercise.  Satire,  in  the  literary  sense 
of  the  word,  as  designating  a  species  of 
composition,  is  usually  confined  to  a  spe- 
cies of  poetry  ;  but  prose  works,  of  which 
the  contents  are  of  a  satirical  character, 
are  often  comprehended  under  the  same 
appellation.  Dramatic  writings,  also,  are 
not  satires  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the 
word,  although  their  contents  be  of  a 
satirical  character.  According  to  their 
subjects,  satires  are  divided  into  political 
and  moral,  and  these  again  severally 
subiiividcd  into  personal  and  general. 
Political  satires,  in  almost  every  lan- 
guage, have  been  nearly  confined  to 
prose;  the  moral  sntire  alone  has  found 
its  appropriate  vehicle  in  verse.  The 
only  Greek  satirist  of  whom  any  frag- 
ments have  reached  us  was  Archilochus, 
and  his  attacks  were  evidently  directed 
against  individuals.  Aristophanes  pos- 
sessed a  vein  of  satirical  power,  both  in 
the  indignant  and  ludicrous  strain,  which 
has  never  been  surpassed  ;  and  his  dra- 
mas contain  not  only  sarcasms  on  indi- 
viduals, but  also  political  and  etliical  les- 
sons of  the  highest  value.  But  the  moral 
satire,  properly  so  called,  was  invented 
by  the  Romans,  not  only  in  form,  but  in 
substance  also,  and  by  them  carried  to 
perfection  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
only  species  of  Roman  poetry  which  has 
any  degree  of  originality  is  that  which 
would  seem  to  have  accorded  the  least 
with  the  grave  and  austere  turn  of  the 
genuine  Roman  character.  In  the  liter- 
ature of  the  moilern  nations,  the  fate  of 
satire  has  been  similar  to  that  which  has 
befallen  many  other  species  of  composi- 
tion. The  name  and  form  of  the  ancient 
satire  have  been  preserved  by  many  wri- 
ters, who  have  produce<l,  for  the  most 
part,  little  besides  cold  or  exaggerated 
imitations  of  antiquity.  But  the  true 
spirit  of  satire,  in  its  moral  beauty,  its 
humor,  and  its  delicate  irony,  has  been 


sca] 


AM)    THK     KINK    AKIS. 


530 


inherited  by  oth^^,  who  had  too  much  i 
originality  of  thought  to  tie  down  their 
genius  to  iin  antiquated  form  of  writing. 
SAT'IRUAY,  the  last  day  of  the  week. 
The  Scandinavians,  and  from  them  the 
Saxons,  had  a  deity  named  Beater,  from 
whom  the  English  name  of  the  dies  Sa- 
turiiii  of  the  Romans  maybe  derived; 
but  the  subject  is  by  no  means  clear. 

SAT'URN,  an  Italian  deity  having 
many  points  of  similarity  with  the 
Grecian  Kronos,  with  whom  he  is,  ac- 
cordinglj',  frequently  identified.  lie 
seems  to  have  been  originally  the  god 
of  earth,  (of  which  his  wife  Tellus.  Ops,  or 
Rhea  was  the  goddess,)  and  presided 
over  tillage,  of  which  the  sickle  he  car- 
ried was  the  symbol.  The  treasurj'  at 
Rome  was  in  his  temple.  The  Grecian 
Kronos  was  the  youngest  son  of  Heaven 
and.  Earth,  and  the  father  of  Jupiter, 
Juno,  Neptune,  and  Pluto.  He  usurped 
the  sovereignty,  and  was  in  his  turn  de- 
posed and  imprisoned  by  Jupiter.  His 
reign  was  celebrated  by  the  ancient  poets 
as  the  golden  age.  The  whole  history  of 
this  deity  is  probably  allegorical.  The 
name  itself,  with  a  slight  variation  signi- 
fies time,  and  his  attribute  of  the  sickle, 
together  with  the  account  of  bis  being  the 
son  of  Heaven,  by  whose  luminaries  time 
is  measured,  and  the  husband  of  Rhea 
(flowing.)  and  of  his  devouring  his  own 
progeny,  are  corroborative  of  this  conjec- 
ture. 

SATURN A'LIA,  in  antiquity,  feasts  in 
honor  of  Saturn.  The  Saturnalia  had 
their  origin  in  Greece,  but  by  whom  they 
■were  instituted  or  introduced  among  the 
Romans  is  not  known  :  but  they  were 
celebrated  with  such  circumstances  as 
were  thought  characteristic  of  the  golden 
age;  particularly  the  overthrow  of  dis- 
tinction and  rank.  Slaves  were  reputed 
masters  during  the  three  daj-s  of  this 
festivity  ;  were  at  liberty  to  say  what 
they  pleased;  and,  inline,  were  served  at 
table  by  their  owners.  These  festivities, 
in  which  men  indulged  in  riot  without 
restraint,  were  held  annually  about  the 
middle  of  December. 

SAT'YRS,  in  classical  mythology,  di- 
vinities, or  rather  supernatural  person- 
ages, represented  with  the  heads,  arms, 
and  bodies  of  men,  and  the  lower  part?  of 
goats.  They  were  under  the  peculiar 
government  of  the  god  Bacchus.  Some 
antiquaries  have  fancied  that  the  notion 
of  satyrs  arose  from  tlie  introduction  of 
ourang-outangs  by  the  real  Bacchus  on 
his  return  from  his  conquest  of  India,  and 
derive  the  name  from  the  Heb.  sahurim. 


hairy  mtn  ;  Bacchus,  according  to  tra- 
dition, having  remained  some  time  in 
Palestine  during  his  return.  In  the  same 
way  we  maj'  perhaps  account  for  St.  Au- 
gustin's  story,  of  a  satyr  having  been 
seen  and  caught,  in  his  own  time,  in  the 
deserts  of  Africa. — In  Grecian  dramatic 
literature,  the  name  satyr  is  applied  to  a 
theatrical  piece,  in  which  the  chorus  con- 
sisted of  satj'rs  of  a  semi-burlesque  char- 
acter— to  judge  of  it  by  the  only  specimen 
left  to  us,  the  Cyclops  of  Euripides.  It 
was  customary  for  the  tragedian  to  pre- 
sent at  the  same  time  three  tragic  pieces 
and  one  satyr,  forming  a  tetralogy. 


SAU'CISSE,  in  the  art  of  war,  a  long 
pipe  or  bag,  made  of  cloth  well  pitched, 
or  of  leather,  filled  with  powder,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  chamber  of  the  mine  to 
the  entrance  of  the  gallery.  It  serves  to 
communicate  fire  to  mines,  caissons,  bomb 
chests,  Ac. 

SAUCISSONS',  in  fortification,  fagots 
or  fascines,  made  of  great  boughs  of 
trees  bound  together  ;  their  use  being 
to  cover  men,  or  to  make  epaulements, 
&c. 

SAX'ON  ARCHITECTURE,  the  ar- 
chitecture of  England  before  the  Norman 
conquest.  There  are  some  supposed  re- 
mains of  this  style  in  existence,  but  the 
characteristics  are  not  satisfactorily  de- 
termined. 

SCAF'FOLDING,  in  architecture,  is 
the  temporary  combination  of  timber- 
work,  by  the  means  of  upright  poles  and 
horizontal  pieces,  on  which  latter  are 
laid  the  boards  for  carrying  up  the  differ- 
ent stages  or  floors  of  a  building,  and 
which  are  struck  or  removed  as  soon  as 
they  have  answered  their  purpose. 

SCAtJLIO'LA,  a  mixture  of  fine  gyp- 
sum and  powdered  selenite,  made  into  a 


540 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKRATURE 


[SCE 


paste  with  glue,  and  serving  to  form 
paintings  of  a  stony  hardness.  The  pro- 
cess is  as  follows : — Upon  a  tablet  of 
white  stucco  (consisting  of  ihis  gypsum 
paste.)  the  outlines  of  the  work  designed 
are  traced  with  a  sharp  instrument,  and 
the  cavities  thus  made  are  tilled  up  with 
successive  layers  of  paste,  of  the  same 
composition,  but  colored.  It  takes  a  very 
high  polish,  and,  when  e.xectited  by  a 
skilful  workman,  is  an  admirable  imita- 
tion of  marble. 

SCALD,  signifies  in  the  ancient  Norsk 
language  a  poet.  In  the  old  northern  lit- 
erature, those  mythological  poems  of 
which  the  writers  are  known  are  properly 
called  songs  of  the  Scalds,  while  those  of 
unknown  authors  are  termed  Eddas.  It 
appears  from  Tacitus  that  the  ancient 
Germans  had  those  three  classes  of  poems 
which  were  found  at  a  later  era  in  Scan- 
dinavia, namely,  relating  to  the  gods,  to 
heaven,  and  to  historical  subjects.  The 
Scalds  whose  remains  have  come  down  to 
us  are  very  numerous.  Their  poems  are 
partly  alliterative,  and  partly  rhymed; 
and  this  latter  circumstance  seems  to  in- 
dicate works  of  comparatively  recent  date. 
The  historical  value  of  their  poems  is  con- 
siderable ;  but  they  are  written  in  a  pe- 
culiar vein  of  exaggeration,  and  in  a  met- 
aphysical and  almost  enigmatical  fash- 
ion, which  appears  to  have  been  charac- 
teristic of  the  poetical  art  of  the  north. 

SCALE,  in  music,  a  progressive  series 
of  sounds  arising  in  acuteness  or  falling 
in  gravity  from  any  given  pitch  to  the 
greatest  practical  distance,  through  such 
intermediate  degrees  as  create  an  agree- 
able and  perfect  succession,  wherein  all 
the  harmonical  intervals  are  conveniently 
divided. 

SCAMTL'LI,  in  ancient  architecture,  a 
sort  of  second  plinths  or  blocks  under  stat- 


s.  Scamilli. 

ues,  columns,  &e.,   to  raise  them,  but  not, 
like  pedestals,  ornamented  with  any  kind 
of  moulding. 
SCAN'DA'HM  MAONA'TUM.in  law, 


a  defamatory  speech  or  writing  made  or 
published  to  the  injury  of  a  person  of  dig- 
nity. 

SCAN'XIXG,  in  Latin  poetry,  the  ex- 
amining a  verse  by  counting  the  feet,  to 
see  whether  the  quantities  he  duly  ob- 
served ;  or,  according  to  modern  usage,  to 
recite  or  measure  verse  by  distinguishing 
the  feet  in  pronunciation. 

SCAPE'-GOAT,  in  the  Jewish  ritual, 
a  goat  which  was  brought  to  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle,  where  the  high-priest  laid 
his  hands  upon  him,  confessing  the  sins  of 
the  people,  and  putting  them  on  the  head 
of  the  goat ;  after  which  the  goat  was 
turned  loose  into  the  wilderness. 

SCAP'ULARY,  a  part  of  the  habit  of 
certain  religious  orders  in  the  Romish 
church,  consisting  of  two  narrow  slips  of 
cloth  worn  over  the  gown,  covering  the 
back  and  breast,  and  e.xtending  to  the 
feet. 

SCAR'AMOUCH,  a  personage  in  the 
old  Italian  Comedia  dell'  .-^rte,  dressed 
in  the  Spanish  or  Ilispano-Neapolitan 
costume,  and  representing  a  military  per- 
sonage, a  poltroon  and  braggadocio,  who 
always  ended  by  receiving  a  beating  from 
the  hands  of  Harlequin.  The  most  cele- 
brated Scaramouch  of  the  Italian  theatre 
at  Paris  was  Tiberio  Fiurelli,  a  Neapoli- 
tan, who  had  the  honor  of  making  Louis 
XIV.  laugh  when  an  infant;  and  whose 
agility  was  such  that  he  was  able,  accord- 
ing to  his  biographers,  to  give  a  bo.x  on 
the  ear  with  his  foot  at  the  age  of  80. 

SCARP,  in  fortification,  the  interior 
talus  or  slope  of  the  ditch  next  the  jilace 
at  the  foot  of  the  rampart. — In  heraldry, 
the  scarf  which  military  comniaiulers 
wear  for  ornament. 

SCENE,  in  dramatic  literature,  dra- 
matic representations,  having,  it  is  sup- 
posed, originally  taken  place  on  spots  of 
ground  shaded  with  boughs  of  trees. — The 
imaginary  place  in  which  the  action  of 
the  play  is  supposed  to  pass  ;  also  a  divi- 
sion of  a  drama:  properly  speaking, 
whenever  the  action  changes  to  a  new 
scene  or  place.  But  in  the  French  thea- 
tre, and  those  framed  on  its  model,  (in 
which  unity  of  place  is  observed,)  every 
entry  of  an  actor  constitutes  a  new  scene. 
On  the  English  stage,  the  subdivision 
called  a  scene  is  extremely  arbitrary  ;  the 
scenes  in  most  plays  being  far  more  nu- 
merous than  the  actual  changes  of  scene, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  French  rule  is 
not  observcil,  and  actors  enter  in  the  mid- 
dle of  a  scene.  The  scenes  in  a  play  are 
numbered  as  subdivisions  of  the  act. 

SCENE  PAINTING,  a  department  of 


sch] 


AND    TfIR     FINK     AIMS. 


)41 


painting  which  forms  a  wallt  of  art  both 
pocuiiar  ami  extensive,  and  has  its  own 
laws,  its  own  practical  and  scientitic  rules, 
in  the  same  way  as  perspective  has.  The 
follower  of  scene  painting  should,  in  the 
first  place,  be  deeply  conversant  with 
that  particular  knowledge,  by  means  of 
which  ho  is  enabled  to  deciile  on  the  ef- 
fects of  those  colors  he  employs  by  day, 
when  they  shall  be  subjected  to  a  strong 
artificial  light.  In  the  ne.xt  instance,  it  is 
absolutely  in  dispensable  that  he  should 
bs  well  versed  in  the  rules  of  both  linear 
and  aerial  perspective,  lie  traces,  by 
fixed  geometrical  operations,  lines  bent 
or  inclined,  which  the  spectator,  placed  at 
the  proper  point  of  view,  imagines  to  be 
straight  ones.  He  employs  gradual  dim- 
inutions of  plans  which  give  the  appear- 
ance of  an  extent  and  distance  existing 
merely  in  his  own  art  ;  thus  in  a  few  fath- 
oms to  which  he  is  bounded  expressing 
an  extent  sometimes  almost  infinite.  He 
uses  chiefly  water  colors,  on  account  of 
their  operating  promptly,  and  presenting 
no  glossy  surface.  To  the  scene  painter 
the  use  of  brilliant  colors,  of  skilful 
chiaro-scuro,  of  striking  management  of 
masses  of  light  and  shade,  is  obvious.  He 
addresses  less  the  heart  or  understanding 
than  the  eye.  With  him  effect  is  every- 
thing. His  fame,  as  well  as  his  works, 
is  commonly  of  short  duration  ;  and  there 
is  consequently  the  greater  reason  that  he 
should  acquire  that  promptness  and  de- 
cision of  style  which  would  secure  im- 
mediate approbation. 

SCE  NERY,  the  appearance  of  the  va- 
rious objects  presented  to  our  view;  as, 
the  scenery  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames 
at  Richmond  is  diversified  and  pleasing; 
or,  the  landscape  scenery  presented  to 
the  view  from  the  Malvern  hills  is  pictu- 
resque andvariel. — The  paintings  repre- 
senting the  scenery  of  a  play. 

S  C  E  N  0  fi'tl  A"P  II  Y,  ia  perspective, 
stands  opposed  to  jehnography  and  or- 
thography. Ichnography  is  the  ground- 
plan;  nrt/iograpliy,  the  e!evati:)n  or  a  flat 
view  of  a  front  of  an  objact ;  and  scenoc^- 
raphy,  is  the  perspective  view,  which 
tal<e3  i?everal  sides,  and  represents  every- 
thing in  its  apparent  proportions. 

SCEPTIC  IS. \I,  al-so  called  Pyrrho- 
nism, (from  its  founder,  Pyrrho,  who  lived 
under  Alexander  the  Great,)  the  doctrine 
of  a  sect  of  ])hilosophers,  who  m.aintained 
that  no  certain  inferences  can  be  drawn 
from  the  senses,  and  who  therefore  doubt- 
ed of  every  thing. — In  theology,  sceptici.<:m 
is  a  denial  of  the  divine  origin  of  the 
Christian  religion,  or  of  the  being,  per- 


fections, and  truth  of  God.  The  most 
celebrated  sceptics  of  modern  times  are. 
Montaigne  (a. p.  1.590;)  Ghmville,  an 
Englishman,  who  flourished  about  the 
period  of  the  Restoration;  Bayle,  ani 
Hume.  Of  these  Mr.  Hume  has  the  merit 
of  producing  the  mo.-:t  systematic  and 
comprehensive  scheme  of  scepticism  the 
world  has  yet  seen.  According  to  this 
philosopher,  all  the  objects  of  conscious- 
ness may  be  reduced  to  two  classes — 1. 
the  impressions  on  the  senses;  and  2. 
ideas,  or  copies  of  those  impressions, 
which  dif!"er  from  their  originals  only  in 
being  less  vivid.  All  knowledge,  save 
that  of  mathematical  relations,  consists 
in  the  arrangement  of  these  impressions 
according  to  the  order  of  their  succession. 
Of  the  connection  between  any  two  links 
of  this  succession  we  know  nothing  ;  that 
to  which  we  give  the  name  of  causation 
being,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  habitual 
sequence  relatively  to  the  phenomena, 
and  custom,  or  often-repeated  association, 
in  relation  to  ourselves. 

SCEP'TRE,  a  short  staff,  the  emblem 
of  sovereign  power.  It  is  an  ensign  of 
royalty  of  greater  antiquity  than  the 
crown.  It  was  at  first  an  unornamented 
staff,  or  baton,  but  afterwards  became 
covered  with  ornaments  in  ivory,  gold, 
&c.  At  the  present  time  the  sceptre  and 
ball  form  the  two  most  important  em- 
blems of  royal  and  imperial  power. 

SCHED'ULE,  in  law,  a  scroll  of  paper 
or  parchment  appended  to  a  will  or  any 
other  deed.  Also  an  inventory  of  goods, 
<fec. 

SCHE'RIF,  a  title  given  in  the  East, 
by  prescriptive  usage,  to  those  who  de- 
scend from  Mohammed  through  his  son- 
in-law  and  daughter,  Ali  and  Fatima. 
They  are  also  called  Emir  and  Seid,  and 
have  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  green 
turban.  The  chiefs  of  Mecca  and  Medina, 
who  are  alwa}'s  supposed  to  belong  to  this 
sacred  family,  are  styled  the  scherifs  of 
those  cities. 

SCHISM,  in  a  theological  sense,  adivi- 
sion  or  separation  in  a  church  or  denom- 
ination of  Christians;  or  breach  of  uni- 
ty among  people  of  the  same  religious 
persuasion.  Hence,  one  who  separates 
from  an  established  church  or  religious 
faith  is  termed  a  schismatic. — In  Scrip- 
ture, the  word  schism  seems  to  denote  a 
breach  of  charity,  rather  than  a  differ- 
ence of  doctrine. 

SCHOLAS'TICS,aclass  of  philosophers 
or  schoolmen,  who  arose  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  taught  a  peculiar  kiml  of  phi- 
losophy, which  consisted  in  applying  the 


542 


CYCLOI'EDIA    OK    LlTKK.VTUaE 


[sci 


ancient  dialectics  to  theology,  and  inti- 
mately uniting  both.  On  account  of  the 
excessive  subtilty  wb",ch  prevailed  in  the 
scholastic  philosoph  >•,  the  expression 
scholastic  has  been  u -ed  for  the  extreme 
of  subtilty.  After  t"ie  Reformation  and 
the  revival  of  letter?,  tlie  system  gradu- 
ally declined,  till  it  gave  place  to  the 
enlightened  philosophy' of  Lord  Bacon  and 
the  great  men  who  have  followed  in  his 
track  and  carried  out  his  principles. 

SCHOLIA,  notes  or  annotations  on 
an  ancient  author. — Scholiast,  one  who 
writes  scholia,  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating ancient  authors. 

SCHOOL,  a  house  or  place  of  rendez- 
vous for  pupils  or  students  to  receive  in- 
struction in  various  arts  and  branches  of 
useful  and  necessary  knowledge.  In 
mole  in  usage,  the  word  school  compre- 
hend.s  every  place  of  education,  whether 
a  college,  an  academy,  a  primary  school, 
or  a  school  for  learning  any  single  art  or 
accomplishment.  "  The  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  science,  and  in  the 
whole  condition  of  modern  nations,  who 
are  no  longer  dependent,  like  those  of  the 
middle  ages,  for  their  means  of  intellec- 
tual culture,  on  the  remains  of  ancient 
civilization,  necessarily  make  the  charac- 
ter of  school  instruction  very  different 
from  what  it  was  formerly,  when  the 
whole  intellectual  wealth  of  Europe  was 
contained  in  two  languages;  and  though 
these  noble  idioms  will  always  retain  a 
high  place  in  a  complete  system  of  edu- 
cation, yet  their  imjjortance  is  compara- 
tively less,  while  that  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences, history,  geography,  politics,  &c. 
has  very  much  increased.  All  this  has 
had  a  great  influence  upon  schools,  and 
will  have  a  still  greater.'  The  import- 
ance of  education,  moreover,  is  now  set 
in  strong  relief  by  the  general  conviction, 
entertained  in  free  countries,  that  the 
general  diffusion  of  knowledge  is  the  only 
true  security  for  well-regulated  liberty, 
which  must  rest  on  a  just  sense  of  what 
is  due  from  man  to  man  ;  and  few  results 
can  be  attained  by  the  student  of  history 
and  of  mankind  more  delightful  than  this 
of  the  essential  connection  of  light  and 
liberty;  not  that  great  learning  neces- 
sarily leads  to  liberty ;  history  a(f()r<ls 
many  instances  which  disprove  this  ;  but 
that  a  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  al- 
ways tends  to  promote  a  general  sense 
and  a  love  of  what  is  right  and  just,  as 
well  as  to  furnish  the  means  of  securing 
it."  For  the  furc^oing  remarks,  which 
are  not  less  forciblu  than  apparent,  we 
are  indebted  to  Blackio's  edition  of  the 


Conversations  Lexicon  — Schools,  Infant, 
are  said  to  owe  their  origin  to  ^Ir.  Rob- 
ert Owen  of  Scotland.  They  h;ive  now 
been  in  operation  since  the  year  132Q. — 
Scliools,  i\'or;n((/,  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  persons  intended  to  Ijoconic  school- 
masters, teachers,  or  professors  in  any 
line.  Normal  schools  form  a  regular 
part  of  the  establishments  for  edu.Mtion 
in  manj'  continental  states,  especially  in 
Germany.  The  normal  schoid  of  I'.iris 
was  suppressed  in  18'il,  but  revived  a 
few  years  afterwards  under  the  name  of 
preparatory  school,  and  has  now  (since 
the  event  of  1S30)  resumed  its  original 
title. —  Schools,  Sunclaij,  first  set  on  foot 
by  Mr.  Robert  Raikes  of  Gloucester.  Tho 
number  of  children  at  present  frequent- 
ing Sundav-sehools  in  England,  varies 
from  800,1)00  to  900.000.  The  educa-tion 
given  is  almost  imifonnly  confined  to 
reading  alone  ;  but  many  Sundaj'-schools 
appear  to  have  evening  schools  connected 
with  them,  open  two  or  three  times  a 
week,  in  which  writing  and  arithmetic 
are  taught.  The  system  ^.f  Sunday-school 
instruction  prevails  to  a  great  extent  in 
the  United  States,  where  it  is  almost  ex- 
clusively of  a  religious  character.—  Sc/iooZ, 
among  painters,  the  style  and  manner  of 
painting  among  the  great  masters  of  the 
art  at  any  particular  jieriod,  as  the  Ital- 
ian, Flemish,  l)utch,  Spanish,  and  English 
schools. — School,  in  pkilosophy,  a  system 
of  doctrine  as  delivered  by  particular 
teachers,  as  the  Platonic  school,  the  school 
of  Aristotle,  &c. — -Also,  the  seminaries 
for  teaching  logic,  metaphysics,  and  the- 
ology, which  were  formed  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  which  were  characterized  by 
academical  disputations  and  subtilties  of 
reasoning.  Hence  school  divinity  is  the 
phrase  used  to  denote  that  theology  which 
discusses  nice  jjoints,  and  proves  every- 
thing by  argument 

SCIAGRAPHY,  in  architecture,  a 
profile  or  section  of  a  building  to  exhibit 
its  interior  structure. 

SCIENCE,  in  a  general  sense,  knowl- 
edge, or  certain  knowledge  ;  the  knowl- 
edge of  many  methodically  digested  and 
arranged  so  as  to  become  attainable  by 
one  ;  the  comprehension  or  understanding 
of  truth  or  facts  by  the  mind.  The 
science  of  God  must  bo  perfect — In 
philosophy,  a  collection  of  the  general 
principles  or  leading  truths  rolatinq;  to 
any  subject. — Pare  science,  as  the  mathe- 
matics, is  built  on  self-evident  truths  ; 
but  the  term  science  is  also  applied  to 
other  subjects  founded  on  generally  ac- 
knowledged   truths,  as   metaphysics ;   or 


scr] 


AND    THE     FINE     ARTS. 


643 


on     experiment     and     observation,    as 
cheinistry   and    natural    'philosophy;  or 
even   to    an    assemblage  of  the   general 
principles    of   an    art,    as    the   science  of 
agriculture;  the  science   of  navigation. 
The  knowledge  of  reasons  and  their  con- 
clusions,    constitutes     abstract     science; 
that  of  causes  and  effects,  and  of  the  laws 
of  nature,   natural  or   phijsical  science. 
The  term  science  is  often  used  to  signify 
that  which  we   know  inductively,  or  by 
the  experience  of  particulars,  from  which 
we    ascend    to    general    conclusions    not 
necessarily  constituted  by  those  particu- 
lars, yet  warranted  by  previous  experi- 
ence and  bj'   analogies   widely  observed. 
This  signification  of  the  term  is  applica- 
ble   to    physical,    moral,  and    practical 
science. — Physical  or   natural   science  is 
that  which  is  susceptible  of  experiment, 
and  is  therefore  said  to  be  founded  on  ex- 
perimental  evidence. — Moral  science,  is 
that  which,  lying  in   great    part  beyond 
the    reach    of  experiment,  rests   for   its 
certainty  on  aggregated  facts,  supported 
by  concurrent  testimony,  by  experience,  I 
and  by  analogy,  so  as  to  leave  no  room 
for   doubt,  though   not   demon.'^trable. —  [ 
Practical  science,  is  that  which  consists 
of  general  observations    arising  out   of 
experience,     and     is     otherwise     called 
theory  in  correlation  to  an  art  or  practice 
belonging  to  it.     The  term  science,  how- 
ever, is   more  particularly   used    in  con- 
tradistinction to  art  and  literature.     As 
distinguished  from  the  former,  a  science 
is  a  bodj'  of  truths,  the  common  princi- 
ples of  which  are  supposed  to  be  known  ] 
and  separated,   so    that    the    individual  ' 
truths,  even  though  some  or  all  may  be  | 
clear  in    themselves,    have   a  guarantee  I 
that  they  could  have  been  discovered  and 
known  either  with  certainty,  or  with  such  I 
probability  as  the  subject   admits  of,  by 
other  means    than    their  own    evidence.  | 
As  distinguished  from  literature,  science  , 
is   applied  to    any  branch  of  knowledge  j 
which  is  made   tht  subject  of  investiga- 
tion  with  a  view  to  discover  and  apply  i 
first  principles.  | 

SCI'RE    FA'CIAS,  in  law,  a  judicial 
writ  summoning  a  person  to  show  cause  j 
to   the  court  why  something  should  not  | 
be  done;  as,  to  require  sureties  to  show  i 
cause  why  the  plaintiff  should   not  have  ! 
execution    against    them    for    debt    and  i 
damages,  or  to  require  a  third  person  to 
show  cause   why  goods  in  his  hands  by 
replevin,    should    not    be    delivered    to 
Satisfy  the  execution,  &c. 

SCLAVO'NIAN,     or    SCLAVON'IC, 
pertaining   to  the    Sclavi.  or  their  lan- 


guage— a  people  that  anciently  inhabited 
the  country  between  the  rivers  Save  and 
Drave.  Ilcnce  the  word  came  to  d'enote 
the  language  which  is  now  spoken  in 
Poland,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Ac. 

SCORE,  in  music,  a  collection  of  all 
the  vocal  and  instrumental  parts  of  a 
composition,  arranged  on  staves  one  above 
the  other,  and  bar  for  bar,  p.resent- 
ing  at  once,  to  the  eye  of  a  skilful  mu- 
sician, the  effect  of  the  whole  band  as  the 
composition  proceeds.  A  composition  so 
arranged  is  also  said  to  be  in  score. 

SCOT,  in  law,  a  customary  contribu- 
tion laid  upon  all  subjects  according  to 
their  ability.  Whoever  were  assessed  to 
any  contribution,  though  not  by  equal 
portions,  were  said  to  pay  scot  and  lot. 

SCO'TI  A,  in  architecture,  the  name  of  a 
hollow  moulding,  chiefly  used  between  the 
tori  in  the  bases  of  columns.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  shadow  formed  by  it,  which 
seems  to  envelop  it  in  darkness.  It  is 
sometimes  called  a  casement ;  and  often, 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  common  pulley, 
trochilus. 

SCOT'ISTS,  a  sect  of  school-divines 
and  philosophers,  thus  called  from  their 
founder,  J.  Duns  Scotus,  a  Cordelier,  who 
maintained  the  immaculate  conception 
of  the  Virgin,  or  that  she  was  born  with- 
out original  sin,  in  opposition  to  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  the  Thomists. 

SCREEDS,  in  architecture,  wooden 
rules  for  running  mouldings.  Also  the  ex- 
treme guides  on  the  margins  of  walls  and 
ceilings  for  floating  to,  by  the  aid  of  the 
rules.  They  are  always  necessary  for 
running  a  cornice  when  the  ceiling  is  not 
floated. 

SCREEN,  in  architecture,  a  partition 
usually  wrought  with  rich  tracery,  placed 
behind  the  high  altar  of  a  church,  and 
also  before  small  chapels  and  tombs. 
Sometimes,  as  at  Easter,  they  are  placed 
temporarily  at  the  sides  of  choirs. 

SCRIBES,  the  copyists,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  interpreters  of  the  law,  in  the 
later  periods  of  the  Jewish  history.  They 
were  held  in  great  honor  ainong  that 
people,  and  ranked  with  the  priests  them- 
selves in  their  estimation.  In  the  New 
Testament  we  find  them  generally  refer- 
red to  in  connection  with  the  Pharisees, 
to  which  sect  they  appear  generally  tc 
have  belonged,  and  with  whom  they  co- 
incided in  temper  and  sentiments.  Some 
ancient  writers  conceive  the  scribes  to 
have  formed  peculiar  sects  in  themselves  ; 
but  there  is  no  authority  to  sustain  this 
opinion. 

SCRIPTURE,  or  the  Holy  Scriptures, 


hU 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF     LITEUATIUE 


scu 


an  appellation  given,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, to  the  sacred  and  inspired  writings 
of  the  Old  and  Now  Testaments. 

SCRIVENER,  inonej'  scriveners,  in  old 
English  usage,  were  jjarties  who  received 
money  to  place  it  out  at  interest,  and 
supplied  parties  who  wished  to  lend  mon- 
ey on  security. 

SCRU'TINV,  in  law,  an  examination 
of  suffrages  or  votes  at  an  election,  fi>r 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  they 
are  good  or  not. — In  the  primitive  church, 
an  examination  of  catechumens  who  were 
to  receive  baptism  on  Easter-dav. 

SCULP  TIRE,  the  art  nf  giving  form 
And  expression,  by  means  of  the  chisel 
and  other  implements,  to  masses  of  stone 
or  other  hard  substances,  so  as  to  repre- 
resent  figures  of  every  description,  ani- 
mate and  inanimate.  It  is  generally 
thought  that  sculpture  had  its  origin  from 
idolatry,  as  it  was  found  necessary  to  place 
before  the  people  the  images  of  their  gods 
to  enliven  the  fervor  of  their  devotion. 
But  to  form  conclusions  concerning  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
without  the  aid  of  historical  evidence,  by 
analogies  which  are  sometimes  accidental, 
and  often  fanciful,  is  a  mode  of  reasoning 
which,  at  best,  must  ever  be  liable  to 
suspicion.  In  whatever  country  the  ear- 
liest attempts  were  made,  the  Egyptians 
were  the  first  who  adopted  a  certain  style 
of  art.  Their  works  were  gloomy  and 
grave,  but  still  they  were  full  of  deep 
sentiment,  and  connected,  as  would  ap- 
pear by  the  hieroglyphics  which  covered 
them,  with  poetry  and  history,  and  by  the 
mummies,  with  the  belief  of  immortality. 
Interesting  as  the  subject  would  doubt- 
less prove,  it  is  far  beyond  our  limited 
means  to  trace  the  progress  of  this  beau- 
tiful art  through  all  its  stages  in  the 
classic  days  of  (Jreece,  till  its  decline  in 
Rome,  where,  though  all  the  treasures  of 
the  Grecian  sculptors  had  been  carried  to 
deck  the  Roman  capital,  the  art  never 
becam,o  naturalized.  During  the  lotig 
and  gloomy  interval  of  barbarism  that 
fucceeded  the  downfall  of  imperial  Rome, 
t-oulpture,  with  the  sister  arts,  lay  dor- 
mant and  forgotten.  At  length,  however, 
through  the  genius  of  Michael  Angelo 
IJuonarotti,  and  the  skill  and  i)erseve- 
rancc  of  some  of  his  distinguished  suc- 
cessors, seconded  by  the  patronage  of  the 
illustrious  house  of  Medici,  the  treasures 
of  antiquity  were  collected,  and  modern 
art  nobly  tried  to  rival  the  grace  and 
Eublimity  which  existed  in  the  ancient 
luodols.  Though  till  within  the  last  cen- 
tury it  could  hardly  be  said  that  a  British 


school  of  sculpture  existed,  yet  the  talent 
that  has  been  successfully  called  into 
action  has  produced  many  works  of  ster- 
ling merit.  The  names  of  Flaxman, 
Chantrey,  Baily,  and  Westmacott,  are 
alone  sufficient  to  redeem  the  national 
character  in  this  department  of  art.  In 
the  United  States,  the  productions  of 
Greenough,  Powers  and  other  distin- 
guished artists,  have  been  received  with 
adrairatitin  by  the  most  fastidious  connois- 
seurs. The  very  essence  of  sculpture  is 
correctness ;  and  when  to  correct  and 
perfect  form  is  added  the  ornament  of 
grace,  dignity  of  character,  and  appro- 
jiriate  expre«sion,  as  in  the  Apollo,  the 
Venus,  the  Laococin,  the  Moses  of  Michael 
Angelo,  and  many  others,  this  art  may 
be  said  to  have  accomplished  its  pur- 
pose.— Sculpture,  practice  of.  What  has 
been  said  under  the  article  Painting, 
relative  to  anatomy,  comparative  anato 
my,  symmetry,  invention,  expression, 
and  drapery,  equally  applies  to  the  art 
of  sculpture,  and  need  not  be  here  re- 
peated. We  shall,  therefore,  merely  state 
the  different  methods  practised  in  produ- 
cing a  work  in  this  art.  A  model  as  large 
as  the  intended  figure  or  group  is  first  made 
in  clay.  It  is  placed  on  a  stand  called  the 
sculptor's  easel ;  and  the  general  form  is 
got  out  with  the  hand  and  fingers,  small 
box-wood  tools  being  made  use  of  to 
touch  the  parts  that  the  fingers  cannot 
reach.  The  clay  is  kept  moist,  to  pre- 
vent its  shrinking  till  the  model  is  com- 
pleted. The  model  is  then  moulded  in 
plaster  of  Paris,  before  it  begins  to  dry, 
whence  a  matrix  is  formed,  into  which 
plaster  is  introduced;  and  the  matrix 
being  broken  away  from  it,  the  model  in 
clay  is  thus  transferred  into  one  of  plas- 
ter. This  becomes  the  standard  from 
which  the  artist  takes  all  the  measure- 
ments for  the  figure  ho  is  about  to  exe> 
cute.  The  block  of  marble  and  the  model 
being  now  placed  on  stands,  with  a  gradu- 
ated rod,  which  moves-  on  a  frame  per- 
pendicular to  it,  and  has  a  point  attached 
to  it  which  can  be  made  to  advance  and 
recede  at  pleasure,  certain  prominent 
points  are  selected  and  marked  in  the 
model,  and  their  distance  measured  on 
the  frame  longitudinally  and  vertically, 
and  also  the  distance  that  the  point  of 
the  rod  is  advanced  or  receded  to  touch  a 
given  point.  This  being  found  on  the 
outside  of  the  rough  block,  the  particular 
point  is  drilled  down  to  as  great  a  distance 
as  was  measure<l  in  the  model.  This  ope- 
ration being  repeated  for  a  great  number 
of  points,    the    surface   is   worked  awaj 


sec] 


AND    THE     FIXE     AIMS. 


545 


to  all  Ihe  several  points  found  as  above, 
till  at  last  it  begins  to  assume  the  general 
form  of  the  model.  As  the  sculptor  ap- 
proaches the  surface  which  is  to  be  left 
when  finished,  more  caution  and  finer 
tools  become  necessary,  till  at  length  it 
is  brought  into  a  state  for  his  finishing 
touches.  The  process  which  we  have  de- 
scribed of  bringing  the  shapeless  block 
into  something  like  the  form  it  is  ulti- 
mately to  bear,  and  which  is  an  operation 
purely  mechanical,  is  performed  by  infe- 
rior workmen,  by  which  the  artist's  labor 
and  time  are  much  spared.  It  is  only 
with  such  a  genius  as  Michael  Angelo 
that  the  making  a  model  could  be  dispen- 
sed with. 

SCU'TUM,  in  antiquity,  a  sort  of  buck- 
ler of  both  an  oblong  and  an  oval  form. 

SCYL'LA,  a  rock  in  the  sea  between 
Sicily  and  Italy,  which  was  very  formi- 
dable to  the  mariners  among  the  ancients. 
It  was  opposite  to  the  whirlpool  Charyb- 
dis. 

SEAL,  in  law,  the  impression  or 
device  printed  on  wax  which  is  put  to 
any  deed  by  way  of  ratification. 

SEA'MAN,  an  individual  engaged  in 
navigating  ships  or  other  vessels  upon 
the  high  seas.  Various  regulations  have 
been  enacted  with  respect  to  the  hiring 
of  seamen,  their  conduct,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  their  wages  ;  but  these  particu- 
lars are  too  numerous  for  insertion  here, 
and  not  within  the  scope  of  this  work. 

SEA'MANSHIP,  an  acquaintance  with 
the  art  of  managing  and  navigating  a 
ship;  applicable  both  to  officers  and  the 
men,  and  indispensably  necessary  in 
those  who  have  the  ship  under  their  com- 
mand. 

SEA'SONS,  the  four  divisions  or  por- 
tions of  the  3'ear,  namely.  Spring,  when 
the  sun  enters  Aries  ;  Summer  when  he 
enters  Cancer  ;  Autumn,  when  he  enters 
Libra;  and  Winter  when  he  enters  Cap- 
ricorn. The  diversify  of  the  seasons  de- 
pends upon  the  oblique  po.-^ition  of  the 
sun's  path  through  tiie  heavens,  whereby 
this  luminary  rises  to  different  heights 
above  the  horizon,  Quaking  the  day  some- 
times longer,  and  sometimes  shorter  than 
the  nights.  When  the  sun  rises  highest 
at  noon,  its  rays  fall  most  nearly  in  the 
direction  of  a  perpendicular,  and  conse- 
quently a  greiiter  number  is  received 
upon  a  given  spot;  their  action  also,  at 
the  same  time,  continues  the  longest. 
These  circumstances  make  the  difference 
between  summer  and  winter.  It  is  found 
that  the  sun  does  not  rise  so  high  in  sum- 
mer, nor  descend  so  low  in  winter,  at  the 
'35 


present  time  as  it  did  formerly  ;  in  other 
words,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  which 
is  half  the  difference  between  the  sun's 
greatest  and  least  meridian  altitudes,  is 
growing  loss  and  less  continually,  and  the 
seasons  .ire  thus  tending,  though  slowly, 
to  one  unvaried  spring. 

SECOND,  in  music,  an  interval  of  a 
conjoint  degree,  being  the  difference  be- 
tween any  sound  and  the  next  nearest 
sound  above  or  below  it.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  seconds,  the  minor  second  or 
semitone,  the  major  second,  and  the  ex- 
treme sharp  second 

SECOND  SKJHT,  a  superstitious  no- 
tion, prevalent  in  the  highlands  of  Scot- 
land, by  which  certain  persons  are  sup- 
posed to  be  gifted  with  a  kind  of  super- 
natural sight,  or  the  power  of  seeing 
future  or  distant  events  as 'if  they  really 
happened.  But  the  peculiarity  of  the 
Highland  superstition  seems  to  consist  in 
this,  that  persons  were  supposed  to  be 
endowed  with  the  f.aculty  who  were  in  no 
other  respect  feared  or  reverenced  for 
their  supernatural  powers  ;  it  was  regard- 
ed as  a  mere  natural  power,  like  superior 
sharpness  of  sight  or  hearing.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  Western  Islands  were 
thought  to  be  peculiarly  gifted  with  it. 
It  could  not  be  exerted  at  pleasure  ;  the 
power  came  on  the  seer  involuntarily, 
and  often  to  his  extreme  terror  and  suf- 
fering. Nevertheless,  certain  rules  were 
in  fashion  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
visions  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  that  men- 
tioned by  Sir  W.  Scott,  that  if  a  seer  saw 
<a  figure  with  his  back  to  him,  on  altering 
the  position  of  his  own  plaid  if  the 
figure  appeared  with  its  plaid  similarly 
arranged  the  vision  regarded  the  seer 
himself. 

SECRETARY,  an  officer  whose  duty  it 
is  to  write  letters  and  other  instruments, 
for  and  under  the  orders  and  authority 
of  a  public  body  or  an  individual. — 
Secretary  of  ^tate,  an  officer  who  trans- 
acts and  superintends  the  affairs  of  a  par- 
ticular department  of  government.  In 
Great  Britain,  there  are  three  ju-incipal 
secretaries  of  state.  In  this  country,  the 
secretary  of  state  conducts  treaties  with 
foreign  powers,  and  corresponds  with  the 
public  ministers  abroad,  and  foreign 
ministers  of  the  United  States.  He  also 
keeps  the  seal  of  the  United  States,  but 
cannot  use  it  without  the  authority  of 
the  president. 

SECT,  a  collective  term  for  a  body  of 
persons  adhering  to  some  philosophical 
or  religious  system,  but  constituting  a 
di.-iti  id  party  by  holding  sentiments  dif- 
ferent  from  those  of  other  men.     Most 


546 


CYCLOl'EDIA     UK     I.MKKATUKE 


sects  have  originated  in  a  particular  per- 
son, who  taught  and  propagaleJ  some 
peculiar  notions  in  philosophy  or  religion, 
and  who  is  considered  to  have  been  its 
founder. 

SECTA'RIAN,  one  of  a  party  in  reli- 
gion which  has  separated  itself  from  the 
est;iblished  church,  or  which  holds  tenets 
dilfcrcnt  from  those  of  the  prevailing 
denomination  in  a  kingdom  or  state. 

SECTION,  in  general,  denotes  a  dis- 
tinct part  or  portion  of  something  which 
is  divided,  or  the  division  itself.  Such 
are  the  subdivisions  of  a  chapter,  called 
also  paragraphs  and  articles. — In  archi- 
tectural drawings,  the  word  section  is  ap- 
plied to  the  view  of  an  edifice  cut  down 
the  middle  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting 
the  interior,  and  describing  the  height, 
breadth,  thickness,  of  wall,  arches,  domes, 
&c.  The  drawings  relative  to  an  archi- 
tectural work  cannot  be  said  to  be  com- 
plete, unless  they  comprise  plan,  eleva- 
tion, and  section. 

SECULAR,  something  that  is  tempo 
ral,  in  which  sense  the  word  stands  oppos- 
ed to  ecdexiastical :  thus  we  say,  secula,r 
power,  secular  jurisdiction,  etc.  Among 
Catholics,  secular  is  more  peculiarly  used 
for  an  ecclesiastic  who  lives  at  liberty  in 
the  world,  not  confined  to  a  monastery, 
nor  bound  by  vows,  or  subjected  to  the 
particular  rules  of  any  religious  com- 
munity ;  in  which  sense  it  stands  opposed 
to  regular.  Thus  we  say,  the  secular 
clergy,  and  the  regular  clergy. — The  act 
of  rendering  secular  the  property  of  the 
clergy,  is  called  secularization. 

SECULAR  GAMES,  in  antiquity, 
solemn  games  held  among  the  Romans 
once  in  an  age  or  century.  They  lasted 
three  days  and  three  niglits,  during 
which  time  sacrifices  were  pcrforuied, 
theatrical  shows  exhibited,  with  combats, 
uports,  &c.,  in  the  circus.  The  firjt  who 
had  them  celebrated  at  Rome  wx",  Vale- 
rius Publicolo,  the  first  consul  created 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings.  At  the 
time  of  the  celebration  of  the  secular 
games,  heralds  were  sent  throughout  all 
the  empire,  to  intimate  that  every  one 
might  come  and  see  those  solemnities 
which  ho  never  yet  had  aeen,  nor  would 
ever  see  a*^ain. 

SECULARIZA'TIOy,  in  politics,  the 
appropriation  of  church  property  to  sec- 
ular uses.  In  most  Euro[)ean  states 
Buch  appropriations  have  taken  place  on 
a  great  scale  within  the  last  century.  In 
England,  the  only  great  secularization 
has  been  that  made  under  Henry  VIII. 

SECUNDUM  All'TEM,  (Lat.)  accord- 


ing to  the  rules  of  art.— In  medicine,  a 
term  frequently  used  in  prescriptions,  to 
denote  that  the  recipe  must  be  made  up 
with  particular  care. — Secundum  na- 
turarn.  according  to  the  cour.;e  of  nature. 

SECUTO'RES,  in  antiquity,  a  descrip- 
tion of  gladiators  among  the  Romans, 
who  fought  against  the  retiarii.  The 
sec.itores  were  armed  with  a  sword  and  a 
bu(  kler,  to  keep  otf  the  net  or  noose  of 
their  antagonists,  and  they  also  w<ire  a 
eariue.  This  name  was  also  given  to 
snrjli  gladiators  as  took  the  place  of  those 
kiiled  in  the  combat,  or  who  fought  the 
conqueror. 

KE  DEFEXDEN'DO,  in  law,  a  plea 
11  led  fur  one  who  is  charged  with  the 
death  of  another,  by  alleging  that  he 
was  under  a  necessity  of  committing  the 
act  in  his  own  defence. 

SEDITION,  in  politics,  an  opposition 
to  the  laws,  or  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, and  in  disturbance  of  the  public 
peace. — In  general,  it  signifies  a  local  or 
limited  opposition  to  civil  authority  ;  a 
commotion  of  less  e.xtont  than  an  insur- 
rection, and  consequently  less  than  re- 
bellion. 

SEE,  the  name  usually  given  to  the 
diocess  of  a  bishop  in  England.  It  was 
originally  applied  exclusively  to  the 
papal  chair  at  Rome ;  but  it  has  long 
been  used  in  its  present  wide  significa- 
tion. 

SEIGN'IORAGE,  a  royal  right  or 
prerogative  of  the  king  or  queen  regnant 
of  England,  by  which  they  claim  an  al- 
lowa'nce  of  gold  and  silver  brought  in  the 
mass  to  be  exchanged  for  coin. —  A  lord 
of  a  manor  is  sometimes  styled  a  seignior, 
and  the  lordship  a  scigniorij. 

SE'IZIN,  or  SETSIN,  in  law,  posses- 
sion. Seizin  in  .fact,  or  deed,  is  actual 
or  corporal  possession  ;  seizin  in  laic,  is 
when  something  is  done  which  the  law 
accounts  possession  or  seizin,  as  enrol- 
ment ;  or  when  lands  descen<l  to  an  heir, 
but  he  has  not  yet  entered  on  them.  In 
this  case  the  law  considers  the  heir  as 
seized  of  the  estate,  and  the  person  who 
wrongfully  enters  on  tfie  land  is  accounted 
a  di.'isci:or. 

SELE[i'CID/E,  a  term  in  chronology 
designating  a  particular  era.  The  era 
of  the  Seleucida;,  or  the  Syro-Macedonian 
era,  is  a  computation  of  time,  com- 
mencing from  the  establishment  of  the 
Seleucida",  a  race  of  (J  reek  kings,  who 
reigned  as  successors  of  Alexander  the 
(Ireat,  in  Syria,  as  the  Ptolemies  did  in 
Egypt.  This  era  we  find  expressed  in 
the    book  of  the    Maccabees,   and  on   a 


sen] 


AND    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


547 


great  number  of  Greek  medals,  struck  by 
the  cities  of  Syria,  Ac.  The  Rabbins  call 
it  the  era  of  contracts:  and  the  Arabs 
the  era  of  the  two  horns.  According  to 
the  best  accounts,  the  first  j'ear  of  this 
era  falls  in  the  year  312  before  Christ, 
being  about  eleven  or  twelve  years  after 
Alexander's  death. 

SELF-COMMAND',  that  steady  equa- 
nimity which  enables  a  man  in  every 
situation  to  exert  his  reasoning  faculty 
with  coolness,  and  to  do  what  the  exist- 
ing circumstances  require.  It  depends 
much  upon  the  natural  temperament  of 
the  body,  and  much  upon  the  moral  cul- 
tivation of  the  mind  ;  and  he  who  from 
his  early  youth  has  been  accustomed  to 
make  his  passions  submit  to  his  reason, 
will,  in  any  sudden  emergency,  be  more 
capable  of  acting  with  a  cool  and  steady 
resolution,  than  he  who  has  tamely 
yielded  to  or  allowed  himself  to  be  con- 
trolled by  the  influence  of  his  passions. 

SELF-KNOWL'EDGE,  a  difficult  but 
most  important  acquisition.  It  is  difficult, 
because  every  man  is  more  or  less 
blinded  by  some  fallacy  peculiar  to  him- 
self, and  it  is  disagreeable  to  investigate 
our  errors,  our  faults,  and  our  vices.  But 
these  difficulties  are  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  advantages  of  self- 
knowledge.  By  knowing  the  extent  of 
our  abilities,  we  shall  be  restrained  from 
rashly  engaging  in  enterprises  beyond 
our  ability  ;  by  investigating  our  opin- 
ions, we  may  discover  those  which  are 
based  upon  false  principles ;  and  by 
examining  our  virtues  and  vices,  we 
shall  learn  what  principles  ought  to  be 
strengthened,  and  what  habits  or  propen- 
sities ought  to  be  abaniloned. 

SELF-LOVE,  an  instinctive  principle 
in  the  human  mind  which  impels  every 
rational  creature  to  preserve  his  life,  and 
promote  his  own  happiness.  It  is  very 
generally  confounded  with  selfishness, 
but  their  springs  of  action  and  their 
results  are  very  different;  for  selfishness 
is  the  parent  and  nurse  of  every  vice, 
while  self-love  only  prompts  him  who  is 
actuated  by  it  to  procure  to  himself  the 
greatest  possible  sum  of  happiness  during 
his  whole  existence. 

SEL'LING  OUT,  among  stockbrokers, 
a  transfer  of  one's  share  of  stock  from 
one  person  to  another,  in  distinction  from 
buying  in,  which  is  the  purchase  of  the 
stock  held  by  another. 

SEM'IBREV'P],  in  music,  the  measure 
note  by  which  all  others  are  regulated. 
It  contains  the  time  of  two  minims, 
which    arc      divided    cither     into     four 


crotchets,   eight   quavers,  sixteen   semi- 
quavers, or  thirty-t'.vo  demi-semiquavers. 

SEM'ICOLON,  in  grammar  antl  punc- 
tuation, the  point  ( ;  )  the  mark  of  a 
pause  to  bo  observed  in  reading,  of  less 
duration  than  the  colon,  double  the  dura- 
tion of  the  comma,  or  half  the  duration 
of  the  period.  It  is  used  to  distinguish 
the  conjunct  members  of  a  sentence. 

SEMI-DIAPA'SON,  in  music,  a  de- 
fective octave,  or  an  octave  diminished 
by  a  minor  semitone. 

SEM'INAllY,  any  place  of  education, 
in  which  young  persons  are  instructed  in 
the  several  branches  of  learning. 

SEMI-PELA'GIANS,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians, who  hold  that  God  has  not  b}'  pre- 
destination dispensed  his  grace  to  one 
more  than  to  another  ;  that  Christ  died 
for  all  men  ;  that  the  grace  purchased  by 
Christ  and  necessary  to  salvation,  is  of- 
fered to  all  men  ;  that  man,  before  he  re- 
ceives grace,  is  capable  of  faith  and  holy 
desires  ;  and  that  man  being  born  free,  is 
capable  of  accepting  grace,  or  of  resisting 
its  influence. 

SEMIQUAVER,  in  music,  a  note  of 
half  the  duration  of  the  quaver,  being  the 
sixteenth  of  the  semibreve. 

SEMIT'IC  LAN'GUAGES,  one  of  the 
great  families  of  languages.  They  have 
been  divided  thus:  1.  Ar.imaean,  (in  the 
north,)  including  Eastern  and  AVestern 
Aramaean  ;  the  Eastern  embraces  the  As- 
syrian, the  Babylonian,  from  which  seve- 
ral dialects  originated,  as  the  Chaldaic, 
the  Syro-Chakiaic ;  and  the  Samaritan 
The  Western  Arainaaan  includes  the  Sy 
riao  dialect,  the  Palmyrene,  and  the  Sa- 
bian  idiom,  a  corrupted  Syriac  dialect.  '4 
Canaanitish  languages,  which  comprise 
the  Phcenician  language,  with  its  dia- 
lect the  Punic,  the  Hebrew  with  the  Rab- 
binic dialect.  3.  The  Arabic  language, 
from  which  originated  the  Ethiopian  or 
Abyssinian. 

SEM'ITONE,  in  music,  half  a  tone; 
an  interval  of  sound,  as  between  mi  and 
fa  in  the  diatonic  scale,  which  is  only  half 
the  distance  of  the  interval  between  nl 
and  re,  or  .50/  and  la.  A  semitone,  strict- 
ly speaking,  is  not  half  a  tone,  as  there 
are  three  kinds  of  semitones  ; — greater, 
lesser,  and  natural. 

SEM'I-VOWEL,  in  grammar,  a  half 
vowel,  or  an  articulation  which  is  accom- 
panied with  an  imperfect  sound;  as,  el, 
em,  en,  which,  though  uttered  with  close 
organs,  do  not  wholly  interrupt  the 
sounds, 

SEN'ATE,  an  assembly  or  council  of 
senators  :  that  is,  a  body  of  the  principal 


>48 


CVCLOi'EUI.V     OF     LiriiRATLUE 


[sen 


inhabitants  of  a  state,  invested  with  a 
share  in  the  government.  The  senate  of 
ancient  Rome  was,  of  all  others,  the  mo^t 
celebrated  :  it  ai)[)oiutcd  judges,  either 
from  among  the  senators  or  knights,  to 
determine  processes ;  it  also  appointed 
governors  of  provinces,  and  disposed  of 
the  revenues  of  the  commonwealth,  <i;c. 
Yet  the  whole  sovereign  power  did  not 
reside  in  the  senate,  since  it  could  not 
elect  magistrates,  make  laws,  or  decide 
on  war  and  peace  ;  in  all  which  cases  the 
senate  was  obliged  to  consult  the  people. 
One  of  the  qualifications  of  a  senator  was 
the  possession  of  property  to  the  amount 
of  80,000  sesterces,  about  7000/.— In 
many  republican  constitutions  of  modern 
times,  the  upper  house  of  the  national  as- 
sembly has  been  so  called.  The  senate 
of  the  United  States  is  composed  of  two 
members  for  each  state  of  the  Union. 
The  senators  are  chosen  by  the  state  for 
si.x  years.  The  American  senate,  besides 
its  legislative  functions,  is  also  a  species 
of  executive  council,  assisting  the  presi- 
dent ;  its  consent  being  necessary  for  the 
ratification  of  treaties,  appointment  of 
ambassadors,  judges  of  the  supreme  court, 
heads  of  departments  in  the  administra- 
tion, (fee.  It  is  also  the  high  court  of  im- 
peachment for  public  functionaries. — Sen- 
ate-house, a  Vjuilding  in  which  the  senate 
meets,  or  a  place  of  public  council. — Sen- 
ate, in  the  university  of  Cambridge,  is 
equivalent  to  the  convocation  at  O.Kford, 
and  consists  of  all  maslers  of  arts,  and 
higher  graduates,  being  masters  of  arts, 
who  have  each  a  voice  in  every  public 
measure,  in  granting  degrees,  in  electing 
members  of  parliament,  a  chancellor,  &c. 

SENA'TUS  AlCTOll'lTAS,  a  vote  of 
the  Roman  senate,  drawn  up  in  the  same 
form  as  a  decree,  but  witliout  its  force,  as 
having  been  prevented  from  passing  into 
a  decree  by  some  of  the  tribunes  of  the 
people. 

SEXA'TUS  COXSUL'TUM,  a  decree 
of  the  Roman  senate,  pronounced  on  some 
question  or  point  of  law;  which,  when 
passed,  mailc  a  part  of  the  law. 

SEN'ESCIIAL,  an  officer  in  the  houses 
of  princes  and  dignitaries,  who  has  the 
superintendence  of  feasts  and  public  cer- 
emonies. In  some  iiist;tnces,  the  senes- 
chal is  an  officer  who  has  the  <iispensing 
of  justice,  as  the  high  seneschal  of  Eng- 
land, Ac. 

SENSE,  the  faculty  of  the  soul  by 
which  it  perceives  external  objects  by 
means  of  impressions  made  on  certain  or- 
gans of  the  body.  The  external  organs  of 
ac'isc  are  usually  classed  under  five  heads, 


viz.  those  of  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  smell, 
and  taste.  The  nerves  and  the  brain  are 
the  organs  of  sensatiun.  If  the  external 
organ  be  destroyed,  no  sensation  can  be 
produced  :  where  there  are  no  nerves 
there  is  no  sensation  :  where  the  nervous 
branches  are  most  numerous  there  is 
most  sensation  ;  if  the  nerve  be  destroyed, 
sensation  cannot  be  produced  from  those 
parts  to  which  the  nerve  belongs,  which 
are  farther  from  the  brain  than  the  in- 
jured parts.  All  the  nerves  terminate  in 
the  brain.  If  the  brain  is  compressed, 
sensation  is  suspended:  if  the  brain  is 
considerably  injured,  sensation  ceases 
Sensations  are  the  rudiments  ami  ele- 
ments of  our  ideas,  that  is,  of  all  our 
thoughts  and  feelings.  In  the  earliest 
exercise  of  the  sensative  power,  sensa- 
tions are  simple,  uncompounded  with  the 
relics  of  former  corresponding  sensations  : 
but  the  sensations  soon  become  percep- 
tions ;  that  is,  they  instantaneously  recall 
the  relics  of  other  corresponding  sensa- 
tions. The  accuracy  and  extent  of  the 
perception  depends  on  tiie  vividness  and 
efficaciousness  of  the  compound  sensa- 
tions, and  the  number  of  them  received 
from  the  same  or  similar  objects  in  difTer- 
ent  situations,  and  through  the  medium 
of  different  senses.  The  object  therefore 
of  earlier  education  should  be  to  invigo- 
rate the  organs  of  sense. — Common  sense 
is  that  power  of  the  mind  which,  by  a 
kind  of  instinct,  or  a  short  process  of  rea- 
soning, perceives  truth,  the  relation  of 
things,  cause  and  effect,  &e.,  and  hence 
enables  the  possessor  to  discern  what  is 
right  and  expedient,  and  adopt  the  best 
means  to  accomplish  his  purpose. — Moral 
sense  implies,  a  determination  of  the 
mind  to  be  pleased  with  those  affections, 
actions  or  characters  of  rational  agents, 
which  are  considered  good  and  conducive 
to  virtue. 

SENSIBIL'ITY.  acuteness  of  percep- 
tion, or  that  quality  of  the  mind  which 
renders  it  susceptible  of  impressions; 
delicacy  of  feeling ;  as  sensibiliti/  to 
pleasure  or  pain,  shame  or  praise. 

SEN'SUALISM,  in  mcntnl  ])hilo.<o 
phy,  that  theory  which  resolves  all  out 
mental  acts  and  intellectual  power.s  into 
various  modilications  of  mere  sensation 
The  best  known,  ami  the  most  elaborate 
attempt  of  this  kind  which  has  been 
made  in  modern  times,  is  that  of  Con 
dillae,  who  c<jnceived  that  he  was  follow- 
ing (lut  the  principles  of  Locke  into  theit 
legitimate  consequences.  For  this  belief 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  exists  at 
least  plausible  ground.     Locke  does  in- 


Sep] 


AND    TIIK    FIXE    AIMS. 


649 


deed  draw  a  distinction  between  sensa- 
tion anil  reflection,  as  separate  sources 
of  •'  ideas  :"  but  his  account  of  reflection 
is  so  vague,  and  its  existence  .ap|)arently 
so  unsupported  in  his  systeui,  as  to 
justify  the  attempt  to  reduce  it  to  mere 
revived  sensation.  The  writings  of  Con- 
dillac  may  be  regarded  as  a  (axr  redactio 
ad  absurdum  of  the  theory  which  at- 
tempts tfi  explain  the  existence  of  our 
mental  phenomena  independently  of  con- 
ditions in  the  mind  itself.  The  theory 
oppo-sed  to  sensualism  is  called  intellect- 
ualism. 

SEN'TENCE,  in  law,  a  judicial  deci- 
sion publicly  and  oflicially  declared  in  a 
criminal  prosecution.  In  civil  cases,  the 
decision  of  a  court  is  called  a.judgment. — 
In  grammar,  a  number  of  words  con- 
taining complete  sense,  and  followed  by 
a  full  pause  ;  a  period. 

SEX'TIJIEXT,  in  its  primary  sense, 
signifies  a  thought  prompted  by  passion 
or  feeling.  Also,  the  decision  of  the 
mind,  formed  by  deliberation  or  reason- 
ing.—  Sentiments,  in  poetry,  and  espe- 
cially dramatic,  are  the  thoughts  which 
the  several  persons  express,  whether 
they  relate  to  matters  of  opinion,  pas- 
sion, &a. 

SEX'Z.A,  in  music,  signifies  without; 
as  scnza stromenti,  without  instruments; 
con  c  senza  violini,  with  and  without 
violins. 

SEP'ARATISTS,  a  religious  sect 
which  originated  in  Dublin  about  the 
year  1803.  Their  principle,  like  that  of 
most  sects  at  their  commencement,  was 
to  return  more  nearly  to  what  they  con- 
ceived to  be  the  primitive  form  of  Chris- 
tianity. There  is  nothing  very  peculiar 
in  their  tenets,  beyond  their  withdrawal 
from  the  fellowship  of  other  Christian 
bodies.  In  the  year  1833  an  act  of  par- 
liament was  passed  for  their  relief  in  the 
matter  of  oaths. 

SE'POYS,  the  name  given  to  the 
Hindoo  or  native  troops  in  the  service 
of  the  East  India  Company,  of  whom 
there  are  nearly  200,000,  chiefly  infantry, 
though  there  are  several  regiments  of 
cavalry  and  some  companies  of  artillery. 
They  are  all  disciplined  after  the  Euro- 
pean manner,  and  are  hardy,  temperate, 
and  subordinate.  Their  dress  consists  of 
a  red  jacket,  with  a  white  cotton  vo.st, 
trowsers  reaching  only  half-way  down 
the  thighs,  and  a  light  turban.  The 
character  of  the  Sepoys  as  soldiers  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  Ac- 
cording to  a  modern  writer,  "the  Sepoys 
have  justly  been  celebrated  for  e.^cellent 


qualities;  as,  for  instance,  patience  and 
fortitude  under  diSiculties  and  priva- 
tions. Eut,  on  the  other  hand,  if  we 
analyze  the  account  of  the  wars  in  which 
they  have  been  employed,  we  shall  find 
that  they  seem  to  possess  j)assive  rattier 
than  active  courage  ;  for  instance,  that 
in  line  they  will  remain  steady  under 
fire  ;  in  a  broken  or  close  country,  how- 
ever, where  skirmishers  and  small  de- 
tachments are  necessarily  most  employed, 
they  are  found  wanting."  Other.-,  how- 
ever, disagree  even  from  this  modified 
dispraise. 

SEPT.  in  Irish  history,  a  clan,  race,  or 
faufily,  proceeding  from  a  common  pro- 
genitor. 

SEPTEM'BER,  so  called  from  its  be- 
ing the  seventh  month  in  the  Roman  year 
as  established  by  Romulus,  which  began 
with  March,  is  the  ninth  month  in  the 
calendar  of  Numa.  Several  of  the  Roman 
emperors  gave  names  to  this  month  in 
honor  of  themselves ;  but,  unlike  the 
month  of  August,  whose  ancient  name  of 
Sextilis  has  been  quite  merged  in  that  of 
Augustus,  the  name  of  September  has  out- 
lived every  other  appellation. 

SEPTEMBRISTS,  the  name  given  to 
the  agents  in  the  dreadful  massacre  which 
took  place  in  Paris  on  September  2,  1792, 
during  the  French  Revolution.  The  num- 
bers that  perished  in  this  massacre  have 
been  variously  given  ;  but  the  term  has 
become  proverbial  throughout  Europe 
for  all  that  is  bloodthirsty  and  malignant 
in  human  nature. 

SEPTEN'NIAL,  happening  or  return- 
ing every  seven  years,  as  septennial  par- 
liaments, i.  e.  new  parliaments  chosen 
every  seven  years,  as  they  are  at  present 
appointed  in  England. 

SEPTEN'TRION,  or  SEPTEN'TRI- 
ONAL,  pertaining  to  the  north  or  north- 
ern regions  of  the  globe. 

SEPTUACrES'IMA,  in  the  calendar, 
the  third  Sunday  before  Lent,  or  before 
Quadragesima  Sunday  :  supposed  to  take 
its  name  from  being  about  seventy  days 
before  Easter. 

SEP'TU  AG  INT,  a  Greek  version  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called  be- 
cause the  translation  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made_by  seventy-two  Jews,  who,  for 
the  sake  of  round  numbers,  are  usually 
called  the  seventy  interpreters.  This 
translation  is  said  to  have  been  made  at 
the  request  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
king  of  Egypt,  about  280  years  before  the 
birth  of  Christ.  It  was  in  use  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour,  and  is  that  out  of  which 
all  the  citations   in   the  New  Testament 


550 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    MTERATL'RE 


SEK 


from  the  Old  are  taken.  It  was  also  the 
ordinary  and  canonical  translation  made 
use  of  by  the  Chri.-itian  church  in  the  ear- 
liest ivges ;  and  it  still  subsi.-^ts  in  the 
churches  both  of  the  e:ist  and  west.  It  is 
however  observable,  that  the  chronologj' 
of  the  Septuagint  makes  fifteen  hundred 
years  more  from  the  creation  to  Abraham, 
than  the  present  Hebrew  copies  of  the 
Bible. 

SEP TLCHRE,  a  place  destined  for  the 
interment  of  the  dead.  This  term  is 
chiefly  used  in  speaking  of  the  burying 
places  of  the  ancients,  those  of  the  mod- 
erns being  usually  called  tombs.  Sepul- 
chres were  held  sacred  and  inviolable, 
and  the  care  taken  of  them  has  always 
been  held  a  religious  duty.  Those  who 
have  searched  or  violated  them,  have  been 
thought  odious  by  all  nations,  and  were 
always  severely  punished.  The  Egyp- 
tians called  sepulchres  eternal  houses,  in 
contradistinction  to  their  ordinary  houses 
or  palaces,  which  they  called  inns,  on  ac- 
count of  their  short  stay  or  pilgrimage  on 
earth.  The  sepulchres  of  the  Hebrews 
in  general  were  hollow  places  dug  out  of 
rocks.  Thus  Abraham  is  said  to  bury 
Sarah  his  wife  in  the  cave  of  Macpelah 
In  such  sepulchres,  also,  the  bodies  of 
Lazarus  and  Jesus  Christ  were  buried. 
And  the  same  custom  prevails  in  the  East 
to  this  day,  according  to  the  account  of 
modern  travellers. — Knights  of  the  hohj 
Se/)u!clire,  a  military  order,  established 
in  Palestine  about  the  year  1114. 

SEPULTU'RA,  in  archaeology,  an  of- 
fering made  to  the  priest  for  the  burial 
of  the  dead  body. 

SE'QUENCE,  in  music,  a  regular  suc- 
cession of  similar  sounds. — In  gaining,  a 
set  of  cards  immediately  following  each 
other,  in  the  same  suit,  as  a  king,  queen, 
knave,  &c. ;  thus  we  say,  a  sequence  of 
three,  four,  or  five  cards. 

SEQUESTRA'TION,  in  law,  the  act 
of  taking  a  thing,  in  controversy,  from 
the  possession  of  both  parties  till  the 
right  be  determined  by  course  of  law. — 
III  the  civil  law,  the  act  of  the  ordinary, 
dispjsing  iif  the  goods  and  chattels  of  a 
person  deceased,  whose  estate  no  one  will 
meddle  with. 

.^E  QUIX,  or  ZECIIIN,  a  gold  coin  of 
Venice  and  Turkey,  of  ditt'erent  values  in 
diffiMent  jdaces,  but  generally  about  9.*. 

SERAtf'LIO,  a  Persian  word,  signify- 
ing the  palace  of  a  prince  or  lord ;  bat 
the  term  is  used,  by  way  of  eminence,  for 
the  palace  of  the  (irand  Seignior  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  all  the  oflicers  and  de- 
pendents of  bis  court ;  and  in  it  is  trans- 


acted all  the  business  of  the  government. 
In  this  building  are  also  kept  the  females 
of  tiie  harem. 

SER.\r,  a  large  building  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  travellers,  common  in 
the  East.  In  Turkey  they  are  called 
khans;  in  Persia,  cararanserais,  v;U'n:h 
we  write  caravansaries ;  but  in  Tartary 
and  India,  simjjly  serais. 

SER'APII,  a  spirit  of  the  highest  rank 
in  the  hierarchy  of  angels;  thus  called 
from  their  being  supposed  to  be  most  in- 
flamed with  divine  love,  or  holy  zeal, 
owing  to  their  more  immediate  attend- 
ance at  the  throne  of  God.  The  Hebrew 
plural  is  serajihim  :  the  English  plural 
is  regularly  formed  (seraphs.) 

SERA'PIS,  an  Egyptian  deity.  The 
image  and  worship  of  this  god  were 
brought  from  Sinope  in  Pontus,  to  Alex- 
andria, in  the  last  year  of  Ptolemy  Soter, 
in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  a  vision  of 
Ptolemy  I.  According  to  some  accounts, 
this  image  was  a  statue  of  Jupiter  ;  but 
however  this  may  have  been,  Serapis  was 
clearly,  as  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  expresses  it, 
"  at  most  a  Grreco-Egyptian  deity," 
And  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  notion 
entertained  by  some  early  Christian 
fathers,  that  he  represented  the  patriarch 
Joseph,  (which  they  supported  by  an  ar- 
gument drawn  fiom  the  ornament  in  the 
shape  of  a  bushel,  which  the  images  of 
this  god  usually  bore  on  the  head  ;)  or  for 
that  of  some  modern  antiquaries,  that  it 
was  another  name  for  Apis. 

SERAS'KIER,  a  Turkish  general  or 
commander  of  land  forces. 

SERENA!)!]',  signified  originally  mu- 
sic perfonneii  in  the  open  air.  on  a  serene 
evening;  but  it  is  now  universally  ap- 
plied to  a  musical  performance  made  by 
gentlemen  in  a  spirit  of  gallantry  under 
the  windows  of  ladies  whom  they  admire. 
This  practice,  which  was  formerly  very 
general  in  Spain  and  Italy,  has  latterly 
fallen  greatly  into  disuse  in  these  coun- 
tries :  but  it  is  still  very  common  in  the 
(Jerinan  university  towns,  where  the  stu- 
dents are  in  the  habit  of  assembling  in 
the  evening  under  the  windows  of  a  fa- 
vorite profe.ssor,  and  offering  him  a  musi- 
cal tribute. 

SERENE'  HIGH'NES,'^,  a  title  of 
courtesy  in  European  ctif|Uctto  of  con- 
siilerable  antiquity.  Before  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  German  empire.  Serene  and 
Most  Serene  Highness  were  the  appro- 
])riate  addresses  of  princely  houses  hold- 
ing immediately  of  the  empire.  Since 
that  [lerio  1  the  rules  of  princely  etiquette 
have  become  more  uncertain. 


SEV] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


-.61 


SERF,  a  servant,  or  as  is  the  case  in 
some  countries,  a  peasant  sla-ve,  attached 
to  the  soil  and  transferred  with  it. 

SKU'li  KAXT,  in  military  affairs,  a 
noii-cDiuinissioned  officer  in  a  company 
of  infantry  or  troop  of  cavalry,  whose 
duty  is  to  order  and  form  the  ranks,  and 
see  discipline  preserved. — Sergeant-at- 
law,  in  England,  a  barrister  who  us^jally 
pleads  in  the  court  of  common-pleas,  but 
who  is  allowed  to  plead  also  in  other 
courts.  Every  judge  must  first  be  a  ser- 
geant-at-law. — Sergeant-at-arms,  or  at 
mace,  an  officer  appointed  to  attend  the 
person  of  the  sovereign,  arrest  persons  of 
quality  that  offend,  itc.  A  similar  ser- 
geant attends  the  lord  chancellor  ;  a  third 
the  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons; 
and  a  fourth,  the  lord  mayor  of  London, 
on  solemn  occasions. —  Common  sergeant 
an  officer  of  the  city  of  London,  who  at- 
tends the  lord  mayor  and  court  of  alder- 
men on  court  days,  and  is  in  council  with 
them  on  all  occasions.  He  is,  more  par- 
ticularly, to  take  care  of  the  orphan's 
estates. — Sergeaiitry,  in  the  old  English 
law,  is  of  two  kinds, —  Grand  sergeantry, 
is  a  kind  of  knight  service,  by  which  the 
tenant  was  bound  to  do  some  special  hon- 
orary service  to  the  king  in  person,  as 
to  carry  his  banner  or  sword,  or  be  his 
champion  at  his  coronation,  &a. — Petit 
sergeantry  was  a  tenure  by  which  the 
tenant  was  bound  to  render  to  the  king 
annually  some  small  implement  of  war, 
as  a  bow,  a  sword,  a  lance,  <te. 

SER'MOX,  in  ecclesiastical  usage.  The 
use  of  the  sermon  or  homily  as  a  portion 
of  the  communion  service  is  said  to  be  of 
remote  antiquity.  This  ancient  custom 
fell  into  partial  disuse  during  a  great 
part  of  the  middle  ages.  The  homilies 
of  Elfric,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
the  10th  century,  were  long  used  in  the 
English  church  ;  but  these  became  anti- 
quated ;  and  in  the  year  1281,  preaching 
seems  to  have  been  generally  omitted. 
In  that  year  archbishop  Peckham  order- 
ed in  his  Constitutions,  that  four  sermons 
should  be  delivered  during  the  j'ear. 
But  for  some  time  prior  to  the  Reforma- 
tion preaching  was  again  coming  more 
into  use  ;  and  the  publication  of  homilies 
by  authority,  seems  to  have  completely 
restored  the  ancient  practice.  See  Hom- 
ily. 

SERVICE,  in  a  general  sense,  labor, 
whether  of  body  or  mind,  or  of  both  unit- 
ed, performed  in  pursuance  of  duty,  or  at 
the  command  of  a  superior.  The  service 
of  persons  who  spontaneously  perform 
something  for  another's  benefit,  is  termed 


voluntary,  and  that  of  those  who  work  by 
compulsion  involuntary  service. — Public 
worship  is  termed  divine  service. — The 
duty  which  a  tenant  owes  to  his  lord  for 
his  fee,  is  called  personal  service. — The 
word  service  is  also  applied  to  the  duty 
of  navnl  or  military  men  when  serving 
their  country  ;  as  home  service,  foreign 
service,  limited  service,  &c. — Various  le- 
gal processes  are  also  distinguished  by 
the  term  service,  as  the  service  o^  merit, 
an  attachment,  an  execution,  &c. 

SER'VITOR,  a  poor  scholar  at  Oxford, 
answering  to  a  slzer  at  Cambridge,  who 
attends  on  other  students  for  his  mainte- 
nance and  learning. 

SES'QUI,  in  music,  a  whole  and  a  half; 
which,  joined  with  altera,  terza,  quarta, 
&e.,  is  much  used  in  the  Italian  music  to 
express  a  set  of  ratios,  particularly  the 
several  species  of  triple  time. 

SESSION,  in  law,  a  sitting  of  justices 
in  court  upon  their  commission,  as  the 
session  oyer  and  terminer,  &c. — The  ses- 
sion of  a  judicial  court  is  called  a  term  : 
thus  a  court  may  have  two  sessions  or 
four  sessions  annually.  The  term  sessions, 
or  quarter  sessions,  is  applied  to  those 
quarterly  meetings  of  justices  of  the 
peace,  when  minor  offences  are  tried,  or 
business  performed  which  requires  the 
sanction  of  two  or  more  justices. — Session 
of  Congress,  the  season  and  space  be- 
tween its  meeting  and  its  adjournment. 

SES'TERCE,  in  antiquity,  a  Roman 
coin,  the  fourth  part  of  a  denarius  in 
value,  or  about  twopence.  The  sester- 
tlum,  or  sestcrtlum  pondus,  was  250  de- 
narii ;  about  .835.  One  qualification  of  a 
Roman  knight  was  the  possession  of  es- 
tate of  the  value  of  four  hundred  thou- 
sand sesterces  ;  that  of  a  senator  was  dou- 
ble this  sum. 

SE'I'-OFF,  is  a  term  used  in  law,  when 
the  defendant  acknowledges  the  plaintifTs 
demand,  but  makes  a  demand  of  his  own, 
to  set  off"  or  counterbalance  the  debt 
either  wholly  or  in  part. 

SETTLEMENT,  in  law,  the  right 
which  an  individual  acquires  to  parochial 
assistance,  under  the  statutes  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  poor,  in  that  parish  or  district 
to  which  he  legally  belongs,  and  in  which 
he  is  said  to  have  the  settlement. 

SEVENTH,  in  music,  an  interval; 
whereof  there  are  four  species.  First,  the 
defective  seventh,  consisting  of  three 
tones  and  three  greater  semitones.  Sec- 
ond, the  minor  seventh,  consisting  of 
seven  degrees  and  six  intervals,  diatoni- 
cally  taken  ;  four  being  tones,  and  the 
rest  greater  semitones.    Third,  the  major 


552 


CVCI.OPEDIA    OF    LITEKATfKE 


SHA 


Beventli.  being  only  .a  niiijur  ?ciuitone  less 
than  tlic  octave.,  Fourtli,  the  extreme 
sharp  seventh,  which  is  only  a  comma 
less  than  the  octave. 

SEVEN  YE.\HS'  WAR,  in  history,  a 
war  carrieil  on  in  Germany  between  two 
alliances,  headed  respectively  by  Austria 
and  Prussia,  from  the  year  1756  to  176'3, 
when  it  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Hu- 
bertsburg.  It  was  signalized  chiefly  by 
the  extraordinary  campaigns  of  Frederick 
II.,  the  (ireat  King  of  Prussia.  His  prin- 
eipal  ally  throughout  the  struggle  was 
England  ;  while  he  was,  at  one  period, 
assailed  by  the  forces  of  Austria.  France, 
the  Empire,  Sweden,  and  Russia.  When 
the  forces  of  the  I'russian  sovereign  had 
been  almost  annihilated  by  this  coalition, 
the  death  of  the  Russian  empress.  Eliza- 
beth, caused  the  withdrawal  of  Russia 
from  the  alliance  of  his  enemies,  and 
brought  about  the  termination  of  tlic  war 
without  material  advantages  gained  by 
any  party. 

SEW'ER,  in  architecture,  a  subterra- 
neous conduit,  or  channel,  to  receive  and 
carry  off  the  superfluous  water  and  filth 
of  a  city.  The  sewers  of  Rome  have  been 
the  models  of  those  of  the  modern  cities 
of  Europe.  They  are  as  old  as  the  elder 
Tarquin.  These  c/oat'c;  had,  between  the 
Quirinal,  Capitoline,  and  Palatine  hills, 
many  branches,  which,  joining  in  the  Fo- 
rum, now  the  Cainpo  Vaccino,  were  re- 
ceived for  conveyance  into  the  Tiber  by  a 
larger  one  called  the  cloaca  7}ia.vima.  It 
must  be  admitted,  however,  that  it  is  er- 
roneous to  designate  the  Roman  cloactc 
by  the  term  sewers.  They  were  rather 
drains,  made  to  carry  off  the  stagnant 
water  of  the  pestilential  marshes  which 
occupied  much  of  the  low  ground  near 
the  Tiber,  and  the  spaces  between  the 
Aventine.  Palatine,  and  Capitoline  hills. 
The  height  and  width  of  the  cloaca  max- 
ima are  equal,  each  measuring  13  1-2 
feet. 

SEXAGES'IMA,  the  second  Sunday 
before  Lent,  or  the  next  to  Shrove  Sun- 
day :  so  called  as  being  about  the  60lh 
day  before  Easter. 

SEXIIIN'DEXI,  or  SEX'IIINDMEX, 
in  Anglo-Saxon  history,  the  middle 
thanes,  who  were  rated  at  600  shillings. 

SEX'TAIN,  in  poetry,  a  stanza  con- 
taining six  verses. 

SEX'TARY-LANDS,  in  law,  lands 
given  to  a  church  or  religious  house  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  sexton  or  sac- 
ristan. 

SEXTI'LIS,  the  sixth  month  of  Rom- 
ulus's  year,  but  the  eighth  of  the   year 


of  Xuma.  It  was  under  the  protection  of 
Ceres,  and  was  afterwards  called  August, 
in  honor  of  Augustus. 

SEX'TOX,  an  under  officer  of  tho 
church,  whose  business  it  is  to  take  care 
of  the  vessels,  vestments,  Ac.  belonging 
to  the  church,  and  to  attend  the  officiat- 
ing clerg3'nian,  and  perform  other  duties 
pertaining  to  the  church.  He  was  an- 
ciently called  the  sacristan. 

SFORZA'TO,  in  music,  an  Italian  term 
signifying  that  the  note  over  which  it  is 
placed  must  be  struck  with  force. 

SFUMA'TO,  in  painting.  This  term  is 
applied  to  the  species  of  painting  in  which 
the  tints  are  extremely  smooth  and 
blended,  so  as  to  present  that  sort  of  in- 
definite contour  and  outline  displayed  by 
natural  appearances  on  a  misty  day.  or 
at  a  considerable  <listance.  This  stj'le,  in 
the  hands  of  a  master,  is  very  agreeable 
and  harmonious.  Perhaps  Guercino  has 
seized  its  true  spirit  better  than  any  other 
artist  of  celebrity. 

SGRAFIT'TO,  in  painting,  a  species 
of  painting  in  which  the  ground  is  pre- 
pared with  dark  stucco,  on  which  a  white 
coat  is  applied  ;  which  last  being  re- 
moved with  an  iron  instrument,  the 
chipping  it  away  opens  to  the  black 
ground  and  forms  the  shadows,  giving  it 
the  appearance  of  a  chiaro-scuro  jiaint- 
ing.  The  principal  pictures  of  Polidoro 
da  Caravaggio  are  executed  in  this  man- 
ner, which  is  capable  of  great  effect,  and 
is  extremely  durable,  though  it  must  be 
conceded  the  appearance  is  rather  harsh. 

SHABRACK,  a  military  term,  of 
Hungarian  origin,  used  for  the  cloth 
furniture  of  a  cavalry  ofBcer's  troop- 
horse  or  charger. 

SHADOW,  in  painting,  &c.  Shadow 
must  not  be  confounded  with  obscurity  ; 
the  latter  being  an  entire  privation  of 
light,  whilst  the  former  is  merely  a  s^ra- 
elation  of  it,  the  parties  in  shade  being 
still  radiated  by  the  light  dispersed 
through  the  air.  According  to  Felibien, 
it  may  be  regarded  simply  as  a  light 
cloud  covering  the  bodies  and  depriving 
them  of  the  stronger  brilliancy  without 
rcniiering  their  colors  and  shapes  imper- 
ceptible. It  is  requisite,  in  a  picture, 
that  there  should  be  different  modifica- 
tions of  shadow,  as  operated  on  by  situa- 
tion and  surrounding  objects.  The  di- 
rection of  the  shades  should  be  diagonal, 
and  the  effects  triangular,  like  those  of 
lights.  The  ])iogression  of  the  latter,  in 
fact,  should  servo  as  a  model  for  the 
former,  to  the  end  that  tho  chiaro-scuro 
should  be  well  and  naturally  balanced. 


;iieJ 


AND     rilK    FINE    AIMS. 


553 


SHAFT,  ill  architecture,  that  part  of  a 
column  between  the  base  anil  capital, 
sometimes  callcil  the  trunk  of  the 
column.  The  shaff  of  a  column  always 
diminishes  in  o.imeter  from  about  a 
third  of  it..  h.£;j;ht.  Sometimes  it  has  a 
slight  e-.tcUing  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
ht^ight.  In  the  ol  lest  Doric  columns,  the 
diminution  was  so  consiilerable  as  to  give 
the  column  a  conical  appearance.  la 
the  Doric  edifiiies  at  Athens,  the  upper 
diameter  is  not  more  than  a  quarter  less 
than  the  lower  diameter. 

SIIAII,  the  title  given  by  European 
writers  to  the  monarch  of  Persia,  who  in 
his  own  country  is  designated  by  the 
compound  appellation  oi  Padishah,  which 
see. 

SIIAII-XAMAII,  the  most  ancient  and 
celebrated  poem  in  the  modern  Persian 
language,  by  the  poet  who  received  as  a 
title  of  -honor  the  name  ''Firdousi,"  by 
which  he  is  known.  Its  date  is  supposed 
to  be  about  a.  d.  1000.  A  complete 
translation  into  English,  in  four  volumes, 
was  published  by  Captain  Macan,  Cal- 
cutta, 1S29. 

SU.\KE.  in  music,  an  embellishment, 
consisting  of  an  alternate  reiteration  of 
two  notes,  comprehending  an  interval 
not  greater  than  one  wh<de  tone,  nor  less 
than  a  semitone. 

SHA'KERS,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
«ect  said  to  have  originated  b3'  a  secession 
^•om  the  body  of  Quakers,  in  1747..  in 
Lancashire  ;  who  received  their  nick- 
name from  the  peculiar  contortions  of 
body  which  they  adopted  in  their  re- 
ligious e.icercises.  Anne  Lee,  the  great 
female  leailer  of  this  sect,  joined  the 
society  in  17.58;  and,  considering  herself 
persecuted  in  England,  went,  with  a  few 
followers,  to  New  York  in  1774.  and  died 
ten  years  afterwards,  at  which  time  her 
sect  had  ma'le  great  progress  in  America. 
She  was  considered  as  the  woman  spoken 
of  in  Revelations.  Several  flourishing 
establishments  of  this  sect  e.xist  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  United  States. 

SH.A'.MAXISM,  a  general  name  ap- 
plied to  the  idolatrous  religions  of  a  num- 
ber of  barbarous  tribes,  comprehending 
those  of  Finnish  race,  the  Ostiaks, 
.Sitrnjeds,  and  other  inhabitants  of  Si- 
b3ria  as  far  as  the  Pacific  Ocean.  These 
nations  generally  believe  in  a  Supreme 
Being,  but  to  whom  they  attribute  little 
share  in  the  immediate  government  of 
the  world  :  this  is  in  the  hands  of  a  num- 
ber of  secondary  gods,  both  benevolent 
and  malevolent  towards  men.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  very  uncertain  and  fluctua- 


ting opinions  respecting  these  last.  Thus, 
those  tribes  which  dwell  on  the  frontier 
of  Russia  are  said  to  admit  Saint  Nicho- 
l;is  among  their  gods. 

SHAMROCK,  the  Irish  name  for 
three-leaved  grass,  or  trefoil.  According 
to  legendary  tradition,  when  St.  Patrick 
landed  near  Wicklow,  to  convert  the 
Irish,  in  433,  the  pagan  inhabitants  were 
about  to  stone  him  ;  but  having  obtained 
a  hearing,  he  endeavored  to  e.\plain  to 
them  the  Trinity  in  Unity  ;  but  they 
could  not  understand  him,  till,  plucking 
a  trefoil  from  the  ground,  he  said,  "  Is  it 
not  as  possible  for  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,  as  for  these  leaves,  to  grow 
upon  a  single  stalk?"  Upon  which  (says 
the  legend)  the  Irish  were  immediately 
convinced. 

SHARP'ING,  in  archaeology,  a  cus- 
tomary present  of  corn  made  about  Christ- 
mas, by  farmers  in  some  part  of  England 
to  the  smiths  for  sharpening  their  iron 
implements  of  husbandry. 

SHAS'TER,  among  the  Hindoos,  a 
sacred  book  containing  the  dogmas  of  the 
religion  of  the  Bramins  and  the  cere- 
monies of  their  worship.  It  consists  of 
three  parts  :  the  first  containing  the  moral 
laws  of  the  Hindoos  ;  the  second  the  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  their  religion ;  the 
third  the  distribution  of  the  people  into 
tribes  or  classes,  with  the  duties  per- 
taining to  each. 

SHAWM,  in  antiquity,  an  instrument 
used  in  the  sacred  music  of  the  Hebrews. 

SHEATHING,  in  naval  architecture, 
sheets  of  copper  nailed  all  over  the  out- 
siile  of  a  ship's  bottom,  to  protect  the 
planks  from  the  pernicious  efi"ects  of 
worms. 

SHEIK,  an  elder  or  chief  of  the  Ara- 
bic tribes  or  hordes.  They  are  very 
proud  of  their  long  line  of  noble  ances- 
tors;  and  some  of  them  also  take  the 
title  of  emir.  The  M(jhammedans  also 
call  the  heads  of  their  niona.steriess/i«(A-t,', 
and  the  Turkish  mufti  is  sometimci 
called  sheik  ulislam,  or  chief  of  the  true 
believers. 

SHE'KEL,  a  Jewish  silver  coin,  worth 
about  l52i  cents.  There  was  also  the 
golden  shekel,  worth  -SO. 

SHEKI'NAH,  the  .Jewish  name  for  the 
Divine  presence,  which  rested,  in  the 
shape  of  a  cloud,  over  the  "propitiatory," 
or  "  mercy-seat,"  as  it  is  rendered  in  our 
translation.  The  Jews  reckon  it  among 
the  five  particulars  which  were  in  the 
first  temple,  and  wanting  in  the  second. 
On  this  account  God  is  so  often  said  in 
Scripture   to  '•  dwell  between   the  cheru 


CVCI.OPEDIA    OF    I.llEKAILUK 


[sHI 


biin;"  that  is^  between  the  images  of  the 
cherubim  on  the  mercy -seat. 

SlIEMIT  IC,  an  epithet  for  anything 
pertaining  to  Shem,  tiie  son  of  Noah. 
What  are  tcriueJthe  57ie/ni7ic  languages 
are  the  ChaUlee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Hebrew, 
Samaritan,  Elhiopic,  and  the  old  Phoeni- 
cian. 

SlIER'IFF,  an  officer  appointed  in  each 
county,  to  e.tecute  process,  preserve  the 
peace,  and  give  assi^t:lnoe  to  ju.stices  .and 
others  ill  doing  si>.  In  England,  during 
his  office,  which  is  but  for  a  year,  be  is 
the  fi.st  man  in  his  county,  and  has  at 
liis  disposal  the  whole  civil  force  of  that 
County,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  preserve 
the  i>eace.  He  only  executes  in  person 
such  parts  (/f  his  office  as  are  either 
purely  honorary,  or  are  of  some  dignity 
and  public  importance,  his  other  func- 
tions being  performed  by  a  deputy  or 
under  sheriff. 

SHEW'-BREAD,  in  the  Jewish  rites, 
the  loaves  of  unleavened  bread  which  the 
priest  placed  on  the  golden  table  in  the 
sanctuary.  They  were  i-haped  like  a 
brick,  and  weighed  about  S  Ihs.  The 
loaves  were  twelve  in  number,  represent- 
ing the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  ;  ami  were 
to  be  eaten  by  the  priest  only. 

SHIBBOLETH,  the  nanle  given  to  a 
sort  of  test  or  criterion  by  which  the  an- 
cient Jews  sought  to  distinguish  true 
persons  or  things  from  false.  The  term 
originateil  thus  :  After  the  battle  gained 
by  T^phtha  over  the  Ephraimites,  the 
Gileadites  commanded  by  the  former  se- 
cured all  the  passes  of  the  river  :  and  on 
an  Ephraimite  attempting  to  cross,  they 
asked  him  if  he  was  of  Ephraiin.  If  he 
said  no,  they  bade  him  pronounce  the 
■word  .S7u'66o/c//i,  which  the  Ephraimites 
fron>-inability  to  give  the  aspirate  called 
Sibboletk ;  and  by  this  means  he  was  de- 
tected and  instantly  thrown  into  the  river. 
In  modern  times  this  word  has  been 
a<loptcd  into  the  language  of  politics,  in 
which  it  signifies  those  political  opinions 
on  which  all  the  members  of  a  party  are 
agreed,  or  the  wa'chword  by  which  it  is 
intended  to  unite  them. 

SHIELD,  a  broad  piece  of  defensive 
armor,  formerly  borne  on  the  left  arm, 
as  a  defence  against  arrows,  darts,  lances, 
and  other  weapons.  The  shields  of  the 
ancients  were  of  different  shapes  and 
sizes,  and  generally  made  of  leather,  or 
wood  covered  with  leather.  The  surface, 
"r  as  it  is  called  in  heraldry,  thv  field,  of 
the  shield,  or  escutcheon,  appears  to  have 
been  in  all  ages  decorated  with  figures 
emblematical  or  historical,  serving  toe.\- 


press  the  sentiments,  record  the  honors, 
or  at  least  distinguish  the  person  of  the 
warrior. 

SliriTES,  that  class  of  the  Moham- 
medans to  which  the  Persians  belong. 
They  reject  the  three  first  caliphs,  and 
consiilcr  Ali  as  being  the  only  rightful 
successor  of  Mohammed.  They  do  not  ac- 
knowledge the  Sunna,  or  body  of  tradi- 
tions respecting  Mohaujmed,  as  any  part 
of  the  law,  and  on  these  accounts  are 
treated  as  heretics  bj'  the  Sunnite?  or 
orthodijx  Mohammedans. 

SHlL'LINCi,  an  English  silver  coin, 
equal  in  value  to  twelve  pence.  The 
word  is  suppo.sed,  by  some,  to  be  derived 
from  the  Latin  silicus,  which  signifies  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce,  or  the  48th  part  of  a 
Roman  pound.  In  support  of  this  ety- 
molog}',  it  is  alleged  that  the  Sa.xon  shil- 
ling was  also  the  48th  part  of  the  Saxon 
pound. 

SHI  P'-B  IT  I  L  D  I  N  G,  the  practical 
branch  of  naval  architecture,  or  the  art 
of  constructing  vessels  for  navigation, 
particularly  ships  and  other  vessels  of  a 
large  kind,  bearing  masts  ;  in  distinction 
from  boat-biiUdliig.  To  give  an  idea  of 
the  enormous  quantity  of  timber  neces- 
sary to  construct  a  .ship  of  war,  we  may 
observe  that  2,000  tons,  or  3,000  loads, 
are  computed  to  be  required  for  a  seven- 
ty-four. Now,  reckoning  fifty  oaks  to  the 
acre,  of  100  years'  standing,  and  the  quan- 
tity in  each  tree  at  a  load  and  a  half,  it 
would  require  forty  acres  of  oak-forest  to 
build  one  seventy-four  ;  and  the  quantity 
increases  in  a  great  ratio,  for  the  largest 
class  of  line-of-battle  ships.  A  first-rate 
man-of-war  requires  about  60,000  cubic 
feet  of  timber,  and  uses  180,000  pounds 
of  rough  hemp,  in  the  cordage  and  sails 
for  it.  The  average  duration  of  these 
vast  machines,  when  employed,  is  com- 
puted to  be  fourteen  years.  Ship-build- 
ing made  but  very  slow  progress  until  the 
introduction  of  the  compass,  when  the 
application  of  astronomy  to  nautical  pur- 
suits at  once  set  the  mariner  free  from 
the  land.  Thenceforward  the  mariner, 
thrown  upon  the  wide  ocean,  was  brought 
into  contact  with  unknown  perils,  to  ob- 
viate which  ho  was  led  to  untried  experi- 
ments. The  art  has  since  strode  forward 
with  giant  steps.  To  the  Italians.  Cata- 
lans, and  Portuguese,  belong  most  of  the 
advances  in  the  earlier  days  of  its  revival , 
the  Spaniards  followed  up  the  discovery 
of  the  new  world  with  a  rapid  improve- 
ment in  the  form  and  size  of  their  ships, 
some  of  which,  taken  by  the  cruisers  of 
Elizabeth,  carried  2000  tons.    In  modern 


SIB 


AM)    THE     FINE    AUTS. 


times,  to  Great  Brilain,  France,  and  the 
United  States  belongs  the  credit  of  the 
progress  made  in  tlii:'  important  branch 
of  art.     SiH'  Ct/r).  Useful  Art^. 

SIIIP'-MONEY,  in  English  history, 
an  ancient  impost  upon  the  ports,  towns, 
cities,  boronghs,  and  counties  of  the  realm, 
for  providing  ships  for  the  Thing's  service. 
Tiiis  demand  was  revived  by  Charles  I. 
in  the  year  1(533  and  163G  ;  being  laid  by 
the  king's  writ  un<ler  the  great  seal,  with- 
out the  consent  of  parliament,  was  held 
lo  be  contrary  to  the  laws  and  statutes 
of  the  realm,  and  subsequently  abolished. 

^^1IIF'S-PA'PERS,  certain  papers  or 
documents,  descriptive  of  the  ship,  its  i 
owners,  the  nature  of  the  cargo,  kc.. 
They  consist — 1st,  of  the  certificate  of 
registry,  license,  charter-part}',  bills  of 
lading,  bill  of  health,  &c.  which  are  re- 
quired by  law  of  the  country  ;  and  2dly,  of 
those  documents  required  by  the  law  of 
nations  to  be  on  board  neutral  ships,  to 
vindicate  their  title  to  that  character. 

SHIRE,  in  English  topography,  the 
same  with  county.  The  word,  which  was 
originallj-  spelt  scir  or  scire,  signifies  a 
division.  Alfred  is  said  to  have  made 
those  divisions,  which  he  called  satrapias, 
and  which  took  the  name  of  counties,  after 
earls,  comiles.  or  counts  were  set  over 
them.  He  also  subdivided  the  satrapias 
into  centuries  or  hundreds ;  and  these 
into  decennas,  or  tenths  of  hundreds, 
now  called  tithin^s. 

SHIRE-MOTE,  the  ancient  name  in 
England  for  the  countv  court. 

SHIT  TIM-WOOD,"  in  Scripture,  a 
kind  of  precious  wood  of  wliich  the  tables, 
altars,  and  boards  of  the  tabernacle  were 
made.  The  wood  is  said  to  be  hard, 
smooth,  and  very  beautiful. 

SHORE,  in  architecture,  a  piece  of 
timber  or  other  material  placed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  pro])  up  a  wall  or  other 
heavy  body. — Dead-shore,  an  upright 
piece  fi.xed  in  a  wall  that  has  been  cut  or 
broken  through  for  the  purpose  of  making 
Bome  alterations  in  the  building — In  ma- 


ri)ie  language,  shores  are  props  or  stan- 
chions fixed  under  a  ship's  side  or  bottom, 


to  support  her  on  the  stocks  or  when  laid 
on  the  blocks  on  the  ship. 

SHRINE,  properly  the  receptacle  of 
the  remains  or  relics  of  a  saint.  Shrines 
are  of  two  sorts  :  portable,  used  in  proces- 
sions, called  in  halin  J'eretra  ;  ami  fi.\ed, 
in  churches.  The  approp'-iate  place  for 
shrines,  in  the  churches  ot  itie  middle 
ages,  was  generally  in  the  eastern  parr, 
in  the  space  behind  the  high  altar.  Such 
is  the  situation  of  the  celebrated  shrine 
of  the  three  kings  of  Cologne;  and  such 
was  that  of  the  shrines  at  St.  Alban's, 
Canterbury,  Durham,  and  AVestminster, 
before  the  Reformation. 

SHROVE-TUES'DAY,  the  Tuesday 
after  Quinquagesima  Sunday,  or  the  day 
immediately  preceding  the  tirst  of  Lent  ; 
being  so  called  from  the  Saxon  word 
shrire,  to  confess  ;  that  day  having  been 
employed  by  the  people  in  confessing 
their  sins  to  the  parish  priest,  and  there- 
by qualifying  themselves  for  a  more  re- 
ligious observance  of  tho  approaching 
fast. 

SIC'YLS,  in  antiquity,  certain  women 
who  pretended  to  be  endowed  with  a  pro- 
phetic spirit.  They  resided  in  various 
parts  of  Persia,  Greece,  and  Italy  ;  and 
were  consulted  on  all  important  occasions. 
They  delivered  oracular  answers,  and,  as 
it  is  pretended,  wrote  certain  prophecies 
on  leaves  in  verse,  which  are  called 
Sibylline  verses;  but  these  Sibylline 
oracles  seem  to  have  been  composed  to 
answer  political  purposes.  The  number 
of  tSibyls,  according  to  Varro,  was  ten. 

SIB'YLLINE  BOOKS,  documents  sup- 
posed to  contain  the  fate  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Nine  of  them  are  said  to  have 
been  offered  by  an  old  woman,  called 
Amalthaja.  to  Tarquin  the  Proud  ;  but 
Tarquin  refusing  to  give  the  price  she 
asked,  she  went  away,  and  burned  three 
of  them.  Returning  with  the  remainder, 
she  offered  them  to  the  king  on  the  same 
terms  as. before  ;  and,  on  his  second  re- 
fusal, departed  a'gain,  and  returned  with 
three,  which  she  still  offered  at  the  same 
price  as  the  original  nine.  The  king, 
struck  with  her  conduct,  at  last  acceded 
to  her  offer,  and  entrusted  the  care  of  the 
books  to  certain  priests.  They  were  pre- 
served in  a  stone  chest  beneath  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  were  consulted 
in  times  of  public  danger  or  calamitj'. 
They  were  destroyed  by  the  fire  that  con- 
sumed the  Capitol  in  the  Marsic  war. 
After  this  calamity,  ambassadors  were 
sent  to  collect  such  fragments  of  Sibylline 
prophecies  as  they  could  pick  up  in 
various   countries  ;  and  from  the  verses 


550 


CVCLOI'EDIA     OK     LITKItATl  UlC 


L*^ 


thus  collected  Augustus  formed  two  new 
books,  which  were  depositeil  in  two  gilt 
cases  in  the  temple  of  the  Palatine  Apol- 
lo. Silyl'ine  verses  are  often  qu  )teil  by 
Christian  writers,  as  containing  prophe- 
cies of  Christianity  ;  but  these  are  spu- 
rious a  forsery  of  the  second  centiirv 

SECIL  IAN  YES'PEKS,  in  modern 
history,  the  name  commonly  given  ti)  the 
great  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily-,  in 
A.D.  1282.  They  were  the  soldiers  and 
subjects  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  had 
made  himself  master  of  the  island  after 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Conradin.  The 
insurrection  broke  out  on  the  evening  of 
Easter  Tuesday,  whence  its  name.  Its 
consequence  was  the  expulsion  of  Charles; 
and  the  islanders  placed  themselves  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  king  of  Arragon. 

•SIDEROG'RAPHY,  the  art  or  practice 
of  engraving  on  steel,  by  means  of  which, 
impressions  may  be  transferred  from  a 
steel  plato  to  a  steel  cylinder  in  a  rolling 
press  constructed  on  a  peculiar  principle. 
Hence  the  term  sidcrographic  art,  ap- 
plied to  steel  plate  engraving 

SID  EROMANCY,  in  antiquity,  a  spe- 
cies of  divination  performed  by  burning 
straws,  etc.  on  red-hot  iron. 

SIEGE,  in  the  art  of  war,  the  encamp- 
ment of  an  army  before  a  fortified  place, 
with  a  design  to  take  it.  A  siege  differs 
from  a  blockade,  as  in  a  siege  the  invest- 
ing army  approaches  the  fortified  place 
to  attack  and  reduce  it  by  force  ;  but  in  a 
blockade,  the  army  secures  all  the  ave- 
nues to  the  place  to  intercept  all  snp|)lies, 
and  waits  till  famine  reduces  the  besieged 
to  surrender. —  To  raise  the  siege,  is  to 
give  over  the  attack  of  a  place,  and  quit 
the  works  thrown  up  against  it. 

SIER  HA,  a  term  used  for  a  hill,  or 
chain  of  hills,  piirticularly  in  Spain,  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  coasts  of 
Chili  and  Peru. 

SIGILLA'RIA,  fe.astsin  honor  of  S.it- 
urn,  celebrated  after  the  Saturnalia.  At 
this  festival  little  statues  of  gold,  silver, 
Ac.  wore  sacrificed  to  the  god  instead  of 
men,  who  had  been  the  usual  victims,  till 
Hercules  abolished  the  barbarous  custom. 

SKiN,  in  a  general  sense,  a  visible 
token  or  representation  of  anything. 
Also,  any  motion,  appearance,  or  event 
which  indicates  the  e.xistence  or  ai)proach 
of  something  else. — iS/f/i,  in  astronomy, 
the  twelfth  ])art  of  the  eclij)tic.  The  signs 
are  reckoned  from  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  ecliptic  and  equator,  at  the 
vernal  equino.x,  and  are  named  respec- 
tively, Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer, 
Loo,  Virgo,  Libri,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius, 


Capricornus,  Aquariu.-,  Pisces.  On  ac- 
count of  the  precession  of  the  equino.xes, 
the  positions  of  these  constellations  in  the 
heavens  no  longer  correspond  with  the 
divisions  of  the  ecliptic  of  the  same  name, 
but  are  now  considerably  in  advance  of 
them  :  the  constellation  Aries,  for  exam- 
ple, being  in  that  part  of  the  ecliptic 
called  Taurus. 

SIG'NA,  in  antiquity,  standards  or  en- 
signs among  the  ancients  :  those  of  the 
llomans  usually  bore  the  figure  of  an 
eagle  ;  but  the  signa  of  the  Greeks  bore 
the  figures  of  various  animals. 

SIG'NAIiS,  certain  signs  agreed  upon 
between  parties  at  a  distance,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  instantaneous  informa- 
tion, orders,  ifec.  Signals  are  (larticularly 
useful  in  the  navigation  of  fleets,  and  in 
naval  engagements.  They  are  made  by 
the  admiral  or  cominander-in-chief  of  a 
squadron,  either  in  the  day,  or  by  nigbt, 
whether  for  sailing,  fighting,  or  the  bet- 
ter security  of  the  merchant-ships  under 
their  convoy.  They  are  very  numerous 
and  important,  being  all  appointed  and 
determined  by  the  lords  of  tlie  admiralty, 
and  communicated  in  the  instructions 
sent  to  the  commander  of  every  ship  of 
the  fleet  or  squadron  before  their  putting 
to  sea. — Day-sigi}als  are  usually  made 
by  the  sails,  by  flags  and  pendants,  or 
guns  ;  night-signals  are  lanterns  disposed 
in  certain  figures,  rockets,  or  the  firing 
of  guns ;  fog-signals,  by  guns,  drums, 
bells,  etc.  There  are  signals  of  evolution 
addressed  to  a  whole  fleet,  to  a  division, 
or  to  a  squadron  ;  signals  of  movements 
to  particular  ships  ;  and  signals  of  service, 
general  or  particular.  Signals  used  in 
the  army  arc  mostly  made  by  beat  of 
drum  or  the  sound  of  the  bugle. 

SIlJ'NATl'KE,  in  printing,  is  a  lettoT 
l)ut  at  the  bottom  of  the  first  page  at 
least,  in  each  sheet,  as  a  direction  to  the 
biniler,  in  folding,  gathering,  and  collat- 
ing them. —  .Also,  the  name  of  a  person 
written  or  subscribed  bv  himself. 

SIGNET,  CLERIC  OF  THE,  an  offi- 
cer, in  England,  continually  in  attendance 
upon  the  |iriruipal  secretary  of  state,  who 
has  the  royal  signet  in  his  keeping  for 
the  signing  r>f  letters,  grants,  &c. 

SIGN-MAN'UAL,  in  English  polity, 
the  royal  signature.  In  a  general  sense, 
it  is  the  signature  of  any  one's  name  in 
his  own  liaini -writing. 

SIKIIS,  a  religious  sect  in  Hindostan, 
(founded  about  a.d.  1500,)  which  pro- 
fesses the  purest  Deism,  an<l  is  chiefly 
distinguished  from  the  Hindoos  by  wor- 
shipping  one    only  invisible   God.     The 


AND     rilK     KINK     A  HIS. 


55^ 


name  Sikhs,  or  lions,  was  given  to  the 
sect,  on  account  of  the  heroic  manner  in 
which  they  resisted  their  iMohmnnieihin 
oppressors,  against  whom  they  long  I'ought 
with  varying  success.  They  ultimately 
subdued  Lahore,  and  established  for  tiicm- 
selves  a  country  which  includes  the  I'un- 
jiub,  a  part  of  JMooUan,  Ac.  In  18'16  and 
1847.  they  were  conquered  by  the  British 
troops. 

SILEN'TIARY,  among  the  Romans, 
the  title  of  office  of  a  class  of  slaves  at- 
tached to  wealthy  houses.  In  the  court 
of  the  emperors,  there  was  a  body  of  otR- 
cers  attaciied  to  the  household  styled 
.silentiaries.  Thence  the  title  came  to 
functionaries  of  higher  authority,  and 
was  borne  by  cabinet  secretaries  in  the 
Lower  Empire,  and  in  the  courts  of 
Charlemagne  and  other  western  poten- 
tates who  derived  their  code  of  ceremonial 
from  Byzantium.  Members  of  the  privy 
council  seem  to  have  been  sometimes 
called  by  this  name  under  the  Plantage- 
nets  in  England. 

SILE'NUS,  a  Grecian  divinity,  the  fos- 
ter-father and  attendant  of  Bacchus,  and 
likewise  leader  of  the  satyrs.  This  deity 
was  remarkable  for  his  wisdom,  his  drun- 
kenness being  regarded  as  inspiration. 
He  was  represented  as  a  robust  old  man 
in  a  state  of  into.xication,  and  riding  on 
an  ass,  with  a  can  in  his  hand. 

SILirOUET'TE,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  a 
name  given  to  the  representation  of  an 
object  filled  in  of  a  black  color,  and  in 
which  the  inner  parts  are  sometimes  in- 
dicated by  lines  of  a  lighter  color,  .and 
shadows  or  extreme  depths  by  the  aid  of 
a  heightening  of  gum  or  other  shining 
medium.  This  sort  of  drawing  derives 
its  name  from  its  inventor,  Eticnne  de 
Silhouette,  the  French  minister  of  finance 
in  1759.  Representations  of  this  sort 
may  be  well  enough  taken  from  the  sha- 
dow of  a  person  thrown  on  a  piece  of 
paper  placed  against  a  flat  surface  or 
wall.  The  likeness  may  be  still  better 
taken,  if  on  a  reduced  scale,  by  means  of 
the  instrument  called  a  pantograph.  The 
invention  of  what  is  called  a  silhouette 
is,  however,  ascribed  to  a  remote  period, 
bfting  said  to  have  been  the  method 
whereby  the  daughter  of  a  Greek  potter 
drew  the  outline  of  her  lover's  portrait 
an  a  wall  ;  and  has  been  placed  at  the 
time  of  the  renewal  of  tlie  Olympic  g.ames, 
shortly  before  the  ex'peditiim  of  the  Bac- 
chiades  from  Corinth,  about  776  n  c.  It 
is  to  bo  observed  that  Sicyon  and  Corinth 
were  the  first  cities  in  which  painting 
fljurished;    and   that    Crato    of  Sicyon, 


Philocles  of  Egypt,  and  Cleanthes  of  Co- 
rinth, were  considered  the  in  mentors  of 
inonuc/iro'ncs,  or  silhouettes,  as  they 
have  been  more  recently  called,  which 
were  applied  to  large  objects.  The  Etrus- 
can vases  furnish  to  an  amazing  extent, 
and  in  boundless  variety,  some  of  the 
most  beautifully  drawn  and  elegant  mon- 
ochromes or  silhouettes  that  have  ever 
been  executed. 

S  I  L'L  0  N,  in  fortification,  a  work 
raised  in  the  middle  of  a  ditch  to  defend 
it  when  it  is  too  wide. 

SIM'ILE,  in  rhetoric,  a  comparison 
of  two  things,  which  though  different  in 
other  respects,  agree  in  some  strong 
points  of  resemblance  ;  by  which  compar- 
ison the  character  or  qualities  of  a  thing 
are  illustrated  or  presented  in  an  im- 
pressive light. 

SIMO'NIANS,  the  name  given  to  the 
followers  of  Simon  Magus,  who  pretended 
to  be  the  great  virtue  and  power  of  God 
sent  from  heaven  to  earth.  Their  system 
was  a  medley  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato, 
the  mythological  fables  of  the  heathens, 
and  of  Christianity.  Tiie  sum  of  their 
doctrines,  as  enjoined  by  their  founder, 
was,  that  from  the  Divine  Being,  as  a 
fountain  of  light,  flow  various  orders  of 
eternal  natures,  subsisting  within  the 
plenitude  of  the  Divine  essence;  that  be- 
yond these  in  the  order  of  emanation  are 
different  classes  of  intelligences,  to  the 
lowest  of  which  belongs  the  human  soul; 
that  matter  is  the  most  remote  produc- 
tion of  the  emanative  power,  which,  on 
account  of  its  infinite  distance  from  the 
fountain  of  light,  possesses  sluggish  and 
malignant  qualities,  which  appear  the 
divine  oper.alions,  and  are  the  cause  of 
evil ;  that  it  is  the  great  design  of  philos- 
ophy to  deliver  the  soul  from  its  impris- 
onment in  matter,  and  restore  it  to  that 
divine  light  from  which  it  was  derived  ; 
and  that  for  this  purpose  God  had  sent 
us  one  of  the  first  ceons  into  the  world. 
He  believed  also  in  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  denied  the  resurrection  of 
the  body. 

SIM'ONY,  in  law,  the  illegal  buying 
or  selling  ecclesiastical  preferment;  or 
the  corrupt  presentation  of  any  one  to  a 
benefice  for  money  or  reward.  The  word 
is  derived  from  the  Chakhean  Magus, 
Simon,  who,  according  to  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  wished  to  buy  of  them  the 
power  of  working  miracles. 

SIMOON',  or  SIMOOM',  a  hot,  arid 
wind  which  blows  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
the  adjacent  countries,  and  chiefly  about 
the  time  of  the  eauinojios      The  simoon. 


55S 


CYCLOl'EUIA     OK     LirERATLKE 


SIR 


which  is  identical  with  the  khamsin  of  Sy- 
ria and  the  samiel  of  the  Turks,  and  re- 
semV)Ies  in  many  respects  the  sirocco  and 
sorana  of  otlier  countries,  derives  its  qual- 
ities from  blowing  over  sandy  deserts 
heated  intensely  by  the  sun.  Sometimes 
it  blows  in  ^:quall^,  bearing  along  with  it 
quantities  of  burning  sand  and  dust.  In 
the  desert  it  is  greatly  dreaded  ;  and  the 
only  chance  of  safety  the  traveller  has,  is 
to  fall  down  with  his  face  close  to  the 
ground,  and  to  continue  as  long  as  possi- 
ble without  drawing  breath.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Bruce,  Volney,  Charind,  Mal- 
colm, and  other  travellers. 

SIMPLE  CONTRACT,  inlaw,  a  term 
applied  to  debts,  where  the  contract  upon 
which  the  obligation  arises,  is  neither  as- 
certained by  matters  of  record,  nor  yet  by 
deed  or  special  instrument. 

SIMPLI'CITY,  in  all  the  arts.  That 
quality  opposed  to  exuberance  or  preten- 
sion. We  say  that  a  work  of  art  pos- 
sesses a  noble  simplicity  when  the  effect 
produced  by  it  is  the  result  of  means 
neither  numerous  nor  complicated.  AVe 
say  also  that  a  form  is  simply  beautiful 
■when,  as  in  the  majority  of  antique  vases, 
it  pleases  by  its  agreeable  contour  alone, 
■without  the  assistance  of  any  accessories. 
With  regard  to  an  edifice  similar  remarks 
apply.  It  is  simply  elegant  when  there 
is  no  confused  or  contradictory  diversitj' 
of  parts,  and  when  the  whole  is  harmo- 
nious and  graceful.  Experience  has 
abundantly  proved,  that  simplicity,  as 
distinguished  from  meanness  or  boldness, 
is  always  conformable  to  good  taste. 
This  quality  may  be  evidenced  in  all  the 
different  portions  of  a  work,  from  the 
general  plan  even  to  the  execution  of  the 
minutest  details.  The  best  works  of  art 
are  alwaj's  the  simplest  in  point  of  de 
sign.  Their  projectors  sought  the  prin- 
ciples of  grandeur  and  beauty  not  in  a 
superfluous  quantity  of  parts,  but  in  uni- 
t}',  in  connection,  in  tout  ensemble.  It  is 
true  that  the  great  masters  have  some- 
times produced  works  the  composition  of 
which  is  extremely  rich,  but  only  when 
the  subject  necessarily  deman<led  such 
profusion.  When  Poussin  jiainted  the 
gathering  of  manna  by  the  Israelites  in 
ths  Desert,  he  could  r.ot  limit  himself  to 
a  small  number  of  figures.  But  often, 
in  the  finest  specimens  of  pictorial  art,  a 
single  group,  composeil  of  four  or  five 
figures,  is  found  sufRciont  to  tell  an  in- 
teresting story,  and  to  disjilay  the  most 
consummate  ability  in  the  artist. 

SIM'PULUM,  in  anti(iuity,  a  vessel 
resembling  a  cruet,  used  at  sacrifices  and 


libations  for  taking  a  very  little  wine  at 
a  time. 

S^.Ml'LATIOX,  the  assumption  of  a 
deceitful  appearance  or  character.  It 
differs  from  dissimulation,  inasmuch  as 
the  former  assumes  a  false  character, 
while  the  latter  only  conceals  the  true 
one  ;  but  both  are  truly  designated  by  the 
word  hypocrisij. 

SI'XECURE.  a  church  benefice  without 
cure  or  care,  or  guardianship  of  souls; 
as  where  there  is  a  parish  without  church 
or  inhabitants.  The  word  is  applied  to 
any  post  that  brings  profit  without  labor. 

SI'NE  DI'E,  in  parliamentary  lan- 
guage, a  Latin  phrase  used  for  the  ad- 
journment of  a  debate  without  fixing  a 
day  when  it  shall  be  resumed. — In  law, 
a  term  applied  to  a  defendant  when  judg- 
ment is  given  in  his  favor,  and  he  is 
suffered  to  go  sine  die,  or  dismissed  the 
court. 

SIXK'TNG  FUND,  in  politics,  a  term 
applied  to  a  portion  of  the  public  reve- 
nue set  apart  to  be  devoted  to  the  reduc- 
tion or  diminution  of  the  national  debt. 

SI  NON  OMNES,  in  law,  a  writ  on 
association  of  justices,  by  which,  if  all 
in  commission  cannot  meet  at  the  day 
assigned,  it  is  allowed  that  two  or  more 
of  them  may  proceed  to  finish  the  busi- 
ness. 

SI'RENS,  melodious  divinities,  who 
dwelt  on  the  shores  of  Sicily,  and  so 
charmed  passing  mariners  by  the  sweet- 
ness of  their  song  that  they  forgot  their 
homes,  and  remained  there  till  they  per- 
ished of  hunger.  Their  history  has  been 
variously  described.  According  to  Homer, 
in  the  Odyssey,  as  Ulysses  and  his  com- 
panions were  on  their  homeward  voyage 
from  JEaca,  they  cnme  first  to  the  island 
of  the  Sirens;  but  they  passed  in  safety  : 
for,  by  the  directions  of  Circe,  Ulysses 
stopped  the  ears  of  his  companions  with 
wax,  and  had  himself  tied  to  the  mast 
before  approaciiing  the  island;  so  that, 
although  when  be  heard  the  song  of  the 
Sirens  he  made  signs  for  his  comi)anions  to 
unbind  him.  they  only  securecl  him  the 
more  closely  in  com]iliance  with  his  pre- 
vious instructions.  Thus  he  listened  to 
the  songs  of  the  Sirens,  and  e.sciped  not- 
withstanding. Hence  it  was  feigned  that 
they  threw  themselves  into  the  sea  from 
vexation  at  the  escape  of  Ulysses,  an 
oracle  having  predicted  that  Ihey  should 
live  only  so  long  as  their  strains  had 
power  to  arrest  all  who  heard  them.  But, 
according  to  other  poets,  tiicy  threw  them 
selves  into  the  sea  from  rage  and  despair 
on  hearing  the  more  melodious   song  of 


BL.V] 


AM)    TllK     FINK     AIMS. 


550 


Orpheus.  Originally  there  were  only  two 
Sirens  ;  but  their  number  was  afterwards 
inereased  to  throe,  and  their  names  are 
civen  with  great  variety. 

SIROCCO,  a  periodical  wind  which 
generally  blows  in  Italy  and  Dalmatia 
eve^y  year  about  Easter.  It  blows  from 
the  southeast  by  south,  and  is  attended 
with  heat,  but  not  rain ;  its  ordinary 
period  is  twenty  days,  and  it  usually 
ceases  at  sunset.  When  the  sirocco  does 
not  blow  in  this  manner,  the  summer  is 
almost  free  from  westerly  winds,  whirl- 
winds, and  storms.  This  wind  is  preju- 
dicial to  plants,  drying  and  burning  up 
their  buds  ;  and  also  causes  an  extraordi- 
nary weakness  and  lassitude  in  men.  In 
the  summertime,  when  the  westerly  wind 
ceases  for  a  day.  it  is  a  sign  that  the 
sirocco  will  blow  the  day  following,  which 
usually  begins  with  a  sort  of  whirlwind. 

SIRVEN'TE,  in  the  literature  of  the 
middle  ages,  a  species  of  poem  in  com- 
mon use  among  the  Troubadours,  usually 
satirical,  and  divided  into  strophes  of  a 
peculiar  construction. 

SIS'TRUM.  a  kind  of  timbrel,  which 
the  Egyptian  priests  of  Isis  used  to  shake 
with  their  hands  at  the  festivals  of  that 
goddess. 

SIS'YPHUS,  in  ancient  mythology, 
one  of  the  descendants  of  .Eolus,  respect- 
ing whom  a  variety  of  opinions  prevails. 
By  some  he  is  said  to  have  resided  at 
Eiiyra,  in  the  Peloponnesus ;  others 
maintain  that  he  was  a  Trojnn  prince, 
who  was  punished  for  betraying  state 
secrets;  while  others  allege  that  he  was 
a,  notorious  robber,  slain  by  Theseus. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  all  the  ancient  poets 
are  agreed  that  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  craftiness  and  cunning;  and  that  his 
punishment  in  Tartarus  for  his  crimes 
committed  on  earth  consisfeil  in  rolling  a 
huge  stone  to  the  top  of  a  high  hill, 
which  constantly  recoiled,  and  thus  ren- 
dered his  labor  incessant. 

SITOPHYLAX,  inUrecian  antiquity, 
an  Athenian  magl.-trate,  who  had  the 
superintendence  of  tiie  corn,  and  was  to 
take  care  that  no  one  bought  more  than 
was  necessary  for  the  provision  of  his 
family. 

SI'VA,  in  Hindoo  mythology,  a  title 
given  to  the  Supreme  Being,  considered 
in  the  character  of  the  avenger  or  de- 
stroyer. Sir  William  Jones  has  compared 
Siva  to  Jupiter;  but  he  appears  to  share 
many  of  the  attributes  of  Pluto.  Under 
the  name  of  Mahadeva,  ho  is  exhibited 
also  as  a  type  of  reproduction  :  to  de- 
stroy, according  to  the  Vedantasof  India, 


the  Sufis  of  Persia,  and  e\en  to  many 
European  schools  of  philosophy,  being 
only  to  generate  or  reproduce  under 
another  form. 

SIXTH,  in  music,  an  interval  formed 
of  six  sounds,  or  five  diatonic  degrees. 
There  are  four  kinds  oi'  sixths,  two  conso- 
na>U  and  two  dissonant. 

SI'ZARS,  the  lowest  class  of  students 
at  Cambridge,  England.  At  Oxford  the 
same  class  go  in  diti'oront  colleges  by  the 
denominations  of  servitors,  &c.  They 
are  such  as  have  certain  allowances  made 
in  their  battels  (college  bills,)  through 
the  benefactions  of  founders  or  other 
charitable  persons.  In  college  phrase- 
ology, a  size  is  a  portion  of  bread,  meat, 
&c.  allotted  to  a  student ;  and  hence  the 
name  sizar.  The  sizars  at  Cambridge  are 
.almost  entirely  on  the  same  footing  with 
independent  students ;  at  Oxford  they 
are  somewhat  lower,  and  some  relics  of 
their  former  degraded  condition  still 
subsist  in  certain  colleges  in  the  customs 
of  bringing  up  dishes  to  dinner,  dining 
ofif  the  remnants  of  the  fellows'  dinners, 

SKETCH,  an  outline  or  general  de- 
lineation of  anything;  a  first  rough  or 
incomplete  draught  of  a  plan  or  any 
design  :  as,  the  sketch  of  a  building;  the 
skctcli  of  an  essay. —  In  painting,  the  first 
delineated  idea  of  the  artist's  conception 
of  a  subject,  in  which  are  usually  distin- 
guishable the  fire  and  enthusiasm  with 
which  the  subject  is  expressed  and  felt. 
Sketches  are  made  either  with  carbon, 
with  the  pen,  or  the  pencil  ;  in  general, 
that  method  is  preferred  which  seems  to 
present  the  greatest  promptitude  and 
facility. 

SLAN'DER,  in  law,  a  malicious  def- 
amation of  a  man  by  words  spoken.  It 
is  not  actionable  unless  it  impute  some 
crime  punishable  by  law;  or  some  infec- 
tious disease,  such  as  leprosy  or  the  like, 
which  may  have  the  effect  of  excluding 
from  society  the  person  slandereil ;  or  be 
uttered  concerning  him  in  his  trade  or 
business  in  such  a  way  as  to  impair  his 
means  of  livelihood;  or,  lastly,  unless  it 
be  attended  with  special  damage.  In  this 
case,  such  special  dam.age  must  be  aver- 
red upim  the  pleadinf^s. 

SLA'VERY,  bondage  ;  the  state  of 
entire  subjection  of  one  person  to  the 
will  of  another.  Slavery  is  the  obliga- 
tion to  labor  for  the  benefit  of  the  master, 
without  the  contract  or  consent  of  the 
servant;  or  it  is  the  establishment  of  a 
right  which  gives  one  person  such  a 
power  over  another,  as  to  make  him  ab- 


)60 


CYCI.OI'KDIA     OK     Ml  KHATLliE 


|soc 


solute  master  of  his  life  and  property. 
But  the  condition  of  a  slave  is  susceptible 
of  innumerable  modifications,  and  there 
are  few  nations,  whether  of  ancient  or 
nioJern  times,  among  wlioin  slavery  has 
been  long  established,  that  have  not 
enacted  certain  laws  for  limiting  the 
power  of  a  master  over  his  slave. 
Slavery  may  proceed  from  crimes,  from 
captivity,  or  from  debt.  Slavery  is  also 
Toluntary  or  involuntary;  voluntary, 
when  a  person  sells  or  yields  his  own 
person  to  the  absolute  command  of 
another  ;  involuntary,  when  he  is  placed 
nnder  the  absolute  power  of  another 
without  his  own  consent.  Slavery  no 
longer  exists  in  Great  Britain,  nor  in  any 
of  her  colonies,  nor  in  the  northern  states 
of  America. 

SLEEP,  one  of  the  most  mysterious 
phonomena  in  the  animal  world  ;  a  state 
wherein  the  body  appearing  perfectly  at 
rest,  external  objects  act  on  the  organs  of 
sense  as  usual,  without  e.xciting  the  usual 
sensations.  The  voluntary  exertion  of 
our  mental  and  corporeal  powers  being 
suspended,  we  rest  unconscious  of  what 
passes  around  us,  and  are  not  affected  by 
the  ordinary  impressions  of  external 
objects. 

SLEIGHT  OF  HAND,  tricks  perform- 
ed by  persons  who,  by  great  practice,  or 
confederacy  with  others,  perform  acts  ap- 
parently out  of  the  course  of  nature, 
which  the  vulgar  and  ignorant  believe, 
and  even  the  intelligent  admire. 

SLUR,  in  music,  a  mark  connecting 
notes  that  are  to  bo  sung  to  the  same 
syllable,  or  made  in  one  continued  breath 
of  a  wind  instrument,  or  with  one  stroke 
of  a  stringed  instrument. 

SMAR'AtJD,  another  name  for  the 
emerald.  Hence,  sntorai'dine,  an  epi- 
thet for  anything  pertaining  to  or  re- 
sembling an  emerald  ;  of  an  emerald 
green. 

SM()K7w\'T0,  ill  music,  a,  term  denot- 
ing that  the  riolin  bow  is  to  be  drawn  to 
its  full  <'xtcnt,  but  gradually  lighter  till 
the  siiiind  is  nearly  lost. 

SMI'G'GLING,  the  offence  of  import- 
ing goods  without  paying  the  duties  im- 
j>osed  by  law  Smuggling  owes  its 
existence,  in  many  c:iscs,  to  ojipressivo 
duties. 

SO.WE',  in  music,  a  term  denoting  to 
the  plnycr  that  the  music  to  which  it  is 
prefixed  is  to  be  executed  with  sweet- 
ness. 

SOBRI'ETY,  a  word  expressive  not 
only  of  habitual  temperance  with  regard 
to  intoxicating  liquois,  but  also  of  an  ha- 


bitual freedom  from  enthusiasm  or  inor- 
dinate passion  ;  as,  the  sobriety  of  age,  a 
period  when  calmness  and  rational  views 
are  expected  to  take  the  place  of  an  over- 
heated imagination. 

SOU'AG  K,  in  law,  a  tenure  of  lands  by 
or  for  certain  inferior  services  of  hus- 
bandry to  be  performed  by  the  lord  of  the 
fee  ;  a  tenure  distinct  from  chivalry  or 
knight's  service,  in  which  the  render  waa 
uncertain. 

SOCIALISM,  a  social  state  in  which 
there  is  a  community  of  property  among 
all  the  individuals  composing  it,  a  state 
of  things  in  which  there  are  no  individual 
or  separate  rights  in  pro])erty.  It  is 
otherwise  termed  agrarianism  and  com- 
munism. 

SO'CIALIST,  one  who  advocates  a 
community  of  property  among  all  the 
citizens  of  a  state.  Some  of  this  sect 
contend  also  for  a  community  of  females, 
or  a  promiscuous  intercourse  of  the  sexes  ; 
and  they  have  likewise  been  accused  of 
holding  various  other  heterodox  prin- 
ciples. They  are  also  called  Owenitea 
from  Robert  Owen,  one  of  the  first  pro- 
mulgators of  the  social  tenets  in  this 
country.  In  France,  parties  holding  sim- 
ilar opinions  are  called  Fourierists,  and 
St.  Simonians,  from  Fourier  and  St. 
Simon,  two  noted  socialist  leaders.  They 
are  also  called  coinmunists. 

SOCI'ETY,  in  its  most  enlarged  sense, 
signifies  the  whole  race  or  family  of  man  ; 
as,  "  the  true  and  natural  foundations  of 
society,  are  the  wants  and  fears  of  individ- 
uals." In  a  narrower  sense,  it  signifies, 
]iersons  living  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
who  frequently  meet  in  company.  It  is 
also  a  name  given  to  any  association  of 
persons  uniting  together,  and  co-operat- 
ing to  effect  some  particular  object,  as 
the  societies  or  academies  for  promoting 
the  ciiuse  of  literature  ;  benevn  cut  socie- 
ties, for  purposes  of  jmblio  charity  ;  mis- 
sionary societies,  for  sending  missionaries 
abroad  ;  and  various  others.  In  society, 
a  man  not  only  finds  more  leisure,  but 
better  opportunities  of  applying  his  tal- 
ents with  success.  The  social  principle, 
in  fact,  is  of  such  an  expansive  naturj, 
that  it  cannot  ho  confined  within  the  cir- 
cuit of  a  fiimily,  of  friends,  or  a  neigh- 
borliooil  ;  it  spreads  into  wider  systems, 
ami  draws  men  into  larger  communities 
and  coinmonwealths  ;  since  it  is  in  these 
only  that  the  more  sublime  powers  of  our 
nature  attain  the  highest  improvement 
and  perfection  of  which  they  are  capable. 
—  The  purposes  for  which  benevolent  and 
religious  societies  arc  formed  will  bo  best 


80c] 


AND    THE     FINE     A  HI  S. 


561 


inferred  from  the  epithets  with  which 
they  are  connected  ;  temperance  socieVic-i 
are  established  with  a  view  to  promote 
sobriety,  mendicity  societies  for  the  relief 
of  the  indigent,  &a.  There  is  no  feature, 
perhaps,  which  distinguishes  a  civilized 
from  a  savage  state  more  than  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  societies  ;  and  in  this 
view  Englanil  has  a  right  to  claim  a 
place  in  the  foremost  ranks  of  civilization, 
whether  we  regard  the  number  or  the 
principles  of  the  management  of  its  reli- 
gious and  benevolent  institutions. 

SO'CII,  among  the  Romans,  were  such 
states  as  were  in  alliance  with  the  com- 
monwealth of  Rome.  In  the  time  of 
Polybius,  all  Italy  was  subject  to  the 
Romans  ;  yet  no  state  or  people  in  it  had 
been  reduced  into  the  form  of  a  province, 
but  retained  in  general  their  own  laws 
and  governors,  and  were  termed  socii,  or 
confederates.  The  socii  received  no  con- 
sideration for  their  service,  but  a  distri- 
bution of  corn.  The  auxilia  differed  from 
the  socii,  as  being  borrowed  at  a  certain 
pay  from  foreign  princes  and  states.  The 
name  of  socii  in  time  ceased;  all  the 
natives  of  Italy  being  accounted  Romans, 
and  honoreil  with  the  jus  civitatis. 

SOCIX'IANS,  the  followers  of  Socinus, 
the  uncle  and  the  nephew,  both  of  the 
same  name,  and  celebrated  for  similar 
opinions  concerning  the  nature  of  Christ. 
The  nephew,  Fau.stus  Socinus,  was  the 
principal  founder  of  the  sect.  lie  v.as  an 
Italian,  born  at  Sienna,  in  1539  ;  who 
after  publishing  a  treatise  on  the  nature  of 
the  Saviour,  aesired  to  be  admitted  into 
a  society  of  Unitarians  already  existing 
in  Poland.  Their  opinions  do  not  appear 
to  have  precisely  corresponded  with  his, 
and  admission  was  refused  him  ;  nor  did 
he  effect  during  his  lifetime  the  institu- 
tion of  any  distinct  congregation  ;  but 
the  views  which  he  disseminated  in  his 
writings  were  gradually  referred  to  and 
adopted  by  many  ministers  and  religious 
communities,  especially  in  Poland,  where 
Crellius,  Wolgozenius,  and  others  pub- 
lished a  Socinian  system  of  theology, 
comprised  in  the  Bibliotheca  Fratrum 
Folonorum.  Since  the  death  of  Socinus, 
the  theologians  who  have  asserted  the 
mere  humanity  of  Christ  have  been  gen- 
erally denominated  Sooinians.  The  doc- 
trines, however,  to  which  that  appellation 
can  with  strictness  be  applied  are  not 
precisely  equivalent  to  those  of  the  mod- 
ern Unitarians.  The  Socinian  denies  the 
existence  of  Christ  previous  to  his  birth 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  :  he  allows,  however, 
that  that  birth  was  miraculous,  and  con- 


siders the  Saviour  as  an  object  of  peculiar 
reverence  and  an  inferior  degree  of  wor- 
ship. By  the  term  Mediator,  as  applied 
to  Christ,  he  understands  that  in  estab- 
lishing the  new  covenant  he  was  the  me- 
dium between  God  and  man  ;  and  of  his 
sacrifice  he  says  that  as  the  Jewish  sac- 
rifices were  not  made  for  the  jiayment 
of  sins,  but  for  the  remission  of  them, 
so  also  the  death  of  Christ  was  designed 
for  the  remission  of  sins  through  God's 
favor,  and  not  for  the  satisfaction  of  them 
as  an  equivalent. 

SOCIOL'OGY,  social  science,  or  the 
science  of  society,  according  to  the  Posi- 
tive Philosophy  of  M.  Compte.  It  treats 
of  the  general  structure  of  human  society, 
the  laws  of  its  development,  and  the 
progress  of  actual  civilization.  Sociology 
is  the  most  complex  of  all  the  sciences, 
and  consists  of  derivative  truths,  verified 
by  experience  from  psychology  and  the 
laws  of  ethology,  or  the  science  of  the 
formation  of  character.  The  laws  of 
social  phenomena  are  nothing  but  the 
laws  of  the  thoughts,  feelings,  and  actions 
of  men  united  together  in  the  social 
state  ;  and  these  laws  are  approximate 
generalizations  obtained  from  the  past 
history  and  present  observation  of  all 
stages  of  civilization.  And  as  men's 
thoughts,  feelings,  and  actions  are  sub- 
ject to  fixed  laws,  that  is,  uniform  se- 
quences, so  must  also  the  phenomena 
of  society,  that  is,  of  aggregates  of  men. 
The  fundamental  problem  of  society  is  to 
discover  the  laws  by  which  any  state  of 
society  produces  the  state  which  follows 
it,  and  takes  its  place,  and  to  show  by 
deduction  that  these  laws  are  derivative 
from  those  of  human  nature.  The  sub- 
ject matter  of  the  sciences  of  man,  and 
of  society,  is  peculiar  in  varying  from 
age  to  age.  and  in  being  progressive.  The 
laws  of  human  nature,  and  of  the  ex- 
ternal circumstances  in  which  men  are 
placed,  form  their  characters,  and  men 
themselves  in  turn  mould  and  shape  cir- 
cumstances for  themselves  and  their  pos- 
terity. The  institutions  of  a  people  are  the 
results  of  their  ideas,  and  as  societj-  advan- 
ces, mental  qualities  tend  more  and  more 
to  prevail  over  bodily,  and  aggregates 
of  men  over  individuals.  The  elements 
of  permanent  social  union  are  education 
through  life,  which  is  always  a  restrain- 
ing discipline,  the  feeling  of  allegiance 
or  loyalty  to  something  fixed  and  perma- 
nent, and  a  strong  and  active  principle 
of  nationality  or  union  for  common  in- 
terest. Such  are  some  of  the  leading 
principles  of  sociologj' ;  but  to  understand 


562 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITEK.VTU  KK 


[soi 


the  science  aright,  it  is  necessary  to 
hiive  recourse  to  M.  Corapte's  great  work. 
"  Cours  de  I'/ii'losop.'iie  Positive,'^  and 
the  last  book  of  Mill's  System  of  Logic. 

SOCK,  the  shoe  of  the  ancient  actors 
in  comedy.  Hence  the  vvor<l  is  used  for 
comedy,  and  opposed  to  buskin  or  trage- 
dy ;  as,  "  I  have  no  talents  either  for  the 
soc/:  or  bus/ii)i." 

SOCLE,  in  architecture,  a  flat  square 
member  under  the  basis  of  pedestals  of 
vases  and  statues,  serving  as  a  foot  or 
stand. 

SOCRAT'IC  PHILOS'OPHY,  in  amore 
extensive  sense,  is  used  to  comprehend 
the  whole  development  of  philosophy  of 
Greece  from  Socrates  to  the  Neo  Plato- 
nists.  The  title  is  so  far  just,  as  all  the 
schools  of  this  peiioJ,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  Epicurean,  called  them- 
selves by  the  name  of  Socrates,  and  arro- 
gated to  themselves  the  merit  of  exclu- 
sively propagating  the  true  doctrines  of 
Socrates.  But  in  a  narrow  and  more 
proper  signification,  it  signifies  the  pecu- 
liar direction  and  method  which  Socrates 
gave  to  philosophical  inrjuiry.  The  So- 
cratic  method  of  reasoning  and  instruc- 
tion was  by  interrogatories.  Instead  of 
laying  down  a  propo.sition  authoritative- 
ly, this  method  led  the  antagonist  or  dis- 
ciple to  acknowledge  it  himself  by  dint 
of  a  series  of  questions  put  to  him.  It 
was  not  the  object  of  Socrates  to  establish 
any  perfectly  evolveil  system  of  doctrine, 
so  much  as  to  awaken  by  his  discourses  <a 
new  and  more  comprehensive  pursuit  of 
science,  which  should  direct  itself  to  all 
that  is  knowable.  To  him  is  ascribed 
two  of  the  very  first  principles  of  science, 
namely,  the  inductive  method  and  the 
definii  inn  of  ideas. 

SOF'FIT,  the  under  part  or  ceiling  of 
a  cornice.      Any    timber   ceiling  formed 
of    cross-beams   of    flying    cornices,    the 
square  compartments  or  panels  of  which 
are  enriched  with  sculpture,  painting,  or  I 
gilding;  such  are  those  in  the  i)alaccs  of 
Italy,  ami  in  the  apartments  of  the  Lu.x- 
embourg  at  Paris.     Tbe  term  is  also  eni- 
plo^'cd  for  the  under  side  or  face  of  an 
architrave;   and  more  esi)eeially  for  that 
of  the  corona  or  larmier,  which  the  an- 
cients called  lacunaria,  the   French  de-  J 
nominate  plafond,  and  we    usually   the  I 
drip.     It  is  enriched  with  compartments* 
of    roses;    and    in    the    Doric  order  has 
eighteen  drops,  disposed   in  three   ranks  : 
(six  in  each,)  ])laced  to  the  right  of  the 
guttce   at  the    bottom   of  the    triglyphs.  j 
The  word  soffit  has  likewise  been  applied  > 
to  the  ceiling  of  an  arch. 


SO'FI,  a  Persian  word,  which  is  em- 
ployed to  designate  religious  persons, 
otherwise  termed  Dervishes.  It  is  prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  the  Greek  sophos, 
wise.  Sofi  was  the  surname  borne  by  the 
ancestors  of  the  kings  of  Persia  of  the 
race  preceding  that  which  now  occupies 
the  throne ;  and  Shah  Ismael  Sofi,  the 
first  monarch  of  that  race,  also  bore  it; 
hence  by  European  writers  of  the  16tli 
and  17th  centuries  it  was  used  errone- 
ously as  a  title  of  the  king  of  Persia. 

SO'FISM,  the  mystical  doctrines  of  the 
class  of  Mohammedan  religionists  called 
Sofis.  This  name  is  indeed  generally  ap- 
plied in  the  East  to  persons  living  to- 
gether in  a  monastic  way,  and  professing 
an  ascetic  life.  But  the  tenets  peculiar- 
ly denoted  by  the  name  of  SuDsin  are 
those  of  a  sect  which  is  said  to  be  gaining 
ground  extensively  in  oriental  countries, 
especially  among  the  educated  classes  of 
Mohammedans.  These  tenets,  like  those 
of  the  Quitctists  and  other  Christian  sects 
of  mystics,  are  founded  on  a  notion  of 
the  union  of  the  human  soul  with  the 
divinity  by  contemplation  and  the  subju- 
gation of  the  appetites  :  but,  as  has  been 
too  frequently  the  case  among  Christians 
also,  they  h;ive  afforded  a  cover  for  the 
most  licentious  lessons  of  refined  de- 
bauchery. The  principles  of  Sufism  ap- 
pear also  to  have  a  remarkable  atfinity, 
in  some  respects,  with  those  pantheistic 
notions  which  are  prominent  in  the  system 
of  the  Brauiins,  and  seem  to  form  the 
very  foundation  of  the  still  more  widely 
extended  religion  of  Buddha. 

SOIREE',  the  term  originally  given 
by  the  French  to  certain  evening  parties 
held  for  the  sake  of  conversation  only, 
music,  dancing,  and  similar  entertain- 
ments being  excluded  ;  but  the  word  has 
been  since  introiiuced  into  all  the  lan- 
guages of  modern  Europe,  and  is  now 
employed  to  designate  most  descriptions 
of  evening  parties  in  which  ladies  and 
gentlemen  are  intermixed,  whatever  be 
the  amusements  introduced.  It  is  fre- 
quently applied  in  England  to  the  public 
meetings  of  certain  societies  held  for  the 
advancement  of  their  respective  objects, 
at  which  tea  and  other  refreshments  are 
dispensed  during  the  intervals  of  business. 
SOKE,  in  English  law,  a  terra  which 
anciently  had  various  significations,  \\z.: 
1.  The  liberty  or  privilege  of  tenants  ex- 
cused from  customary  burdens  and  impo- 
sitions. 2.  The  power  of  administering 
justice.  3.  The  precinct  in  which  the 
chief  lord  exercised  his  soc,  or  liberty  of 
keeping  court  within  his  own  jurisdiction 


son] 


AND    THE    FINE    AUTS. 


569 


4.  A  stipulated  payment  or  rent  to  the 
lord  for  using  his  land,  with  such  liberty 
and  privilege  as  made  the  tenant  the  soke- 
man  or  freeholder. — Soke-men,  those 
who  held  by  no  servile  tenure,  but  paid 
their  rent  as  a  soke,  or  sign  of  freodom. 

SOLA'RIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  place  on 
the  tops  of  houses  exposed  to  the  sun, 
where  the  Romans  used  to  take  air  and 
exercise. 

SOL'DAN,  a  title  formerly  given  to 
the  general  who  commanded  the  caliph's 
array  ;  the  epithet  was  afterwards  applied 
to  a  governor  of  Egypt. 

SOL'DIER,  a  man  enrolled  for  mili- 
tary service,  or  whose  occupation  is 
military.  Ic  is  generally  applied  to  a 
private,  or  one  in  the  ranks  :  but  it  is 
also  a  proper  appellation  for  an  otficer 
•^f  any  grade  who  possesses  valor,  skill, 
and  experience. 

SOLDU'RII,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of 
military  clients  or  retainers  to  the  greai 
men  in  Gaul,  who  bound  themselves  to 
bear  all  the  good  or  ill  fortune  of  their 
patrons. 

SOL'ECISM,  among  modern  gram- 
marians, any  word  or  expression  which 
does  not  agree  with  the  established  usage 
of  writing  or  speaking.  As  customs 
change,  that  which  may  be  regarded  as  a 
solecism  at  one  time,  may  at  another  be 
considered  as  correct  language.  Hence  a 
solecism  differs  from  a  barbarism,  which 
consists  in  the  use  of  a  word  or  expres- 
sion altogether  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
the  language. 

SOLFEG'GIO,  in  music,  the  system 
of  arranging  the  scale  by  the  names  ut, 
re.  mi,  fa,  sol,  la.  by  which  musical  stu- 
dents are  taught  to  sing,  these  notes 
being  represented  to  the  eye  by  lines  and 
spaces,  to  which  the  syllables  in  question 
are  applied. 

SOLI'CITOR,  in  law,  a  person  author- 
ized and  employed  to  prosecute  the  suits 
of  others  in  courts  of  equitj'. — Solicitor- 
generaf,  in  British  pnlity,  an  officer  of 
the  crown.  Till  the  13th"of  Charles  11., 
he,  with  the  attorney-general,  had  a 
right,  on  special  occasions,  to  sit  in  the 
bouse  of  lords. 

SOLIFID'IAN,  in  theology,  one  who 
saaintains  that  faith  alone,  without  works, 
IS  necessary  to  justification. 

SO'LO.  in  music,  a  passage,  or  perfect 
piece  in  which  a  single  voice  or  instru- 
ment performs  without  aecnnipaniment. 
Peculiar  freedom,  ease,  distinctness,  and 
power  of  execution,  are  required  to  per- 
form the  solo  with  correctness,  taste,  and 
feeling. 


SO'MATIST,  one  who  denies  the  exist- 
ence, and  consequently  the  agency,  of 
spiritual  substances. 

SOMATOL'OGY,  the  doctrine  of  bodies 
or  material  substances. 

SOM'NUS,  in  classical  mythology,  the 
poetical  god  of  sleep,  is  the  son  of  Erebus 
and  Nox,  or  of  No.x  alone.  He  dwells 
with  his  brother  Death  in  a  palace  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  earth.  Homer 
makes  Juno  seek  him  in  the  isle  of  Lem- 
nos,  whither  he  had  repaired  for  love  of 
the  nymph  Pasithea.  Ovid  makes  him 
dwell  in  a  cavern  among  the  Scythians  o.r 
Cimmerians;  Statins  in  /Ethiopia. 

SOX,  in  its  primary  sense,  is  the  male 
issue  of  a  parent,  father  or  mother.  In  a 
more  extended  sense,  as  often  used  in  the 
Scriptures,  sons  include  descendants  in 
general ;  as,  we  are  all  sons  of  Adam. 
Also  a  native  or  inhabitant  of  a  country  ;  ' 
as,  the  sons  of  America. 

SONA'TA,  in  music,  a  piece  or  com- 
position of  music,  wholly  executed  by  in- 
struments ;  and  which,  with  regard  to  the 
several  kinds  of  instruments,  is  what  the 
cantata  is  with  respect  to  vocal  perform- 
ances. 

SOXG,  in  general,  that  which  is  sung 
or  uttered  with  musical  modulations  of 
the  voice,  whether  of  the  human  voice  or 
that  of  a  bird. — A  little  poem  to  be  sung, 
or  uttereil  with  musical  modulations  :  a 
ballad.  The  term  is  applied  to  either  a 
short  poetical  or  musical  composition,  but 
most  frequently  to  both  in  union.  As  a 
poetical  composition  it  may  be  largely 
defined  a  short  poem  divided  into  portions 
of  returning  measure,  and  turning  upon 
some  single  thought  or  feeling.  As  a 
union  of  poetry  and  music,  it  may  be  de- 
fined a  very  brief  lyrical  poem,  founded 
commonly  upon  agreeable  subjects,  to 
which  is  added  a  melody  for  the  purpose 
of  singing  it.  As  denoting  a  musical  com- 
position, song  is  used  to  signify  a  vocal 
melody  of  any  length  or  character,  and 
not  confined  to  a  single  movement;  but 
as  regards  performance,  it  is  confined  to 
an  air  for  a  single  voice.  Tho  songs  of  a 
country  are  characteristic  of  its  manners. 
Every  country  has  its  love  songs,  its  war 
songs,  and  its  patriotic  songs. — ,A.hymn; 
a  sacred  poem  or  hymn  to  be  sung  either 
in  joy  or  thanksgiving,  as  that  sang  by 
Moses  and  the  Israelites  after  escaping 
the  dangers  of  the  Reil  Sea  and  Pharaoh's 
wrath  ;  or  of  lamentation,  as  that  of  Da- 
vid over  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan. 
Songs  of  joy  are  represented  as  constitut- 
ing a  part  of  heavenly  felicity. 

SOX'NET,  in  poetry,  a  short  composi- 


5G4 


CYCLOr-EDIA     OF    LIl  KKAIUKK 


[ror 


tion  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  lines,  deca  or 
endecasyllabic,  rhymed  according  to  an 
intricate  but  not  always  precisely  similar 
arrangement.     It  is  the  oldest   form  in 
which  the  Italian   lanj^uage    was    used; 
but  was,  at  a  still  earlier  period,  employ- 
ed, although  not  coniuionly.  by  the  Pro- 
vencal poets.     In  Italy,  Dante,  and  the 
Tuscan  poets  his  contemporaries  brought 
the  sonnet  into  public  estimation,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  ;  but 
by  them  it  was  invariably  employed  as 
the  vehicle  of  thoughts  wrapped  in  very 
obscure  language,  and  probably  of  a  sym- 
bolical nature,  though  generally,  in  their 
outward  signification,  breathing  the  spirit 
of  romantic  and  chivalrous  love.     By  Pe- 
trarch, in  the  course  of  the  same  century, 
the  sonnet  was  carried  to  perfection   in 
point  of  form  and  polish;  although  ap- 
plied by  him,  as  it  had  been  by  his  pred- 
ecessors, almost  exclusively   to  the   sub- 
ject of  his  figurative  and  mystical  passion. 
Since  the  time  of  Petrarch  the  sonnet  has 
been  a  favorite    form  of  composition  in 
Italy,  especially  for  the  purposes  of  oc- 
casional poetry.     In  Friince  it  hns  had 
little  success;  or  rather  the  French  son- 
net is  a  different  pooin,  less  regular  in  its 
construction  than  the  Italian.     In   Ger- 
many and  England  the  comparative  pov- 
erty in  rhymes  of  their  respective  lan- 
guages has  rendered  it  unusual  :  but  Mil- 
ton has  given  to  it  a  dignity  peculiarly 
his  own,  together  with  much  of  the  melo- 
dy' and  tenderness  which  characterize  his 
Italian  models. — The  proper  sonnet  con- 
sists of  two  quatrains,  with  four  lines  and 
two  rhymes  each,  and  two  terzines,  each 
with    three    lines    and    a   single    rhyme. 
The  last  si.x  lines,  however,  are  suscepti- 
ble  of  various   arrnngemonts;    the    one 
usually  adopted  in  English  is  the  rhym- 
ing of  the  fifth  and  si.vth  lines  together, 
frequently  after  a  full  pause,  so  that  the 
sonnet  ends  with  a  point,  as  in  an  epi- 
gram     The  sonnet  generally  consists  of 
one  principal  idea,  pursued  through  the 
various  antitheses   of  the  different  stro- 
phes. Pieces  of  asimilar  metrical  structure 
in  octo-syllabic  lines   are  termed  by  the 
Italians  Anacreontic  sonnets.     It  is  some- 
times said  that  there  is  "  hardly  an  educat- 
ed Italian  who  has  not  composed  a  sonnet." 
SOOTHSAYING,    the  foretelling   of 
future  events  by   persons  without  divine 
aid  or  authority,  and  thus  distinguished 
from  prnphcnj  by  inspiration. 

SOl'irrSM,  a  subtilty  in  reasoning, 
the  nrgumonts  not  being  logically  sup- 
ported, or  in  which  the  infererices  are  not 
justly  deduced  from  the  promises. 


SOPHISTS,  a  name  at  first  given  to 
philosophers,  and  those  who  were  remark- 
able for  their  wisdom  ;  it  was  afterwards 
applied  to  rhetoricians,  and  lastly  to  such 
as  spent    their  time    in    verbal  niceties, 
logical  conundrums,  sententious  quibbles, 
and  philosophical  enigmas.     The  follow- 
ing, called  the  l^sendomenos,   for  exam- 
ple, was  a  famous  problem  amongst  tiio 
ancient  sophists:  "When  a  man  says,  / 
lie,  does  he  lie,  or  does  he  not  lie  ?     If  lie 
lies,  he  speaks   truth  ;  and  if  he  speaks 
the  truth,  he  lies."     AVe  find  the  leading 
feature  of  the  sophistic  doctrine  to  be  a 
dislike  to  everything  fi.xed  and  necessary, 
in   ethics    as   well   as    philosophy.     Pre- 
scrijition    was    represented    as    the    sole 
source  of  moral  distinctions,  which  must 
consequently  vary  with  the  character  and 
institutions  of  the   people.     The   useful 
was  held  to  be   the  only  mark  by  which 
one  opinion  could  be  distinguished  from 
another.     An  absolute  standard  of  truth 
is  as  absurd  a  notion  in  speculation  as  an 
absolute  standard  of  morals  in  practice  ; 
that  only  is  true  which  seems  so  to  the 
individual,  and  just  as  long  as  it  so  seems 
"  Mnn    is    the   measure   of   all    things." 
These  and  similar  doctrines  they  main- 
tained with  great  subtlety  and  acuteness, 
and   found    numerous    disciples    among 
those  who  were  well  prepared  for  the  ad- 
mission of  tenets  which  swept  away  at 
once  all  the  remnants  of  those  prejudices 
which  might  slill  interpose  a  barrier  be- 
tween their  passions  and  their  gratifica- 
tion.    Considered  as  a  link  in  the  chain 
of   philosophical    development,    the    So- 
fihists   were    doubtless    the    involuntary 
cause  of  the  greater  depth  and  soundness 
of  the    subsequent    Grecian   philosophy. 
The  success  which  they  had  found  in  de- 
molishing the  systems  of  their  predeces- 
sors  proved  the  necessity  of  laying  the 
foundations  of  human  knowledge  deeper 
than  heretofore  had  been  done  ;  and  it  is 
thus  to  the  Sophists  that  we  may  attrib- 
ute the  more  critical  and  cautious  spirit; 
which  disting\iishes  the  doctrines  of  Plat*" 
and  Aristotle  from  those  of  Heraditus  oi 
Parmenides. 

SOPIIA'NO,  in  music,  one  of  the  inter 
mediate  portions  of  the  scale,  which  is  ? 
species  of  the  treble,  suited  to  the  female 
voice. 

SORBON'NE,  the  name  of  a  college 
originally  instituted  for  the  education 
of  secular  clergymen  at  the  university 
of  Paris,  so  called  after  Robert  of  Sorbon, 
in  Champagne,  a  tlieologian  of  Paris, 
who  founded  it  during  the  reign  of  St. 
Louis,  about   1250,  and  endowed  it  with 


10  u] 


AND    THK     FINK     A  HIS. 


r,Gr) 


an  inccmo  which  was  subsequently  much 
increiisetl.  Tliis  institution,  the  teachers 
ill  which  were  always  doctors  ami  jiro- 
fessors  of  theology,  acquired  so  much 
fame,  that  its  name  was  extended  to  the 
whole  theological  faculty  of  the  universi- 
ty of  Paris. 

SOR'OERY,  magic,  or  divination  by 
the  supposed  assistance  of  evil  spirits, 
or  the  power  of  commanding  evil  spirits. 

SORI'TES,  in  logic,  an  imperfect  syllo- 
gism, or  an  abridged  form  of  stating  a 
series  of  syllogisms;  or  it  is  a  species  of 
reasoning  in  which  a  series  of  proposi- 
tions are  so  linked  together,  that  the 
predicate  of  the  one  becomes  continually 
the  ne.xt  in  succession,  till  a  conclusion  is 
formed  by  bringing  together  the  subject 
of  the  first  proposition  and  the  predicate 
of  the  last.  Thus,  all  men  of  revenge 
have  their  souls  often  uneasy.  Uneasy 
souls  are  a  plague  to  themselves.  Now 
to  be  one's  own  plague  is  folly  in  the 
extreme.  Therefore  all  men  of  re- 
venge are  extreme  fools.  A  sorites  has 
as  many  middle  terras  as  there  are  in- 
termediate propositions  between  the  first 
and  the  last ;  and,  consequently,  it  may 
be  drawn  out  into  as  many  syllogisms. 

SORTIE',  in  military  language,  the 
issuing  of  a  body  of  troops  from  a  be- 
sieged place  to  attack  the  besiegers  ;  a 
sally. 

SOR'TILEGE,  divination  by  lots.  A 
very  ancient  mode  of  exploring  future 
events,  and  which  has  been  supposeil  by 
superstitious  persons  in  modern  times  to 
derive  countenance  from  various  inci- 
dents in  sacred  history,  especially  the 
choice  of  St.  Matthias  by  lot  to  the  place 
of  an  apostle. 

SOSTENU'TO,  in  music,  a  terra  im- 
plying that  the  notes  of  the  movement  or 
passage  or  note  over  which  it  is  placed, 
is  to  be  held  out  its  full  length  in  an 
equal  and  steady  manner. 

SOT'TO,  in  music,  a  term  signifj'ing 
below,  or  inferior;  as,  sotto  il  soggetto, 
below  the  subject ;  but  solto  voce  is  used 
to  signify  with  a  restrained  voice  or 
moderate  tone. 

SCRIL,  in  metaphysics,  the  intellectual 
principle,  immaterial  and  immortal.  Va- 
rious have  been  the  opinions  of  philoso- 
phers concerning  the  substance  of  the 
human  soul ;  but,  as  Lord  Bacon  observes, 
the  doctrine  concerning  the  rational  soul 
of  man  must  be  deduced  from  revelation  ; 
for  as  its  substance,  in  its  creation,  was 
not  formed  out  of  the  mass  of  heaven  and 
earth,  but  imme<iiately  inspired  by  Ood  ; 
and  as  the  laws  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 


together  with  those  of  our  earth,  make 
the  subject  of  philosophy,  so  no  knowlcvlge 
of  the  substance  of  the  rational  fun\  can 
be  had  from  philosophy. — By  the  word 
soul,  we  also  denote  the  spirit,  essence, 
or  chief  part;  as,  charity  is  the  soul  of 
all  the  virtues.  Also  the  animating  prin- 
ciple, or  that  which  gives  life  and  energy 
to  the  whole;  as,  an  able  commander  is 
the  soul  of  an  army. 

SOUTIICOT'TIANS,  the  followers  of 
Joanna  Southcott,  a  religious  fanatic, 
who  was  born  at  Gittisham,  in  Devon- 
shire, in  1750.  She  first  pretended  to  a 
divine  mission,  and  held  herself  out  as 
the  woman  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Rev- 
elation. After  she  had  attained  her 
grand  climacteric,  in  1814,  she  announc- 
ed herself  as  the  mother  of  the  promised 
Shiloh,  whose  speedy  advent  she  predict- 
ed. Iler  death,  in  December  of  that  year, 
did  not  undeceive  her  disciples,  and  the 
sect  continued  to  exist  for  many  years, 
nor  are  we  aware  that  it  is  yet  altogether 
extinct.  Many  of  her  followers  wore  long 
beards  and  a  peculiar  costume. 

SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE,  a  term  given  to 
a  commercial  "  scheme"  in  1720,  which, 
for  a  time,  produced  a  kind  of  national  de- 
lirium in  England.  A  company  for  trad- 
ing to  the  South  Seas,  which  was  entitled 
the  "  South  Sea  Company,"  had  been 
sanctioned  by  government,  with  the  spe- 
cious pretence  of  discharging  the  national 
debt,  by  reducing  all  the  funds  into  one. 
Blunt,  the  projector,  had  taken  the  hint 
of  his  plan  from  Law's  celebrated  Missis- 
sippi scheme,  which,  in  the  preceding 
year,  had,  in  France,  entailed  ruin  upon 
many  thousand  families  of  that  kingdom. 
In  the  project  of  Law  there  was  some- 
thing substantial.  It  promised  an  ex- 
clusive trade  to  Louisiana ;  though  the 
design  was  defeated  by  the  frantic  eager- 
ness of  the  people.  But  the  South  Sea 
scheme  was  buoyed  up  by  nothing  but 
the  folly  and  rapaciousness  of  individ- 
uals, which  became  so  blind  and  extrav- 
agant, that  Blunt  was  able  to  impose 
upon  the  whole  nation,  and  make  toola 
of  the  other  directors,  to  servo  his  own 
purpose  and  that  of  a  few  associates. 
When  this  projector  found  that  the  South 
Sea  stock  did  not  rise  according  to  his 
expectation,  he  circulated  a  report  that 
Gibraltar  and  Port  Mahon  would  be  ex- 
changed for  some  places  in  Peru ;  by 
which  means  the  English  trade  to  the 
South  Sea  would  be  protected  and  en- 
larged. This  rumor,  diffused  by  emi.-sa- 
ries,  acted  like  a  contagion.  In  five  days 
the  directors  opened  their    books  for  a 


56G 


CVCLOrEDIA    OF    LITEUATLRE 


i^pn 


subscription  of  1,000,000/.  at  the  rate  of 
300/.  for  every  100/.  capital.  Persons  of 
all  ranks  crowdefl  to  the  house  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  tirst  subscription  ex- 
ceeded 2,000.000/.  of  original  stock.  In 
a  few  days  this  stock  advanced  to  340/  ; 
and  the  subscription.*  were  sold  for  double 
the  price  of  the  first  payment.  In  a 
little  time  the  stock  reached  1,000/.,  and 
the  whole  nation  was  infected  with  the 
spirit  of  stock-jobbing  to  an  incredible 
extent.  The  infatuation  prevailed  till 
the  8th  of  September,  when  the  stock  be- 
gan to  fall,  and  some  of  the  adventurers 
awoke  from  their  delirium.  On  the  29th 
of  the  same  month,  the  stock  had  sunk 
to  150/.  ;  several  eminent  goldsmiths  and 
bankers,  who  had  lent  great  sums  upon 
it,  were  obliged  to  stop  payment  and  ab- 
scond ;  and  the  ebb  of  this  por'entous 
tide  was  so  violent  that  it  carried  everj-- 
thing  in  its  way,  and  an  infinite  number 
of  families  were  overwhelmed  with  ruin. 
Public  credit  sustained  a  terrible  shock  ; 
the  nation  was  thrown  into  a  ferment ; 
and  nothing' was  heard  but  the  ravings 
of  grief,  disappointment,  and  despair. 

SOVEREIGN,  a  supreme  ruler,  or 
one  who  possesses  the  highest  authority 
without  control.  A  king  or  queen  reg- 
nant.— An  English  gold  coin,  value  twen- 
ty shillings. 

SPA'HI,  one  of  the  Turkish  cavalry. 

SPAN'DREL,  in  architecture,  the  ir- 
regular triangular  space  comprehended 
between  the  outer  curve  or  e.xtrados  of 
an  arch,  a  horizontal  line  drawn  from  its 
apex,  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  its 
springing. — In  Oothic  Arcliitecture,  span- 
drels are  usually  ornamented  with  trace- 
ry, foliage,  &c. — Spandrel  bracketing,  a 
cradling  of  brackets  which  is  placed  be- 
tween curves,  each  of  which  is  in  a  verti- 
cal yjlane,  and  in  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  whose  plane  is  horizontal. — Span- 
drel irall,  a  wall  built  on  the  back  of  an 
arch  filling  in  the  spandrels. 

S  P  E  A  K  '  E  R,  in  the  ])arliamentary 
sense,  an  officer  who  acts  as  chairman 
during  a  sitting. —  The  Speaker  of  Con- 
gress, is  a  member  of  the  house  elected  by 
a  majority  of  votes  to  act  as  chairman  or 
president,  in  putting  questions,  reading 
bills,  keeping  order,  and  carrying  into 
execution  the  resolutions  of  the  house. 
The  Speaker  is  not  to  deliver  his  senti- 
ments upon  any  question  :  but  it  is  his 
duty  to  interrupt  a  member  whose  lan- 
guage is  indecorous  ;  or  who  wanders  from 
the  subject  of  debate  :  ho  may  also  stop 
a  debate,  to  remind  the  house  of  any 
standing   order,   or  established   mode  of 


proceeding,  which  he  sees  about  to  be 
violated.  He,  however,  submits  every- 
thing to  the  decision  of  the  house.  If 
the  number  of  votes,on  the  two  sides  of  a 
question  be  equal,  he  may  ilecide  it  by 
his  own  ;  but  otherwise  he  cannot  vote. 
AVhen  the  house  resolves  itself  into  a 
committee,  the  chair  is  filled  by  a  tempo- 
rary chairman,  and  the  speaker  is  then 
capable  of  addressing  the  house  on  any 
subject,  like  a  private  member. 

SPE  CIALTY,  in  law,  a  special  con- 
tract or  bond ;  the  evidence  of  a  debt  by 
deed  or  instrument  under  seal,  thereby 
differing  from  what  is  called  simple  cow 
tract. 

SPECIFICA'TION,  the  act  of  .specify- 
ing, or  designati(m  of  particulars  :  as,  the 
specification  necessary  to  be  given  in 
taking  out  a  patent  ;  or,  the  specification 
of  a  charge  against  a  naval  or  military 
officer. 

SPECTACLE,  something  that  is  ex- 
hibited to  view  as  extraordinary  or  de- 
serving especial  notice;  as,  the  combats 
cf  gladiators  in  ancient  Rome  were  spec- 
tacles at  once  wonderful  and  brutal  ;  or, 
the  manager  has  this  season  produced  a 
splendid  spectacle. 

SPECTRE,  a  phantom  or  apparition 
created,  when  supposed  to  be  seen,  by 
the  mind,  through  its  own  fears  or  guilty 
recollections 

SPECULA'TION,  in  commerce,  the  act 
or  practice  of  buying  articles  of  mer- 
chandise, or  any  purchasable  commodity 
whatever,  in  expectation  of  a  rise  of 
price,  and  of  selling  the  same  at  a  con- 
siderable advance.  In  this  it  is  distin- 
guisheii  from  regular  trade,  in  which  the 
profit  expected  is  the  difference  between 
the  retail  anil  wholesale  prices,  or  the 
difference  of  price  in  the  place  where  the 
goods  are  purchased,  and  the  place  to 
which  they  are  to  be  carried  for  market. 
Speculation  on  a  large  scale,  upon  the 
principle  of  monopolizing,  or  that  kind 
of  speculation  which  consists  in  the  pur- 
chase and  sale  of  shares  in  public  com- 
panies, as  well  as  "  dabbling"  in  the 
stocks,  and  a  variety  of  other  hazard- 
ous transactions  which  might  be  named, 
are  different  species  of  gambling,  and 
are  often  no  less  ruinous. 

SPHINX,  in  antiquity,  an  emblemati- 
cal figure,  composed  of  the  head  and 
breasts  of  a  woman,  the  wings  of  a  bird, 
the  legs  and  claws  of  a  lion,  and  the  body 
of  a  dog;  and  said  to  have  been  the 
Egyptian  symbol  of  Theology. — Also,  a 
fabulous  monster  of  Thebes.  According 
to   mythological   history,  its  father   wa« 


8PlJ 


ANU     IIIK     I-INE     ARTS. 


567 


Typhon  the  pjigantic  son  of  Terr<a,  and  it 
was  sent  by  Juno  to  atlliet  the  Thebans, 
which  it  did  by  proposing  enigmatical 
questions  to  persons,  whom  it  killed  if 
the3'  could  not  expound  them.  At  length, 
(Edipus  having  explained  its  famous  rid- 
dle on  man,  it  precipitated  itself  from  a 
rock,  and  was  dashed  to  pieces.  This 
riddle  was  as  follows:  "  What  creature  is 
that  which  goes  in  the  morning  upon  four  ; 
at  noon,  upon  two  ;  and  in  the  e\"ening 
upon  three  legs."  ffidipus  answered, 
"It  is  man  ;  who,  in  his  infancy,  crawls 
upon  all  four,  walks  afterwards  on  two, 
till  old  age  brings  him  to  his  staff,  which 
constitutes  three  legs."  The  Grecian 
sphinx  was  probably  borrowed  from 
Egypt :  where  the  enormous  figure,  now 
half  buried  in  the  sand,  was  probably  the 
archetype  of  the  more  elegant  monster 
of  Greece.  Tliis  ligure  is  close  to  the 
Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  and  was  disinterred 
by  the  late  Mr.  Belzoni,  but  has  been 
again  nearly  co-nred. 

SPflRAGIS'TlCS,  the  science  of  seals, 
their  history,  peculiarities,  and  distinc- 
tions, especially  with  a  view  to  the  means 
which  they  afford  of  ascertaining  the  age 
and  genuineness  of  documents  to  which 
they  are  affixed.  Ancient  seals  were 
chiefly  impressed  on  common  wax  of  dif- 
ferent colors  ;  sealing-wax  came  into  use 
in  the  16th  century.  This  branch  of  diplo- 
matics owes  its  origin  to  Heineccius,  who 
published  a  work  on  the  subject  in  1709. 

SPICCA'TO,  in  music,  a  term  indicat- 
ing that  every  note  is  to  have  its  distinct 
sound.  AVhen  used  in  relation  to  instru- 
ments played  with  a  bow,  it  is  to  be  un- 
derstood that  every  note  is  to  have  a 
bow  distinct  from  the  preceding  or  suc- 
ceeding one. 

SPIN'ET,  a  musical  stringed  instru- 
ment, played  on  by  two  ranges  of  keys, 
the  foremost  range  being  in  the  order  of 
the  diatonic  scale  ;  and  the  other  range 
set  backward,  in  the  order  of  the  artificial 
notes  or  semitones. 

SPINO'SISM,  in  philosophy,  the  sys- 
tem of  Benedict  Spinosa,  a  Jew  of  Am- 
eterdam,  born  in  1634,  which  is  develop- 
ed in  his  works  on  ethics.  In  it  he  de- 
duces by  strictly  mathematical  reasoning, 
from  a  few  axioms,  the  well-known  prin- 
ciples, that  "  there  can  be  no  substance 
but  God;  whatever  is  is  in  God,  and  nothing 
can  be  conceived  without  God."  Ilence 
his  scheme  is  called,  with  justice,  Pan- 
theistic. In  fact,  as  Mr.  Ilallam  observes, 
"  He  does  not  essentially  differ  from  the 
Pantheists  of  old.  lie  conceived,  as  they 
had  done,  that  the  infinity  of  God  requir- 


ed the  exclusion  of  all  other  substance  : 
that  ho  was  infinite  ab  ornni  fiarlc,  and 
not  only  in  certain  senses  "  "  It  was  one 
great  error  of  Spinosa,"  says  the  same 
writer,  "  to  entertain  too  arrogant  a  no- 
tion of  the  human  faculties  ;  in  which,  by 
dint  of  his  own  subtle  demonstrations,  he 
pretended  to  show  a  capacity  of  adequate- 
ly comprehending  the  nature  of  what  he 
denominated  God.  And  this  was  accom- 
panied by  a  rigid  dogmatit-m,  no  one  prop- 
osition being  stated  with  hesitation  ;  by 
a  disregard  of  experience,  at  least  as  the 
basis  of  reasoning  ;  and  by  a  uniform  pref- 
erence of  the  synthetic  mode." 

SPIN'STER,  in  law,  the  common  title 
by  which  an  unmarried  woman,  without 
rank  or  distinction,  is  designated. 

SPIRE,  in  architecture,  the  pyramidal 
or  conical  termination  of  a  tower  or  tur- 
ret. The  earliest  spires  were  merely  pj'- 
ramidal  or  conical  roofs,  specimens  of 
which  still  exist  in  Norman  buildings,  as 
that  of  the  tower  of  Than  church  in  Nor- 
mandy. These  ronfs,  becoming  gradually 
elongated,  and  more  and  more  acute,  re- 
sulted at  length  in  the  elegant  tapering 
spire;  among  the  many  existing  exam- 
ples of  which,  probabl}',  that  of  Salisbury 
is  ttie  finest.  The  spires  of  medieval 
architecture,  to  which  alone  they  are  ap- 
propriate, are  generally  square,  octago- 
nal, or  circular  in  plan  ;  they  are  some- 
times solid,  more  frequently  hollow,  and 
are  variously  ornamented  with  bands  en- 
circling them,  with  panels  more  or  less 
enriched,  and  with  spire  lights,  which  aro 
of  infinite  variety.  Their  angles  are 
sometimes  crocketted,  and  they  are  al- 
most invariably  terminated  bj'  a  finial. 
In  the  later  styles  the  general  pyramidal 
outline  is  obtained  by  diminishing  the 
diameter  of  the  building  in  successive 
stages,  and  this  has  been  imitated  in  mod- 
ern spires,  in  which  the  forms  and  details 
of  classic  architecture  have  been  applied 
to  structures  essentially  medieval.  The 
term  spire  is  sometimes  restricted  to  sig- 
nify such  tapering  buildings,  crowning 
towers  or  turrets,  as  have  parapets  at 
their  base.  AVhen  the  spire  rises  from 
the  exterior  of  the  wall  of  the  tower  vtith- 
out  the  intervention  of  a  parapet,  it  is 
called  a  broach. 

SPIR'IT.  in  metaphysics,  an  incorpo- 
real being  of  intelligence. — Also,  excite- 
ment of  mind,  animation,  or  whatever 
has  power  or  energj' ;  the  quality  of  any 
substance  which  manifests  life  and  activi- 
ty ;  disposition  of  mind  excited  and  direct- 
ed to  a  particular  object,  <tc. — Holy  Spir- 
it, the  third  person  in  the  Trinity. 


668 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKRATURR 


[STA 


SPIRITUAL,  mental;  intellectual; 
immaterial.  Also,  relating  to  sacred 
thinp;?,  or  ecclesiastical. — Spirituallij 
minded,  having  the  aflfections  refined  and 
elevated  above  sensual  oUjects,  and  placed 
on  God  and  his  law. — Spiritual  court,  a 
court  held  by  a  bishop  or  other  ecclesias- 
tic. 

SPIRTTUALISM,  as  distinguished 
from  Materialism.  That  system  accord- 
ing to  which  all  that  is  real  is  spirit, 
soul,  or  self  ;  that  which  is  called  the  ex- 
ternal world  being  either  a  succession  of 
notions  impressed  on  the  mind  by  the 
Deity,  or  else  the  mere  educt  of  the  mind 
itself  The  first  is  thq  spiritualism  of 
Berkeley ;  the  second,  which  may  be 
called  pure  egotism,  that  of  Fichte. 

SPON'DEE,  in  the  Latin  and  Greek 
prosody,  a  poetic  foot  of  two  long  sylla- 
bles.— Spondaic,  pertaining  to  a  spon- 
dee. 

SPON'SIONS,  in  international  law, 
act^  and  engagements  made  on  behalf 
of  states  by  agents  not  specially  author- 
ized, or  exceeding  the  limits  of  the  au- 
thority under  which  they  purport  to  be 
made,  are  so  called  by  writers  on  this 
branch  of  jurisprudence.  Such  conven- 
tions must  be  confirmed  by  express  or 
tacit  ratification  ;  the  latter  of  which  is 
implied  from  the  fact  of  acting  under  it 
as  if  bound  by  its  stipulations  ;  but  mere 
silence  is  not,  in  general,  held  equivalent 
to  ratification.  Such  are  the  official  acts 
of  admirals  or  generals  suspending  or 
limiting  hostilities,  capitulations  of  sur- 
render, cartels  of  exchange,  &c. 

SPON'SOR,  one  who  binds  himself  to 
answer  for  another,  and  is  responsible  for 
his  default.  Hence,  sponsor,  in  baptism, 
is  a  surety  for  the  moral  education  of 
the  child  baptized. 

SPONTA'NEOUS,  an  epithetfor  things 
that  act  bj'  their  own  impulse,  or  with- 
out any  apparent  external  agency  ;  as, 
the  spontaneous  combustion  of  vegetable 
substances,  which,  when  highly  dried, 
and  closely  heaped,  will  burst  into  a 
flame. 

SPRING,  the  season  of  the  year  when 
increasing  solar  heat  restores  the  ener- 
gy oF  vegetation.  It  comprehends  the 
months  rif  March.  April,  and  May,  in 
the  middle  latitudes,  north  of  the  Equa- 
tor. 

SQUAD'RON,  in  the  art  of  war,  a  di- 
vision or  body  of  troops,  which,  among 
the  ancients,  was  always  square  :  whence 
its  name. — A  squadron  of  ships,  a  di- 
vision or  part  of  a  fleet  employed  on  a 
particular   expedition,    and    commanded 


by  a  vice  or  rear-ndmiral,  or  a  commo- 
dore. 

STA'BAT  MA  TER  DOLOROSA,  the 
first  words  of  a  celebrated  Latin  hymn  of 
the  church,  in  rhymed  lines  of  eight 
syllables  without  metre ;  said  to  have 
been  composed  by  a  Franciscan  monk 
name  1  Jacopone,  in  the  14ih  century. 
It  has  been  set  to  music  by  nearly  all  the 
great  composers  ;  but  the  best  known  of 
all  their  compositions  is  that  of  I'ergolesi, 
commenced  by  him  when  nearly  on  his 
deathbed,  and  finished  by  another  hand. 
The  stabat  mater  is  performed  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical services  of  the  Koman  church 
during  Holy  AVeek. 

STACCATO,  in  music,  a  term  denoting 
that  the  notes  to  which  it  is  affixed  are  to 
be  detached  in  a  striking  way  from  each 
other,  being  much  like  spiccato,  which 
see. 

STA'DIUM,  in  ancient  architecture, 
an  open  area  used  for  exercise  by  the 
Grecian  youth.  With  the  Romans  it 
was  much  in  the  form  of  the  eirci,  but 
most  of  the  Grecian  stadia  were  enclosed 
by  merely  an  earthen  mound.  Vitruvi- 
us  informs  us  that  its  length  was  much 
greater  than  its  breadth  ;  the  lists  were 
formed  by  a  bank  or  terrace.  Though 
the  stadium  mostly  formed  part  of  a 
gymnasium,  it  sometimes  firmed  a  separ- 
ate structure,  and  was  built  at  great  cost 
and  with  considerable  elegance  :  witness 
that  on  the  Corinthian  Isthmus  mention- 
ed by  Pausanias,  as  well  as  that  of 
Herodie  Atticus  at  Athens,  which  was 
of  large  dimensions,  and  constructed  of 
Pentclican  marble.  Besides  this,  men- 
tion is  made  by  that  author  of  several 
others. 

STADT'IIOLDER,  the  name  formerly 
given  to  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
military  forces  in  the  republic  of  the 
United  Netherlands. 

STAFF,  in  military  affairs,  an  estab- 
lishment of  oflScers  in  various  depart- 
ments, attached  to  an  army,  or  to  the  cora- 
manilcr  of  an  army.  The  staflf  includes 
officers  not  of  the  line,  as  adjutants, 
quarter-masters,  chaplain,  surgeon,  &c. 
The  staff  is  the  medium  of  communica- 
tion from  the  commander-in-chief  to 
every  deiiartmont  of  an  army. — An  en- 
sign of  authority  ;  a  badge  of  office  ;  as, 
a  constable's  stajf-  Also  a  pole  erected 
in  a  ship  to  hoist  and  display  a  flag,  call- 
eil  a  ([-Af^-staff'. 

STAGE,  in  the  drama,  the  place  of  ac- 
tion and  representation,  included  between 
the  pit  and  the  scones,  and  answering  to 
the  proscenium  or  pulpitum,  of  the  an- 


sta] 


AM)    TIIK     I'lXK     A  UTS. 


5-69 


oientsf.  Tlic  word  stage  also  often  implies 
the  whole  dramatic  nit  in  com]iositinn 
and  pcrt'ormani-e — A  Hour  or  ]>lMtt'orm 
of  any  kind  elevated  above  the  ground  or 
common  surface,  as  for  an  exhibition  to 
public  view;  as,  a  stage  for  a  mounte- 
bank ;  a  stage  erected  for  public  speak- 
ers.— A  place  of  rest  on  a  journey  ;  as, 
how  far  is  it  to  the  next  stage  f  or  the 
distance  between  two  places  of  rest  on  a 
road ;  as,  it  is  a  twelve  mile  stage. 
Jlence  the  word  stage-coach. 

STA'tJYRITE,  an  appellation  given 
to  Aristotle,  from  Stagira,  a  town  in 
Macedonia,  the  place  of  his  birth. 

STAIRS,  in  architecture,  steps  for 
ascending  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
part  of  a  house.  When  these  are  enclosed 
with  walls  or  balustrades,  with  landing- 
places  for  communication  between  the 
several  stories  of  a  building,  the  whole  is 
called  a  staircase.  Vitruvius  jiiakes  no 
mention  of  staircases  in  his  Treatise  on 
Architecture  ;  and,  indeed,  with  the  an- 
cients they  formed  no  feature  in  the  in- 
terior, being  generally  on  the  outside  of 
the  houses.  Those  of  which  traces  re- 
main are  narrow,  and  so  inconvenient 
that  in  some  cases  the  steps  are  a  foot  in 
height.  In  modern  architecture,  they 
are  often  constructed  with  great  display 
of  skill  and  magnificence,  and  are  no 
small  test  of  the  skill  and  power  of  the 
architect.  Those  stairs  which  proceed  in 
a  right  line  of  ascent  are  called  Jliers  ; 
when  they  wind  round  a  solid  or  open 
newel  they  are  called  icinders.  MLxed 
stairs  are  such  as  partly  wind  and  partly 

fly- 

STALL,  in  architecture,  a  seat  raised 
on  the  sides  of  the  choir  or  chancel  of  a 
church,  mostly  appropriated  to  a  digni- 
tary of  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church. 
Sometimes  stalls  are  placed  near  the  high 
altar,  for  the  priest  and  deacon  or  sub- 
deacon  to  rest  while  the  service  in  certain 
parts  is  carried  on  by  the  choristers.  In 
churches  of  the  kinds  named  there  is  gen- 
erally a  series  of  them. 

STAMP,  in  England,  a  mark  set  upon 
things  chargeable  with  duty  to  govern- 
ment, as  evidence  that  the  duty  is  paid  ; 
as,  the  stamp  on  a  new.'-paper,  the  stamp 
on  a  bond  or  indenture,  &c — Any  instru- 
ment for  making  iin|)ressions  on  other 
bodies. — A  character  of  reputation,  good 
or  bad,  fixed  on  anything;  as,  the  Scrip- 
tures bear  the  stamp  of  a  divine  origin  ; 
this  person  bears  on  his  unblushing  face 
the  stamp  of  roguery. 

STAN'ZA,  in  poetry,  a  series  or  num- 
ber of  verses  connected  with  each  other 


in  a  poem,  of  which  the  metre  is  con- 
structed of  successive  series  similar  ia 
arrangement.  The  stanza,  however,  must 
be  undeistood  to  form  a  shorter  di\ision 
than  the  classical  strophe,  to  which  this 
definition  would  be  equally  applicable. 
The  terra  is  of  Italian  origin,  and  signifies 
literally  a,  station  or  resting-place  :  it  is 
so  called  from  terminating  with  a  full 
point  or  pause.  The  ottaca  rima,  which 
consists  of  six  lines  in  alternate  rhyme 
ended  by  a  couplet,  the  lines  being  deca, 
or  rather  hendeca-syllabic,  is  the  prin- 
cipal Italian  stanza.  The  Spenserian 
stanza  (which  was  perhaps  invented  by 
the  poet  from  whom  it  derives  its  name, 
but  was  certainly  first  applied  by  him  to 
the  construction  of  a  regular  poem)  con- 
sists of  eight  deca-syllabic  verses  and  an 
Alexandrine  at  the  end ;  the  first  and 
third  verses  forming  the  last  rhyme;  the 
second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh  another; 
and  the  eighth  and  ninth  a  third  rhyme. 
Lord  liyron  has  given  both  to  the  Ottava 
and  the  Spenserian  stanza  in  English 
verse  a  peculiar  and  original  character. 

STAR'-CIIAMBER,  formerly,  a  court 
of  criminal  jurisdiction  at  Westminster, 
England,  so  called  from  its  roof  being 
ornamented  with  gilt  stars.  This  court 
took  upon  itself  to  decide  upon  those 
cases  of  offence  with  regard  to  which  the 
law  w.as  silent ;  and  was  in  criminal  mat- 
ters what  the  exchequer  is  in  civil.  It 
passed  judgment  without  the  intervention 
of  a  jury.  It  differed  from  all  other  ju- 
diciary courts  in  this,  that  the  latter  were 
governed  only  by  the  common  law,  or 
immemorial  custom,  and  acts  of  parlia- 
ment ;  whereas  the  former  often  admitted 
for  law  the  proclamations  of  the  king  in 
council. 

STA'ROST,  a  title  under  the  Polish 
republic  enjoyed  by  noblemen  who  were 
in  possession  of  certain  castles  and  do- 
mains called  starosties.  These  were  grants 
of  the  crown,  and  only  conferred  for  life, 
hut  generally  renewed  after  the  demise 
of  a  possessor  to  his  heirs. 

STATES,  or  ESTATES,  in  modern 
European  history,  (French  t'tats,  (lerman 
stande.)  those  divisions  of  society,  pro- 
fessions, or  classes  of  men,  which  havo 
partaken,  either  directly  or  by  represen- 
tation, in  the  government  of  their  coun- 
try. Their  number  has  varied  in  ditTer- 
ent  countries.  In  France,  and  most  other 
feudal  kingdoms,  there  have  been  three 
estates,  (nobles,  clergy,  commonalty.) 
members  of  the  ancient  national  assem- 
blies. Hence  the  well-known  appellation 
tiers  ctal  (third  oetate)  for  thp  last.     In 


570 


CVll.Ol'Kl.lA     OK     I.ITHtAlLI.'K 


STB 


Sweden  there  are  at  this  day  four  :  no- 
bility, clergy,  citizens,  peasant.-'.  In  most 
countries  the  ancient  system  of  assemblies 
convoked  from  separate  estates  disa|i- 
peared  by  the  progress  of  absolute  gov- 
ernment in  the  IGlh  and  17th  centuries; 
and  in  modern  monarchical  constitutions 
the  English  system  of  government  by 
king,  lords,  and  commons,  or  analogous 
powers,  has  prevailed.  But  the  stites 
have  been  reconstituted  of  late  years  in 
some  German  monarchies  and  grand 
duchies,  the  electorate  of  Hesse  Cassel, 
&c. 

STATES-GENERAL,  in  French  his- 
tory, assemblies  which  were  first  called 
A.D.  1302,  and  were  held  occasionally 
from  that  period  to  the  j'ear  1614, 
when  they  were  discontinued,  till  they 
were  summoned  again  at  an  interesting 
period,  viz.,  in  the  year  1789.  These 
states-general,  however,  were  very  differ- 
ent from  the  ancient  assemblies  of  the 
French  nation  under  the  kings  of  the 
first  and  second  race.  There  is  no  point 
with  respect  to  which  the  French  anti- 
quaries are  more  generally  agreed  than 
in  maintaining  that  the  states-general 
had  no  suffrage  in  the  passing  of  laws, 
and  possessed  no  proper  jurisdiction. 
The  whole  tenor  of  the  French  history 
confirms  this  opinion. 

STATIONERY,  the  name  given  to  all 
Ihe  materials  emploj'ed  in  the  art  of 
writing,  but  more  especially  to  those  of 
pen,  ink  and  paper.  The  term  station- 
try  is  derived  from  the  business  of  book- 
Bellers  having  been  anciently  carried  on 
entirely  in  stalls,  or  stations. 

STATISTICS,  a  term  of  somewhat 
modern  date,  adopted  to  e.xpress  a  more 
comprehensive  view  of  the  various  par- 
ticulars constituting  the  general  and  po- 
litical strength  and  resources  of  a  country 
than  was  usually  embraced  by  writers  on 
political  arithmetic.  The  principal  ob- 
jects of  Iho  science  of  statistics  are — the 
extent  and  j)opuIation  of  a  state  ;  the 
occupation  of  the  different  classes  of  its 
inhabitanis  ;  the  progress  of  agriculture, 
of  manufactures,  and  of  internal  an.l 
foreign  trade;  the  income  and  wealth  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  projjortion  drawn 
from  them  for  the  public  service  by  taxa- 
Mon ;  their  health  and  longevity;  the 
condition  of  the  poor;  the  state  of  schools 
and  other  public  institutions  of  utility; 
with  every  other  subject,  the  knowledge 
of  which  may  be  useful  in  ascertaining 
the  moral  condition  and  political  strength 
of  a  country,  its  commerce,  arts,  <fec. 

STAT  UE.  in  sculirturc,  a  rcj)rcscnta- 


tion  in  relief  in  some  solid  substance,  aa 
marble  or  bronze,  or  in  some  apparently 
solid  substance,  of  a  man  or  other  ani- 
mal. There  are  various  si)ccies  of  statues  : 
1.  Those  smaller  than  nature.  2.  Those 
of  the  same  size  as  nature.  3.  Those 
larger  than  nature.  4.  Those  that  are 
three  or  more  times  larger  than  nature, 
and  are  called  colossal.  The  first  were 
by  the  ancients  confined  to  men  and  gods 
generally.  The  second  were  confined  to 
the  representation  of  men  celebrated  for 
their  learning  and  talents,  who  had  ren- 
dered service  to  the  state,  and  were  exe- 
cuted at  the  public  expense.  The  third 
were  confined  to  kings,  emperors,  and, 
when  more  than  twice  the  size  of  nature, 
to  heroes.  The  fourth  species  were  con- 
fined to  statues  of  the  gods,  or  of  kings 
and  emperors  represented  under  the 
form  of  gods  — Equestrian  statues  are 
those  in  ,which  the  figure  is  seated  on  a 
horse. 

STA'TUS  QUO,  in  politics,  a  treaty 
between  two  or  more  belligerents,  which 
leaves  each  party  in  possession  of  the 
same  territories,  fortresses,  etc.  as  it 
occupied  before  hostilities  broke  out,  is 
said  to  leave  them  "  in  statu  quo  ante 
bellum,"  in  the  same  state  as  before  the 
war. 

STAT'UTES,  acts  of  Congress,  which 
are  either  public  or  private. — Statutes 
are  distinguished  from  common  law.  The 
latter  owes  its  binding  force  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  justice,  to  long  use,  and  the 
consent  of  a  nation.  The  former  owe 
their  binding  force  to  a  positive  command 
or  declaration  of  the  governing  power. 

STAVE,  in  music,  the  five  horizontal 
and  parallel  lines  on  which  the  notes  of 
tunes  are  written  or  printed. 

STEE'PLE,  in  architecture,  an  append- 
age erected  generally  in  the  western  end 
ot  churches,  to  hold  the  bells.  Steeples  are 
denominated,  according  to  their  form, 
either  spires  or  towers  :  the  first  are  such 
as  ascend  continually  diminishing  cither 
conically  or  pyramidally  :  the  latter  are 
merely  paralielopipeds,  and  are  covered 
lit  top  platform-wise.  The  steeple  ap- 
pears to  have  originated  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. 

STEN'CILLING,  a  method  of  painting 
on  walls  with  a  stencil,  so  as  to  imitate 
the  figures  on  jiaper-hangings. 

STENOGRAPHY,  the  art  of  writing 
in  short -hand,  by  using  abbreviations  or 
characters  for  whole  words.  Some  sys- 
tems are  replete  witli  unmeaning  symbols 
and  ill-judged  contractions  ;  while  others 
arc    too  prolix,   by  containing  a  multi- 


ETi] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


571 


plicity  of  chara;lers,  and  those  characters 
not  simple  or  easily  remeinbercil.  No 
system  of  arbitrary  signs,  in  fnet,  how- 
ever sciciitilie,  can,  witliout  extensive 
practice,  be  of  much  use  to  the  student; 
and  it  is  not  therefore  surprisinij  that 
many  of  our  most  expert  reporters  neg- 
lect or  abandon  the  stud^'  of  it  altogether. 

STEXTO'RIAN,  [from  Stentor,  a  her- 
alil  in  Homer,  whose  voice  was  as  loud  as 
the  united  voices  of  fifty  other  men, J  able 
to  utter  a  very  loud  sound.  The  word 
stentorophonic  is  also  sometimes,  though 
rarelv,  used. 

STERCO'RIANISM,  in  ecclesiastical 
historj',  a  nickname  which  seems  to  have 
been  applied  in  the  Western  church,  in 
the  5th  and  6ih  century,  to  those  who 
held  the  opinion  that  a  change  took  place 
in  the  consecrated  elements,  so  as  to 
render  the  divine  body  subject  to  the  act 
of  digestion. 

STEREOG'RAPIIY,  the  art  of  drawing 
the  forms  and  figures  of  solids  upon  a 
plane. 

STEREOT'OMY,  the  science  or  art  of 
cutting  solids  into  certain  figures  or  sec- 
tions ;  as  walls  or  other  members  in  the 
profiles  of  architecture. 

STEREOTYPE,  an  entire  solid  plate 
or  piece  of  type  cast  from  an  impression 
in  gypsum  of  a  page  composed  with  mov- 
able types.  Thus  we  say  a  book  is  printed 
on  stereotype,  or  in  stereotype.  In  the 
latter  use,  the  word  seems  rather  to  signify 
the  workmanship,  or  manner  of  printing, 
than  the  yjlate.     See  Cycl.  Useful  Arts. 

STER'LING,  in  English  commerce,  a 
term  which  is  applied  to  mone}',  signify- 
ing that  it  is  of  the  fixed,  or  standard, 
national  value  ;  thus,  "a  pound  sterling" 
is  not  indefinitely  "  a  pound,"  but  "  an 
English  pound."  Camden  appears  to 
offer  the  true  etymology  of  this  word, 
■when  he  derives  it  from  easterlins;,  and 
corroborates,  if  not  demonstrates,  the 
propriety  of  this  suggestion,  by  quoting 
old  deeds,  where  English  coin  is  always 
called  nummi  easterlingi.  In  explana- 
tion, he  observes,  that  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  t.  money  coined  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Germany  grew  to  be  much  es- 
teemed in  England,  on  account  of  irs 
purity  :  this  money  was  called  easterling 
money,  as  all  the  people  of  those  parts 
were  called  easterlings ;  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  partiality  related,  some  of 
the  easterling  coiners  were  invited  into 
the  king  lot»,  to  perfect  its  coinage,  which 
was  thencefiirward  denominated  easter- 
ling, eslerling,  or  sterling.  During  a 
considerable  period,  the  ouiy  coin  in  Eng- 


land was  one  of  about  the  value  of  a 
penny:  whence  it  happens,  that  many 
ancient  writers  use  the  word  easterling 
as  a  substantive,  and  synonymously  with 
penny. — The  word  sterling  has  also  a 
more  general  application.  We  speak  of 
sterling  value,  sterling  worth,  or  sterling 
wit ;  thereby  meaning  genuine  and  of 
good  quality. 

STEWARD,  a  man  who  is  employed 
in  wealthy  families  to  superintend  the 
household  generally,  to  collect  the  rents 
or  income,  keep  the  accounts,  &c. 

STICirOMANCY,  divination  by  lines 
or  passages  in  books  taken  at  hazard. 
Among  the  Romans  verses  from  the 
Sibylline  books  were  written  on  slips  of 
paper,  which  were  thrown  into  a  vessel ; 
and  future  events  were  conjectured  from 
the  interpretation  of  one  of  these  slips 
drawn  out  at  hazard.  Of  the  same  kind 
were  the  Sortes  VirgilianoE,  Hurnericce, 
&c.;  a  sort  of  literary  iuperstition  by 
which  the  works  of  authors  were  consult- 
ed, and  the  meaning  of  a  line  casually 
taken  assumed  as  indicative  of  the  fate 
of  the  person  discovering  it.  Verses  of 
the  Bible  selected  in  this  way  by  chance 
have  been,  and  are  still,  frequently  taken 
bj'  the  superstitious  as  oracular.  This 
sort  of  divination  has  been  called  biblio- 
manoj,  or  sortes  bibllccc  It  was  con- 
demned by  the  council  of  Vannes  in  465, 
and  other  early  synods ;  but  was  long 
afterwards  practised  in  France  at  the 
elections  of  bishops  abbots,  etc.  The  cus- 
tom of  drawing  by  lots  verses  from  the 
Bible  on  such  occasions  is  said  to  have 
prevailed  as  late  as  1740,  in  the  cathe- 
drals of  Ypres,  St.  Omer,  and  Boulogne. 

STIFF,  constrained,  labored,  wanting 
in  ease  and  gracefulness  of  style.  Such, 
for  example,  are  the  Egyptian  figures, 
those  of  the  most  ancient  Greek  style, 
certain  Gothic  figures,  Ac.  Stitfnest;  is 
essentially  opposed  to  beauty  of  form. 
Nature,  bountiful  in  almost  all  her  pro- 
visions, has  given  to  the  limbs  and  move- 
ments of  men  freedom  and  suppleness ; 
and  it  is  only  through  the  unworthy 
affectation  which  sometimes  springs 
from  sophisticated  habits  of  society,  that 
constrained  or  stiff  movements  are  dis- 
cernible, except  in  people  out  of  health. 

STIG'MATIZING,  in  antiquity,  the 
act  of  affixing  a  mark  upon  slaves, 
sometimes  as  a  punishment,  but  more 
usually  in  order  to  know  them.  It  was 
done  by  applying  a  red-hot  iron,  marked 
with  certain  letters,  to  their  foreheads, 
till  a  fair  impression  was  made,  and  then 
pouring  ink  intu  the  furrows,  that  the 


)72 


CYCLOl'EDIA    OF    LI  iEI{ATL  ItE 


[STO 


inscription  might  be  the  more  conspicu- 
ous.— Sligmali^inff,  among  some  navion;!, 
was,  however,  looked  upon  as  a  distin- 
guishing mark  (if  honor  and  nobility. 

STIPEX  DIARY,  one  who  performs 
services  for  a  settled  compensation,  or 
stipend,  either  by  the  day,  month,  or 
year. 

STIP'PLING,  in  the  arts,  a  method  of 
engraving  in  dots,  as  distinguished  from 
etc/ling  in  Hues. 

STiPULA'TION,  a  contract  or  bar- 
giiin ;  as,  the  stipulalions  of  the  allied 
powers  of  Europe  to  furnish  each  his  con- 
tingent of  troops. 

STOMJ,  in  antiquity,  porticoes  in  Ath- 
ens, which  were  the  resort  of  philosophers, 
particular])'  the  Stoics. 

STOCK,  in  commerce,  any  fund  con- 
sisting of  money  or  goods  emidoyed  by  a 
person  in  trade,  particularly  the  sum  of 
money  raised  by  a  company  for  carrj'ing 
on  any  trading  concern. — iituck  is  a  gen- 
eral name  for  the  capitals  of  trading  com- 
panies. It  is  a  word  also  that  denotes 
any  sum  of  money  which  has  been  lent  to 
government,  on  condition  of  receiving  a 
certain  interest  till  the  money  is  repaid. 
Hence  the  price  of  stocks,  or  rates  per 
cent.,  are  the  several  sums  for  which  $100 
of  those  respective  stocks  sell  at  any  given 
time. 

STOCK -BROKER,  one  who  deals  in 
the  purchase  and  sale  of  stocks  or  shares 
in  the  public  funds,  for  others. 

STOCK'-JOBBER,  one  who  speculates 
in  the  prices  of  stock  from  day  to  day,  or 
by  anticipation  for  future  time  :  a  despe- 
rate species  of  gambling,  by  wliich  thou- 
sands are  annually  ruined — ^lork-liold- 
er,  one  who  is  a  proprietor  in  the  public 
funds,  or  in  the  funds  of  a  bank  or  other 
company. 

STO'IC,  a  disciple  of  the  philosopher 
Zeno,  who  founded  a  sect.  He  taught  that 
men  should  be  free  from  passion,  unmov- 
ed by  joy  or  grief,  and  submit  without 
complaint  to  tlie  unnvoidiiblo  necessity 
by  which  all  things  are  governed.  The 
Stoics  are  jirovcrbially  known  for  the 
sternness  and  auFterity  of  their  ethical 
doctrines,  and  for  the  influence  which 
their  tenets  exercised  over  some  of  the 
noblest  spirits  of  antiquity.  Their  sys- 
tem appears  to  have  been  an  nttcmf>t  to 
reconcile  a  theological  pantheism,  and 
a  materialist  iisychology,  with  a  Ifgic 
which  seeks  the  founilations  of  knowledge 
in  sensible  experience,  and  a  morality 
which  claims  as  its  first  principle  the  ab- 
solute freedom  of  the  hum.".n  will.  "  Live 
according  to  nature"  is,  with  tbo  Stoics, 


the  expression  of  the  coincidence  which 
ought  to  exist  between  the  human  will 
and  the  universal  reason,  which  I  hey 
identified  with  the  life  and  power  of  na- 
ture. Thus  coincidence  is  virtue,  the  only 
good;  as  vice,  its  opposite,  is  the  only 
evil.  All  things  else  are  in  themselves 
indifferent ;  being  ajiproved  or  disapprov- 
ed only  by  comparison.  Virtue,  accord- 
ing to  them,  is  the  perfect  harmonj'  of 
the  soul  with  itself;  vice  is,  in  its  essence, 
inconsistent  and  self-contradictory.  The 
wise  man,  the  ideal  of  human  perfection, 
is  absolutely  and  without  qualification, 
free.  Ilis  actions  are  determined  by  his 
freewill,  with  a  power  as  irresistible  as 
that  b)-  which  universal  nature  is  guided 
and  animated. 

STO  LA,  in  antiquity,  a  lung  robe  in 
use  among  the  Roman  ladies,  over  which 
they  wore  a  large  mantle,  or  cloak,  called 
the  pallium. — Also,  a  sacerdotal  orna- 
ment worn  by  the  Romish  parish  priests 
over  their  surplice,  as  a  mark  of  supe- 
riority in  their  respective  churches;  and 
by  other  priests  over  the  alb,  while  cele- 
brating mass. 

STOLE,  a  long  vest  or  robe,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  sacerdotal  dress  of 
Roman  Catholic  i)arish  priests  over  their 
surplice,  as  a  mark  of  superiority  in  their 
respective  churches,  awl  by  other  priests 
over  the  alb  while  celebrating  mass.  It 
is  a  long  broad  white  band,  of  silk  or  sil- 
ver stuti',  lined  with  stifi'  linen,  worn  by 
deacons  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  reach- 
ing to  the  right  hip;  but  the  priests  wear 
it  over  both  shoulders,  ami  hanging  down 
across  the  breast.  It  is  marked  with  three 
crosses,  and  not  unfrequently  has  little 
bells  at  the  end. 

STOXE'HEXGE,  in  English  topogra- 
phy, the  remains  of  a  public  structure 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  still  e.xtant  upon 
Salisbury  jilain.  It  consists  of  many  un- 
hewn stones,  which  with  some  that  are 
wanting,  appear  to  have  originally  com- 
])oscd  fiiur  ranks,  one  within  another. 
Slime  of  them,  especially  in  the  outermost 
and  the  third  ranks,  are  twenty  feet  high 
and  seven  broad.  The  vertical  stones 
sustain  horizontal  ones,  laid  across  their 
heads,  and  fastened  by  mortises.  The 
whole  is  supposed  to  have  been  once 
joined  together.  The  purpose  of  a  place 
of  this  descri]ition,  among  the  generatiims 
which,  two  thousand  years  ago,  peopled 
the  island  of  Britain,  and  were  not  so 
barbarous  or  inconsiderabl(^  as  is  com- 
monly supposed,  and  as  the  vanity  and 
superior  refinement  of  the  Romans  con- 
tribute to  represent,  seems  to  have  been 


AND    TUK     FINE     AKTP. 


573 


that  of  religious  worship.  What  that 
religion  was  can  only  be  conjectured  ;  but 
judging  of  these  ruins  by  their  similarity 
to  the  huge  remains  of  buildings  still  ex- 
isting in  Egyiit — as  well  ar;  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  heads  and  horns  of 
oxen  and  other  animals  have  been  found 
buried  in  the  spot — it  has  been  thought 
that  the  rites  peculiar  to  solar  worship 
were  there  performed  ;  and,  consequently, 
that  Stonehenge  was  once  a  temple  of 
Baal. 

STOP,  the  instrument  by  which  the 
sounds  of  wind  music  are  regulated ;  as, 
the  stops  of  a  flute  or  an  organ.  The 
stops  of  an  organ  are  a  collection  of  pipes 
similar  in  tone  and  quality,  which  run 
through  the  whole  or  a  great  part  of  the 
compass  of  the  instrument.  In  great 
organs,  the  stops  are  numerous  and  mul- 
tifarious; but  the  principal  ones  are  the 
two  diapakons,  the  principal,  the  twelfth, 
thejifteenth,  the  sesquialtera,  the  mixture 
or  furniture,  the  trumpet,  the  clarion, 
and  the  cornet.  The  choir-organ  usually 
contains  the  sfojit  diapason,  ihe  dulcianu, 
the  principal,  the  Jlute,  the  twelfth,  the 
bassoon,  and  the  vox  humana.  The  stops 
of  an  organ  are  so  arranged,  that  by 
means  of  registers  the  air  proceeding 
from  the  bellows  may  be  admitted  to 
supply  each  stop  or  series  of  pipes,  or 
excluded  from  it  at  pleasure  ;  and  a  valve 
is  opened  when  the  proper  key  is  touched, 
which  causes  all  the  pipes  belonging  to 
the  note,  in  those  series  of  which  the  re- 
gisters are  open,  to  sound  at  once.  Sev- 
eral of  the  stops  are  designed  to  produce 
imitations  of  different  musical  instru- 
ments, as  the  trumpet,  clarion,  cornet 
and  Jlute  stops. 

STORTHING,  the  parliament  of  Nor- 
way. It  is  elected  once  in  three  years, 
and  sits  every  year  for  the  despatch  of 
business.  The  election  is  double  ;  every 
qualified  person  (an  owner  or  life-renter 
of  land  paying  taxes  in  the  country,  and 
every  one  possessing  land  or  houses  of  loO 
ri.\  dollars  value  in  towns)  joining  in  the 
election  of  councillors,  who  elect  out  of 
their  own  body  the  representatives  of  the 
country.  These  must  be  from  75  to  100 
in  number.  The  storthing,  when  elected, 
divides  itself  into  two  houses  :  one  fourth, 
chosen  by  the  rest,  joining  the  laything, 
or  upper  house;  the  remainder  the  odels- 
thing,  or  lower  house.  The  storthing  has 
the  usual  powers  of  a  legislative  assem- 
bly in  a  constitutional  country,  and  the 
king  has  only  a  suspensive  veto  ;  which,  if 
the  storthing  passes  a  law  three  times  in 
six  su/>cessive  years,  becomes  of  no  effect. 


STRAPPA'DO,  a  military  punishment 
formerly  practised.  It  consisted  in  draw- 
ing an  ofl'cnder  to  the  top  of  a  beam  and 
letting  him  fall,  by  which  means  a  limb 
was  sometimes  dislocated. 

STRAT'EGY,  properly  the  science  of 
combining  and  employing  the  means 
which  the  different  branches  of  the  art 
of  war  afford,  for  the  purpose  of  formiiig 
projects  of  operations,  and  of  directing 
great  military  movements.  It  was  foi- 
merlj' distinguished  from  the  art  of  mak- 
ing dispositions  and  of  manoeuvring,  when 
in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  ;  but  mili- 
tarj'  writers  now,  in  general,  comprehend 
all  these  subjects  under  the  denomination 
of  grand  and  elementary  tactics. 

STRATHSPEY,  in  Scotland,  a  species 
of  dance  in  which  two  persons  are  en- 
gaged. It  is  so  denominated  from  the 
country  of  Strathspey,  probably  as  hav- 
ing been  first  used  there. — A  species  of 
dance  music  in  common  time,  peculiar  to 
Scotland.  It  probably  originated  in  the 
same  district  as  the  above  dance. 

STRATOCRACY,  a  military  govern- 
ment, or  that  form  of  government  in 
which  the  soldiery  bear  the  sway. 

STRENGTH,  force  of  writing;  vigor; 
nervous  diction.  The  strength  of  words, 
of  style,  of  expression,  and  the  like,  con- 
sists in  the  full  and  forcible  exhibition  of 
ideas,  by  which  a  sensible  or  deep  im- 
pression is  made  on  the  mind  of  a  bearer 
or  reader.  It  is  distinguished  from  sojt- 
ness  or  sweetness. — Strength  of  language 
enforces  an  argument,  produces  convic- 
tion, or  excites  wonder  or  other  strong 
emotion;  softness  and  sweetness  give 
pleasure. 

STREPITO'SO,  in  music,  an  Italian 
word  denoting  that  the  part  to  which  it 
is  prefixed  must  be  performed  in  an  im- 
petuous and  boisterous  style. 

STRETCH'ING  COURSE,  in  archi- 
tecture, a  course  in  which  the  bricks  or 
stones  are  laid  horizontally  with  their 
lengths  in  the  direction  of  the  face  of  the 
wall. 

STRET'TO,  in  music,  a  ferm  indicating 
that  the  measure  to  whLa  it  is  affixed  is 
to  be  performed  short  and  concise,  hence 
quick      It  is  the  opposite  of  largo. 

STRI'iE,  in  architecture,  the  fillets 
which  separate  the  furrows  or  grooves 
of  fluted  columns. 

STRO'PHE,  a  division  of  a  Greek 
choral  ode  answering  to  a  stanza.  The 
name  is  derived  from  crotip'.iv,  to  turn, 
because  the  singers  turned  in  one  direc- 
tion while  they  recited  that  portion  of 
the  poem  ;  they  then  turned  round  and 


574 


CYCl.OrEniA     OF     I.ITKRATURK 


STY 


sung  the  next  portion,  which  was  of  ex- 
actly the  same  length  and  metre  ns  the 
preceding,  and  was  termed  the  antistro- 
phe.  These  were  sometimes  followed  by 
another  strophe  and  aniistrophe,  some- 
times by  a  single  stanza  called  the  epodc. 

STRUC'TLRE,  in  its  usual  accepta- 
tion, a  building  of  some  size  and  im- 
portance. Also,  form  or  construction; 
as,  "  we  know  but  little  of  the  structure 
and  constitution  of  the  terraqueous 
globe." 

STUCCO,  in  building,  a  fine  kind  of 
plaster  composed  of  lime,  sand,  whiting, 
and  pulverized  marble;  used  for  cover- 
ing walls,  &c. 

STUD,  in  building,  a  small  piece  of 
timber  or  joist  inserted  in  the  sills  and 
beams,  between  the  posts,  to  support  the 
beams  or  other  main  timbers. 

STUD'IES,  in  painting,  a  term  applied 
to  those  preparatory  sketches  or  exorcises 
made  by  an  artist,  consisting  of  separate 
parts  of  a  picture,  first  designed  and 
painted  unconnectedly,  with  a  view  to 
their  future  introduction  into  the  entire 
work.  Thus,  entire  figures  in  some  in- 
stances ;  in  others,  human  heads,  hands, 
or  feet,  animals,  trees,  plants,  flowers, 
and,  in  short,  anytliiiig  designed  from 
nature,  receive  the  general  name  of 
studies.  The  use  of  studies  is  to  enable 
a  painter  to  acquire  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  his  art,  and  facility  of  execution. 
Pieces  of  instrumental  music  composed 
for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing  tlie 
player  with  the  difficulties  of  his  instru- 
ment. 

STUD'Y,  application  of  the  mind  to 
books,  to  art  or  science,  or  to  any  subject, 
for  the  purpose  of  learning  what  was  not 
before  known  ;  the  occupation  of  a  stu- 
dent. Also,  the  apartment  devoted  to 
study  or  literary  avocations. 

STYLE,  in  literature,  the  word  style 
may  be  defined  to  mean  the  distinctive 
manner  of  writing  which  belongs  to  each 
author,  and  also  to  each  body  of  writers, 
allied  as  belonging  to  the  same  school, 
country,  or  age.  It  is  that  which,  to  use 
the  expression  of  Dryilen,  individuates 
each  writer  from  all  others.  The  style 
of  an  author  is  made  up  of  various 
minute  particulars,  which  it  is  extremely 
difiicult  to  describe,  but  each  of  which 
adds  something  to  the  aggregate  of  quiil- 
ities  which  belong  to  him.  Collocation 
of  vvord,<,  turn  of  seiitencf's,  synt.ix, 
rhythm;  the  relation,  abundanee,  and 
the  character  of  his  usual  figures  and 
metaphors ;  the  usual  order  in  which 
thoughts  succeed  each  other  ;  the  logical 


form  in  which  conclusions  arc  generally 
deduced  from  their  premises  ;  the  par- 
ticular qualities  most  insisted  on  in  de 
scription  ;  amplification  and  conciseness, 
clearness  and  oh.-curity,  directness  and 
indirectness,  exhaustion,  suggestion,  sup- 
pression— all  these  are  features  of  style, 
in  the  larj^est  sense  of  the  expression,  i-n 
which  it  seems  to  compreh'^  '  all  pecu- 
liarities belonging  to  the  .lanner  in 
which  thought  is  communicated  from  the 
writer  to  the  reader.  Excellence  of  style, 
particularly  of  the  rhetorical  parts  of 
style,  was  more  cultivated  by  the  ancients 
than  the  moderns ;  and  less,  perhaps,  at 
the  present  day,  than  at  any  former 
period  since  the  English  language  began 
to  bo  written  in  prose  with  correctness 
and  elegance  Since  the  period  when 
Bolingbroke,  Junius,  Johnson,  Cibbon, 
and  Burke  became  established  as  models, 
a  certain  superficial  sameness  of  style, 
wanting  in  the  roughness  anil  vulgj^rity, 
but  also  in  the  force  and  individuality 
of  old  English  composition,  seems  to 
prevail  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render 
modern  writing  extremely  monotonous 
and  artificial.  But  it  should  never  bo 
forgotten  that  whatever  quality  may 
command  a  temporary  popularity,  no 
work,  either  in  poetry  or  prose,  has  ever 
permanently  maintained  its  hold  on  pub- 
lic admiration  without  excellence  of 
style  — iS/y/e,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  the  mode 
in  which  an  artist  forms  and  expresses 
his  ideas  on  and  of  a  given  subject.  It 
is  the  form  and  character  that  he  gives 
to  the  expression  of  his  ideas,  according 
to  his  particular  faculties  and  powers. 
Style  may  bo  almost  considered  as  the 
refinement  of  DUirnier;  it  is  .a  charac- 
teristic essence  by  which  we  distinguish 
the  works  of  one  master  from  another. 
From  literature  this  word  has  passed  into 
the  theoretic  language  of  the  Fine  Arts  ; 
and  as  in  that  we  hear  of  the  stiblhne, 
briUiant,  agreeable,  liistorlc,  res^ular, 
natural,  confused,  and  other  styles,  so 
we  have  almost  the  same  epithets  ap- 
plied to  styles  of  art.  Indeed  this  is  not 
wonderful,  since  the  principles  of  taste, 
in  both  the  one  and  the  other,  are  found- 
ed in  nature;  and  it  is  .a  well-known 
saying,  that  poetry  is  a  speaking  ]iicture. 
This  word  is  improperly  used  ns  applied 
to  coloring  and  harmony  of  tints:  wo 
speak  of  the  stylo  of  a  design,  of  a  coni- 
])osition,  of  draperies,  kc  ;  but  not  of  the 
stylo  of  coloring,  but  rather  the  method 
or  manner  of  coloring.  The  definition 
of  this  word  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  :a  as* 
follows:  "Style  in  painting  is  the  same 


bub] 


ANU    THK    FINE     A  UTS. 


r.7i 


as  in  wriliiig— a  power  over  materials, 
whether  \7ords  or  colors,  by  which  con- 
ceptions or  sentiments  are  conveyed." — 
Stijlc,  in  chronology,  the  manner  of  com- 
ptitini;  time,  with  regard  to  the  .Julian  or 
(ircj^cirian  calendar,  and  termed  either 
olil  style  or  iieic.  By  the  old  .style  the 
year  consisted  of  363  days  and  6  hours  ; 
hut  the  new  or  Gregorian  style  was  made 
to  correspond  more  nearly  with  the  period 
of  tiie  sun's  revolution,  reckcming  the 
year  to  be  3G5  days  5  hours  49  minutes 
20  seconds,  by  retrenching  11  days  from 
the  old  style.  The  new  style  was  in- 
troduced into  Germany  in  1700,  and  in 
1752  into  England  by  act  of  parliament, 
whereby  tiie  2d  of  September  in  that 
year  was  reckoned  the  14th. — Style,  in 
architecture,  a  particular  mode  of  erect- 
ing buildings,  as  the  Gothic  style,  the 
Sa.ifon  style,  the  Norman  style,  &o. 

STY'LITE,  the  title  given  to  a  peculiar 
class  «f  anchorites  from  the  places  on 
which  they  took  up  their  solitary  abodes, 
being  the  tops  of  various  columns  in 
Syria  and  Egypt.  This  str.ange  method 
of  devotion  took  its  rise  in  the  second 
centurj',  and  continued  to  be  practised 
by  many  individuals  for  a  great  length 
of  time.  The  most  famous  among  them 
was  one  St.  Simeon,  in  the  5th  century, 
who  is  said  to  have  lived  thirty-seven 
j-eais  upon  various  columns  of  consider- 
able height  in  the  neighborhood  of  An- 
tioch. 

STY'LOBATE,  in  architecture,  in  a 
general  sense,  any  sort  of  basement  on 
which  columns  are  placed  to  raise  them 
above  the  level  of  the  ground  or  floor  ; 
but  in  its  technical  sense,  it  is  applied 
only  to  a  continuous  unbroken  pedestal, 
upon  which  an  entire  range  of  columns 
stand,  contradistinguished  from  pedestals, 
which  are  merely  detached  fragments 
of  a  stylobate  placed  beneath  each 
column. 

STYX,  in  mythology,  a  nymph  :  the 
daughter,  according  to  Hesiod,  of  Ocea- 
nus  and  Thetis;  but  other  mythologists 
relate  the  genealogy  differently.  She 
d'.velt  in  a  rock  palace  in  the  infernal  re- 
gions, from  whence  on3  of  the  infernal 
rivers  burst  forth.  This  river,  Styx,  was 
cne  of  the  ten  arms  or  bran'^hes  of  Ocea- 
nus  The  gods  of  Olympus  swore  by  the 
water  of  Sty.x;  and  a  deity  who  took 
this  oath  in  vain  was  banished  from  the 
heavenly  mansions  for  ten  j'cars,  to  en- 
dure varrous  torments. 

SUB,  a  Latin  preposition  for  under 
or  below  ;  used  as  a  prefi.K  to  many  Eng- 
lish words  denoting  inferiority  of  rank  or 


defect  in  quality  ;  as,  subaltern,  subordi- 
nate, <fec. 

SU'BAII,  in  India,  a  province  or  vice- 
royship.  Hence,  subahdiir,  the  gover- 
nor of  a  province.  Subalidar  is  also 
used  for  a  native  of  India,  who  ranks 
as  caj)tain  in  the  European  companies. 

fet'BAL  TERN,  a  term  for  a  military 
officer  below  the  rank  of  captain. 

SUBDOM'INANT,  in  music,  that  note 
which  is  a  fifth  below  the  key-note.  It  ia 
a  species  of  governing  note,  inasmuch  as 
it  requires  the  tonic  to  be  heard  afier  it 
in  the  plagal  cadence.  In  the  regular 
ascending  scale  of  seven  notes  it  is  the 
fourth  ;  the  term,  however,  has  its  origin 
from  its  relation  to  the  tonic  as  the  fifth 
below. 

SUB'JECT,  one  that  owes  allegiance 
to  a  government,  and  is  governed  by  its 
laws.  Men  in  free  governments  are  s"6- 
jects  as  well  as  citizens ;  as  citizens,  they 
enjoy  rights  and  franchises  ;  as  subjects, 
they  are  bound  to  obey  the  laws. — Sub- 
ject, that  on  which  any  mental  opera- 
tion is  performed,  or  which  is  treated  or 
discussed. 

SUBJECTIVE  and  OBJECTIVE,  arc 
terms  expressing  the  distinction  which  in 
analyzing  every  intellectual  act  we  ne-' 
eessai  ily  make  between  ourselves,  the  con- 
scious subject,  and  that  of  which  we  are  con- 
scious, the  o6/ec<.  "  I  know"  and  "some- 
thing is  known  by  me,"  are  convertible 
propositions  ;  every  act  of  the  soul  that  \h 
not  thus  resolvable  belongs  to  the  emotive 
part  of  our  ng,ture,  as  distinguished  from 
the  intelligent  and  percipient.  For  the 
distinction  between  subject  and  object, 
all-important  in  intellectual  philosophy, 
and  the  neglect  of  which  has  been  the 
cause  of  infinite  confusion  and  perplexity, 
we  are  indebted  to  the  schoolmen  ;  from 
whom  it  was  derived,  through  Wolf  and 
Leibnitz,  by  Kant  and  the  modern  Gor- 
man philosophers. 

SUBLAPSA'RIAN,  in  tlieology,  one 
who  maintains  that  the  sin  of  Adam's 
apostasy  being  imputed  to  all  his  poster- 
ity, God  in  his  compassion  decreed  to  send 
his  Son  to  rescue  a  great  number  from 
their  lost  state,  and  to  accept  of  his  obe- 
dience and  death  on  their  account.  The 
word  sublapsarian  is  opposed  to  supra- 
lapsarian. 

SUBLLVIE',  in  literature,  that  style  or 
manner  of  writing 'in  which  a  sublime 
thought,  or  a  fact  sublime  in  its  charac- 
ter, is  suitably  presented  to  the  mind.  It 
has  often  been  said, — but  we  suspect 
there  is  no  valid  ground  for  the  assertion, 
— that   when    men   grow    philosophical. 


5TG 


CYCLOl'KDIA    OF    LITEKATfUE 


■SV  H 


they  can  seldom  excel  in  the  sublime. 
The  sources  of  the  sublime  in  language 
are  well  enutuerated  by  Longinus.  The 
first  is  elevation  (if  iniml  ;  the  second,  ar- 
dent sensibility  ;  the  third,  the  proper 
use  of  figures ;  the  fourth,  grandeur  of 
diction  ;  and  the  fifth,  a  dignified  har- 
mony of  arrangement.  The  sublime  in 
narration  is  exeiuijlified  in  the  well- 
known  comuioncement  of  the  book  of 
Genesis  :  ."  God  said  let  there  be  light, 
and  there  was  light." — Sublime,  in  the 
Fine  Arts,  high  or  exalted  in  style.  That 
which  in  art  is  raised  above  the  higher 
standard  of  nature  or  its  prototypes. 
Sublimity  is  incompatible  with  our  ideas 
of  elegance,  grace,  or  any  of  the  other 
sources  of  beauty,  though  these  may  all 
enter  into  an  object  wherein  those  and 
many  other  qualities  may  be  combined 
with  sublimit}-.  They  have  been,  how- 
ever, not  unfrequently  considered  as  some 
of  the  sources  of  the  sublime.  The  nod 
of  Jupiter,  in  the  hands  of  such  a  master 
as  Homer,  is  an  indication  of  sublimity  ; 
but  v.hen  Longinus  tells  us,  that,  as  ap- 
plied to  literature,  the  constituent  ingre- 
dients of  sublimity  are  boldness  in 
thought,  the  pathetic,  prwper  application 
of  figures,  use  of  tropes  and  beautiful  ex- 
pressions, and  last,  musical  structure  and 
sounds,  we  are  inclined  to  think  he  had 
very  indistinct  notions  of  it  himself.  We 
cannot  better  exemplify  the  meaning  of 
this  term  than  by  referring  the  reader  t.o 
the  works  of  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel,  wherein,  as  Fuseli  has  truly 
said,  "  his  line  is  uniformly  grand  ;  char- 
acter and  beauty  were  admitted  only  as 
far  as  they  could  be  maile  subservient  to 
grandeur.  The  chihl,  the  female,  mean- 
ness, deformity,  were  by  him  indiscrimi- 
nately stamped  with  grandeur.  A  beggar 
rose  from  his  hand  the  patriarch  of  pov- 
erty; his  infants  teem  with  the  man,  his 
men  are  giants."  The  terribile  via,  hint- 
ed at  by  Agostino  Caracci,  is  indeed  the 
sublime.  IVote. — The  true  nature  of  sub- 
limity is  a  subject  of  great  interest  and 
importance  in  mental  philosophy,  and  it 
has  always  been  a  favorite  subject  of 
speculation.  The  term,  psychologically 
considered,  has  two  significations  :  one 
that  of  the  quality  or  circumstance  in 
objects,  which  raises  the  emotion  named 
sublimity;  the  other  that  of  the  emotion 
itself.  The  invariable  condition  in  ob- 
jects, either  material  or  moral,  is  vast- 
uess  or  intensity.  The  invririablo  condi- 
tion of  the  emotion  of  sublimity — that 
which  distinguislip.-i  this  emo'lidn  from 
every  other  emotion — is  a  comprehension 


of  this  vastness,  with  a  simultaneous  feel- 
ing of  our  own  com]>arative  in^ignificance, 
together  with  a  concomitant  sense  of 
present  security  from  any  danger  which 
might  result  from  this  superior  power. 
The  antithesis  to  the  emotion  of  su-blim- 
ily  is  the  emotion  of  contempt.  In  every 
case  of  sublimity  in  material  objects, 
whatever  feelings  may  simultaneously 
concur,  vastness  will  be  found  an  inva- 
riable condition — vastness  either  of  form 
or  of  power  ;  as  in  the  violent  dashing  of 
a  cataract,  in  the  roar  of  the  ocean,  in  the 
violence  of  the  storm,  in  the  majestic 
quiet  of  Mont  Blanc,  preserving  its  calm 
amidst  all  the  storms  that  play  around  it. 
In  the  moral  world,  the  invariable  condi- 
tion of  sublimity  is  intensity — intensity 
of  will.  Mere  intensity  is  sufficient  to 
produce  the  sublime.  Lear,  who  appeals 
to  the  heavens,  "for  they  are  old  like 
him,"  is  sublime  from  the  very  intensity 
of  his  sufferings  and  his  passions.  Lady 
Macbeth  is  sublime  from  the  intensity  of 
her  will,  which  crushes  every  female  feel- 
ing for  the  attainment  of  her  object. 
Scasvola,  with  his  hand  in  the  burning 
coals,  exhibits  an  intensity  of  will  which 
is  sublime.  In  all  the  cases  above-men- 
tioned we  are  moved  by  a  vivid  feeling 
of  some  greater  power  tkan  our  own  ;  or 
some  will  more  capable  of  suffering,  more 
va.,t  in  its  strength,  than  our  feeble  va- 
cillating will. 

SUBLIM'ITY,  in  oratory  and  compo- 
sition, loftiness  of  sentiment  or  style. 
Also,  moral  grandeur  ;  as,  "the  incom- 
prehensible sublimity  of  God." 

SUBME'DIANT,  in  music,  the  si.xth 
note,  or  middle  note  between  the  octave 
and  subdominant. 

SUBORN  A'TION.  in  law,  the  crime  of 
jjrocuring  a  person  to  take  such  a  false 
oath  as  constitutes  perjury. 

SUBPtE'NA,  in  law,  a  writ  command- 
ing the  attendance  in  court  of  a  person 
on  whom  it  is  served  ;  as  a  witness,  &c. 

SUBKEP'TIOX,  the  act  of  obtaining 
a  favor  by  surprise  or  unfair  representa- 
tion, that  is,  by  the  suppression  of  fiicts. 

SUBROGA'TION,  in  the  civil  law,  the 
substituting  of  one  person  in  the  place 
of  another,  and  giving  him  his  rights. 

SUBSCRIPTION,'  the  act  of  signing 
or  sotting  one's  hand  to  a  jiajjcr.  Also 
the  giving  of  a  sum  of  money,  or  enga- 
ging to  give  it,  for  the  furtherance  of 
some  conimon  object  in  which  several  are 
interested,  as  subscriptions  in  support  of 
charitable  institutions,  and  the  like. 

SUB  SIDY,  in  England,  an  aid  or  tax 
granted  to  the  king,  by  parliament,  upon 


sufJ 


AND    TIIK    FINK    A  KTS. 


oil 


any  urgent  occasion,  and  levieJ  on  every 
subject  of  ability,  accordiug  to  a  certain 
rale  on  lanJs  an  J  goods  :  but  the  word  in 
some  of  the  statutes,  is  coufounued  with 
that  of  customs.  It  signifies,  in  modern 
usage,  a  sum  of  money  given  ijy  the  gov- 
ernment of  one  nation  to  that  of  another, 
for  the  immediate  purpose  of  serving  the 
latter,  and  the  ultimate  one,  of  benefiting 
the  former.  Thus  (Jre.at  Britain  subsi- 
dized Austria  and  Prussia,  to  engage 
those  powers  in  resisting  the  progress  of 
the  French  during  the  war  with  Xapoleon. 

SL'B'STAXCE,  something  that  we  con- 
ceive to  subsist  of  itself,  independently 
of  any  created  being,  or  anj-  particular 
mo<le  or  acciaent.  Our  ideas  of  substan- 
ces, as  Mr.  Locke  observes,  are  onl3' 
such  combinations  of  simple  ideas  as  are 
taken  to  represent  distinct  things  subsist- 
ing by  themselves,  in  which  the  confu- 
sed idea  of  substance  is  always  the  chief. 
Thus  the  combination  of  the  ideas  of  a 
certain  figure,  with  the  powers  of  motion^ 
thought,  and  reasoning  joined  to  the  sub- 
stance, make  the  ordinary  idea  of  a  man  ; 
and  thus  the  mind  observing  several  sim- 
ple ideas  to  go  constantly  together,  which 
being  presumed  to  belong  to  one  thing, 
or  to  be  united  in  one  subject,  are  called 
by  one  name,  which  we  are  apt  afterwards 
to  talk  of,  and  consider,  as  one  simple 
idea.  The  word  is  equally  applicable  to 
matter  or  spirit ;  we  say,  "  stone  is  a  hard 
substance ;"  "the  soul  of  man  is  an  im- 
material substance,  endued  with  thought;" 
and,  "  in  a  good  epitome,  we  may  have 
the  substance  of  a  large  book,"  Ac. 

.^rB'STITUTE,  in  law,  one  delegated 
to  act  for  another. — In  the  militia,  one 
engaged  to  serve  in  the  room  of  another. 

SUBURBS,  the  building.^,  streets,  or 
parts  that  lie  without  the  walls,  but  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  city.  Hence 
suburban,  inhabiting  or  being  situated 
nf^ar  a  city. 

SUCCEDA'XEUM,  that  which  is  used 
for  something  else  ;  a  substitute.  Hence 
succedaneous,  being  employed  for  or  sup- 
plying the  place  of  something  else. 

SUCCE.SSION  APO.STOL'ICAL,  in 
theology,  by  these  words  is  meant  the  un- 
interrupted succession  of  priests  in  the 
church  by  regular  ordination,  from  the 
first  commission  given  by  our  Saviour  to 
the  Apostles,  and  recorded  in  the  Gospels, 
down  to  the  present  day.  And  the  doc- 
trine of  "  the  apostolical  succession,"  as  it 
is  popularly  called,  means  the  belief  that 
the  clergy  so  regularly  ordained  have  a 
commission  from  God  to  preach  the  gos- 
pel, administer  the  sacraments,  and  guide 
52 


the  church  ;  that  through  their  ministra- 
tion only  we  can  derive  the  grace  which 
is  communicated  by  the  sacraments.  It 
follows,  of  course,  that  those  sects  of 
Christians  which  have  no  regular  succes- 
sion, (having  seceded  from  licjinanisin 
without  retaining  ministers  regularly  or- 
dained, or  having  subsequently  interrupt- 
ed the  succession,  that  is,  all  Protestant 
bodies,  e.xcept  the  church  of  Eiiglam!) 
have,  properly  speaking,  neither  church 
nor  sacraments,  since  they  possess  no 
apostolical  authority.  This  doctrine  was, 
by  admission  on  all  hands,  of  very  great 
antiquity  in  the  church;  but  whether  that 
antiquity  is  primitive  or  not,  is  a  matter 
of  discussion  at  the  present  day. 

SUCCES'SIOX,  LAW  OF,  in  political 
economy,  the  law  or  rule  according  to 
which  the  succession  to  the  property  of 
deceased  individuals  is  regulated.  Gen 
erally  speaking,  this  law  obtains  only  in 
cases  where  a  deceased  yjarty  has  died 
intestate,  or  in  cases  where  the  power 
of  bequeathing  property  by  will,  is  limi- 
ted by  the  legislature.  It  is  plain  that 
in  cases  of  intestacy,  where  the  deceased 
either  leaves  a  number  of  descendants, 
or  where  he  leaves  no  direct  descend- 
ants, the  law,  in  order  to  prevent  endless 
disputes  and  litigation,  must  interfere 
to  regulate  the  succession  to  the  proper- 
ty ;  and  it  will  necessarily  follow  that 
the  succession  will  be  determined  in  dif- 
ferent countries  by  local  circumstances, 
depending  i)artly  on  the  peculiar  state 
and  institutions  of  each  country,  and  on 
the  views  entertained  by  its  legislators  of 
what  is  just  and  proper,  and  most  condu- 
cive to  the  public  advantage.  Hence  it 
is  to  no  purpose  in  a  matter  of  this  kind 
to  look  for  any  general  or  fi.xod  princi- 
ples. The  succession  to  the  property  of 
those  dying  intestate,  and  the  power  of 
bequeathing  property  by  will  or  testa- 
ment, depend  wholly  on  the  rules  and 
regulations  enacted  in  each  country; 
and  these  necessarily  vary  with  the  vary- 
ing circumstances  of  different  countries 
and  conditions  of  society. 

SUE,  to  institute  legal  process  against 
a  person  ;  to  prosecute  in  a  civil  action 
for  the  recovery  of  a  real  or  supposed 
right ;   as  to  sue  for  debt  or  damages. 

SUF'FERANCE,  a  term  in  law,  ap- 
plied to  tenants  ;  a  tenant  at  sufTerance 
being  one  that  continues  after  his  title 
ceases,  without  positive  leave  of  the  owner. 

S  U  F  F  E'T  E  S,  certain  Carthaginian 
magistrates,  whose  office  bore  considera- 
ble analogy  to  that  of  the  Spartan  kings 
and  Roman  consuls.     Their  number  was 


.78 


CYCI.OI'EIJIA     OF     I.ITKKATIKE 


[sirs 


two,  and  they  were  elected  annually 
from  the  noblest  families  of  the  state. 
The  functions  of  the  suffntes  seems  prin- 
cipally to  liave  been  confined  to  the 
raunagement  of  civil  affairs.  Thus  it 
■vvas  their  province  to  ar^.^euible  the  senate 
and  preside  in  it,  and  also  to  propose  the 
subjects  of  debate,  and  collect  the  votes  ; 
but  there  are  in.^tances  recorded  ofsuf- 
fetes  leading  the  armies  of  their  country. 
All  I  he  cities  of  note  in  the  Carthagin- 
i.iii  dominions  had  likewise  their  suf- 
leies;  but  these,  of  course,  were  invested 
with  merely  municipal  authoritj'. 

SUF'FK.\G  AN,  in  ecclesiastical  politj', 
:i  term  of  relation  ii[iplied  to  a  bLshop, 
with  respect  to  the  archbishop  who  is  his 
.vuperior  ;  oi' rather,  an   assistant  bisho)i. 

SUF'Fl'AtJE.  a  vote  given  in  deciding 
a  controverted  question,  or  in  the  choice 
of  a  manfor  an  oflRce  or  trust;  as,  a  true 
patriot  deserves  the  suffrages  of  his 
fellow-citizens. 

SU'ICIDE,  the  crime  of  self-murder. 
Although  the  jiractice  of  self-annihila- 
tion, under  particular  circumstances,  was 
upheld  by  many  of  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers, the  general  lawfulness  of  suicide 
was  V)y  no  means  universally  received  in 
the  ancient  pagan  world  ;  many  of  the 
most  considerable  names,  both  Greek  and 
Roman,  having  expressly  declared  against 
that  practice.  Pythagoras,  Socrates, 
Plato,  Tully,  have  condemned  it;  even 
Brutus  himself,  though  befell  by  hisown 
hand,  yet  in  his  cooler  and  philosophical 
hours,  wrote  a  treatise  wherein  he  highly 
condemned  Cato,  as  being  guilty  of  an 
act  both  of  impiety  and  cowardice  in 
destroying  himself. — According  to  modern 
law,  to  constitute  a  suicide,  the  person 
must  be  of  years  of  discretion  and  of 
sound  mind. 

SriT,  in  law,  an  action  or  process  for 
the  recovery  of  a  right  or  claim. — In  a 
general  sense,  suit  denotes  a  number  of 
things  used  together,  and  in  a  degree 
necessary  to  be  united,  in  order  to  answer 
the  purjioso  ;  as  a  suit,  of  curtains,  a  suit 
of  armor,  or  a  suit  of  clothes.  We  also 
use  the  word  when  speaking  of  a  number 
of  attendants  or  followers  ;  as,  a  noble- 
man and  his  suit.  It  is  right,  however, 
to  state,  that  custom  has  now  pretty 
generally  established  the  use  of  the 
French  word  suite  (pronounced  sweet)  in 
this  last  named  case. 

SUITOR,  in  legal  phraseology,  one 
who  attends  a  court  to  prosecute  a  demand 
of  right  in  law,  as  a  plaintiff,  petitioner 
or  appellant. 

SUL'TAX,  in  Amhlc.  miishli/.  Various 


Mohammedan  princes  are  styled  by  this 
title  besides  the  Ottoman  empsror  or 
grand  sultan,  to  whom  it  is  commonly 
given  by  Europeans,  but  whose  peculiar 
title  of  Padishah  is  more  liignilied.  The 
princes  of  the  deposed  family  of  the  khan 
of  the  Crim  Tartars  are  also  styled  sul- 
tan :  so  also  the  pacha  of  Egypt  in  that 
country,  although  not  by  the  court  of 
Constantinople. 

SUM'ME1{,  one  of  the  four  seasons  of 
the  year;  beginning  in  the  northern 
hemisphere:  when  the  sun  enters  Cancer, 
about  the  21st  of  June,  and  continuing 
for  three  months  ;  during  which  time,  the 
sun  being  north  of  the  equator,  renders 
this  the  hottest  period  of  the  year.  In 
latitudes  south  of  the  equator,  just  the 
opposite  takes  place,  or,  in  other  words, 
it  is  summer  there  when  it  is  winter  here. 

SUM'MONS,  in  law,  a  warning  or  ci- 
tation to  appear  in  court;  or  a  written 
notification  signed  by  the  proper  officer, 
to  be  served  on  a  person,  warning  him 
to  appear  in  court  at  a  day  specified,  to 
answer  to  the  demand  of  the  plaintiff. 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS,  those  laws 
which,  in  extreme  cases,  have  occasional- 
ly been  made  to  restrain  or  limit  the  ex- 
jjcnses  of  citizens  in  apparel,  food,  furni- 
ture, itc.  Sumptuary  laws  arc  abridg- 
ments of  liberty,  and  of  very  difficult  ex- 
ecution. 

SUN'DAY,  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
called  also  the  Lord's-day,  because  it  is 
kept  holy  in  memory  of  the  resurrection 
of  Christ;  and  the  sabbath-day,  hecause 
substituted,  in  the  Christian  worship,  for 
the  sabbath,  or  day  of  rest,  in  the  old  dis- 
pensation. This  substitution  was  first  de- 
creed by  Constantino  the  Great,  a.d.  321, 
before  whose  time  both  the  old  and  new 
sabbath  were  observed  by  Christians. 

SUN'XIAH.  the  name  given  to  the  sect 
commonlj'  considered  as  orthodox  among 
the  Mussulmans  by  the  followers  of  Ali. 
The  latter  believe  that  the  sovereign 
imanship,  or  imaginary  dignity  which 
conveys  supremacy  over  all  the  faithful, 
belongs  of  right  to  the  descendants  of  Ali, 
son-in-law  of  Mohammed.  The  schism 
between  those  two  sects  has  subsisted 
from  the  earliest  times  of  Mohammedan- 
ism ;  when  Ali,  having  become  fourth  ca- 
liph after  the  death  of  Othinan,  a  rebel- 
lion was  raised  against  him  by  Maaniah, 
founiler  of  the  Ouimiad  race  of  caliphs 
about  the  year  1000  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  division  took  place  between  the  two 
parties  in  the  court  of  the  caliph  Moli 
1'  Mall,  which  resulted  in  the  Schiite  par- 
ty becoming  pre-eminent  in  Persia,  the 


8UI>] 


AXl)    TIIK     FINE     AIMS. 


VO 


Sunniahitcs  in  Turkey  ami  mo.st  other 
Moliatninc'l.in  countries. 

SUPEKCAR  (iO,  ii  person  in  a  mer- 
chant's ship,  iippointed  to  mnnage  the 
sales  and  siiporintenil  all  the  commercial 
concerns  of  (he  voyajre. 

SUPEKEROGA'TIOX,  in  theology,  a 
term  applied  to  such  works  as  a  man  does 
which  exceed  the  measure  of  his  duty. 

SUPERINTEND'EXT,  one  who"  has 
the  oversight  ami  charge  of  something, 
with  the  power  of  direction  ;  as,  the  su- 
j>er  intend  cut  of  ])ublic  works,  itc. 

SUPERXATTRAL,  being  beyond  or 
exceeding  the  powers  or  laws  of  nature; 
miraculous.  A  supernatural  event  is 
one  which  is  not  produced  according  to 
ttie  oramary  or  established  laws  of  nat- 
ural things.  Thus  if  iron  has  more  spe- 
cific gravity  than  water,  it  will  sink  in 
that  fluid  ;  and  the  floating  of  iron  on 
water  must  be  a  supernatural  event. 
Now  no  human  being  can  alter  a  law  of 
nature  ;  the  floating  of  iron  on  water 
therefore  must  be  caused  by  divine  power 
especially  exerted  to  suspend.,  in  this  in- 
stance, a  law  of  nature.  Hence,  super- 
natural events  or  miracles  can  be  pro- 
duced only  b}'  the  immediate  agency  of 
divine  power. 

SUPERNU'MERARY,  in  military  af- 
fairs, is  an  epithet  for  the  officers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  attached  to  a 
regiment  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the 
places  of  such  as  fall  in  action,  &c. 

SUPERSE'DEA.S,  in  law,  a  writ  or 
command  to  suspend  the  powers  of  an 
officer  in  certain  eases,  or  to  staj'  proceed- 
ings. 

SUPERSTI'TIOX,  a  habit  of  the  hu- 
man mind,  attributed  to  those  who  are 
thought  to  attach  religious  importance  to 
things  of  a  too  trivial  nature  ;  or  to  those 
who  are  thought  wrong  in  their  ideas  of 
the  government  of  the  world,  not  on  the 
side  of  excluding  supernatural  agency, 
but  the  reverse.  Also,  the  belief  of  what 
is  absurd,  or  belief  without  evidence. 

SrPERSTRUC'TURE,  any  kind  of 
building  raised  on  a  foundation  or  basis  ; 
the  word  being  used  to  distinguish  what 
is  erected  on  a  wall  or  foundation  from 
the  foundation  itself. 

SUPERTON'IC,  in  music,  the  note 
next  above  the  kev-note. 

SUPPLE,  in  all  the  Arts.  A  praise- 
worthy quality  opposeil  to  hardness  or 
inflexibility.  It  is  to  be  sought  in  con- 
tours, in  attitudes,  in  adjustments,  and  in 
fact  in  all  the  parts  of  composition.  The 
contours  should  be  sinuous,  flowing;  the 
attitude.?   easy    and    unconstrained ;    the 


adjustments  natural;  the  compositions 
various.  The  term  is  more  strictly  ap- 
plied to  the  movement  of  cont(juis,  the 
flow  of  draperies,  &c.  than  to  the  general 
ordonnance  of  a  work. 

SUP'PLEMENT,  In  literature,  an  a.l- 
dition  made  to  a  book  or  paper,  by  which 
it  is  made  more  full  and  complete. 

SL'PPOSI  TION,  in  music,  the  use  of 
two  successive  notes  of  equal  value  as  to 
time,  one  of  which  being  a  discord  sup- 
poses the  other  a  concord.  The  harmony, 
though  by  rule  falling  on  the  accented 
part  of  the  bar,  and  free  from  discords, 
requires  their  proper  preparation  and  res- 
olution ;  and  they  are  called  passing 
notes.  Discords  on  the  unaccented  jiart 
of  the  measure  are  allowable  by  conjoint 
degrees,  and  it  is  then  not  required  that 
the  harmony  should  be  so  complete  on 
the  accented  part.  This  transient  use  of 
discords  followed  by  concords  is  what  we, 
after  the  French,  call  supposition,  where- 
of there  are  several  kinds. 

SUPPRES'SIOX.  a  figure  in  grammar 
is  sometimes  so  called  by  which  words  are 
omitted  in  a  sentence,  which  are  never- 
theless to  be  understood  as  necessary  to  a 
perfect  construction  :  as,  for  instance,  in 
most  languages,  the  repetition  of  a  noun 
is  avoided  where  it  is  coupled  with  a  pro- 
noun in  one  branch  of  the  proposition  ; 
e.  g.,  •'  this  (horse)  is  my  horse,"  or  "  this 
horse  is  mine"  (horse.) 

SUPRALAPSA'RIAN,  in  theology, 
one  who  maintains  that  God,  antecedent 
to  the  fall  of  man,  decreed  the  apostasy 
and  all  its  consequences,  determining  to 
save  some  and  condemn  others,  and  that 
in  all  he  does  he  considers  his  own  glory 
only- 

SUPREM'ACY,  in  English  polity,  the 
supreme  and  undivided  authority  of  the 
sovereign  over  all  persons  and  things  in 
this  realm,  whether  spiritual  or  tempo- 
ral.—  Oath  of  supremacy,  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, an  oath  which  acknowledges  the  su- 
premacy of  the  sovereign  in  spiritual  af- 
fairs, and  abjures  the  pretended  suprem- 
acy of  the  pope. 

SUPREME',  highest  in  authority; 
holding  the  highest  place  in  government 
or  power.  The  parliament  of  Great 
Britain  is  supreme  in  legislation  ;  but 
the  king  is  supreme  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  government.  Tn  the  United 
States,  the  congress  is  supreme  in  regu- 
lating commerce  and  in  making  war  and 
peace.  In  the  universe,  God  only  is  the 
sujtreme,  ruler  and  judge.  His  commands 
are  supreme,  ani  binding  on  all  his 
creatures. 


580 


CVCLOl'KniA    OF    LITERATI' KE 


[BVt 


SUPRANAT'URALISTS,  a  name 
given  of  late  years  to  the  middle  party 
among  the  divines  of  Germany,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  Rationalists,  who 
exclude  all  sui)ernatural  manifestations 
from  religion  ;  and  fi  om  the  Evangelical 
party,  whose  tenets  are  of  a  more  strict 
description.  Thus  many  of  the  supra- 
naturalists  have  given  way  to  the  system 
of  accommodation  (as  it  is  termed)  in 
religious  matters,  so  far  as  to  deny  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin.  and  other  tenets 
which  have  been  considered  as  funda- 
mental :  others  approximate  to  what  are 
regarded  as  orthodox  Protestant  opinions. 

SURCHARGE,  in  law,  any  extra 
charge  made  by  assessors  upon  such  as 
neglect  to  make  due  returns  of  the  taxes 
to  which  they  are  liable. 

Sl'RE  TY,  in  law,  one  who  enters  into 
a  bond  or  recognizance  to  answer  for 
another's  appearance  in  court,  or  for  his 
payment  of  a  debt,  or  for  the  performance 
of  some  act.  and  who,  in  case  of  the 
principal  debtor's  failure,  is  compellable 
to  pay  the  debt  or  damages. 

SUR'NAME,  the  family  name;  the 
name  or  appellation  added  to  the  bap- 
tismal or  Christian  name.  Camden  de- 
rives it  from  sur,  as  being  added  over  or 
above  the  other,  in  a  metaphorical  sense 
only.  The  most  ancient  surnames  were 
formed  by  adding  the  name  of  the  father 
to  that  of  the  son.  in  which  manner  were 
produced  several  English  sur  name.?,  end- 
ing with  the  word  son  ;  thus,  Thomas 
William's  son,  makes  Thomas  jruiunn- 
son.  The  feudal  system  introluced  a 
second  description  of  surnames,  derived 
from  the  names  of  pl.ice-i.  In  short,  the 
greater  part  of  surnames  originally  des- 
ignate! occupation,  estate,  place  of 
residence,  or  some  particular  thing  or 
event  that  related  to  the  person. 

SITR'PLICE,  a  white  garment  worn  by 
clergymen  of  some  denominations  over 
their  other  dress,  in  their  ministrations. 
It  is  particularly  the  habit  of  the  clergy 
of  the  Church  of  England. 

SURREBUT'TER,  in  law.  the  replica- 
tion or  answer  of  the  plaintiff  to  the 
defend.mt's  rebutter. 

SURREJOINDER,  in  law,  a  second 
defence,  as  the  rcjilicntion  is  the  first,  oF 
the  plaintilFs  dccl.iration  in  a  c:iuse,  and 
is  an  answer  to  the  rejoinder  of  the  de- 
fendant. 

SURREN'DER.  in  law,  a  deed  testify- 
ing that  the  tenant  for  life  or  years  of 
lands,  &c.  yields  up  his  estate  to  him 
that  has  the  immediate  estate  in  remain- 
der or  reversion. 


SUR'ROGATE,  in  the  civil  law,  a  dep- 
uty, or  person  substituted  for  another. 
— A  magistrate  v.ho  presides  over  the  set- 
tlement of  estates  of  deceased  persons. 

SURVEYOR,  in  law,  one  who  views 
and  examines  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  condition,  value,  and  quality 
of  a  thing  ;  or  who  survej's  or  superin- 
tends any  business,  as  the  surveyor  of 
the  highways,  a  parochial  officer  who 
sees  that  the  roads  are  kept  in  repair, 
&e. 

SURVI'VOR,  in  law.  the  longest  liver 
of  joint-tenants,  or  of  any  two  persons 
who  have  a  joint  interest  in  a  thing ;  in 
which  case,  if  there  be  only  two  joint- 
tenants,  upon  the  death  of  one,  the  whole 
goes  to  the  survivor;  and  if  there  be 
more  than  two,  the  part  of  the  deceased 
is  divided  among  all  the  survivors. 

SUSPENSION,  temporary  privation 
of  power,  authority,  or  rights,  usually 
intended  as  a  punishment.  A  military 
or  naval  officer's  suspension  takes  place 
when  he  is  put  under  arrest. ^ — In  law, 
prevention  or  interruption  of  operation  ; 
as  the  suspension  of  the  habeas  corpus 
act. — Suspension,  in  rhetoric,  a  keeping 
of  the  hearer  in  doubt  and  in  attentive 
expectation  of  what  is  to  follow,  or  what 
is  to  be  the  inference  or  conclusion  from 
the  arguments  or  observations. — Suspen- 
sion of  arms,  a  short  truce  agreed  on  by 
ho.^tile  armies,  in  order  to  bury  the  dead, 
make  proposals  for  surrender,  &e. 

SUSPENSION-BRIDGE,  a  structure 
which  is  hung  and  stretched  across  some 
chasm,  water-course,  or  other  space,  over 
which  it  is  designed  to  form  a  pa.ssage. 
In  modern  structures  of  this  sort,  the 
leading  features  for  the  most  part  consist 
in  fixing  securely,  in  the  two  opposite 
banks,  the  extremities  of  strong  chains, 
which,  being  carried  over  piers  or  pillars, 
reach  across  the  space  to  be  passed  in 
such  a  manner  that  each  portion  of  chain 
intorceptel  between  two  piers  is  allowed 
naturallv  to  assume,  by  it.s  weight,  the 
figure  of  th(!  curve  named  the  catenarian. 
From  these  chains,  a  jjlatform  for  the 
roadway  is  suspended  by  means  of  a, 
series  of  equidistant  vertical  rods.  The 
largest  suspension  bridge  in  Great 
l?ritnin,  is  that  over  the  Menai  Strait  in 
Wales,  the  distance  between  the  points 
of  suspension  being  .560  feet.  A  remark- 
able structure  of  this  kind  is  over  the 
Niagara  river  below  the  Falls,  connect- 
ing the  American  and  Canadian  shores. 

SUTTEE',  the  act  of  sacrifice  to  which 
a  Hindoo  widow  submits,  namely,  that  of 
immolating  herself  on  the  funeral  pile  of 


syl] 


ANU    TILK     KIN'K     AKTS. 


581 


her  husband.  Though  none  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindoos  absolutelj' command 
the  suttee,  tliey  speak  of  it  as  liighly 
meritorious,  and  the  means  of  obtaining 
eternal  beatitude.  It  is  belicycd  also  to 
render  the  husband  and  his  ancestors 
happy,  and  to  purify  liim  from  all  oflon- 
ccs,  even  if  lie  had  killed  a  brahmin. 
Since  the  j-ear  175G,  when  the  Ilritish 
power  in  India  becinie  firmly  established, 
upwards  of  70,000  Hindoo  widows  have 
thus  been  sacrificed.  It  is  gratifying 
however,  to  add,  that  this  shocking  j)er- 
version  of  devotion  has  at  length  been 
abulished  ;  and  to  Lord  Bentinck,  the 
governor-general  of  India,  the  honor  of 
the  abolition  is  due.  Public  opinion  in 
England,  was  gre.ath'  divided  as  to  the 
propriety  of  interfering  with  a  solemn 
religious  rite  of  a  foreign  nation  :  but  the 
humane  decision  of  the  governor-general 
appears  to  have  been  received  bj'  the 
public  with  heartfelt  satisfaction.  A  short 
time  before  Lord  Bentinck's  order,  a 
rajah  in  the  hill  countrj',  who  died,  had 
twentj'-eight  wives  burned  with  his  body  ! 

SWAIN'MOTE,  in  English  law,  one 
of  the  forest  courts  to  be  holden  be- 
fore the  verderers,  as  judges,  by  the  stew- 
ard of  the  swainmote:  the  swains,  or 
countrymen,  composing  the  jury. 

SWEDEN BOR'GIAXS,  the"  followers 
of  Emanuel  ."^  wedenborg,  a  Swedish  noble- 
man, who  died  in  1772.  He  conceived 
the  society  which  he  founded  to  be  the 
New  Jerusalem  spoken  of  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse ;  and  that  he  was  gifted  with  pecu- 
liar insight  into  spiritual  things,  and  he 
professe  1  to  hold  conversation  with  spirits, 
and  to  be  instructed  by  them  in  the  mys- 
teries of  religion.  The  Swcdenburgians 
interpret  Scripture  by  a  system  of  corres- 
pondences, supposing  it  to  have  three 
distinct  senses,  accommodated  respective- 
ly to  particular  classes,  both  of  men  and 
angels.  They  date  the  last  judgment  of 
the  spiritual  world  and  the  second  advent 
of  Christ  from  the  year  1757.  They 
abound  principally  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States,  wliere  they  have  at  the 
present  day  several  chapels  in  the  large 
towns.  They  are  distinguished  as  a  body 
for  their  intelligence  and  excellent  char- 
acter. 

SWELL,  in  music,  a  set  of  pipes  in  an 
organ,  acted  upon  by  a  key  board,  and 
capable  of  being  increased  in  intensity  of 
sound  by  the  action  of  a  pedal,  which 
allows  of  its  being  thereby  gradually 
augmented. 

SWIXI)  LINfi,  the  practices  of  a  swind- 
ler.    When  a  person  by  the  assumption 


of  a  false  character,  or  by  a  false  repre- 
sentation u{  some  sort,  obtains  the  pos- 
session of  money  or  other  property  from 
another  or  others,  and  approjiriates  it  to 
himself,  he  is  said  to  be  guilty  of 
swindling,  and  is  liable  to  punishment 
by  law. 
"  S  WORD,  ORDER  OF  THE,  a  Swedish 
military  order  of  knighthood,  instituted 
by  (Justavus  Vasa. 

SYB'ARITE,  a  term  u.sed  metaphori- 
call}'  to  designate  an  effeminate  voluptu- 
ary ;  so  called  from  the  inhabitants  of 
Sybaris,  formerly  a  town  of  Italy  on  the 
gulf  of  Tarentum,  whom  a  devotion  to 
sensual  pleasures  had  so  enfeebled  that 
they  became  an  easy  prey  to  the  Cro- 
tonians,  a  people  comparatively  insig- 
nificant in  point  of  numbers,  by  whom 
their  city  was  levelled  to  the  ground 
B.C.  310. 

SYCOPHANT,  an  obsequious  flatter- 
er or  parasite.  This  woril  was  originally 
used  to  denote  an  informer  ng.dnst 
those  who  stole  figs,  or  exported  them 
contrary  to  law.  Hence,  in  time  it  came 
to  signify  a  tale-bearer,  or  informer  in 
general ;  thence  a  flatterer,  deceiver,  or 
parasite. 

SYL'LABLE,  a  letter,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  letters,  uttered  together,  or  at  a 
single  effort  or  impulse  of  the  voice.  A 
vowel  may  form  a  syllable  b}'  itself,  as  a, 
the  definite,  or  in  amen  ;  e  in  even  ;  o  in 
over,  and  the  like.  A  syllabic  may  also 
be  formed  of  a  vowel  and  one  consonant, 
as  in  s'o,  do,  in,  at ;  or  a  syllable  may  be 
formed  by  a  vowel  with  two  articulations, 
one  preceding,  the  other  following  it.  as 
in  can,  but,  tun  ;  or  a  syllable  may  con- 
sist of  a  combination  of  consonants,  with 
one  vowel  or  diiihthong,  as  strong,  short, 
cawp,  voice.  A  syllable  sometimes  forms 
a  word,  and  is  then  significant,  as  in  go, 
run,  write,  sun,  moon.  In  other  cases,  a 
syllable  is  merely  part  of  a  word,  and  by 
itself  is  not  significant.  Thus  ac.  in 
active,  has  no  signification.  At  least  one 
vowel  or  open  sound  is  essential  to  the 
formation  of  a  syllable  ;  hence  in  every 
word  there  must  be  as  many  syllables  as 
there  are  single  vowels,  or  single  vowels 
and  diphthongs.  A  word  is  called  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  syllables  it  contains, 
viz.,  monosyllable,  a  word  of  one  syllable  ; 
dissyllable,  a  word  of  two  syllables: 
trisyllable,  a  word  of  three  syllables, 
polysyllable,  a  word  of  many  syllables. 

SY'L'LABUS,  an  abstract  or  com- 
pendium containing  the  heads  of  a  dis- 
course. 

SY'LLEP'SIS,  in  grammar,    a  figure 


)82 


CVCI.OI'KDIA     CF     MIKHAIL  KK 


SYM 


by  which  we  conceive  the  sense  of  words 
otherwise  than  the  words  import,  and 
construe  them  according  to  tlic  intention 
of  the  author.  Also,  where  two  nomina- 
tive cases  singular  of  different  persons 
are  joined  to  a  verb. 

SYL'LOGISM,  a  form  of  reasoning  or 
argument,  consisting  of  three  proposi- 
tions, of  which  the  two  first  are  called 
the  premises,  and  the  last  the  conclusion. 
Tn  this  argument,  the  conclusion  neces- 
sarily follows  from  the  premises  ;  so  that 
if  the  two  first  propositions  are  true,  the 
conclusion  must  be  true,  and  the  argu- 
ment amounts  to  demonstration.  Thus, 
a  plant  has  not  the  power  of  locomotion  ; 
an  oak  is  a  plant ;  therefore  an  oak  has 
not  the  power  of  locomotion.  These  prop- 
ositions are  denominated  the  major,  tlae 
minor,  and  the  conclusion.  The  three 
propositions  of  a  sjllogism  are  made  up 
of  three  ideas  or  terms,  and  these  terms 
are  called  the  major,  the  jninor,  and  the 
middle.  The  subject  of  the  conclusion  is 
called  the  minor  term  ;  its  predicate  is 
the  major  term,  and  the  middle  terra  is 
that  which  shows  the  connection  between 
the  major  and  minor  term  in  the  conclu- 
sion ;  or  it  is  that  with  w^hich  the  major 
and  minor  terras  are  respectively  com- 
pared. Syllogisms  are  divided  by  some 
into  single,  complex,  conjunctive,  Ac, 
and  by  others  into  categorical,  hypothet- 
ical, conditional,  &c.  The  figure  of  a 
syllogism  is  a  proper  disposition  of  the 
middle  term  with  reference  to  the  major 
and  minor  terms.  The  figures  are  gene- 
rally reckoned  three.  The  mood  of  a 
syllogism  is  the  designation  of  its  three 
propositions,  according  to  their  quantity 
and  quality.  The  quantity  and  quality 
of  propositions,  in  logic,  are  marked  by 
arbitrary  symbols,  as  A,  E,  I,  0.  Every 
assertion  may  be  reduced  to  one  of  four 
forms — the  universal  aBirmative  marked 
by  A  ;  the  universal  negative,  marked 
by  E;  the  particular  affirmative  marked 
by  I ;  and  the  particular  negative,  mark- 
ed by  0.  From  these,  by  combination, 
all  syllogisms  are  derived.  In  order  to 
remember  the  figures,  certain  words  have 
been  long  used  by  writers  on  logic,  which 
make  a  grotesque  appearance  ;  but  which 
nevertheless  are  of  consiilerable  u.'^e. 
Thus,  under  the  first  figure,  we  have 
Barbara,  Cclarent,  Darii,  Ferio;  under 
the  second.  Cesare,  Camostres,  Festino, 
Baroko  ;  and  under  the  third,  Paraiiti, 
Disamis,  Datisi,  Fclapton,  IJokardo,  Fe- 
riso.  Each  of  these  wonls  de.-igriatcs  a 
particular  mood.  The  rules  of  syllogism 
may  be  thus  briefly  expressed:  1.  One  at 


least  of  the  premises  must  be  aflSrmative, 
and  one  at  least  universal ;  2.  The  middle 
term  must  enter  universally  in  one  of  tho 
premises;  and,  3.  Tlie  conclusion  must 
not  speak  uf  any  term  in  a  wider  sense 
than  it  was  spoken  of  in  the  premise  in 
which  it  entered.  A  terra  univer;:any 
spoken  of  is  either  the  subject  of  univer- 
sal afiirmative,  or  the  jiredicale  uf  any 
negative.  Syllogisms  are  nothing  else 
than  reasoning  reduced  to  form  and  me- 
thod, and  all  that  passes  under  the  name 
of  reasoning,  unless  it  can  be  made  syl- 
logistic, is  no  reasoning  at  all,  but  a  mats 
of  words  without  meaning.  The  syllo- 
gism is  the  instrument  of  self-e.\amina- 
tion,  and  the  last  weapon  of  resort  in 
dispute  ;  and  a  bad  syllogism,  with  one 
of  the  ])remises  implied  only,  and  not  ex- 
pressed, is  the  first  resource  of  fallacy. 
To  bring  forward  the  suppressed  premise, 
is  the  visible  destruction  of  every  argu- 
ment which  is  logically  bad. 

SYLPH,  the  name  given  to  the  spirits 
of  air  in  the  fantastic  nomenclature  of 
the  llosicrucians  and  Cabalists.  The  use 
which  Pope  has  made  of  this  fancy  in  his 
ZLO/)cq/'//(eX,0(A- is  well  known.  II  seems 
to  have  borrowed  it  from  the  enigraatical 
romance  called  the  Count  de  Gubulis. 

SYM'BOL,  the  emblem,  sign  or  repre- 
sentation of  some  moral  quality  by  the 
images  or  properties  of  natural  things; 
as  the  lion  is  a  symbol  of  courage  ;  the 
lamb,  a  symbol  of  meekness;  two  hands 
joined  together,  a  symbol  of  ui.inn,  <tc. 
These  symbols  were  much  used  by  the 
ancients  in  representing  their  deities, 
and  are  still  continued  in  various  ways. 
In  the  eucharist,  the  bread  and  wine  are 
called  sijmbols  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ. — Si/mbolical  philosop/ii/,  is  tho 
philosophy  e.xiiresscd  by  hieroglvphies. 

SYMPATHY,  the  quality  of  being 
affected  by  feelings  similar  to  those  of 
another  in  whose  fate  we  are  interested. 
This  kind  of  sympat/nj  is  produced  through 
the  medium  of  organic  impression,  and 
is  a  correspondent  feeling  of  pain  or  re- 
gret. Thus  we  sympathize  with  our 
friends  in  distress.  The  word  sr/mpalhij 
is  also  used,  but  less  correctly,  to  denote 
an  agreement  of  aff'ections  or  inclinations, 
or  a  eonformity  of  natural  temperanien* 
whii^h  makes  two  persons  pleased  with 
each  other. 

SYiM'PHONY,  in  music,  a  composition 
which,  from  tho  etymology  of  the  term, 
evidently  implies  that  the  voice  anciently 
firmed  an  e.-^sential  part  of  its  construc- 
tion. Tn  the  present  day,  however,  the 
term    is    otherwise   ajplied,    and    is    e.x 


syn] 


AND     lUb;     KINK     A  HIS. 


583 


tlusively  used  for  a  piece  In  which  instru- 
ments only  -'iri!  ongiigeJ.  It  if,  in  f.ict,  a 
composition  for  ;i  perfect  instrumental 
orchestra,  wliicli,  until  the  bejjinninj^  of 
the  eighteenth  century',  was  unknown. 
The  C'oncertl  grossi  of  Corelli  were  the 
first  of  the  species,  which  was  carried  out 
to  a  greater  e.vtent  in  the  works  of  Gemi- 
niani  ami  Vivaldi  ;  but  it  does  not  seem 
to  us  that  before  the  time  of  Haydn  it 
can  be  said  to  have  assumed  the  form 
which  the  name  now  imports.  There  is, 
perhaps,  no  musical  composition  in  which 
the  power  of  the  author  is  so  completely 
developed  as  in  a  symphony.  The  mu- 
sician in  it  becomes  a  poet,  or,  perhaps 
rather,  a  painter.  Scenes  and  the  pas- 
sions are  represented  therein  by  a  com- 
bination of  musical  sounds;  in  illustra- 
tion of  which  we  need  only  cite  tliat 
splendid  work  of  Beethoven,  known  to  all 
under  the  name  of  //  Pastorale.  The 
general  form  of  the  symphony  may  be 
thus  described  :  It  opens  with  a  short, 
serious,  slow  movement ;  this  is  followed 
by,  and  forms  a  contrast  to  one  of  spirit 
an  1  of  a  lively  nature  ;  then  comes  an 
andante  varied,  or  an  adagio  or  slow 
movement  ;  a  minuet  with  its  trio  follows  ; 
and  the  symphony  usually  closes  with  a 
livelv  movement. 

SY.MI'0'SI.A.UCII,  among  the  ancients, 
was  the  director  and  manager  of  an  en- 
tertainment. This  office  was  sometimes 
performed  by  the  person  at  whose  ex- 
pense the  feast  was  provided,  and  S(jme- 
times  by  the  person  whom  he  thouglit  fit 
to  nominate.  The  feasts  of  the  ancients 
were  called  symposia  :  hence  the  name. 

SYN^E'RE-^I."^,  the  shortening  of  a  word 
b}'  the  omission  of  a  letter,  as  ne'er  for 
never. 

SYN'AGOGUE,  the  religious  .ns.«era- 
blies  of  the  Jews  are  so  called  by  Hel- 
lenic writers.  The  Jews  had  no  syna- 
gogues, it  is  thought,  before  the  Bab3'lon- 
ish  captivity.  They  wore  first  formed 
after  the  return  of  the  .Jews  to  the  Holy 
Land.  The  rule  was,  that  a  synagogue 
was  to  be  erected  in  any  phiee  where 
there  were  ten  persons  of  full  age  and 
free  condition  realy  to  attend  the  service 
of  it.  Others,  however,  consider  the  ten 
hatelnim,  to  use  the  Hebrew  word,  to 
have  been  ten  elders,  or  stationary  men 
of  the  synagogue.  The  service  performed 
in  the  synagogue  consisted,  and  still  con- 
sists, of  prayers,  reading  the  Scriptures, 
and  preaching  and  e.vpounling  of  thoin. 
The  prayers  are  contained  in  liturgies. 
The  reading  of  the  .Scriptures  consists  of 
three  portions:  the  "Shcma,"  certain  se- 


lected passages  from  Deuteronomy  and 
Numbers:  the  law  aifd  the  prophets.  The 
third  part  of  the  service  is  mentioned  in 
several  pbiccs  in  the  narratives  of  the  life 
of  our  Saviour,  and  the  Acts.  The  times 
of  the  synagogue  service  were  three  days 
a  week  (Monday,  Thursdaj-,  and  Satur- 
day,) besides  the  holy  days.  The  minis- 
tration of  the  synagogue  was  not  confined 
to  the  order  of  priests;  the  elders,  or 
"  rulers  of  the  synagogue"  were  persons 
qualified,  and  duly  admitted,  of  all  tribes. 

SYNALQi'PHA,  in  grammar,  a  con- 
traction of  syllables,  performed  principal- 
ly by  suppressingsome  vowel  or  diphthong 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  before  another  vowel 
or  diphthong  at  the  beginning  of  the  next : 
as,  tie  eso.  fur  iile  ego. 

SYN'CHISI.S,  in  rhetoric,  a  confused 
and  disorderly  placing  of  words  in  a,  sen- 
tence. 

SYNCHRISIS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  of 
speech  in  which  opposite  persons  or  things 
are  compared. 

SYX  CHORE'S  IS,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
of  speech  wherein  an  argument  is  scof- 
fingly  conceded  to,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
torting to  it  more  pointedly. 

SYN'CHROXISM,  in  chronology,  con- 
currence of  two  or  more  events  in  time. — 
SynckrOnal,  simultaneous,  or  happening 
at  the  same  time. 

SY.N'CRETIS.M,  in  philosophy,  the 
blending  of  the  tenets  of  different  schools 
into  a  system.  A  party  among  the  Pla- 
tonists  at  the  revival  of  letters,  to  which 
belonged  Ammonius,  Pico  della  Jliran- 
dola,  liessarion,  and  other  distinguished 
men,  have  received  the  name  of  Syncre- 
tists. 

SYN'CRETISTS,  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, the  partisans  of  Calixtus,  a  Luther- 
■an  divine  of  the  16th  century,  who  en- 
deavored to  form  a  comprehensive  scheme 
which  should  unite  the  different  professors 
of  Christianity.  The  opinions  of  Calix- 
tus raised  a  strong  controversy  in  the 
Lutheran  church.  A  new  confession  of 
faith  was  drawn  up  in  Saxony  for  the  pur- 
pose of  excluding  his  partisans.  As  doc- 
trines, however,  they  did  not  long  sur- 
vive his  death,  although  not  without  ef- 
fect on  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

SYX  COPATE,  in  a  primary  sense,  to 
contract,  as  a  word,  by  taking  one  or  more 
letters  or  syllables  from  the  middle. — 
In  music,  to  prolong  a  note  begun  on  the 
unaccented  part  of  a  bar,  to  the  accented 
part  of  the  next  bar;  or  to  connect  the 
last  note  of  a  bar  with  the  first  of  the  fol- 
lowing. 

.~YN'DIC,  an  officer  of  government   iu- 


584 


CVCLOrEUIA     OF    LITEltATLUE 


[sv. 


vested  with  different  powers  in  different 
countries  ;  generally  a  kind  of  magistrate 
entrusted  with  the  affairs  of  a  city  or 
community.  The  university  of  Cambridge 
has  its  sijnclics;  and  in  I'aris  almost  all 
the  companies,  the  university,  etc.  have 
theirs. 

SYN'DICI,  in  antiquity,  orators  ap- 
pointed by  the  Athenians  to  plead  in  be- 
half of  any  law  which  was  to  be  enacted 
or  abrogated. 

SYNECDOCHE,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure 
or  trope  by  which  the  whole  of  a  thing  is 
put  fur  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole  ;  as 
the  genus  for  the  species,  or  the  species 
for  the  genus,  &c. 

SYjS"OD,  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  a 
council  or  meeting  to  consult  on  matters 
of  religion.  In  Scotland,  a  synod  is  com- 
posed of  several  adjoining  presbyters. 
The  members  are  the  ministers,  and  a 
ruling  elder  from  each  parish. 

SYNONYMS,  words  of  the  same  lan- 
gungo  which  have  a  similar  signification. 
Strictly  speaking,  words  having  exactly 
the  same  signification  are  not  to  be  found 
in  any  language,  unless  one  of  them  has 
been  borrowed  from  another  Innguage  ; 
but  in  this  case  the  shades  of  difference 
are  often  so  slight  that  words  may  be 
frequently  used  for  one  another,  and  this 
interchange  pro  luces  a  pleasing  variety  in 
composition,  necessary  in  poetry.  S3'n- 
onyms  form  an  important  object  of  phi- 
lological study,  demanding,  on  the  part 
of  the  inquirer,  great  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  language. 

SY'NOP'SIS,  a  collection  of  things  or 
parts  so  arranged  as  to  exhibit  the  whole 
or  the  principal  parts  in  a  general  view. 

SYN'TAX,  that  division  of  the  gram- 
matical art  which  analyzes  the  depen- 
dence of  parts  of  speech  upon  one  another 
and  supplies  rules  for  their  mutual  gov- 
ernment. Syntax,  as  an  art,  may  be 
divided  into  two  branches  :  the  one  com- 
mon to  all  languages,  and  by  which  words 
are  made  to  agree  in  gender,  number,  case, 
jicrson,  and  mood;  the  other  peculiar  to 
each  language,  and  by  which  one  mood 
is  made  to  govern  another,  and  the  con- 
sequent variations  effected;  the  first  of 
these  is  called  coticord,  the  second 
government.  It  has  been  said  that  the 
first  merit  of  language  is  intelligibility; 
its  first  grace,  purity  ;  nnd  tliat  every 
other  c.vcellence  is  subordinate.  Syntax, 
then,  especiiilly  deserves  attention :  as 
neither  intelligibility  nor  purity  of  style 
can  be  found  where  the  rules  of  syntax 
»re  violated 


SYNTHESIS,  in  logic,  that  process  of 
reasoning  in  which  we  advance  by  a  regu- 
lar chain  from  piinciples  before  estab- 
lished or  assumed,  an(l  propositions  al- 
reiuly  proved,  until  we  arrive  at  the 
conclusion.  The  synthetical  is  therefore 
opposed  to  the   analytical  method. 

SYNTON'IC,  in  music,  an  epithet  used 
by  ancient  musical  writers  to  distinguish 
a  species  of  the  diatonic  genus. 

SY'R'IAC.  pertaining  to  Syria  or  its 
language  ;  as,  the  Syriac  version  of  the 
Pentateuch. 

SYR'IACISM,  orSYR'IANISM,  aSyr- 
ian  idiom,  or  a  peculiarity  in  the  Syrian 
language. 

S  Y'  k'l  N  X,  a  nymph  of  Arcadia, 
daughter  of  the  river  Ladon.  Pan  became 
enamored  of  her  and  attempted  to  offer 
her  violence ;  but  Syrinx  escaped,  and 
at  her  own  request  was  changed  by 
the  gods  into  a  reed,  called  syrinx  by 
the  Greeks.  The  god  made  himself  a 
pipe  with  the  reeds  into  which  his  favorite 
nymph  had  been  changed,  and  upon  this 
pipe  he  is  often  introduced  playing,  in 
pictures. 

SY'S'TEM,  in  science  and  philosophy, 
a  whole  plan  or  scheme,  consisting  of 
many  parts  connected  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  create  a  chain  of  mutual  dependen- 
cies ;  or  a  regular  union  of  principles  or 
parts  forming  one  entire  thing.  Thus  we 
say  the  planetary  system.,  or  the  whole 
of  the  bodies  supposed  to  belong  to  each 
other  ;  a  system  of  botany,  or  that  which 
comprehends  the  whole  science  of  plants  ; 
a  system  of  philosophy,  or  a  theory  or 
doctrine  which  embraces  the  whole  of  phi- 
losophy. The  great  utility  of  systems  is 
to  classify  the  individual  subjects  of  our 
knowledge  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  us 
readily  to  retain  and  employ  them,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  illustrate  each  by  show- 
ing its  connection  with  all — in  the  Fine 
Arts,  a  collection  of  the  rules  and  princi- 
ples upon  which  an  artist  works. — In 
music,  an  interval  compounded  or  sup- 
posed to  l)e  compounded  of  several  less- 
er intervals,  as  the  fifth,  octave,  Ac,  tho 
elements  of  which  are  called  f/irj.<t<ems. 

SY'S'TYLE,  in  architecture,  thedisposi 
tion  of  columns  in  a  building  near  to  each 
other,  but  not  quite  so  thick  as  tho  pyc- 
■nnstyle  :  the  intcrc(dumniation  being 
only  two  diameters  of  the  column. 

SY\SY''(}IA,  in  music,  any  comliination 
of  sounds  so  proportioned  to  each  other 
as  to  produce  a  pleasant  effect  on  the 
ear. —  In  grammar,  the  coupling  different 
feet  together  in  Greek  or  Latin  verse. 


tabJ 


AND    THK    FINE    ARTS. 


68: 


T. 


T,  is  the  twentieth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish Alphabet,  and  a  close  consonant.  It 
represents  a  close  joining  of  the  end  of 
the  tongue  to  the  root  of  the  upper  teeth, 
as  may  bo  perceived  by  the  syllable,  at, 
et,  ot,  ut,  in  attempting  to  pronounce 
which,  the  voice  is  completely  intercept- 
ed. It  is  therefore  numbered  among  the 
mutes,  or  close  articulations,  and  it  dif- 
fers from  d  chiedy  in  its  closeness;  for 
in  pronouncing  ad,  ed,  we  perceive  the 
voice  is  not  so  suddenly  and  entirely  in- 
tercepted, as  in  pronouncing  at  and  et. 
T  by  itself  has  one  sound  only,  as  in  take, 
turn,  bat,  bolt,  smite,  bitter.  So  we  are 
accustomed  to  speak  ;  but  in  reality,  /can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  any  sound  at  all. 
Its  use,  like  that  of  all  mute  articula- 
tions, is  to  modify  the  manner  of  uttering 
the  vocal  sound  which  precedes  or  follows 
it.  When  t  is  followed  by  /;,  as  in  think  and 
that,  the  combination  really  forms  a  dis- 
tinct sound  for  which  we  have  no  single 
character.  This  combination  has  two 
sounds  in  English  ;  aspirated,  a.sm  thiv.k, 
and  vocal,  as  in  that.  The  letters  ti,  be- 
fore a  vowel,  and  unaccented,  usually 
pass  into  the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  nation, 
■motion,  partial,  substantiate  ;  which  are 
pronounced  nashon,  vioshon,  parshal, 
substanshate.  In  this  case,  t  loses  eo- 
tirely  its  proper  sound  or  use,  and  being 
blended  with  the  subsequent  letter,  a  new 
sound  results  from  the  combination,  which 
is  in  fact  a  simple  sound.  In  a  few  words, 
the  combination  of  ti  has  the  sound  of 
the  English  ch,  as  in  L'hristiaji,  ini.rtion, 
question.  T  is  convertible  with  d.  Thus 
the  Germans  write  tag,  where  we  write 
day,  and  gut  for  good.  It  is  also  con- 
vertible with  s  and  z,  for  the  Germans 
write  wasser,  for  icater,  and  zahin  for 
tame.  T,  as  an  abbreviation,  stands  for 
theologia ;  as,  S.  T.  D.  sanctce  theologiae 
doctor,  doctor  of  divinity.  In  ancient 
monuments  and  writings,  T  is  an  abbre- 
viature which  stands  for  Titus,  Titius, 
or  Tullius — As  a  numeral,  T,  among  the 
Latins,  stood  for  160,  and  with  a  dash 
over  the  top,  T,  for  IGO.OOO. — In  music,  T 
is  the  initial  of  tenor,  vocal,  and  instru- 
mental. 

TABARD',  a  sort  of  tunic,  or  mantle, 
covering  the  body  before  and  behind, 
reaching  below  the  loins,  but  open  at  the 
sides  from  the  shoulders  downwards  :  an 
ordinary  article  of  dress  in  England  and 
France  in  the  middle  ages.  It  was  at 
first  chiefly  used  by  the  military,  after- 


wards by  other  classes.  The  tabard,  with 
coats  of  arms  blazoned  before  and  behind, 
is  the  state  dress  ot  heralds  to  this  day. 
It  is  the  dress  worn  by  the  knaves  in 
cards.  Long  tabards,  which  reached  to 
the  mid-leg,  were  a  peculiarly  Englis'- 
fashion 

TABASIIEER',  a  Persian  wordsignii. 
ing  a  light  white  porous  substance  found 
in  the  joints  of  the  bamboo  :  it  consists 
almost  entirely  of  silica.  It  is  said  to  be 
used  medicinally  in  the  East  Indies  ;  but 
its  virtues  must  be  merely  imaginary. 

TABEL'LION,  in  the  Roman  empire, 
officers  who  had  charge  of  public  docu- 
ments were  so  called ;  they  were  also 
secretaries,  or  registrars,  and  in  some 
cases  judges.  The  notaries  were  their 
assistants.  In  France,  the  titles  of  "  Ta- 
bellion"  and  "  Greffier"  were  confounded, 
and  Henry  IV.  united  the  functions  of 
tabellion  with  those  of  notary  ;  but  the 
old  title  seems  still  to  be  retained  (or  was 
until  the  Revolution)  in  some  few  places. 

TAB'ERNACLE,  a  Latin  word  signify- 
ing a  tejit  or  cabin.  The  tabernacle  which 
was  carried  from  station  to  station  by  the 
Jews  during  their  wanderings  in  the  des- 
ert, was  a  tent  of  sails  and  skins  stretch- 
ed upon  a  framework  of  wood,  and  divid- 
ed into  two  compartments;  the  outer, 
named  the  Holy,  being  that  in  which  in- 
cense was  burned,  and  the  shew-brend 
exhibited;  and  the  inner,  or  Holy  of  Ho- 
lies, in  which  was  deposited  the  ark  of 
the  covenant.  The  Fea^t  of  Tabernacles 
was  one  of  the  three  principal  festivals 
among  the  Jews.  It  commenced  on  the 
15th  of  the  month  Tisri,  corresponding 
with  the  30th  of  September,  and  lasted 
seven  days,  during  which  the  people 
dwelt  in  booths  formed  of  the  boughs  of 
trees.  It  was  instituted  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  habitation  of  their  ancestors 
in  similar  dwellings  during  the  forty 
years  of  their  pilgrimage  in  the  wilder- 
ness. 

TAB'LATURE,  in  music,  the  use  of 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  any  other 
character,  for  expressing  the  notes  or 
sounds  of  a  composition.  It  is  not  now  a 
usual  mode  of  writing.  In  its  stricter 
and  more  original  sense,  it  is  a  mode  of 
writing  music  for  a  particular  instrument 
on  parallel  lines  (of  which  each  repre- 
sents a  string  of  the  instrument)  by  means 
of  certain  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Thus 
A  denotes  that  the  string  is  to  be  struck 
open,  B  that  one  of  the  lingers  is  to  be 
put  on  the  first  stop,  C  on  the  second,  D 
on  the  third,  and  so  on  through  the  oc- 
tave. 


586 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITER.VTUKE 


[tai 


TABLEAUX  VI'VAXTS,  the  name 
given  to  an  amusement  in  which  groups 
of  persons  dresseil  in  appropriate  costume 
are  made  to  represent  some  interesting 
scene  in  the  works  of  distinguished  paint- 
ers or  authors.  It  is  thus  managed:  The 
ruom  in  which  the  spectators  are  placed 
being  darkened,  the  group  assume  their 
respective  attitudes  behiml  a  frame  (or 
some  other  contrivance  intended  to  rep- 
resent it)  covered  with  gauze  ;  and  can- 
dles being  so  placed  as  to  reflect  light 
upon  the  group  from  above,  the  illusion  is 
complete.  These  representations  are  not 
unfrequently  resorted  to  in  England;  but 
their  homo  is  cliiefly  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, where  they  form  an  important 
feature  on  all  festive  occasions.  They 
owe  their  present  popularity  to  the  cele- 
brated M.  Handel-.^chutz,  whose  genius 
for  imitation  and  delineation  was  unri- 
valled in  Germiiny.  Tableau.^  are  often 
employed  to  represent  some  scene  in 
which  a  riddle  is  concealed. 

TABLETS,  in  Roman  antiquities, 
pieces  of  ivory,  metal,  stone,  or  other 
substance,  used  in. judiciary  proceedings, 
or  in  the  passing  of  laws. 

TABOO',  a  word  used  by  the  South 
Sea  islanders  to  denote  something  conse- 
crated, sacred,  and  forbidden  to  be  touch- 
ed, or  set  aside  for  particular  uses  and 
persons. 

TA'BORITES,  the  denomination  of  one 
of  the  parties  into  wiiich  the  followers  of 
lluss,  in  Bohemia,  separated  after  the 
death  of  their  leader.  They  were  so 
called  from  Tabor,  a  hill  or  fortress  of 
Bohemia,  upon  which  they  encamped 
during  the  struggle  ^vhich  they  main- 
tained against  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
power.  At  their  head  stood  "John  Ziska 
von  Brockznow,  who  was  distinguished  at 
once  for  his  indomitable  courage  and  his 
remorseless  cruelty  After  various  fanat- 
ical exhibitions,  which  were  met  by  their 
adversaries  with  determined  hostility, 
the  better  and  more  quietly  disi)osed 
portion  of  the  Taborites  formed  them- 
selves into  a  religious  society  under  the 
denomination  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren. 
They  established  several  Christian  com- 
munities, elected  their  own  bishops, 
priests,  and  elders  ;  drew  up  a  rigorous 
plan  of  ecclesiastical  discipline;  and  sent 
forth  missionaries  to  various  parts,  though 
with  little  success.  Though  harassed  by 
persecutions,  they  continued  to  augment 
their  numbers,  and  at  the  cnil  of  the  1.5th 
century  they  counted  about  200  commu- 
nities of  adherents  At  the  end  of  this 
period  the  distinctive   name  anil  opinions 


of  the  Taborites  were  lost  among  the  va- 
rious assailants  of  the  Romish  corruptions, 
who  formed  tlio  vanguard  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  (lermany. 

TABL'LA'TUM,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, a  term  used  to  denote  the  floors, 
ceilings,  and  other  wood-work  in  a  housp  : 
occasionally  also  it  was  applied  to  the 
balconies  and  other  projections  of  a  like 
nature. 

TACTICS,  a  term  which,  in  its  most 
e.xtensive  sense,  relates  to  those  evolu- 
tions, manoeuvres  and  positions  which 
constitute  the  main-spring  of  military 
and  naval  finesse  :  tactics  are  the  means 
by  which  discipline  is  made  to  support 
the  operations  of  a  campaign,  and  are 
studied  for  the  purpose  of  training  all  the 
component  parts  according  to  one  regular 
plan  or  system  ;  whereby  celerity,  pre- 
cision, and  strength  are  combined,  and 
the  whole  rendered  eifective. 

TA'GES,  an  old  Italian  divinity,  who 
is  represented  to  have  sprung  as  a  beau- 
tiful boy  from  the  earth,  which  a  Tuscan 
ploughman  had  furrowed  too  deep.  The 
first  act  of  this  earth-born  god  was  to 
foretell  from  the  wings  of  birds  what  was 
to  happen  to  the  peasants,  by  whom  he 
was  quickly  surrounded ;  and  hence  he 
was  worshipped  as  the  inventor  of 
augury.  A  cidlection  of  his  prophecies 
was  made  and  preserved  in  the  sacred 
records  of  Etruria. 

TAIL,  or  FEE-TAIL,  in  law,  a  limited 
estate  or  fee;  opposed  to  fee-simple. 

TAILLE,  in  ancient  FVeneh  jurispru- 
dence, any  imposition  levied  by  the  king 
or  any  other  lord  on  his  subjects.  There 
is  some  obscurity  about  the  derivation 
of  this  word.  It  is  commonly  deduced 
from  talciv,  tallies,  little  pieces  of  wood 
with  which  reckonings  were  made.  But 
whether  these  were  not  so  called  from 
their  use  in  telling  or  counting  does  not 
appear.  Again,  it  is  apparently  con- 
nected with  the  Germ,  zoll,  Engl,  toll; 
but  these  words  are  derived  by  some, 
through  the  Ital.  tolfa,  from  the  Lat. 
tollerc,  to  raise.  Perhaps  the  whole 
series  of  words  is  from  the  same  original 
root  ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  trace  the 
atiinities.  The  Royal  Taille,  in  old 
France,  which  was  the  impost  commonly 
understood  under  the  general  name,  was 
a  personal  or  rather  mixed  constitution, 
from  persons  not  noble  or  ecclesiastical, 
or  enjoying  certain  other  exemptions 
imposed  a<'cording  to  their  supposed 
ability,  measured  by  their  goods.  In  the 
respect  in  which  it  fcill  on  the  agricul- 
tural  class,   from    which    it   was  chiefly 


tal] 


AM)    TIIK     FINK     AHTS. 


587 


levied,  it  is  described  by  Adam  Smith  as 
"a  tax  on  the  supposed  profits  of  the 
farmer,  which  they  estimate  by  the  stock 
■which  he  has  upon  the  farm." 

TAL'BOTYPE,  a  photogenic  process 
invented  bj'  Mr.  H.  Fo.x  Talbot,  in  which 
paper,  prepared  in  a  particular  manner, 
is  used  instead  of  the  silvered  plates  of 
M.  Daguerre.  The  process  has  also  been 
termed  calotype. 

TAL'ENT,  among  the  ancients,  the 
name  of  a  coin,  the  true  value  of  which 
cannot  well  be  ascertained,  but  it  is 
known  that  it  was  different  among  differ- 
ent nations.  Among  the  Hebrews  there 
was  both  a  talent  of  gold  and  a  talent  of 
silver  ;  the  gold  coin  weighed  only  four 
drachms,  and  was  the  same  as  the  shekel 
of  gold  :  but  their  talent  of  silver,  called 
clear,  was  equivalent  to  three  thousand 
shekels,  or  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
pounds,  ten  ounces,  troy  weight.  The 
Attic  talent  is  supposed  to  have  been  of 
the  value  of  193Z.  15s.  sterling.  The 
Romans  had  the  great  talent  and  the 
little  talent;  the  great  talent  equal  to 
99/.  6s.-8c/.,  and  the  little  talent  to  75Z. 
sterling. 

TA'LES,  in  law,  additional  jurj-men. 
when  those  impanelled  do  not  appear,  or, 
appearing,  are  challenged. 

TALIO'NIS  LEX,  (Latin,)  a  punish- 
ment in  which  a  person  convicted  of  a 
crime  suffered  exactly  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  he  had  offended :  thus  an  eye  was 
required  for  an  ej-e  and  a  tooth  for  a 
tooth.  This  mode  of  punishment  was 
established  by  the  Mosaic  law,  and  was 
in  some  eases  imitated  bv  the  Romans. 

TAL'ISMAN,  among"the  Eastern  na- 
tions, a  figure  cut  in  metal,  stone,  lic, 
supposed  to  have  been  made  with  par- 
ticular ceremonies,  and  under  particular 
astrological  circumstances,  and  to  possess 
various  virtues,  but  chiefly  that  of  avert- 
ing disease  or  violent  death  from  the 
wearer.  In  a  more  general  sense,  any 
portable  object  endowed  with  imaginary 
influence  in  controlling  evil  spirits,  <tc. 
has  been  so  designated.  The  term  is 
frequently  used  as  synonymous  with 
amulet  ;  but,  strictly  speaking,  the  latter 
is  not  believed  to  possess  such  extensive 
powers  as  the  talisman. 

TAL'LY,  a  mode  of  reckoning  between 
buyers  and  sellers,  which  before  the  use 
of  writing  was  almost  universal,  and 
which  is  even  still  partially  used  The 
tally  is  a  piece  of  wood  on  which  notches 
or  scores  are  cut  as  marks  of  number.  It 
is  customary  for  traders  to  have  two  of 
these  sticks,  or  one  stick  cleft   into  two 


parts,  and  to  mark  or  notch  them  in  a 
corresponding  manner;  one  to  be  kept 
by  the  seller,  the  other  by  the  purchaser. 
— In  the  English  exchequer  are  tallies 
of  loans,  one  part  being  kept  in  the  ex- 
chequer, the  other  being  given  to  tho 
creititor  in  lieu  of  an  obligation  for  money 
lent  to  government. 

TAL'MUD,  the  traditionary  or  un- 
written laws  of  the  Jews.  It  is  called 
unwritten,  to  distinguish  it  from  tho 
textual  or  written  law;  and  is,  in  fact, 
the  interpretation  which  the  rabbins  affix 
to  the  law  of  Mobcs,  which  embodies  their 
doctrine,  politj',  and  ceremonies,  and  to 
which  many  of  them  adhere  more  than  to 
the  law  itself.  There  are  two  Talmuds, 
that  of  Jerusalem  and  that  of  Babylon ; 
not  to  mention  those  of  Onkelos  and 
Jonathan,  which  are  rather  paraphrases 
than  volumes  of  traditionary  doctrines. — 
The  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  consists  of  two 
parts — the  Gemara,  and  the  Mishna. 
The  Mishna  signifies  a  doubling  or 
reiteration;  the  Gemara,  a  work  brought 
to  perfection  or  completed — from  the 
Chaldee  gamar,  to  finish  or  complete. 
The  Gemara  and  the  Mishna  together, 
strictly  speaking,  form  the  Talmud;  but 
the  rabbins  are  wont  to  designate  the 
Pentateuch  of  Moses  the  Jirst  part  of  the 
Talmud,  and  which  is  simply  the  law. 
The  second  part  is  the  Mishna,  which  is 
a  more  extensive  explication  or  amplifi- 
cation of  the  law;  and  the  third  part  the 
Gemara,  as  finishing  and  completing  it. 
The  Mishna  is  the  work  of  Rabbi  Judah 
llakkadosh,  120  years  after  the  destruc- 
ti(m  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  It  is 
written  in  a  tolerably  pure  style,  and  its 
reasonings  are  much  more  solid  than 
those  of  the  Gemara,  which  the  Jewish 
doctors,  it  is  stated,  have  stuffed  with 
dreams  and  chimeras,  and  many  igno- 
rant and  impertinent  questions  and  dis- 
putations. The  Gemara  was  written 
about  100  years  afterwards  by  Rabbi 
Jochanan,  the  rector  of  the  school  at 
Tiberias.  These  two  works  form  the  Je- 
rusalem Talmud.  But  the  Talmud  of 
Jerusalem  is  less  esteemed  thnn  the 
Talmud  of  Babylon  formed  by  Rabbi  Asa 
or  Aser,  who  had  an  acadamy  for  forty 
years  at  a  place  called  Sara,  near  Baby- 
lon, whence  it  was  denominated  tho 
Babylonish  Talmud.  It  is  this  Talmud 
which  the  Jews  more  frequently  consult; 
and  it  is  especially  esteemed  by  those 
Jews  who  live  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
from  the  circumstance  that  it  was  com- 
piled at  Babylon.  Rabbi  Asa  was  called 
to  his  fathers  before  this  celebrated  com- 


588 


CVCl.OrEDlA     OF    UTKUATfliK 


[lAh 


mentrtry  on  the  Mi.slma  was  coinpleteil; 
but  it  was  finislied  by  hi-s  disciples  (some 
say  his  children)  about  500  years  after 
Clirist.  With  the  exception  of  the  sac-red 
authors,  those  Talmuds,  iifter  the  Chaldee 
paraphrases,  are  the  most  ancient  books 
of  doctrine  possessed  by  the  Jews. 

TAL'OX,  in  architecture,  a  kind  of 
mouldinf;,  which  consists  of  a  cymatiuin, 
crowned  with  a  square  fillet.  It  is  con- 
cave at  the  bottom,  and  conve.x  at  the 
top;  and  is  usually  called  by  workmen 
an  o?ee,  or  0.  (i. 

TAMBOUR,  in  fortification,  a  kind  of 
work  formed  of  palisades  or  pieces  of 
wood  ten  feet  long,  planted  close  together, 
and  driven  firm  into  the  ground. —  Tam- 
bour, in  architecture,  is  applied  to  a  wall 
of  a  circular  building,  surrounded  with 
columns. 

TAMBOURINE',  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient musical  instruments,  and  still  used, 
particularly  in  Biscay,  where  a  large 
kind  of  tambourine,  called  tambour  de 
Basque,  is  used  to  accompany  all  the  na- 
tional songs  and  dances.  In  Scripture 
this  instrument  is  designated  a  timbrel; 
in  profiine  history  we  find  it  was  popular 
among  most  of  the  Eastern  nations ;  and 
in  the  middle  ages  it  was  used  by  the 
Troubadours  and  minstrels.  The  present 
tambourine  consists  of  a  wooden  or  braz- 
en hoop,  over  which  a  skin  is  extended, 
and  which  is  hung  with  bells.  Sometimes 
the  thumb  of  the  right  hiind  is  drawn  in 
a  circle  over  the  skin ;  sometimes  the 
fingers  are  struck  ag:iinst  it  ;  while  it 
is  supported  by  the  thumb  of  the  left 
hand.  From  the  performance  of  it  being 
capable  of  displaying  various  graceful 
movements  of  the  l)ody,  the  tambourine 
is  generallv  an  attribute  of  Terpsichore. 

TAN'ISTRY,  a  tenure  of  lands  in  Ire- 
land, by  which  the  proprietor  had  only  a 
life  estate,  and  to  this  he  was  admitted 
b)'  election.  The  primitive  intention 
seems  to  have  been  that  the  inheritance 
should  descend  to  the  oldest  or  most 
worthy  of  the  blood  and  name  of  the  de- 
ceased ;  but  the  practice  often  gave  rise 
to  the  fiercest  and  most  sanguinary  con- 
tests between  tribes  and  families. 

TAX'T.\LUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
king  of  Lydia,  I'lirygia,  or  J'aphlagonia, 
according  to  different  authors,  whoso 
punishment  in  the  infernal  regions  is 
well  known  to  classical  readers,  lie  was 
condemned  to  be  plunged  in  water,  and 
liavc  delicious  fruits  continu;illy  hanging 
over  his  hend,  without  the  power  of  satis- 
fj'ing  either  tliir,<t  or  hunger,  ills  crime 
is  difl'ercnlly  rcprc.-cntc<l.     According  to 


some,  he  served  to  the  gods  at  a  feast  the 
limbs  of  his  own  son  Pelops  ;  according 
to  others,  he  revealed  the  mystery  of  the 
gods,  of  whom  he  was  high-priest  :  while 
others  attribute  to  him  the  vices  of  pride 
and  too  great-wealth. 

TARE,  in  commerce,  an  allowance  for 
the  outside  package  that  contains  such 
goods  as  cannot  b<;  uniiacked  without  det- 
riment; or  for  paper,  bands,  cords.  Ac. 
When  the  tare  isde<lucted,  the  remainder 
is  called  the  net  or  neat  weight. 

TAR'(!UM,  in  sacred  literature,  a 
name  given  by  the  Jews  to  certain  glosses 
and  paraphrases  of  the  Scrijitures,  writ- 
ten in  the  Chaldaic  language  :  a  work 
which  was  occasioned  by  the  long  cap- 
tivity of  that  people. 

TAR'IFF,  in  commerce,  a  list  or  table 
of  custom-house  and  excise  duties  im- 
posed on  goods,  with  *heir  respective 
rates. 

TARPE'IATC,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an 
appellation  given  to  a  steep  rock  in 
Rome  ;  whence,  by  the  law  of  the  twelve 
tables,  those  guilty  of  certain  crimes 
were  precipitated.  It  was  named  after 
Tarpeia,  the  daughter  of  Tarpeius,  the 
governor  of  the  citadel  of  Rome,  who 
promised  to  open  the  gates  of  the  city  to 
the  Sabines,  provided  they  gave  her  their 
gold  bracelets,  or,  as  she  expressed  it, 
what  they  carried  on  their  left  hands. 
The  Sabines  consented,  and,  as  they  en- 
tered the  gates,  threw  not  only  their 
bracelets,  but  their  shields,  upon  Tarpeia, 
who  was  crushed  under  the  weight.  She 
was  buried  in  the  capitol. 

T.\RTl''Fl'E,  a  common  French  nick- 
name for  hypocritical  pretenders  to  de- 
votion. It  is  derived  from  the  celebrated 
comedy  of  Moliere,  of  which  the  hero  is 
so  called.  Whether  Molirre  invented,  or 
took  it  from  the  popular  language  of  the 
time,  does  not  ajipear:  some  say  that  ho 
intcndcil  to  atliick  Louis  XI  V.'s  confessor, 
Pcre  la  Chaise,  whom  he  hail  once  seen 
eating  tnilllns  with  ]icculiar  frofit ;  and 
thence  the  name.  The  jday  w.ms  written 
in  11)64,  but  not  acted  till  IfiGi):  great 
difliculties  V)eing  thrown  in  the  way  of 
the  author  by  the  clergy  and  the  j)a)ial 
legate.  On  one  occasion  it  was  prohibit- 
ed when  the  Curtain  was  on  the  jioint  of 
rising,  anil  .Molicrc  anncuinced  to  tbo 
public  its  disa]ipointment  in  the  well- 
known  equivocal  words,  "  Monsieur  le 
president  no  vcut  pas  qu'on  le  joue." 
When  at  last  licensed  (thi<ingh  the  influ- 
ence, it  is  said,  of  the  king  himself),  it 
had  a  run  of  throe  motilhs  with  un]iaral- 
lelcd   success;   and   the   eager   attention 


fax] 


AND    'HIE     FINE     A IITS. 


589 


and  applause  which  it  still  excites  benr 
testimony  at  once  to  the  keenness  of  tlio 
wit,  iind  the  peculiar  relish  of  the  public 
for  tlie  exposure  of  the  fraiUies  of  those 
who  profess  a  religious  character.  In 
Englanil,  this  play  has  been  made  more 
than  once  to  serve  the  popular  passions 
of  the  day.  Gibber  translated  it  and 
made  the  hero  a  non-juring  churcliniau  ; 
and  the  phiy  is  still  acted  under  the  name 
of  Tlie  Jlijpocrile,  in  which  the  Tartutfe 
\i  a  metho  iistical  divine. 

TASTE,  that  power  of  the  mind  which 
is  conversant  about  the  beautiful,  both 
of  nature  and  of  art.  In  the  Latin  lan- 
guage, the  same  metaphor  obtained  a 
very  wide  application,  and  the  term  sa- 
pient a,  was  employed  to  signify  quickness 
and  correctness  of  judgment  generally. 
Shaftsbury's  use  of  the  term  is  nearly  as 
extensive,  being  applied  by  him  to  man- 
ners, morals,  and  government,  and  to  wit, 
ingenuity,  and  beauty.  In  its  modern 
use  it  is  restricted  to  those  objects  which 
fall  within  the  province  of  imagination. 
Now,  although  imagination  derives  its 
oljjects  pre-eminently  from  those  of  the 
sight  and  hearing,  and  although  the  epi- 
thet beautifid,  is,  for  the  most  part,  con- 
fined to  these,  yet  the  mental  power 
which  judges  of  them  borrows  its  name 
from  a  third  sense.  The  reason  of  this 
is  satisfactorily  shown  by  Coleridge.  The 
senses,  he  observes,  are  either  purely  or- 
ganic, or  rai.xed.  The  former  present 
their  objects  to  the  mind  distinct  from  its 
perception  of  them,  while  the  latter  in' 
variably  blend  the  perception  of  the  ob- 
ject with  a  certain  consciousness  of  the 
percipient  subject.  To  the  latter  c'nss 
belong  the  touch,  the  smell,  and  the  taste. 
Of  these,  taste  and  smell  differ  from  the 
touch,  as  adding  to  that  reference  to  our 
vital  being  which  is  common  to  the  three 
a  degree  of  enjoyment  or  otherwise; 
while  the  taste  is  distinguished  from  the 
smell  only  by  its  more  frequent  and  dig- 
nified use  in  human  nature.  By  taste 
then,  as  applied  to  the  Fine  Arts,  we  must 
be  supposed  to  mean  an  intellectual  per- 
ception of  any  object,  blended  with  a  dis- 
tinct reference  to  our  sensibility  of  enjoy- 
ment or  dislike.  In  the  same  essay  Cole- 
ridge gives  another  and  a  wider  definition 
of  taste  ;  as  "  a  metaphor  taken  from  one 
of  the  mixed  senses,  and  applied  to  objects 
the  more  purely  organic,  and  of  our 
vwral  sense,  when  we  would  imply  the 
co-existence  of  an  immediate  personal 
dislike  or  ci;mplacency."  Now,  by  the 
constitution  of  man's  nature,  every  exer- 
tion of  human  activity,  in  the  pursuit  of 


the  gooi],  the  beautiful,  and  the  true, 
combmes  a  sense  of  pleasure,  or  the  con- 
trary, with  the  perception  of  their  re- 
.spective  oljjects  ;  and  this  fact  would  justi- 
fy the  widest  ap[)lication  of  the  metaphor. 
While,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  true, 
this  co-e.vistent  pleasure  has  not  received 
any  distinctive  appellation,  and  while 
conscience,  as  comprehending  the  sense 
of  approbation  and  disapprobation,  is 
characteristically  applied  to  the  moral 
energy,  that  of  taste  has  been  confined  to 
the  perception  of  beauty  and  the  accom- 
panying gratification.  But  taste,  like 
all  other  metaphorical  terms,  is  extreme- 
ly inaccurate  ;  and  by  directing  attention 
exclusively  to  this  element  of  pleasure, 
it  has  led  to  a  verj'  inadequate  coiiccjition 
of  the  true  nature  of  the  faculty  which  it 
designates  Thus  Ilutcheson  maintains 
that  the  faculty  is  peculiar,  and  a  sense 
which  similarly,  to  the  other  senses,  pro- 
cures a  pleasure  totally  distinct  from  a 
cognition  of  principle?,  or  of  the  causes,  re- 
lations, and  usages  of  an  object :  that  beau- 
ty strikes,  at  first  sight,  and  that  knowl- 
edge the  most  perfect  will  not  increase  the 
pleasure  which  it  gives  rise  to  :  and  lastly, 
that  all  the  <liversity  of  sentiments  exci- 
ted in.  different  minds  by  the  beautiful, 
arise  solely  from  the  modifications  of  the 
sense  by  association,  custom,  example, 
and  education.  Among  the  advocates  of 
the  theory  of  a  moral  taste  we  may 
reckon  Hume,  Akenside,  Blair,  Lord 
Kames,  and  Beattie. 

TATTOO',  the  beat  of  the  evening 
drum,  giving  notice  to  soldiers  to  repair 
to  their  quarters  in  garrison,  or  to  their 
tents  in  camp. 

TAUKID'IA,  among  the  Romans,  were 
certain  games  in  honor  of  the  infernal 
gods.  They  are  sometimes  called  taurii 
ludi. 

TAUTOL'OGY,  in  rhetoric,  a  vicious 
diction,  by  which  the  same  idea  is  ex- 
pressed in  two  or  more  different  words  or 
phrases,  apparently  intended  to  convey 
different  meanings. 

TAXA'TION,  a  tax  is  a  rate  or  duty 
laid  by  government  on  the  incomes  or 
property  of  individuals,  or  on  the  pro- 
ducts consumed  by  them;  the  produce  of 
such  duty  or  rate  being  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  government. —  A  tax  may  be 
either  general  or  particular  ;  that  is,  it 
m.ay  either  affect  all  classes  indiscrimi- 
nately, or  only  one  or  more  classes. — Tax- 
ation is  the  general  terra  used  to  express 
the  aggregate  of  particular  taxes.  It  is 
also  the  name  given  to  that  branch  of  the 
science    of  political    economy  which  ex- 


590 


CVCI.OPF.DIA     OF    LllEltATURK 


plains  the  nroJe  5 1  which  the  revenue  re-  | 
quired  for  ihe  public  service  may  be  most 
advantage.^u&'y  raised. 

TAXES,  th?.  assessments  imposed  by 
law  tor  the  public  service,  either  direct,  | 
as  on  persons  and  necessaries  ;  or  indirect,  | 
as  on  luxuries  and  raw  materials.  Ta.xes 
imposed  on  goods  at  the  time  of  their  iui- 
porlalion,  are  denominated  customs,  du- 
ties, or  imposts. 

TE'BETH,  the  tenth  month  of  the  Jew- 
ish ecclesiastical  j'ear,  and  fourth  of  the 
civil.  It  answers  to  our  month  of  Decem- 
ber. 

TECHNICAL,  that  method  of  speak- 
ing which  is  proper,  or  peculiarly  apper- 
taining, to  any  given  art.  Arti.^ts  and 
amateurs  are  accustomed,  when  they  talk 
of  matters  relating  to  the  arts,  to  cmploj' 
many  e.xpressions  which  are  not  introdu- 
ced into  ordinary  language,  or  at  least  do 
not  bear  the  same  signification.  This 
species  of  conversation  is  not  without  its 
advantages.  The  terms  it  employs  are 
often  arbitrary,  but  they  are  much  clearer 
than  any  other  would  be  to  the  artist  or 
connoisseur,  inasmuch  as  he  has  habitua- 
ted himself  to  combine  with  them,  and 
with  them  alone,  the  ideas  meant  to  be 
conveyed  ;  and  they  besides  often  save  a 
ro\ind-about  way  of  expression.  But  this 
stated,  we  are  bound  to  add  that  they 
should  never  be  introduced  into  books, 
excepting  only  such  .as  are  addressed  spe- 
cifically to  the  practisers  of  our  art  ;  for 
in  any  work  designed  for  the  purjioses  of. 
general  information,  fhey  merely  tend 
to  mvstifv  and  confuse  the  reader. 

TECHNOLOGY,  a  treatise  on  the 
Arts;  or  an  explanation  of  the  terms  of 
the  Arts.  A  technical  word  is  a  word  that 
helongs  proi)erly  or  exclusively  to  the 
Arts  ;  and  when  speaking  of  the  terms  of 
Art.  we  say  technical  terms,  technical  lan- 
guage, &c. 

TE  DEUM,  (from  the  first  wonls  of  the 
original  Latin,  "  Te  Deuin  laudamus;" 
We  praise  thee,  0  God.)  The  authorship 
of  tins  sublime  hymn  has  been  ascribed 
by  some  to  Ambrose  and  .Augustine  ;  by 
others  to  Ambrose  alone,  to  Hilary,  and 
other  less  distinguished  persons.  It  is. 
however,  generally  thought  to  have  been 
composed  in  the  (Jallican  church  :  the 
most  ancient  mention  of  it  being  in  the 
rule  of  C;Bsarius,  bishop  of  Aries  in  the 
fifth  century.  The  Te  Heum,  in  the  oOice 
of  matins,  is  always  sung  after  the  read- 
ing of  Scrijifure;  in  the  English  morning 
service,  between  the  two  lessons. 

TE.M'I'EKAMKXT,  in  music,  the  ac- 
cnmraodation  or  adjustment  of  the  imper- 


fect sounds,  by  transferring  a  part  of  their 
defects  to  the  more  perfect  ones,  to  reme- 
dy in  part  the  false  intervals  of  instru- 
ments of  fixed  sounds,  as  the  piano,  organ, 
&c. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCl'ETIES.  Tho 
evils  of  intemperance  have  long  been  the 
subject  of  much  anxious  observation  in 
civilizeil  nations,  more  esipecially  in  the 
United  States  ;  and  the  idea  of  concen- 
trating public  sentiment  upon  it,  in  some 
form,  to  produce  important  results,  seems 
to  have  been  first  ccmoeivcd  in  this  coun- 
try;  a  meeting,  called  the  tJeneral  Asso- 
ciation of  Massachusetts  Proper,  h.aving 
been  held  in  1S13,  for  the  express  object 
of  ''chocking  the  progress  of  intempe- 
rance." The  first  itttemjit  of  the  society 
was  to  collect  facts  towards  a  precise  ex- 
hibition of  the  nature  and  magnitude  of 
the  existing  evil  with  the  view  of  drawing 
public  attention  to  it,  anil  of  directing 
cnilcavors  for  its  removal.  The  reports 
presented  from  year  to  year,  embraced 
statements  and  calculations  which  were 
found  to  make  out  a  case  of  the  most 
oppiilling  nature,  such  as  to  amaze  even 
those  whose  solicitude  on  tlie  subject  had 
been  greatest.  In  1830,  from  data  care- 
fully coUecteil,  the  Massachusetts  society 
statcil  in  their  report,  that  the  number 
who  died  annually  victims  of  intempe- 
rance was  estimated  at  above  37,000;  and 
that  72,000,000  gallons  of  distilled  spir- 
its were  consumed  in  the  country,  being 
about  six  gallons  on  an  average  for  every 
man,  woman,  and  child  of  the  w  hole  popu- 
lation. It  also  stated  that  about  400,000 
of  the  community  were  confirmed  drunk- 
ards ;  anil  that  tiicre  apjieareil-reason  to 
believe  that  intemperance  was  responsi- 
ble for  four  fifths  of  the  crime  committed 
in  the  country,  for  at  least  three  quarters 
of  the  pauperism  existing,  and  for  at 
least  one  third  of  the  mental  derange- 
ment. By  these  exposures,  and  an  un- 
relaxing  perseverance  in  the  course  th-ey 
had  commenced;  by  the  circulation  of 
tracts  and  the  addresses  of  travelling 
.agents  ;  by  the  formation  of  auxiliary 
associations,  and  by  obtaining  individual 
responsibility  for  the  performance  of  a 
variety  of  duties  tending  to  jiromote  Ihe 
great  object  in  view, — public  notice  was 
attracted,  and  it  led  to  an  iuiitiition  of  the 
practice  in  (treat  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Of  late  years  tho  cause  of  temperance 
has  made  great  progress  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  .«!fntes. 

TEM'PLARS,  or  Knights  of  the  Tem- 
ple, a  military  order  of  religious  persons 
It    was   foumled    by     iin    association    of 


ten] 


AND    TIIK     FINK     ARTS. 


691 


knights,  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th 
century,  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  on 
the  roads  in  Palestine  :  afterwards  it  took 
for  its  chief  object  ibe  protection  of  the 
Iluly  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  against  the 
Saracens.  Knights  were  fixed  at  Jerusa- 
lem by  King  Baldwin  II.,  who  gave  them 
the  ground  on  the  east  of  the  Temple. 
Their  rules  were  taken  from  those  of  the 
Benedictine  monks  :  they  took  the  vows 
of  chastity,  obedience,  and  poverty.  The 
classes  of  the  order  were  knights,  esquires, 
servitors,  and  chaplains ;  the  universal 
badge  of  the  order  was  a  girdle  of  linen 
thread.  The  otficersof  the  order  vrere  cho- 
sen by  the  chapter  from  among  the 
knights:  they  were,  for  military  affairs, 
marshals,  and  bannerets :  for  purposes 
of  government,  priors,  who  superintended 
single  priories  or  preceptories ;  abbots, 
commanders,  and  grand  priors,  who  gov- 
erned the  possessions  of  the  order  within 
separate  provinces  ;  and  the  grand  master, 
who,  in  some  respects,  assumed  the  dignity 
of  a  sovereign  prince,  being  independent  in 
secular  matters,  and  depending  solely  on 
the  pope  in  spiritual.  The  chief  part  of 
the  9000  estates,  lordships,  &c  ,  which  the 
society  possessed  in  the  13th  century, 
was  situated  in  France;  and  the  grand 
roaster  was  usually  of  that  nation.  The 
Templars  were  driven  from  Palestine  by 
the  Saracens,  with  the  rest  of  the  Chris- 
tians, and  then  fi.ved  the  chief  seat  of 
their  order  in  Cyprus.  Their  exorbitant 
power  and  wealth,  and  the  haughty  man- 
ner in  which  they  endeavored  to  keep 
aloof  from  the  control  of  European  sov- 
ereigns, and  act  as  a  military  republic 
independent  of  their  authority,  were 
probably  the  principal  reasons  which  in- 
duced Pope  Clement  V.  and  Philip  the 
Fair  of  France  to  concert  their  overthrow. 
The  charges  of  heresy  and  idolatry,  which 
ware  preferred  against  them,  were  at  least 
unsupported  by  evidence.  In  1307,  Ja- 
quesde  Molay,  the  gi  and  master,  having 
been  enticed  into  France,  was  arrested  by 
Philip ;  the  templars'  estates  were  seized  ; 
many  of  them  burned  alive,  after  the 
mockery  of  a  trial  ;  and,  in  1312,  the 
order  was  abolished  by  a  bull  of  Clement 
v.  Its  vast  estates  fell  partly  into  the 
hands  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  countries 
in  which  they  were  situated,  partly  into 
those  of  the  Hospitallers  and  other  mili- 
tary orders.  Detached  bodies  of  the 
order,  however,  continued  to  subsist  for 
some  time  in  different  countries. 

TEM'PLE,  a  place  of  worship,  chiefly 
applied  to  heathen  worship.  Originally 
temples  were  open  places,  as  Stonehenge, 


in  Wiltshire.  In  Rome,  some  of  the 
temples  were  open,  and  called  sacel- 
la  ;  others  were  roofed,  and  called  cedes. 
The  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  pa- 
gan temples  were  those  of  Belus  in 
Babylon,  Vulcan  at  Memphis,  Jupiter 
at  Thebes,  Diana  at  Ephesus,  Apollo  in 
Miletus,  Jupiter  Olympius  in  Athens, 
and  Apollo  at  Delphi.  The  most  celebra- 
ted and  magnificent  temple  erected  to  the 
true  God,  was  that  built  by  Solomon  in 
Jerusalem. — The  Temples,  in  London,  aio 
two  inns  of  court,  so  called  because  an- 
ciently the  dwellings  of  the  Knights 
Templars.  They  are  called  the  Inner 
and  the  Middle  Temple,  and  are  situated 
near  the  Thames. 

TEM'PO,  (Italian  for  time,)  signifies, 
in  music,  the  degree  of  quickness  with 
which  a  musical  piece  is  to  be  executed. 
The  different  degrees  of  time  are  designa- 
ted by  the  following  terms,  largo,  ada- 
gio, andante,  allegro,  and  presto;  and 
the  intermediate  des-rees  are  described 
by  additions. 

T  E  M'P  ORAL,  belonging  to  secular 
concerns  ;  not  spiritual ;  as  the  temporal 
revenues  of  the  church,  called  temporali- 
ties.—  Temporal  courts  are  those  which 
take  cognizance  of  civil  suits;  temporal 
power,  civil  or  political  power. 

TENAIL',  in  fortification,  an  outwork 
consisting  of  two  parallel  sides  with  a 
front,  in  which  is  a  re-entering  angle.  It 
is  single  or  double. 

TENAIL'LONS,  in  fortification,  works 
constructed  on  each  side  of  the  ravelins, 
like  the  lunettes,  but  differing  in  this, 
that  one  of  the  faces  of  the  tenaillon  is  in 
the  direction  of  the  ravelin,  whereas  that 
of  the  lunette  is  perpendicular  to  it. 

TEN'ANT,  in  law,  one  who  holds  lands 
or  tenements  by  any  right  or  title,  par- 
ticularly one  who  occupies  lands  or  tene- 
ments at  €a  yearly  rent,  for  life,  years,  or 
at  will. —  Tenant  in  capite,  in  England, 
is  one  who  holds  immediately  of  the  king. 
According  to  the  feudal  system,  all  lands 
in  England  are  considered  as  held  imme- 
diately or  mediately  of  the  king,  who  is 
styled  lord  paramount.  Such  tenants, 
however,  are  considered  as  having  the 
fee  of  the  lands  and  permanent  possession. 

TEN'DER,  a  small  vessel  employed  to 
attend  a  larger  one  for  supplying  her 
with  provisions  or  naval  stores,  or  to 
convey  intelligence,  io. — In  law,  an  offer 
either  of  money  to  pay  a  debt,  or  of  ser- 
vice to  be  performed,  in  order  to  save  a 
penalty  or  forfeiture  which  would  be  in- 
curred by  non-paj'ment  or  non-perform- 
ance. 


692 


CYCLOPEDIA    CF    LITEKATLRE 


TE'NET,  any  opinion,  principle,  or 
doctrine  which  a  person  believes  and 
maintains  ;  as,  the  tenets  of  Christianity  ; 
the  tenets  of  Plato,  &c. 

TENOR,  in  uuisie,  the  more  delicate 
of  the  two  voices  which  belong  to  the 
mature  age  of  male  singers,  it  being  the 
second  of  the  four  parts  reckoning  from 
the  bass  ;  and  originally'  the  air,  to  which 
the  other  parts  were  auxiliary-  What  is 
cMed  countcr-toiur  (between  tlie  trelile 
and  the  tenor)  is  in  reality  only  a  higher 
tenor. 

TENSE,  in  grammar,  an  inflection  of 
verbs  by  which  they  are  made  to  signify 
or  distinguish  the  time  of  actions  or 
events ;  as  the  present  tense,  denoting 
the  time  that  now  is;  the  preterite  or 
past,  the  lime  that  was;  and  the  future, 
the  time  that  will  be.  Some  tenses  like- 
wise denote  the  state  of  the  action,  as  to 
its  completeness  or  otherwise,  in  a  certain 
degree  or  time,  as  the  imperfect  tense, 
which  denotes  an  unfinished  action  at  a 
certain  time  ;  the  perfect,  a  finished  ac- 
tion at  any  time;  and  the  pluperfect,  a 
finished  action  before  a  certain  lime. 

TEN'UKE,  the  feudal  relation  between 
lord  and  vassal  in  respect  of  lands.  Ten- 
ures in  capite,  or  in  chief,  were  those  by 
which  land  was  held  immediately  of  the 
crown ;  mesne  tenures,  of  mesne  or  infe- 
rior lords.  English  tenures  under  the 
feudal  system  are  reduced  by  Blaekstone 
to  four  :  knight-service,  or  chivalry  ;  free 
socage ;  pure  villenage  ;  and  villein-so- 
cage.  I 

TEll'APIITM,  household  deities  or 
images.  The  teraphim  seem  to  have  | 
been  either  wholly  or  in  part  of  human 
form  and  of  small  size.  They  appear  to 
have  been  superstitiously  reverenced  as 
pcnates  or  household  gods,  and  in  some 
shape  or  other  to  have  been  used  as  do- 
mestic oracles.  They  are  mentioned 
several  times  in  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures. 

TERM,  in  law,  the  space  of  time  which 
the  courts  are  open  for  tiie  trial  of  causes. 
—  In  universities,  &c  ,  the  fi.xcil  period  or 
time  during  which  stu<lonts  are  compelled 
to  reside  there  previou.sly  to  tlicir  taking 
a  degree.  These  fall  within  the  four 
t|u»rters  of  the  year,  and  are  distinguish- 
ed by  the  same  names  as  the  law  terms. 
—In  the  Arts,  a  word  or  expression  that 
denotes  something  peculiar  to  an  art  :  as, 
a  technical  term. — In  contracts,  terms 
mean  conditions  upon  which  work  is 
agreed  to  be  performed. 

TERMINA'LIA,  in  antiquity,  feasts 
held   by    the    Romans    on    the    22d    and 


23d  of  February,  in  honor  of  Terminus, 
the  god  of  boundaries  or  land-marks. 
Cakes  and  fruit  were  originally  offered, 
but  afterwards  animals  formed  part  of  the 
sacrifice. 

TER'MINI,  in  architecture,  figures 
used  by  the  Romans  for  the  support  of 
entablatures,  in  the  place  of  columns: 
the  upper  part  consisted  of  the  head  and 
breast  of  a  human  body,  and  the  lower 
of  the  inverted  frustum  of  a  cone.  They 
were  so  called  because  they  were  princi- 
pally used  as  boundary  marks,  and  rep- 
resented their  god  Terminus,  whose  altar 
was  on  the  Tarpeian  rock,  where  he  was 
represented  with  a  human  head,  without 
feet  or  arms,  to  intimate  that  he  never 
moved,  wherever  he  might  be  placed. 

TER'MINI.<T.'«,  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, a  name  given  to  a  class  among  the 
Calvinists,  whose  tenet  it  is  (or  was,  for 
such  opinions  hardly  exist  at  the  present 
day,)  that  there  are  persons  to  whom 
(jod  has  fixed,  by  a  secret  decree,  a  cer- 
tain term  before  their  death,  after  which 
he  no  longer  wills  their  salvation,  how- 
ever long  they  may  live.  They  instanced 
the  case  of  Pharaoh,  Saul,  and  Judas, 
among  others. 

TERMIXOL'OGY,  that  branch  of  a  sci- 
ence or  art  which  explains  the  meaning 
of  its  technical  terms.  In  some  sciences 
it  is  of  particular  importance  ;  in  botany, 
for  instance,  where  not  even  a  leaf  can 
be  described  without  an  agreement  on 
certain  technical  terms. 

TER'MINUS,  (Lat.)  in  ancient  archi- 
tecture, a  stone  raised  for  the  purpose  of 
marking  the  boundary  of  a  i)roperty. 
Also,  a  pedestal  increasing  in  size  as  it 
rises,  or  <a  parallelopiped  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  bust — Terminus  was  the  name 
of  the  god  of  boundaries  among  the  Ro- 
mans. Terminus,  in  more  recent  times, 
is  applied  to  the  beginning  or  the  end: 
i.  e.,  to  the  first  and  last  station  of  a  rail- 
road. 

TER'RACE.  a  platform  or  bank  of 
earth  raised  and  breastcl,  ]iarlicularly  in 
fortifications.  Also,  a  raised  walk  in  a  gar- 
den, having  sloping  sides  raised  with  turf. 

TER'RA  COT'TA,  in  the  Art-s  the 
name  given  to  a  very  large  class  of  re- 
mains of  antif|uity  modelled  in  clay, 
many  admiral)le  specimens  of  which  hnvo 
been  discovered  in  Tuscany  and  Rome. 
Tlicy  consist  of  lamps  and  vessels  of 
various  kinds,  b,^sides  entire  figures  and 
reliefs,  some  of  which  display  the  talents 
of  the  sculptor  or  modeller  in  no  ordinary 
degree.  Terracotta  is  literally  "  baked 
clay  ;"  and  the  various  articles  so  named, 


tet] 


AND    THE     FINK     ARIS. 


593 


of  modern  manufacture,  (some  of  which 
are  extrem-ely  tasteful,)  are  modelled  or 
cast  in  a  paste  made  of  pipe  or  poller's 
clay  and  a  fiue-f^rained  colorless  sand, 
from  Ryej^ate,  with  pulverized  pot- 
sherds, slowly  dried  in  the  air,  and  after- 
wards baked  in  a  kiln. 
■  TER'H^^!;  riL'IUS,  a  scholar  at  the 
university  of  Oxford,  England,  formerly 
appointed  to  make  jesting  and  satirical 
speeches. 

TERROR,  REIGN  OF,  in  the  history 
of  the  French  Revolution.  This  term 
has  been  generally  applied  to  the  period 
during  which  the  executions  were  most 
numerous,  and  the  country  under  the 
Gway  of  the  actual  terror  inspired  by  the 
ferocious  measures  of  its  governors,  who 
had  established  it  avowedly  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  their  authority.  It  seems  to  be 
most  properly  confined  to  the  period  be- 
tween October,  1793,  wt;jn  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal,  although  constituted  at 
an  earlier  time,  was  first  put  in  perma- 
nent action  on  the  fall  of  the  party  of  the 
Gironde,  and  the  overthrow  of  Robes- 
pierre and  his  accomplices  in  thermidor 
(July,)  1794.  The  agents  and  partisans 
of  the  system  have  been  termed  Terror- 
ists. 

TER'Z.4  RI'MA,  a  peculiar  and  com- 
plicated system  of  versilication,  borrowed 
by  the  early  Italian  poets  from  the 
Troubadours.  The  verses  are  the  ordi- 
nary Italian  heroic  lines  of  eleven  sylla- 
bles (interspersed  very  rarely  with  ten- 
syllable  lines  )  The  rhyme  is  thus 
arranged  :  At  the  coraniencomont  of  a 
poem  or  portion  of  a  poem,  verses  1  and 
3  rhyme  together  ;  as  do  verses  2,  4.  and 
6  ;  the  third  rhyme  begins  with  verse  5, 
which  rhymes  to  7  and  9  ;  the  fourth  is 
formed  by  8,  10,  and  12,  and  so  on  ;  and 
the  poem  or  canto  ends  abruptly,  the 
last  rhyme,  like  the  first,  being  on  a 
couplet  instead  of  a  triplet.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  ryhme  is  interlaced  throughout, 
and  continually  in  suspense,  so  that  no 
pause  can  be  found  until  the  end  of  the 
poem  or  canto;  as,  at  the  end  of  every 
Mne,  there  must  still  be  a  rhyme  incom- 
plete. This  continuity  gives  a  very 
peculiar  character  to  the  metre,  and 
renders  it  highly  expressive  of  sustained 
narrative  or  passion,  and  the  abruptness 
of  the  conclusion  is  often  turned  to  good 
effect  by  masters  of  versification.  This 
metre  has  been  rendered  celebrated  by 
Dante,  who  wrote  in  it  his  Dirina  Corn- 
media.  It  has  been  adopted  by  his 
imitators,  of  whom  the  latest.  Nincenzo 
Monti,  has  used  it  to  much  advantage  ; 
38 


and  by  Ariosto  and  other  poets  for  their 
satires  Byron  has  adopted  it  in  Eng- 
lish, with  iiidiflerent  success,  in  his 
Frophecy  of  Dante;  and  it  has  been 
attempted  by  various  translators. 

TERZET'TO,  in  music,  a  composition 
in  three  parts. 

TES'SELLATED  PAVE'MENT,  in 
ancient  architecture,  a  pavement  formed 
of  small  square  pieces  of  stone  called 
tesserce  or  dies.  They  are  frequently, 
indeed  mostly,  found  inlaid  in  different 
colors  and  patterns,  and  with  a  central 
subject.  They  are  embedded  in  cement, 
and  rest  on  prepared  hard  strata. 

TES'SERA.  in  Roman  antiquities,  a 
die,  six-sided,  like  the  modern  dice ;  and 
thus  to  be  distinguished  from  the  talus, 
which  had  only  three  sides.  Tickets  or 
tallies  used  for  various  puposes  were 
called  tesseroe.  Thus  guards  were  set  at 
night  in  their  camps  by  means  of  a  tes- 
sera? with  a  particular  inscription,  given 
from  one  centurion  to  another,  through 
the  army. 

TESTAMENT,  in  law,  a  solemn 
authentic  instrument  in  writing,  whereby 
a  man  declares  his  last  will  as  to  the 
disposal  of  his  estate  and  effects  after 
his  death. —  Testament,  in  theology,  the 
name  of  each  of  the  volumes  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  that  is,  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament. — The  first  Testament  Tprmted 
in  the  English  language  was  in  1.526. 
This  translation  was  made  by  William 
Tyndale,  and  was  published  abroad,  after 
which  it  was  circulated  at  Oxford  and 
London. 

TESTIMONY,  the  evidence  of  facts, 
oral,  as  in  a  court  of  law,  or  written,  as  in 
the  records  of  history.  Testimony  is 
probable  and  credible  when  in  accordance 
with  general  experience,  corroborated, 
and  disinterested  ;  but  improbable,  and 
unworthy  of  credit,  when  contrary  to 
general  experience,  and  uncorrobu.ated. 

TE'THYS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  Uranus  and  Gaia,  and  wife 
of  her  brother  Oceanus.  The  symbol  of 
the  sea,  and  of  the  element  of  water;  in 
which  character  she  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  Thetis,  unless  indeed  the 
name  of  the  latter  goddess  be  only  anoth- 
er form  of  hers. 

TET'RACHORD,  in  music,  a  concord 
consisting  of  three  degrees  or  intervals, 
and  four  terms  or  sounds ;  in  modern 
music  it  is  commonly  calleil  a  fourth. 
The  word,  in  its  strictly  literal  sense, 
signifies  any  instrument  with  four  strings, 
and  was  applied  to  the  lyre  in  its  primi- 
tive state. 


)94 


CYCI.OrKniA     OK     l.l:  KKATL'ltK 


L' 


TET'RAD,  the  number  four;  a  collec- 
tion (>r  four  thin^^j. 

TETllADI  Al'A'SON,  a  inusicnl  chord, 
otherwi.-^e  called  a  quadrujile  eighth  or 
t'.vent  v-niiith. 

TET'RAUITES,  a  word  used  in  scv- 
c-ral  senses,  all  of  them,  however,  bearing 
upon  its  original  derivation  from  four  — 
1.  Among  the  ancients  children  were  so 
called  who  were  born  in  the  fourth 
month;  and  such  were  believed  to  be 
unlucky.  2.  The  Manichees  and  others, 
who  believed  the  Godhead  to  consist  of 
four  instead  of  three  persons,  bore  this 
name.  And.  3.  In  ecclesiastical  history, 
different  sects  of  heretics  were  so  called, 
in  consequence  of  the  respect  with  which 
they  regarded  the  number  four. 

TETRAD'ORON.  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, a  species  of  brick  used  by  Greek 
builders  in  the  private  dwellings,  four 
palms  in  length. 

TETRADRACII'MA,  in  ancient  coin- 
age, a  silver  coin  worth  four  drachms, 
about  75  cents. 

TE'TRARCH,  a  Roman  governor  of 
the  fourth  part  of  a  province.  Such 
originally  was  the  import  of  the  title  tet- 
rarch  ;  but  it  was  afterwards  applied  to 
any  petty  king  or  sovereign.  The  office, 
or  the  territory  of  a  tetrarch,  was  called 
a  tetrarc/uUe. 

TETRAS'TICir,  a  stanza,  epigram,  or 
poem  consisting  of  fciur  verses. 

TET'RASTYLE,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, a  building  with  fourcolumns  in  front. 

TEUTON  IC,  belonging  to  the  Teu- 
tones,  an  ancient  people  of  Germany. 
The  Teutonic  language  is  the  parent  of 
the  (ierman-Dutch  and  Anglo-Saxon.— 
Teutonic  order,  a  religious  order  of 
knights,  established  towards  the  close  of 
the  twelfth  century,  and  thus  called  as 
consisting  chieHy  of  Germans  orTeutones. 
The  original  object  of  the  association  was 
to  defend  the  Christian  religion  against 
the  infidels,  and  to  take  care  of  the  sick 
in  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  at  one  period 
immensely  rich  and  ])owerful. 

TEXT,  a  term  signifying  an  original 
discourse  exclusive  of  any  note  or  com- 
mentary. Also,  a  certain  passage  of 
Scripture,  chosen  by  a  preacher  to  be  the 
subject  of  his  sermon. —  Te.vt-boo/c,  a  book 
containing  the  leading  piinciples  or  most 
important  points  of  a  science  or  branch 
of  learning,  arranged  in  order  for  the  use 
of  students. 

THAM'.MUZ,  the  tenth  month  of  the 
Jewish  civil  year,  containing  2!)  days,  and 
answering  to  a  part  of  June  and  a  part  of 
Julv 


THANE,  in  early  English  history,  a 
title  of  honor  belonging  to  the  Anglo- 
Sa.xon  nobility.  In  its  original  meaning, 
it  .-ignilied  a  minister  or  honorable  re- 
tainer, and  was  applied  to  the  followers 
of  kings  and  chieftains.  The  thanes  in 
England  were  formerly  peisons  of  some 
dignity  ;  of  these  there  were  two  orders', 
the  king's  thanes,  who  attended  the  Sa.x- 
on  and  i)anish  kings  in  their  courts,  and 
held  lands  immediately  of  them  ;  and  the 
ordinary  thanes,  who  were  lords  of  man- 
ors, and  who  had  a  particalar  jurisdic- 
tion within  their  limits.  In  a  later  age 
of  the  Anglo-Sa.Kon  power,  the  term  thane 
seems  to  have  been  appliei  to  all  lauded 
proprietors  who  were  below  the  rank  of 
earl,  and  above  that  of  alderman,  and 
had  the  privilege  of  assisting  in  framing 
the  laws.  The  rank  of  thane  implied  the 
possession  of  a  certain  amount  of  landed 
property,  and  five  hides  of  land  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  amount  required 
for  a  thane  of  the  highest  order.  After 
the  Conquest,  this  title  was  disused,  and 
baron  took  its  place.  In  Scotland,  thane 
was  a  recognized  title  down  to  the  end  of 
the  1.5th  century,  and  it  appears  to  have 
implied  from  the  first  a  higher  dignity 
than  in  England,  and  to  have  been,  for 
the  most  part,  synonymous  with  earl, 
which  title  was  generally  annexed  to  the 
territory  of  a  whole  country. 

TIIE'ATINES,  a  religious  order  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  the  earliest  in 
point  of  date  of  the  communities  of  "  reg- 
ular clerks  :"  it  was  founded  in  1.524  by 
St.  Cajetan  of  Thiene.  The  members,  be- 
sides the  ordinary  monastic  vows,  bound 
themselves  to  the  duties  of  the  cure  of 
souls,  preaching  against  heresies,  tending 
the  sick  and  convicts,  and  to  abstain  from 
possessing  property  or  asking  for  alms. 

THE'ATRE,  in  architecture,  a  build- 
ing appropriated  to  the  representation  of 
dramatic  spectacles.  The  theatres  of  the 
Greeks  ami  Romans  display  some  of  the 
most  extraordinary  specimens  of  their 
power  in  the  Arts.  Bacchus  has  the  rep- 
utation of  being  the  inventor  of  them, 
which,  after  their  temples,  appear  to  have 
been  the  most  important  public  edifices 
of  these  people.  They  seem  to  have  been 
carried  to  perfection  in  the  Grecian  colo- 
nies at  an  earlier  period  than  they  were 
in  the  mother  country.  The  first  theatre 
of  stone  at  Athens,  called  the  theatre  of 
Bacchus,  was  built  in  the  time  of  Tho- 
mistocles;  and  as  there  seems  little  doubt 
that  the  Athenians  wore  the  inventors  of 
the  drama  a,s  a  regular  scenic  action,  it  is 
fair  to  presume  that  they  were  the  first 


thkJ 


AND    THE    FINE    AUTS. 


596 


to  regulate  the  foriu  anf"  proportions 
■which  necessity  and  jjl^Uisure  dictated  in 
their  arrangemer/t.  xh-^  subjoined  dia- 
gram shows  the  p-^t.eral  form  of  the 
tireek  theatrs,  -.fh'ch  differed  but  little 
from  that  of  <;b;!  P.onuans  ;  and  the  instruc- 
tions given  oj  Vitruviu8  in  the  eighth 
^haptrr  o'  t'.i  Sfth  book,  as  to  the  gene- 
■  r'  •)-'>-ift  of  the  plan,  are  as  follows: 
''■•'*•  iLS  in  the  Latin  theatre  the  points 


M^ 


^.n. 


of  t'he  four  triangles  touch  the  circumfer- 
ence, in  the  theatres  of  the  Greeks  the 
angles  of  tliree  squares  are  substituted  ; 
and  the  side  of  that  square  which  is 
nearest  to  the  place  of  the  scene,  at  the 
points  where  it  touches  the  circumference 
of  the  circle,  is  the  boundary  of  the  pro- 
scenium. A  line  drawn  parallel  to  this, 
at  the  extremity  of  the  circle,  will  give 
the  front  of  the  scene.  Through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  orchestra,  opposite  to  the  pro- 
scenium, another  parallel  line  is  drawn 
touching  the  circumference  on  the  right 
and  left ;  then,  one  foot  of  the  compasses 
being  fixed  on  the  right-hand  point,  with 
a  radius  equal  to  the  distance  from  the 
left  point,  describe  a  circle  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  proscenium,  and,  placing 
the  foot  of  the  compasses  on  the  left-hand 
point,  with  the  distance  of  the  right-hand 
interval  describe  another  circle  on  the 
left  side  of  the  proscenium.  Thus  de- 
scribing it  from  three  centres,  the  Greeks 
have  a  larger  orchestra,  and  their  >cene 
is  further  recessed.  The  pulpitum,  which 
they  call  >oj  eioi/,  js  less  in  width  ;  wherefore 
among  them  the  tragic  and  comic  per- 
formers act  upon  the  scene,  the  rest  going 
through  their  parts  in  the  orchestra." 
The  ancient  theatres  were  frequently 
used  for  the  deliberations  of  the  general 
assembly  of  the  people  on  political  mat- 
ters, as  we  find  from  Tacitus  and  Auso- 
nius  in  respect  of  the  theatres  at  Antioch 
and  Athens.  Notwithstanding  theuse  of 
those  buildings  in  later  times  as  quarries 
freely  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
cities  in  which  they  stood,  there  are  still 
considerable  ruins  at  Ephcsus,  Alabanda, 


Teos,  Smyrna,  Ilieropolis,  Cyzicus,  Alin- 
da.  Magnesia,  Laodicea,  Myiassa,  8ardis, 
Miletus,  Stratonicen,  Telmessus.  Jasus, 
and  Patara,  all  in  Asia  Minor;  in  Sicily, 
at  Catana,  Taurominium,  Syracuse,  Ar- 
gyrium,  and  Segesta.  In  Greece,  ruins 
are  still  extant  at  Athens,  Sparta,  in  the 
island  of  Egina,  at  Epidaurus,  and  Jle- 
galopolis.  According  to  I'ausanias,  that 
at  Epidaurus,  built  by  Polycletus,  sur- 
passed all  the  other  theatres  of  Greece  in 
its  beauty  and  proportions  ;  but  in  gran- 
deur and  magnificence  the  Roman  thea- 
tres far  surpassed  those  of  the  Greeks  ; 
nor  is  this  surprising,  considering  the  pop- 
ulation the  former  had  to  accommodate 
compared  with  that  of  the  latter.  For  a 
very  considerable  period  the  theatres  of 
Rome,  like  those  of  the  Etruscans,  were 
of  wood;  and  Pompey,  on  his  return  from 
the  war  against  Mithridates,  was  the  first 
who  constructed  one  of  stone.  This  must 
have  been  of  large  dimensions,  inasmuch 
as  it  would  contain  40,000  spectators. 
The  remains  of  it  as  some  stables  of  a 
palace  are  still  visible.  There  were  two 
other  considerable  theatres  in  Rome  ;  the 
first  built  in  the  year  741  of  the  city,  by 
Cornelius  Balbus  ;  and  the  second  which 
was  begun  by  Julius  Caisar,  but  not 
finished  till  the  time  of  Augustus,  who 
dedicated  it  to  his  friend  Marcellus. 
From  the  remains  it  appears  that  it  was 
a  specimen  of  great  beauty  and  purity, 
as  far  as  relates  to  the  profiles  of  two  of 
its  orders,  there  being  no  vestiges  of  the 
upper  order.  The  only  other  remains  of 
Roman  theatres  are  at  Saguntum  and 
Oranges,  though  the  Romans  usually 
erected  theatres  in  their  newly  conquered 
cities,  or  at  least  embellished  and  im- 
proved those  they  found  on  the  spot.  The 
modern  theatres  of  Rome  are,  perhaps, 
the  worst  in  Europe.  Italy,  however, 
boasts  some  beautiful  examples ;  the 
principal  whereof  are  those  at  Parma, 
now  in  a  very  dilapidated  state,  Milan, 
Verona,  Turin,  Naples,  and  Bologna.  In 
France,  a  very  fine  theatre  at  Bourdeaux ; 
the  theatre  at  Versailles  ;  and  some  ele- 
gant theatres  in  Paris.  We  subjoin  a 
short  table  of  the  width  of  the  stage  in  a 
few  European  and  American  theatres  : 
Milan  ....        40  feet 

San  Benedetto,  Venice  .  40 
Theatrt!  I'ranyais,  Paris  .  40 
Parma  ....        40 

Bourdeuux  ...        39 

Turin  ...  H9 

Covent-(Jarden  .  37 

Argenlino,  at  Rome  .        36 

Tlieatre  Itahen,  Paris  .        33 

Hnadvviiy  Tlieatre,  New  York  45 


59G 


CVCLOrEDlA     OK     I.IIKUATLKE 


[the 


THE  BAID,  the  name  given  to  the 
heroic  poein  of  Statius,  which  celebrates 
the  civil  war  of  Thebes  waged  between 
the  two  brothers  Eteocles  and  Polyniccs. 
It  consists  of  twelve  books. 

THE'BAN  YEAH,  in  chronology,  the 
Egyptian  year  of  3(i5  days  6  hours  was 
60  called. 

THEFT,  in  jurisprudence,  the  general 
name  for  the  most  ordinarj'  class  of  of- 
fences against  property  ;  for  which  Eng- 
lish law  uses  the  peculiar  designation  of 
larceny.  The  difliculty  of  distinguishing 
between  theft,  those  other  species  of 
fraudulent  appropriation  which  are  re- 
garded by  the  laws  of  most  countries  as 
criminal  offences,  and,  finally-,  that  class 
which  is  only  the  subject  of  civil  action, 
has  given  rise  to  a  variety  of  definitions. 

THE  ISM,  the  belief  or  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  existence  of  a  God,  as  op- 
posed to  theism.  It  has  sometimes  been 
defined  to  be  deism;  but  Ikeism  differs 
from  deism,  for  although  deism  implies 
a  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  God,  yet  it 
signifies  in  modern  usage  a  denial  of  rev- 
elation, which  theism  does  not. 

THEOCRACY,  a  term  expressing  the 
government  of  a  state  immediately  by 
God.  The  constitution  of  the  Israelites, 
previous  to  the  appointment  of  kings, 
was  emphatically  a  theocracy  ;  their 
chief  magistrates  or  judges  being  for  the 
most  part  occasional  officers  appointed  by 
the  express  direction  of  God.  The  kingly 
government  may  still  be  considered  in  a 
secondary  sense  as  a  theocracy,  from  the 
general  superintendence  which  Jehovah 
continued  to  exercise  over  it.  All  poli- 
ties may  in  this  sense  be  called  theocratic 
in  which  the  final  appeal  in  matters  of 
moment  is  made  to  the  will  of  (iod,  as 
expressed  in  oracles,  by  auguries,  or  the 
mouth  of  the  jiriesthood. 

TllEOG'ONY,  that  branch  of  the  hea- 
then theology  which  taught  tlie  genealo- 
gy of  their  god.s. 

THEOLO'GIUM,  in  the  ancient  thea- 
tre, a  kind  of  little  stage,  above  that 
whereon  the  ordinary  actors  appeared  ; 
being  the  place  where  the  macliincry  of 
the  gods  was  arranged. 

THEOL'0(JY,  the  study  of  religion,  or 
the  science  which  iii.-ilrucis  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  (Jod  and  divine  things.  Theology 
consists  of  two  branches,  iKiliinil  and  re- 
ve.aled. — Nuttirdl  llieoloiri/  is  the  knowl- 
edge wp  have  of  (!od  from  his  works,  by 
the  light  of  nature  and  reason. —  Ucrealcd 
theoloLnj  is  altogether  I'oundcd  on  divine 
revelation.  —  There  are  several  other 
brunches  into  which  theology  may  be  di- 


vided— as,  I.  Exegetical  iheology,  which 
consists  in  the  explanation  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  Scriptures.  2.  Didactic 
or  speculative  theology,  by  which  the 
several  doctrines  of  religion  are  stated 
and  explained  and  their  truth  establish- 
ed. 3.  Systematic  t:ieology,  which  ar- 
ranges methodically  the  great  truths  of 
religion,  so  as  to  enable  us  to  contem- 
plate them  in  their  natural  connection, 
and  to  perceive  both  the  mutual  depend- 
ence of  the  parts,  and  the  symmetry  of 
the  whole.  4.  I'ractical  theology,  which 
consists  of  an  exhibition,  first,  of  precepts 
and  directions  ;  and,  secondly,  of  the  mo- 
tives by  which  we  should  be  e.xcited  to 
comply  with  these;  and  both  these 
rules  and  these  motives  mavj.be  either 
found  expressly  revealed  in  Scripture, 
or  they  may  be  inferences  from  what  it 
teaches. 

THEOir'AXCl',  a  species  of  prophecy 
in  which  a  god  himself  was  believed  to 
reveal  future  events. 

THEOI'HILAX'THROPISTS,  the  title 
assumed  by  a  deist ical  society  formed  at 
Paris  during  the  French  revolution.  The 
object  of  its  founders  was  to  revive  public 
religious  ceremonies,  which  had  alto- 
gether ceased  duri  ig  the  reign  of  terror, 
without  returning  to  the  rites  and  cmc- 
luonies  of  Christianity.  The  revival  of 
the  Catholic  religion  hastened  the  decline 
of  the  society,  and  in  1802  the  consuls 
prohibited  them  from  holding  their  meet- 
ings in  the  churches. 

THEORBO,  a  musical  instrument 
made  in  form  of  a  large  lute,  except 
that  it  has  two  necks.  It  is  used  by 
the  Italians  for  playing  a  thorough 
bass. 

THEORY,  in  science,  properly  ex- 
presses a  connected  arrangement  of  facts 
according  to  their  bearing  on  some  real 
or  hypothetical  law.  A  hypothesis  has 
been  distinguished  from  a  theory  as  an 
assumplion  wliicli  is  conceived  to  afford  a 
siijijiort  to  the  discovered  law.  Thus, 
some  have  imagined  that  the  facts  of 
gravitation  are  explaincil  on  the  supposi- 
tion of  a  subtle  and  all-pervading  ether. 
Here  it  is  evident  that  the  facts,  and 
therefore  the  tlicory  or  connected  survey 
of  them,  are  unaffected  by  the  supposi- 
tion in  question. — The  abstract  principles 
of  any  science  or  art,  considered  without 
ref(^rcnce  to  jiracticc. 

THEOS'Ol'HIST,  one  who  pretends  to 
derive'his  knowledge  from  divine  illumi- 
nalion, 

THERAPEU'T.E,  a  term  applied  to 
those  who   are    wholly  employed    in  the 


THO] 


\ND     IIIE    FINE    ARTS. 


59  V 


service  of  religion.  This  general  term 
has  been  applied  to  particular  sects  of 
men,  concerning  whom  there  have  been 
greiit  disputes  among  the  learned.  It  is 
generally  supposed  that  St.  Mark  estab- 
lished a  particular  society  of  Christians 
about  Alexandria,  of  whom  Philo  gives 
an  account,  and  calls  them  Therapeutoi. 
He  speaks  of  them  ns  a  particular  sect, 
retired  from  the  world,  who  spent  their 
time  in  reading  the  writings  of  ancient 
authors,  in  singing  hymns  and  songs 
composed  by  some  of  their  own  sect,  and 
in  dancing  together  the  whole  night. 
Some  suppose  they  were  Essen es  ;  others 
imagine  they  were  Jews,  residing  in 
Egypt ;  and  Eusebius  and  others  consider 
them  as  Christians. 

THER'MIDOR,  in  the  French  calen- 
dar, the  name  of  the  11th  month  in  the 
j-ear  in  the  French  Republic.  It  com- 
menced on  the  19th  of  July,  and  ended 
on  the  17th  of  August.  It  was  the  month 
signalized  by  the  overthrow  of  Robes- 
pierre and  the  Reign  of  Terror  ;  thence 
commonly  called  the  Revolution  of  Ther- 
midor,  and  those  who  boasted  of  having 
participated  in  it  called  themselves  Ther- 
midorians. 

THE'SIS,  a  position  or  proposition 
which  a  person  advances  and  offers  to 
maintain,  or  which  is  actually  maintain- 
ed by  argument ;  a  theme. 

THE'SPIAN  ART,  that  of  tragedy  or 
tragic  acting  is  so  termed;  from  Thespis, 
an  Athenian,  who  lived  in  the  first  half 
of  the  6th  century  before  Christ,  and  in- 
troduced the  first  rudiments  of  a  tragic 
stage. 

tllE'URGY,  the  magician's  art  ;  or 
the  power  or  act  of  performing  supernat- 
ural things  by  invoking  the  name  of 
God  or  of  subordinate  agents. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR,  in  history, 
properly  a  series  of  wars  carried  on  be- 
tween the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic leagues  in  Germany,  in  the  first  half 
of  the  17th  century.  The  house  of  Aus- 
tria was,  throughout,  at  the  head  of  the 
latter  party.  The  Protestant  princes  of 
Germany  were  assisted  by  various  foreign 
powers;  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  war  by 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  afterwards  by 
France.  It  is  considered  to  have  com- 
menced with  the  insurrection  of  the  Bo- 
hemians in  1618,  and  ended  with  the 
peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648.  The  cele- 
brated history  of  this  wnr,  by  Schiller, 
is  rather  a  spirited  historical  essay  than 
an  accurate  narrative. 

TllIS'TLE,  or' SAINT  AN'DREW,  a 
Scottish  order  of  knighthood,  said  to  be 


of  great  antiquity,  but  revived  by  Jamea 
V.  in  1540  ;  again  by  James  II.  of  Eng- 
land, VII.  of' Scotland,  in  1687;  and  a 
third  time  in  1703,  by  Queen  Anne,  who 
increased  the  number  of  knights  to  twelve, 
and  placed  the  order  on  a  permanent 
footing.  The  thistle,  as  is  well  known, 
is  the  national  emblem  of  Scotland  ;  and 
the  national  motto  is  very  appropriate, 
being  "  Nemo  lao  impune  lacesset,"  no- 
body shall  provoke  me  wiik  impiinitij. 
This  is  also  the  motto  of  the  order  of  the 
thistle. 

TIIO'LUS,  this  word  has  been  various- 
ly defined  as  the  middle  or  centre  of  an 
arched  or  vaulted  roof — as  the  roof  itself 
of  a  temple  or  church,  or  as  the  lantern 
or  cupola  of  a  large  public  hall.  Pausa- 
nias  applies  the  term  to  several  circular 
edifices  with  a  cupola  at  top,  but  which 
were  not  considered  temples.  At  Athens 
was  a  building  of  this  description,  in 
which  were  found  sundry  little  silver 
images,  and  where  the  Prytanea  offered 
sacrifices.  At  Epidaurus  was  another 
tholus,  in  the  wood  sacred  to  jEsculapius, 
and  behind  the  temple  of  that  deity. 
Pausanias  speaks  of  this  as  a  very  re- 
markable structure.  It  was  built  of  while 
marble.  Polycletes  was  the  architect, 
and  the  interior  was  adorned  with  paint- 
ings. In  Sparta  was  an  edifice  of  a  simi- 
lar kind,  in  which  were  found  statues  of 
Jupiter  and  Venus. 

THO'MISTS,  the  followers  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  with  respect  to  predestination 
and  grace,  in  opposition  te  Scotus. 

TIIOR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  son  of  Odin  and  Freya,  and  the  di- 
vinity who  presided  over  all  mischievous 
spirits  that  inhabited  the  elements.  His 
power  is  represented  as  irresistible.  Many 
of  his  deeds  are  preserved  in  the  Edda  ; 
but  it  is  jirobable  that  the  worship  of  this 
divinity  under  the  name  of  Donan,  or 
god  of  thunder,  spread  also  into  Germany, 
where  traces  of  him  are  still  to  be  found 
in  numerous  local  appellations,  as  Don- 
nersberg,  Thorstein,  &c.  As  the  worship 
of  this  god  extended,  nothing  was  more 
likely  than  that  the  Germans  shouM 
confound  him  with  the  Jupiter  of  tlie 
Romans,  who  were  then  invading  their 
country  ;  and  hence  in  Germany  the  day 
sacred  to  Jupiter  was  denominated  Don- 
nerstag,  while  the  Scandinavian  equiva- 
lent of  the  same  deity  has  been  retain- 
ed by  the  English  in  Thursday  (Thor'a 
day  ) 

TIIOTH,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  con- 
sidered by  the  Greeks  as  identical  with 
Mercury.     His    hieroglyphic    represent* 


598 


rVCI.Ol'F.DIA     OF     I.irF.RATL'UI-: 


[iHr 


tho  beginning  of  the  astronomical  year. 
He  was  reganled  as  the  inventor  of  wri- 
ting and  Egyptian  philosophy;  •''nd  is 
hence  paralleled  .rith  Mercury  by  Cicero. 


He  is  repi'esented  as  a  human  figure  with 
the  head  of  a  litmb  or  iliis. 

THOROUGH-BASS,  in  music,  the  art 
by  which  harmony  is  superadded  to  any 
proposed  ba^s,  and  includes  the  funda- 
mental rules  of  composition.  This  branch 
of  the  musical  science  is  twofold,  theoreti- 
cal and  practical.  Theoreticnl  thorough- 
bass comprehends  the  knowledge  of  the 
connection  and  disposition  of  all  the  sev- 
eral chords,  harmonious  nnd  dissonant, 
and  includes  all  the  established  laws  by 
which  they  are  formed  and  regulated. 
Practical  thorough-bass  supposes  a  fa- 
miliar acquaintance  with  tho  figures,  a 
facility  in  taking  the  chords  they  indi- 
cate, and  judgment  in  the  various  Appli- 
cations and  effects  of  those  chords  in  ac- 
companiment. 

T  II  0  U  a  H  T,  properly,  that  which 
the  mind  thinks.  Thought  is  either  the 
act  or  operation  of  the  mind,  when  at- 
tending to  a  particular  subject  or  thing, 
or  it  is  the  idea  consequent  on  that  ope- 
ration. We  say,  a  mun's  tliumrhts  are 
employed  on  government,  on  religion,  on 
trade,  or  arts,  or  his  tlwuirhts  are  em- 
ployed on  his  dress  or  on  his  means  of 
living.  ]{y  this  we  mean  that  the  mind 
is  directed  to  that  jiarlicular  subject  or 
object  ;  tli:it  is,  according  to  the  literal 
import  of  the  verb  think,  the  mind,  the 
intellectual  part  of  man,  is  set  upon  such 
an  object,  it  holds  it  in  view  or  contem- 
plation, or  it  extends  to  it,  it  stretches 
to  it. 


THOU'SAND  AND  ONE  NIGHTS, 
more  commonly  called  the  Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments,  from  the  title 
adopted  in  our  first  tr;inslation  from  Gal 
land's  version.  A  well-known  collection 
of  oriental  tales,  which  has  acquired  in 
the  west  a  popularity  never  attained  by 
any  other  eastern  composition.  The  his- 
tory of  the  work  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  investigation,  especially  by  De 
Sacy,  Von  Hammer,  and  our  last  learned 
translator  Mr.  Lane,  from  whom  we  bor- 
row most  of  this  article.  It  is  tlie  opinion 
of  Mr.  Lane  that  the  work,  in  its  present 
form,  is  the  composition  of  a  single  au- 
thor living  in  Egypt  ;  and  th  \t  it  was 
most  probably  "not  coinmenci^d  earlier 
than  the  last  quarter  of  the  I5ih  centu 
r3'  of  our  era,  and  completed  before  the 
termination  of  the  first  quarlcr  of  tho 
ne.xt  century,  soon  after  tiie  conquest  of 
Egypt  by  the  Osmnnlee  Turks  in  1.517." 
But  tho  origin  of  the  tales  is  a  much 
more  difficult  subject  of  inquiry.  It  seems 
to  be  now  established  (from  the  discover- 
ies of  De  Sacy  and  Von  Hammer)  that 
there  was  an  ancient  Persian  collection  of 
stories,  known  by  the  name  of  the  He- 
zar  Afsaneh.  (the  "  Thoiis:\nd  Fanciful 
Tales,")  of  unknown  antiquity,  but  cer- 
tainly older  than  the  9th  century  of  oui 
era;  that  tho  framework  of  this  collec- 
tion was  the  same  with  that  of  the  modern, 
namely,  the  story  of  the  cruel  king  Sha- 
kryar  and  his  ingenious  queen  Chehra- 
7,id  ;  and  that  liiis  was  very  early  trans- 
lated into  Arabic  bv  the  name  of  the 
Thousand  Nights.  But  Mr.  Lane  differs 
from  those  learned  orientalists  in  still 
believing  th.at  the  early  work  was  only  a 
model  ;  that  the  greater  ]iroportion  of 
the  modern  tales  are  really  Arabian,  es- 
pecially all  those  founded  on  tho  supposed 
adventures  of  the  Kl!:ilif  Haroun  and 
his  queen  Zobeyde.  a  few  only  being  dis- 
tinctly of  Persian  or  Indian  orijinal. 

THREN'ODY,  a  species  of  short,  occa- 
sional poem,  composed  on  the  occiision  of 
the  funeral  of  some  distinguished  person- 
age. 

TllUtiS,  a  secret  and  wide-spread  asso- 
ciation of  robbers  and  murderers  in  the 
upper  provinces  of  Hindostan.  Tho  ex- 
istence of  this  association  was  scarcely 
known  to  the  British  government  before 
tho  year  ISIO,  and  nocombincd  measures 
were  taken  to  put  it  down  until  about  1R30. 
The  Thugs  arc  considered  to  be  adegene- 
rato  sect  of  Kali  worshippers,  and  are 
peculiarly  superstitious  in  their  observan- 
ces. To  rob  and  murder  is  with  them  a 
sacred  duty,  a^nd  they  iiro  directo<I  ir  all 


tir] 


AND    THE    FINE    AIMS. 


509 


their  proceedings  by  auguries,  supposed 
to  be  vouchsafed  by  their  tutelary  god- 
doss  Behowanee.  Tliey  usualU'  move  in 
gan;^;.-!,  consisting  of  from  ten  to  two 
hundred  or  three  hundred  men,  of  all 
races,  castes,  sects,  and  religions,  yet 
all  joining  in  the  worship  of  Kali,  and 
sacrificing  to  their  tutelary  goddess 
ever^"  victim  they  can  seize,  and  sharing 
the  plunder  among  themselves.  Still 
they  shed  no  blood  unless  when  forced  by 
circumstances,  but  strangle  their  victims 
L/  means  of  a  rope  or  handkerchief. 
Particular  classes,  however,  are  altogeth- 
er exempt  from  their  attacks;  among 
whom  are  dancing  girls,  minstrels,  sikhs, 
fome  religious  mendicants,  tailors,  oil- 
men, blacksmiths,  and  carpenters.  In 
1830  vigorous  measures  were  adopted  for 
their  suppression,  and  between  1S30  and 
1S37  up-.vards  of  3000  were  brought  to 
justice.  In  consequence  of  these  meas- 
ures, the  numbers  of  Thugs  have  rapidly 
diminished,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
they  will  soon  be  totally  extinct.  The 
system  practised  by  the  Thugs  is  termed 
Thu^ee. 

THULE.  a  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  the  most  northern  country  with  which 
they  were  acquainted.  Some  authors 
imagine  it  to  have  been  Iceland;  others 
consider  it  to  have  been  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way;  while  there  are  many  who  have  not 
attached  to  it  the  idea  of  anj'  precise 
country. 

THUM'MIM,  a  Hebrew  word  denoting 
perfections.  The  urim,  and  thumniim, 
were  worn  in  the  breastplate  of  the  high 
priest,  but  what  they  were  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  ascertained. 

THURS'D.\Y,'the  fifth  day  of  the  week, 
so  named  by  the  Saxons  from  Thor,  the 
old  Teutonic  god  of  thunder,  answering 
to  the  Jove  of  the  Glreeks  and  Romans. 

TIA'RA,  an  ancient  crown,  which  does 
not  appear  to  have  always  the  same  shape. 
Among  the  Persians,  however,  it,  was  a 
sort  of  turban,  formed  like  a  half-moon, 
and  from  this  is  derived  the  tiara  of  the 
pope.  Originally  the  popes  wore  a  com- 
mon bishop's  mitre.  The  tiara  and  keys 
are  badges  of  the  papal  dignity. —  Tiara, 
the  well-known  ornament  with  which 
the  ancient  Persians  adorned  their 
heads.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a  tower, 
and  adorned  with  peacocks'  feathers. 
Xenophon  says  that  it,  was  sometimes 
encompass'^d  with  a  diadem,  at  least 
in  ceremonies,  and  had  frequently  the 
figure  of  a  half-moon  embroidered  upon 
it. — This  was  the  name  also  originally 
given  to  the  mitre  of  the  popes.     It  wa.s 


nothing  more  than  a  round  high  cap,  at 
first  single  instead  of  double,  like  that 
of  the  other  bishops.  Nicholas  the  Pirst 
added  the  first  gold  circle,  as  the  sign  of 
the  civil  power.  The  second  was  added 
by  Boniface  about  1300;  the  third  by 
Urban  V.  about  1365. 

TIERS  ETAT,  third  estate.  This 
term  was  universally  applied  in  France 
to  the  mass  of  the  people  under  the  old 
regime.  Before  the  cities  rose  to  wealth 
and  influence,  the  nobility  and  clergy 
possessed  the  property  of  almost  the 
whole  country,  and  the  people  were  sub- 
ject to  the  most  degrading  humiliations  ; 
but  as  trade  and  commerce  began  to  ren- 
der men  independent,  and  they  were  able 
to  shake  off  their  feudal  bonds,  the  tiers 
etat  gradually  rose  into  importance;  and 
at  length  the  third  estate,  during  the 
revolution,  may  be  said  to  have  become 
the  nation  itself. 

TIMBREL,  an  ancient  musical  instru- 
ment ;  a  kind  of  tabor  or  tambourine,  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  Scripture. 

TI!ME.  in  music,  that  affection  of  sound 
whereby  s.hortness  or  length  is  denomi- 
nated as  regards  its  continuity  on  the 
same  degree  of  tune.  Time  may  be  con- 
sidered either  with  respect  to  the  abso- 
lute duration  of  the  notes  themselves, 
measured  by  motion  foreign  to  music,  or 
with  respect  to  the  proportion  or  quan- 
tity of  notes  compared  with  each  other. 
The  signs  or  characters  by  which  the 
time  of  notes  is  rei^resented  are  given 
under  the  article  Music. 

TIMOC'RACY,  that  form  of  govern- 
ment whose  laws  require  a  certain  prop- 
erty to  enable  a  citizen  to  be  capable  of 
the  highest  oftiees. 

TIRAILLEURS',  in  the  military  art,  a 
name  given  to  a  species  of  infantry,  sel- 
dom intended  to  fight  in  close  order,  but 
generally  dispersed,  two  and  two  always 
support ing  each  other,  and  in  general  to 
skirmish  in  front  of  the  line.  They  inusi; 
be  particularly  expert  in  their  nnne- 
ments,  to  collect  quickly  into  masses  at 
the  sound  of  the  bugle,  and  disperse  again 
with  equal  expedition  ;  and  to  act  con- 
stantly with  the  whole  army  They 
were  introduced  by  the  French  during 
the  wars  of  their  revolution,  and  were 
soon  found  so  useful  as  to  be  indispen- 
sable 

TIRO'XIAX  NOTES,  the  short-hand 
of  Roman  antiquity.  According  to  the 
received  story,  they  were  introduced  into 
Rome  by  Tiro,  the  freedman  and  favorite 
of  Cicero  :  he  is  supposed  to  have  import- 
ed the  art  from  Greece.     MSS.,  written 


600 


CYCl.OI'KDIA     OF    LITEIlATrKE 


!  lOL 


entirely  in  what  arc  called  I  ho  Tironinn 
notes,  are  not  unfrcquently  "f  the  date 
of  the  7th  century  and  downwards; 
and  they  are  still  common  in  marginal 
notes. 

TIS'RT,  the  first  Hebrew  month  of 
the  civil  year,  and  the  seventh  of  the 
ecclesiastical  ;  answering  to  a  part  of 
our  September  and  a  part  of  October. 

TI'TAN,  in  Grecian  mythology,  ac- 
cording to  the  more  modern  account,  the 
eldest  son  of  Uranus  and  Gaia,  who  re- 
linquished the  sovereignty  of  gods  and 
men  to  hi.s  younger  brother  Saturn,  the 
latter  undertaking  to  destroy  all  his 
children,  so  that  the  monarchy  might  re- 
vert to  those  of  Titan,  lie  afterwards 
recovered  the  sovereignty  from  .Saturn  ; 
but  Jupiter,  the  son  of  the  latter,  van- 
quished him,  and  restored  it  to  his  father. 
This,  however,  is  a  tale  altogether  un- 
known to  the  original  mythologists.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  the  Titans  were  many  in 
number,  children  of  I'ranus,  and  Gaia. 
Ilesiod  makes  them  si.\.  The  children 
of  the  Titans,  Atlas  for  example,  retain- 
ed the  same  appellation.  The  war  of 
these  Titans  with  Ju))iter  was  the  subject 
of  many  ditfercnt  and  contradictory  le- 
gends. Its  scene  was  laid  in  Thessaly  ; 
by  Homer,  on  the  mountains  Olympus, 
Pelion.  and  Ossa.  By  some  writers 
Titan  is  identified  with  Hyperion  ;  but 
this  point  is  involved  in  great  ob- 
scurity. 

TITHES,  in  Engli.sh  ecclesiastical  law, 
the  tenth  part  of  the  increase  annually 
arising  from  the  profits  of  land  and  stock, 
allotted  to  the  clergy  for  their  support. 
The  groat  tithes  are  chiefly  corn,  hay, 
and  wooil  ;  other  thing.s  of  less  value  are 
comprehen<lcil  under  the  name  of  small 
tithes.  Tithes  are  personal,  predial,  or 
mixed ;  personal,  when  accruing  from 
labor,  art,  or  trade  ;  predial,  when  aris- 
ing from  the  earth,  as  hay,  wood,  and 
fruit;  and  mixed,  when  accruing  from 
beasts,  which  are  fed  off  the  land. — The 
custom  of  paying  tithes,  or  of  offering  a 
tenth  of  what  a  man  enjoys,  has  not  only 
been  practised  under  the  Jewish  law,  and 
by  Christians,  but  we  also  fintl  something 
like  it  among  the  heathens.  The  Baby- 
lonians and  Egyptians  gave  their  kings  a 
tenth  of  their  revenues.  The  Romans 
offered  a  tenth  of  all  they  took  from  their 
enemies  to  the  gods;  and  the  (!auls,  in 
like  manner,  gave  a  tenth  to  their  god 
Mars. 

TI'THING.  a  community  of  ten  men, 
into  which  all  England  was  divided  in  the 
tiino  of  tiie  S.ixons. 


T.ME'SIS,  in  grammar,  a  figure  by 
which  a  compound  word  is  separated  into 
two  parts,  and  one  or  more  words  inserted 
between  them  ;  as,  of  whom  he  thou  icare 
also  ;  2  Tim.  iv.  15,  for,  of  whom  bcicare 
thou  also. 

TOCSIN,  an  old  French  word  of 
which  the  derivation  seems  not  to  be  as- 
certained. Gregory  of  Tours  uses  the 
word  "  seing"  for  the  sound  of  a  bell — 
signifying  an  alarum  bell.  The  use  of 
the  terrible  tocsin,  during  the  troubles 
of  the  Revolution,  to  assemble  the  multi- 
tude, has  rendered  the  word  almost  pro- 
verbial. 

TO'GA,  the  name  given  to  the  princi- 
pal outer  garment  worn  by  the  Romans. 


It  was  a  loose  flowing  garment  made  of 
wool  and  sometimes  of  silk,  the  usual 
color  being  white.  It  covered  fhe  whole 
body  with  the  exception  of  the  left  arm, 
and  the  right  of  wearing  it  was  the  ex- 
clusive privilege  of  every  Roman  citizen. 
The  ios^a  ririlis,  or  manly  gown,  was  as- 
sumed by  Roman  youths  when  they  at- 
tained the  age  of  fnurtciMi.  The  toga 
prcctexta  was  worn  by  the  children  uf 
the  nobles,  by  girls  until  they  were  mar- 
ried, and  by  boys  until  they  were  four- 
teen, when  thcv  assumed  the  toaa  ririlis. 
It  was  alsii  the  oflicial  rubi-  of  tiie  higher 
magistrates  of  the  city.  The  toga  /licta, 
or  oi'naiuontcd  tng;i,  was  worn  liy  gene- 
rals in  their  triuuiph. 

TOLEIJA'TION,  in  a  general  sense, 
the  a-ll(iwanco  of  that  which  is  not  wholly 
approved  ;  but  m(n-e  is})ecially,  the  al- 
lowance of  religious  opinions  and  modes 
of  worship  in  a  state,  when  contrary  to 
or  dift'ereiit  from  those  of  the  established 
church  or  belief. 


TOl'] 


ANU     I'llli     FINE     AIITS. 


601 


TOLMEX,  a  species  of  druidical  raon- 
uraant,  composed  of  a  large  stone  placed 
horiz.otit:illy  up:)n  other  stones,  fixed  ver- 
tically in  the  earth,  about  three  or  four 
feet  high,  and  not  fewer  in  number  than 
three,  uor  more  than  fifteen.  In  form  it 
vs  generally  a  parallelogram.  The  tol- 
aea  is  also  at  times  composed  only  of  a 


large  stone,  one  end  resting  on  the 
groun^l,  and  the  other  end  supported  by 
a  stone  placed  under  it.  The  large  stone 
or  table  has  generally  a  hole  pierced 
through.  Some  have  supposed  the  tol- 
men  to  be  a  kind  of  druidal  oracle,  the 
hole  through  the  stone  being  an  acoustic 
contrivance,  by  means  of  which  the 
priests  could  return  oracular  answers. 
Others  suppose  the  tolmens  to  have  been 
alt.ars  on  which  victims  were  sacrificed  ; 
the  hole  being  used  as  a  means  of  dis- 
persing the  blood  of  the  victim  on  those 
who  wished  such  bloody  baptism.  A 
third  opinion  is,  that  they  indicate,  or 
rather  constitute  places  of  sepulture. 
They  are  also  called  cromlechs. 

TOMB,  is  used  to  express  both  the 
grave  or  sepulchre  in  which  the  body  of  a 
deceased  person  is  interred,  and  a  mon- 
ument erected  in  his  memory.  In  many 
"ountries  it  was  customary  to  burn  the 
bodies  of  the  dead,  and  to  collect  the 
ashes  into  an  urn  which  was  deposited  in 
a  tomb.  The  tombs  of  the  Jews  were 
generally  hollow  places  hewn  out  of  a 
rock.  The  Greeks  constructed  their 
tombs  outside  the  walls  of  their  cities, 
with  the  exception  of  those  raised  to  dis- 
tinguished personages.  The  same  dis- 
tin3tioa  was  observed  by  the  Romans ; 
their  sepulchres  were  in  the  country  near 
the  high  roads. 

TONE,  the  degree  of  elevation  which 
any  sound  has,  so  as  to  determine  its 
acuteness  or  gravity. — Musical  tones 
ditfe'r  from  those  of  common  speech 
chiefly  by  being  more  prolonged,  so  as  to 
give  the  ear  a  more  decided  perception 
of  their  height,  formation,  and  relation 
to  each  other.     There  are   two  kinds  of 


tones,  major  and  minor.  The  tone  major 
is  in  the  ratio  of  8  to  9,  which  results 
from  the  difference  between  the  fourth 
and  fifth.  The  tone  minor  is  as  9  to  10, 
resulting  from  the  difference  between  the 
minor  tliinl  and  the  fourth. —  Tone,  iii 
painting,  Ac,  a  term  used  chicHy  in 
coloring  to  express  the  prevailing  hue. 
Thus  we  say,  this  picture  is  of  a  dull 
tone,  of  a  lively  tone,  of  a  soft  lone,  of  a 
clear  tone,  etc  ,  and  thus  it  may  be  also 
observed — it  is  requisite  to  heighten  t.'ie 
tone  of  this  work,  or  otherwise,  to  render 
the  colors  more  vivid  and,  in  some  in- 
stances, the  masses  more  decided  and  tlie 
figures  more  striking.  The  word  tone, 
in  relation  to  chiaro-scuro,  expresses  the 
degree  of  brightness  or  intensity.  Tone 
is  not  precisely  s}'nonymous  with  tint; 
the  latter  relating  rather  to  the  mixture 
of  colors,  and  the  former  to  their  effect. — ■ 
Tones,  ecclesiastical,  in  music,  tlie  eight 
modes  now  generally  called  the  Gregorian 
Chant,  in  which  the  service  of  the  Cath- 
olic church  is  performed  ;  four  whereof 
are  authentic,  and  (our  of  them  plagal. 
Pope  Gregory  has  been  considered  the 
inventor  of  them.  They  are  the  founda- 
tion of  all  music,  and  will  ever  be  con- 
sidered stupendous  monuments  of  com- 
position. 

TON'IC,  in  music,  the  principal  note 
of  the  key.  It  is  the  chief  sound  upon 
which  all  regular  melodies  depend,  and 
in  wliicli  they  all  terminate.  Its  octaves, 
both  above  and  below,  are  equally  called 
by  the  same  name.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
understood  that  the  termination  here 
alluded  to  has  relation  only  to  the  chief 
melody,  or  to  its  bass,  inasmuch  as  the 
inner  or  mean  parts  of  the  harmony  con- 
clude on  the  third  or  moliant,  and  the 
fifth  or  dominant. 

TON'TINE,  a  sort  of  increasing  life 
annuity,  or  a  loan  given  by  a  number 
of  persons  with  the  benefit  of  su-rvivor- 
ship.  Thus  an  annuity  is  shared  among 
a  number,  on  the  principle  that  the  shaie 
of  each,  at  his  death,  is  enjoyed  by  the 
survivors,  until  at  last  the  whole  goes  to 
the  last  survivor,  or  to  the  last  two  or 
three,  according  to  the  terms  on  which 
the  money  is  advanced. 

TO'PAZ,  a  gem  or  precious  stone,  very 
generally  of  a  fine  yellow  or  gold  color. 
It  sometimes  occurs  in  masses,  but  more 
generally  crystallized  in  rectangular 
octahedrons.  The  oriental  topaz  is  most 
esteeraeil  :  its  color  borders  on  the 
orange.  The  occidental,  or  that  found  in 
Peru,  is  of  a  softer  substance,  but  its 
color  is  nearly  the  same.     There  is  also 


60-2 


C'YCI.OrF.niA     OF     I.lTKUAiLUK 


[tor 


the  oriental  aqua-marine,  or  blue  topaz, 
besides  severiil  other  kinds,  of  inferior 
worth  and  beauty- 

TOOTH  OU'XAMEXT,  in  architect- 
ure, one  of  the  peculiar  marks  of  the 
earlj-  English  style.  It  consists  of  a 
pyramid,  having  its  sides  partially  cut 
out,  so  as  to  have  the  resemblance  of  an 
inverted  flower.  It  is  generally  inserted 
in  a  hollow  moulding. 


Toolh  nrnamen!. 

TO  PHET,  a  polluted  unclean  place 
near  Jerusalem,  into  which  the  Jews 
used  to  throw  the  carcasses  of  beasts,  or 
the  bodies  of  men  to  whom  they  refused 
burial  ;  and  where  a  fire  was  perpetually 
kept  up  to  consume  all  that  was  brought. 
Hence  Tophet  is  sometimes  used  met- 
aphorically for  hell.  This  place  had  also 
been  defiled  by  human  sacrifices  which 
had  been  offered  to  Moloch.  Hence  Mil- 
ton says  of  this  hideous  deity,  that  he 

Made  his  grove 
The  pleasant  valley  of  Hinnom  :  Tophet  tlience 
And  l)l;u:k  Gehenna  called,  the  type  ot  Hell. 

The  name  is  derived  by  some  from  Ileb. 
toph,  a  drum,  on  account  of  the  beating 
of  drums  and  other  instruments  by  which 
the  cries  of  the  children  sacrificed  to 
Moloch  were  stifled. 

TOPICS,  in  rhetoric.  By  abstracting 
from  a  proposition  which  conveys  a  truth 
in  the  concrete  (i.  e.,  respecting  certain 
circumstances  expressed  in  the  terms  of 
the  proposition)  a  portion  nf  those  cir- 
cumstances denominated  accidental,  we 
arrive  at  the  same  truth  in  the  abstract, 
or  (in  stricter  language)  more  widely 
applicable,  and  accommodated  to  many 
different  sets  of  accidental  circumstances. 
Thus,  fur  example,  in  jurispruilencc, 
from  an  investigation  of  the  truth  in 
various  insulated  cases  in  which  a  too 
strict  application  of  legal  principles  has 
been  attended  with  evil  effects,  we  deduce 
the  general  truth  that  such  api)licati(>n 
is  so  attended;  or,  in  the  ])rovcrbinl 
phrase,  "sunimum  jus  siunina  iojuria." 
Among  the  helps  >  mployed  by  the  an- 
cients in  their  favorite  study  of  rhetoric 
was  the  collection  and  arrangement  of  a 


great  variety  of  such  general  truths,  ac- 
cording to  the  several  sciences  or  subjects 
to  which  they  belonged.  These  they 
termed  topoi,  or  plaees  ;  from  which  the 
modern  term  topic  is  derived.  They 
considered  it  useful  for  the  student  in 
rhetoric  to  have  at  hand,  by  means  of  his 
memory,  those  compendious  expressions 
of  universal  sentiuient,  and  the  general 
reasonings  or  declamations  applicable  to 
each  of  them,  in  order  to  employ  them 
for  particular  use  by  performing  the 
converse  of  that  operation  by  which  they 
were  arrived  at  ;  viz.  clothing  them  with 
the  particular  circumstances  of  the  case. 
Thus  the  topos  just  cited  might  be  useful 
to  the  forensic  orator ;  it  atTords  a  sub- 
ject for  reis^ming  and  declamation 
applicable  to  a  great  number  of  in- 
dividual instances.  Many  of  these  topics 
answer  to  what  in  modern  phrase  we 
should  term  axioms ;  and,  indeed,  some 
of  the  axioms  of  pure  mathematics  are 
enumerated  by  Aristotle  among  the 
topics  which  are  proper  to  every  species 
of  oratorv. 

TOPOGRAPHY,  the  accurate  descrip- 
tion or  draught  of  some  particular  place 
or  tract  of  land,  as  of  any  particular 
county,  city,  town,  castle,  Ac.  Topogra- 
phy goes  into  minute  details  which 
geography  does  not  enter  upon. 

TORQUE,  in  antiquity,  a  chain  or  col- 
lar formed  of  a  number  of  small  ringlets 
interlaced  with  each  other,  framed  of 
metal,  an. I  worn  around  the  neck.  No 
ornament  perliiips  was  of  more  early  or 
general  use.  It  is  mentioned  in  Genesis, 
as  one  of  the  ornaments  conferred  by 
Pharaoh  on  Joseph.  It  was  in  use  among 
the  (Jreeks  and  Romans,  but  iicculiar- 
ly  among  the  Celtic  nations.  The  le- 
gemls  rcsp."cting  the  torques  of  the  (lauls 
who  invaded  Rome  are  well  known.  It 
was  from  his  victory  over  a  Gaol  that  T. 
Miuitius  Torquatus  deriv  d  his  surname. 
And  no  relic  is  more  couiinnnly  found  in 
this  country  by  antiquarian  explorers. 
IJoadicea  wore  a  long  golden  torque. 

TORSO,  the  trunk  of  astatue,  mutila- 
ted of  head  and  limbs. 

TO  RIS,  in  architecture,  a  largo  round 
moulding  in  the  bases  of  columns,  resem- 
bling the  astragal  in  form,  but  larger. 

TORY,  in  British  history,  a  political 
party  opposed  to  the  Wliii's,  and  adhe- 
ring to  the  ancient  constituli(Mi  of  Eng- 
land. The  word  Tonj  is  Irish,  and  was 
formc^rly  apjilicd  to  a  class  of  depredators 
in  that  country  ;  but  the  distinctions  of 
Tunj  and  Whig  (as  political  partisans) 
were  not   known  before  the  year  1678.  in 


AND    TIIK     FINK    ARTS. 


G03 


the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  when  those  who  i 
believed  th.at  the  Catholics  conspired 
against  the  king  and  state,  as  deposed 
by  Titus  Dates,  were  called  Whigs,  and 
those  who  disbelieved  it,  Tories.  Of  late 
j'ears  the  term  ConseriHttices  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Tories,  as  tending  tocon- 
vej'  llie  best  explanation  of  their  princi- 
]  les.  During  the  American  Revolution, 
those  who  favored  the  British  were  called 
I'ories. 

TOL'R'NAMENT,  a  well-known  mili- 
tary sport  of  the  middle  ages,  which  with- 
out doubt  arose  from  the  e.vercises  of 
military  training.  A  joust  or  just  is, 
properly  speaking,  the  encounter  of  two 
knights  in  this. species  of  e.xercise;  the 
tournament,  an  assembly  held  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  such  justs,  or  the 
encounter  of  several  knights  on  a  side. 
The  earlier  tournaments  were  highly 
dangerous  and  sanguinary  sports.  They 
were  performed  with  the  ordinary  weap- 
ons of  warfare,  the  lance  and  the  sword  ; 
and  the  combatants  had  only  the  strength 
of  their  armor  to  rely  on  for  tlieir  defence. 
It  was  a  recognized  custom,  that  whoever 
slew  or  disabled  an  adversary  in  the 
tournament  was  indemniliel  against  all 
consequences.  The  account  of  the  tour- 
nament given  by  the  Count  of  Chablais, 
in  Savoy,  to  Edward  I.  on  his  return  from 
Palestine  to  England,  as  given  by  Thomas 
de  Walsingham,  represents  a  sort  of 
violent  inSlee,  in  which  knights,  esquires, 
and  archers  were  engaged  on  b')th  sides, 
endeavoring  to  unhorse  tlieir  riders  and 
overthrow  the  footmen  by  every  possible 
means.  But  in  the  course  of  time  this 
ehivalric  amusement  b.'Ciime  the  subject 
of  minute  regulations,  which  in  some  de- 
gree diminished  the  danger  and  insured 
the  fairness  of  the  sport.  In  tournaments, 
when  under  the  strict  regulation  of 
knightly  usage,  two  sorts  of  arms  were 
eraploj-ed:  those  expressly  made  for  the 
purpose,  viz.,  lances  with  blunt  heads  of 
iron  ;  and  the  ordinary  arms  of  warfare, 
termed,  "  armes  aoutrance,"  which  were 
only  employed  by  such  champions  as  were 
desirous  to  signalize  themselves  in  a 
more  than  ordinary  degree,  and  frequent- 
ly were  not  permitted  by  the  judges  of 
the  tournament.  Every  knight  attending 
was  required  to  show  his  noble  birth  and 
rank,  as  a  title  to  admission.  These  were 
at  first  proclaimed  by  the  heralds  with 
sound  of  trumpet;  and  hence  the  word 
blazonry,  which  signifies  the  correct  de- 
ciphering of  the  heraldic  symbols  on  a 
eoat-of-arms,  is  derived  by  some  from  the 
German   blasen,    to    blow-     Afterwards, 


when  armorial  bearings  became  general, 
the  shield  of  the  knight  gave  token  of  his 
rank  and  family.  The  attendance  of  la- 
dies at  the  tournaments,  their  distribu- 
tion of  prizes  to  those  who  had  borne 
themselves  best,  arming  and  unarming 
the  knights,  ifec,  are  various  roinantiu 
circumstances  well  known  to  the  reader 
of  ehivalric  legends  ;  but  they  must  not 
be  supposed  to  have  been  the  necessary, 
or  even  usual  accompaniments  of  these 
knightly  sports,  at  least  until  a  later  age, 
when  the  taste  for  gallantry,  combining 
with  that  for  show  and  spectacle,  turned 
these  military  exhibitions  of  skill  into  lit- 
tle more  than  gorgeous  pageants.  The  re- 
vival of  the  tournament  was  recently  at- 
tempted in  the  west  of  Scotland  by  the 
Earl  of  Eglinton  ;  but  we  scarcely  suppose 
that  the  success  of  that  attempt  was  either 
commensurate  with  its  deserts,  or  wa^ 
such  as  to  induce  any  party  to  renew  it. 
At  the  court  of  Wurtemberg  tournaments 
are  not  unfrequently  exhibited  at  this 
day. 

TOWER,  in  architecture,  a  building 
raised  to  a  considerable  elevation,  and 
consisting  of  several  stories.  Towers  are 
either  round  or  square,  and  flat  on  the 
top,  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from 
spires  or  steeples.  Before  the  invention 
of  guns,  places  were  not  only  fortified 
with  towers,  but  attacked  with  mova- 
ble towers  mounted  on  wheels,  which 
placed  the  besiegers  on  a  level  with  the 
walls. 

TOWNSHIP,  the  corporation  of  a 
town  ;  the  district  or  territory  of  a  town. 
— In  New  England,  the  counties  are  di- 
vided into  townships  of  five,  six,  seven,  or 
perhaps  ten  miles  square,  and  the  inhab- 
itants of  such  townships  are  invested 
with  certain  powers  for  regulating  their 
own  affairs,  such  as  repairing  roads,  pro- 
viding for  the  poor,  &c. 

TRA'BEA,  in  Roman  antiquities,  the 
robe  used  at  first  by  the  kings,  but  after- 
wards by  consuls  and  augurs.  The  purple 
traben  was  used  only  on  the  occasion  of 
greut  sacrifices.  The  second  sort,  of  purple 
and  white,  was  commonly  worn  by  consuls 
on  state  occasions.  A  third,  of  purple 
and  scarlet,  was  the  dress  of  the  au- 
gurs. 

TRACT,  or  TREA'TISE,  in  literature, 
both  originally  from  the  same  Latin 
word  tractatus  ;  the  latter  through  the 
French.  It  would  be  difficult  to  assign 
any  reason  for  the  difference  in  significa- 
tion between  two  words  identical  in  ori- 
gin and  etymological  meaning  ;  but  the 
first   is   now  commonly  used   to  deseribo 


004 


rrcLOl'KDIA     ()!•■    l.irEllATfllE 


[ruA 


short  compositions,  in  which  some  partic- 
ular subject  is  "  treate;!,"  generally  in 
the  form  of  a  pamphlet  ;  the  latter,  more 
extensive  works. 

TRADE,  the  business  of  buying  and 
selling  for  money,  couiprchemling  every 
species  of  exchange  or  dealing  It  is, 
however,  chiefly  used  to  denote  the  bar- 
ter or  purchase  and  sale  of  goods,  wares, 
and  merchandise,  either  by  wholesale  or 
retail. — Foreif^n  trade  consists  in  the  ex- 
portation and  importation  of  goods,  or 
the  exchange  of  the  commodities  of  the 
ditl'erent  countries.  Inland  or  home  trade 
is  the  exchange  or  buying  and  selling  of 
goods  within  a  country. — The  wonl  trade 
has  also  a  more  limited  significiilion, 
designating  the  business  which  a  person 
lias  learned,  and  which  ho  either  carries 
on  or  is  employed  in  ;  as,  the  trade  of  a 
carpenter,  a  smith,  itc.  Tlie  liberal  arts, 
learned  professions,  and  agriculture  are 
not  included. 

TRADITION,  a  truth  of  doctrine  or 
fact,  delivered  or  handed  down  to  one 
from  another,  and  received  on  the  faith 
that  the  first  to  whom  it  was  so  delivered 
received  it  from  an  authentic  source.  In 
common  language,  the  word  is  used  to 
signify  records  of  facts  preserved  in  the 
memory  of  successive  persons  or  genera- 
tions only,  and  not  committed  to  writing. 
[n  theology,  tradition  means,  generally, 
that  body  of  doctrine  and  discipline  sup- 
posed to  have  been  put  forth  by  our  Sa- 
viour or  his  inspired  apostles,  and  not 
committed  to  writing  ;  and  thus  the  word 
is  used  in  a  contrary  sense  from  '•Scrip- 
turd."  And  such  traditions  are  of  two 
sorts;  tradition  of  doctrine  (such  as  that 
of  the  Trinity,)  which  is  commonly  said  to 
be  directly  atlirme  1  by  triidilicin  and  prov- 
ed by  Scripture  ;  and  tr.idition  of  rites  and 
ceremonies,  called  by  Hooker  '•traditions 
occlesia.-5tic,il,"  or  "ordin-mcos  ui  ide  in 
the  prime  of  Chri.<tian  religion,  establisli- 
ed  with  that  authority  which  Clirist  has 
loft  to  his  church  in  matters  indifferent, 
and,  on  that  consi Jeration,  requisite  to 
be  observed  till  like  authority  give  just 
cause  to  alter  them." 

TR.\'(il']l)Y,  a  species  of  <lrania,  in 
which  the  diction  is  elevated  and  the  ca- 
tastropl)o  melancholy.  The  name  is 
usually  derived  from  the  ancient  (Jreek 
custom  of  leading  about  a  goat  in  proces- 
sion lit  the  festivals  of  I5acchus,  in  whose 
honor  Ihosc  choral  odes  were  sung  which 
were  the  groundwork  of  the  Attij  tragedy'. 
A  (Jreek  tragedy  always  consisted  of  two 
distinct  parts  ;  the  dialogue,  which  cor- 
responded in  its  general   features  to  the 


dramatical  compositions  of  modern  times; 
and  the  chorus,  the  whole  tone  of  which 
was  lyrical  rather  than  dramatic:il,  and 
which  was  meant  to  be  sung  while  the 
dialogue  was  intended  to  be  recited.  The 
unity  of  time  : — namely,  that  the  dura- 
tion of  the  action  should  not  exceed 
twenty-four  hours  :  and  that  of  place, - 
namely,  that  the  scene  in  which  the 
events  occur  should  be  the  same  through- 
out, are  modern  inventions.  Eschylus 
is  called  the  father  oi  trusedy. 

TRAGI-COM'EDY,  in^  literature,  a 
compound  name,  invented  to  express  a 
class  of  the  drama  which  should  partake 
both  of  tragedy  and  comedy.  It  the  mix- 
ture of  serious  with  humojous  portions  in 
the  piece  alone  entitles  it  to  this  name, 
then  all  the  plays  of  Shakspeare  (with 
the  single  exception  of  the  Merry  (i7r«.« 
of  Windsor,  to  which  some  add  the 
Twelfth  Nis;ht.)  as  being  pure  comedies, 
belong  to  thisclass;  as  do,  indeed,  almost 
all  the  works  of  the  old  English  drama- 
tists. But  Troilus  a7id  Cressida  alone, 
of  the  plays  of  Shakspeare,  bears  this 
title  in  old  editions  :  on  what  account  we 
do  not  know.  French  critics  define  the 
distinction  to  be,  that  the  erent  of  the 
tragi-comedy  is  not  unhappy  or  bloody. 
Dacier  condemns  them  as  illegitimate. 
Guariui,  the  Italian  poet,  wrote  an  essay 
on  the  subject. 

TRAMOX  TANE,  lying  beyond,  or  on 
the  farther  side  of  the  mountains;  ap- 
plied, particularly  by  the  Italians,  to 
such  as  live  north  of  the  Alps. 

TR.\NCE,  a  state  in  which  the  volun- 
tary functions  of  the  body  arc  suspended, 
and  the  soul  s(?ems  to  be  rapt  in  visions. 
TRAXSACTIOX,  the   doing  or  per- 
forming of   any   b\isiness;   management 
of  any  affair. — That  which  is  done  ;    an 
I  affair.     We  are  not  to  exjiect  in  history 
!  a  minute  detail  of  every  transaction  — 
I  In  the  civil  law,  an  adjustment  of  a  dis- 
I  pute  between   parties  by  nuitnal  agree- 
j  nient — l^iiilasopliical    transactions,    the 
i  publishetl  volumes  containing  the  several 
[  i)apers    relating    to    the   sciences,   which 
have  been  read  at  the  meetings  of  certain 
!  ])hiloso])hical  societies,  as   the   Uoyal  So- 
j  ciety  of  London,  and  the  Royal  Society  of 
I  Edinburgh,  and  which  have  been  thought 
j  worthy  of  being   made  public  at  the  ex- 
I  jiense  of  such  societies      These  transac- 
tions contain  the  several  discoveries  and 
histories  relative  to  the  sciences,  such  aa 
natural   history,  mathematics,  mechani- 
cal   philosoph}',    chemistry,    Ac,    either 
made    by    the    members    themselves,    or 
communicated  by  them  from  their  corr»- 


tra] 


AND    IIIK    FINK     Al.TS. 


605 


spondents,  with  the  various  experiments, 
observations,  <te.,  made  by  them  or  trans- 
mitted to  them. 

TKAXSAL'l'IXE,  lying  to  the  north 
or  west  of  the  Alps;  as.  Transalpine 
Gaul :  opposed  to  Cisalpine. 

TKAX.SATLAN'TIC,  lying  or  being 
beyond  the  Atlantic.  AVhen  used  by  a 
person  in  Europe  or  Afviai,  transatlantic 
signities  beinn;  in  America  ;  and  vice  versa. 

TRANSCENDEN'TAL,  a  word  used 
by  German  philosophers  to  express  that 
which  transcends  or  goes  beyond  the 
limits  of  actual  experience.  This  general 
meaning  is  somewhat  restricted  by  Kant, 
who  draws  a  distinction  between  the  tran- 
scendental and  the  transcendent.  The 
transcendental  he  defines  to  be  that  which, 
though  it  could  never  be  derived  from 
experience,  yet  is  necessarily  connected 
with  experience,  an  1  ■which  may  be  short- 
ly expressed  as  the  intelleetual/brm,  the 
matter  of  which  is  supplied  by  sense.  •'  I 
call,"  says  he,  "  all  knowledge  transcen- 
dental, which  has  regard  in  general  not 
so  much  to  objects  as  to  our  mode  of 
knowing  or  apprehending  objects  (that  is 
to  say,  to  formal  knowledge.)  so  far  as 
this  is  conceived  to  be  possible  a  priori. 
A  system  of  such  conceptions  would  be 
named  transcendental  philosophy,  as  the 
sj'stem  of  all'the  principles  of  pure  rea- 
son." The  transcendent,  on  the  contrary, 
is  that  which  regards  those  principles  as 
objectively  real  to  which  Kant  assigns 
only  a  subjective  or  formal  reality,  and 
consequently  is  by  him  regarded  as  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  human  reason  al- 
together. 

TRAN'SCRIPT,  a  copy  of  any  original 
writing,  particularly  that  of  an  act  or  in- 
strument inserted  in  the  body  of  another. 
The  title  to  land  must  be  transferred  by 
deed. 

TRAN'SEPT,  in  architecture,  the  aisle 
of  ancient  churches,  extending  across  the 
nave  and  main  aisles. 

TRANSFER,  in  commerce,  an  act 
whereby  a  person  surrenders  his  right, 
interest,  or  property  in  anything  to  an- 
other. 

TRANSFIGURA'TIOX,  the  super- 
natural change  which  is  described  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  appearance  of  Christ, 
when,  as  is  recorded,  he  took  Peter, 
James,  and  John  up  into  a  high  moun- 
tain with  him,  and  was  transfigured  be- 
fore them,  his  face  shining  as  the  sun, 
and  his  raiment  showing  white  as  light. 
There  appeared  in  conversation  with  him 
jMoscs  and  Elias;  and  the  apostles  erect- 
ed  three    ta))crnacles  or  tent«  to  them. 


An  ancient  tradition  assigns  Mount  Ta- 
bor as  the  scene  of  this  event,  upon  which 
three  contiguous  grottoes  hare  been 
fashioned  to  represent  the  three  taberna- 
cles. 

TRANSITION,  in  rhetoric,  is  of  two 
kinds.  The  first  is  when  a  speech  is  in- 
troduced abruptly  ;  as  when  Milton  gives 
an  account  of  our  first  ancestors'  evening 
devotions  : 

Both  turti'd,  and  under  open  sky  Jidored 
The  (Jod  lliat  made  both  air,  sky,  earth  and 
heaven  — 

'i  hou  also  madest  the  night, 

Maker  ouniii)otfnt,  and  Thou  iho  day. 

The  second  is  when  a  writer  suddenly 
leaves  the  subject  he  is  upon,  and  passes 
to  another,  from  which  it  seems  ditierent 
at  first  view,  but  serves  to  illustrate  it. — 
In  music,  a  change  of  key  from  major  to 
minor,  or  the  contrary. 

TRANSLA'TION,  in  literature,  the 
rendering  of  a  literary  work  from  the 
original  language  into  another.  The  pe- 
culiar merits  and  peculiar  difficulties  of 
successful  translation  have  often  been 
pointed  out  by  critics,  but  their  judicious 
directions  have  been  seldom  realized  by 
authors.  In  truth,  those  difficulties  re- 
quire a  talent  of  so  high  an  order  to  sur- 
mount them,  that  few  writers  are  fit  to 
undertake  the  office  of  translators  (we 
mean  of  works  of  any  high  literary  mer- 
it,) except  those  whose  genius  has  more 
congenial  occupation  in  original  composi- 
tion ;  for  notwithstanding  Dryden's  sar- 
castic remark,  that  "  imitation  of  an  au- 
thor is  the  most  advantageous  way  for  a 
translator  to  show  himself,  but  it  is  the 
greatest  wrong  which  can  be  done  to  the 
memory  and  reputation  of  the  dead,"  we 
are  inclined  to  doubt  whether,  in  realitj', 
itnitation  be  not  the  more  advantageous 
method  of  the  two. — "  It  is  the  office  of 
the  translator  to  represent  the  forms  of 
language  according  to  the  intention  with 
which  they  are  employed  :  he  will  there- 
fore, in  his  translation,  make  use  of  the 
phrases  in  his  own  language  to  which  use 
and  custom  have  assigned  a  similar  con- 
ventional import ;  taking  care,  however, 
to  avoid  those  which,  from  their  form,  or 
any  other  circumstances,  are  connected 
with  associations  exclusively  belonging  to 
modern  manners.  He  will  likewise,  if  he 
is  capable  of  executing  his  work  upon  a 
philosophic  principle,  endeavor  to  render 
the  personal  and  local  allusions  into  the 
genera  of  which  the  local  or  personal  va- 
riety employed  by  the  original  author  is 
merely  the  accidental  type,  and  to  repro- 
duce  them   in   one    of  those    permanent 


606 


CVCLDI'KDIA     (JF     l.ITKH  ATUIIE 


[tra 


forms  which  are  connecteil  with  the  uni- 
versal ami  iininutable  habits  of  maiikiml. 
Ihe  J'aitlif'ul  tranalator  will  not  venture 
to  take  liberties  of  this  sort;  he  renders 
into  English  all  theconversational  phrases 
according  to  their  grammatical  and  logi- 
cal form,  without  any  reference  to  the 
current  usage  which  has  atTixed  to  them 
an  arbitrary  sense,  and  appropriated 
them  to  a  particular  and  definite  purpose. 
The  spirited  translator,  on  the  contrary, 
employs  the  corresponding  modern  phras- 
es; but  he  is  apt  to  imagine  that  a  peculiar 
liveliness  and  vivacity  may  be  imparted 
to  his  performance  by  the  employment 
of  such  phrases  as  are  particularly  con- 
nected with  modern  manners  ;  and  if  at 
any  time  he  feels  more  than  usually  anx- 
ious to  avoid  the  appearance  of  jiedantry, 
he  thinks  he  cannot  escape  from  it  in  any 
way  more  effectually  than  by  adopting 
the  slang  and  jargon  of  the  day.  The  pe- 
culiarities of  ancient  times  he  endeavors 
to  represent  by  substituting  in  their  place 
the  peculiarities  of  his  own  time  and  na- 
tion." 

TRANSMIGRATION,  the  Pythago- 
rean doctrine  of  the  passing  of  the  soul 
from  one  body  into  another.  A  belief  in 
this,  under  various  modifications,  has  ex- 
isted in  different  ages  of  the  world,  and 
by  various  nations.  This  belief  in  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul,  as  a  means  of 
purification  and  penance,  may  have  been 
attended  with  good  consequences  in  cer- 
tain states  of  society  ;  but  the  Christian  is 
content  to  leave  undrawn  the  veil  which 
the  Creator  has  placed  over  the  particular 
circumstances  of  our  future  condition. 

TRANS.MITA  TlUN,  the  change  of 
one  sul),<tance  into  another  of  a  different 
nature.  The  transmutation  of  base  metals 
into  gold  was  one  of  the  dreams  of  alche- 
my. 

TRAN'SOM,  in  architecture,  a  lintel 
over  a  door,  or  the  piece  that  is  framed 
across  a  double  light  window. — In  a  ship, 
the  beam  or  timber  extended  across  the 
Btern-post  to  strengthen  the  aft  part  and 
give  it  du'.i  form. 

TRANSPORTA'TION,  in  English  law, 
a  species  of  punishment.  It  is  not  known 
to  the  common  law  of  England,  and  was 
originally  a  <-ommutation  of  i]uni>hment, 
pardon  being  granted  to  various  descrip- 
tions of  offenders  on  condition  of  under- 
going tran!r|)ortation  :  generally  forseven 
or  fourteen  years,  or  for  life.  It  is  now 
a  statutable  punishmeni  for  a  great  varie- 
ty of  offences.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
first  inflicted  as  a  punishment  by  a  law 
in  the  time    of  Eli/;ilieth,  enacting   that 


such  rogues  as  were  dangerous  to  the  in- 
ferior peojile  should  be  banished.  At  that 
time  the  English  plantations  in  North 
America  were  the  receptacles  of  tran.«- 
ported  convicts.  Virginia,  the  Jersej-?, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  &e.  are  the  districts 
which  received  the  greatest  accession  to 
their  population  from  this  cause.  At  the 
very  commencement  of  the  practice,  the 
same  arguments  were  employed  against 
it  by  Lord  Bacon  which  are  urged  at  this 
day  by  many  law  reformers.  "It  is,'' 
he  says,  "  a  shameful  and  unblessed  thing 
to  take  the  scum  of  the  people,  and  wick- 
ed condemned  men,  to  be  those  with  whom 
you  plant."  After  the  loss  of  the  Amer- 
ican colonies,  several  years  elapsed  be- 
fore the  government  fixed  on  any  place 
by  way  of  substitute.  At  length,  in  1787, 
Botany  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  New  South 
AVales,  was  fixed  upon  :  760  convicts  were 
despatched  that  year.  But  when  the  ex- 
pedition arrived,  it  was  discovered  that 
Botany  Bay  (discovered  by  Cook  in 
1770)  afforded  no  practicable  site  for  the 
colony,  which  was  consequently  landed  at 
Port  Jackson,  where  the  town  of  Sydney 
was  founded.  From  that  period  to  the 
present,  great  numbers  of  convicts  have 
been  trans])orted  to  Port  Jackson,  and  to 
the  later  founded  colony  of  Van  Die- 
men's  Land — the  only  two  English  penal 
settlements.  JIuch  has  been  done  of  late 
years  towards  regulating  the  condition  of 
the  convicts  in  the  colony,  and  subjecting 
the  worst  part  of  them  to  severe  priva- 
tions ;  in  particular,  by  triinsporting  some 
of  them  to  jiarticular  depots,  where  they 
are  liable  to  close  inspection  and  hard 
labor.  Among  the  writers  who  have  late- 
ly contended  against  the  j)olicy  of  con- 
tinuing the  punishment  of  transportation, 
we  may  particularly  mention  Archbishop 
Whately. 

TRANSPOSI'TION,  in  grammar,  a 
change  of  the  natural  order  of  words  in 
a  sentence — Transposition,  in  music,  a 
change  in  the  composition,  either  in  the 
transcript  or  the  performance,  by  which 
the  whole  is  removed  into  another  key. 

TRANSUBSTANTIA'TION,  in  the- 
ology, the  supposed  conversion  or  diango 
of  the  sulistance  of  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  cucharist,  into  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ.  This  is  a  main  point  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  ami  is  re- 
jected by  the  Protestants,  the  former 
maintaining  the  transubstantiation  to  bo 
real,  the  latter  only  figurative;  interpret- 
ing the  text  hoc  est  corpus  ineum,  "thia 
signifies  ray  body  ;"  but  the  council  of 
Trent  strenuously  contended  for  tho   lit- 


the] 


AND    TllK     KINE     AIMS. 


607 


oral  sense  of  the  verb  est.  and  say  ex- 
pressly, that  in  transubstantiation,  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  truly,  really, 
and  substantially  under  the  species  of 
bread  and  wine. 

TRANSUMP'TION,  a  syllogism  by 
concession  or  agreement,  used  where  a 
question  proposed  is  transferred  to  anoth- 
er ;  with  this  condition,  that  the  proof  of 
the  latter  should  be  admitted  for  a  proof 
of  the  former. 

TUAP'PISTS,  the  name  of  a  religious 
order  which  still  e.xists  in  Normandy.  It 
was  founded  in  1140  by  a  Count  de  Per- 
che,  in  a  deep  valley  called  La  Trappe, 
whence  the  name  of  the  order,  and  has 
survived  all  the  changes  and  revolutions 
of  France.  The  rules  of  this  order  are 
of  the  strictest  kind.  It  was,  however, 
far  less  celebrated  under  its  original 
foundation,  than  from  the  reform  it  un- 
derwent under  the  celebrated  Abbe  de 
llance,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

TKAV'EllSB,  in  law,  a  denial  of  what 
the  opposite  pmty  has  advanced  in  anj' 
stage  of  the  pleadings. — In  fortification, 
a  tracerse  is  a  trench  with  a  little  para- 
pet for  protecting  men  on  the  flanli : 
also,  a  wall  raised  across  a  worl<. 

TRAVESTY,  the  burlesque  imitation 
of  an  author's  style  and  composition. 
Most  travesties  purposely  degrade  the 
subject  treated:  though  they  may  be  in- 
tended either  to  ridicule  absurdity,  or  to 
convert  a  grave  performance  into  a  hu- 
morous one. 

TREA'SOX,  in  law,  is  divided  into 
high  treason,  and  pElly  treason.  High 
treason  is  the  greatest  crime  of  a  civil 
nature  of  which  a  man  can, be  guilty. 
In  general,  it  is  the  offence  of  attempting 
to  subvert  the  government  of  the  state  to 
which  the  offender  owes  allegiance. 

TREA,S'URER,  in  law,  an  officer  to 
whose  care  the  treasure  cf  the  govern- 
ment or  of  any  company,  is  committed. — 
The  Lord  High  Treasurer  of  England 
has  the  charge  of  all  the  national  rev- 
enue. 

TREAS'URE-TROVE,  in  law.  money 
or  any  other  treasure  found  hidden  under 
the  earth. 

TREAS'URY,  a  place  or  building 
where  wealth  or  valuable  stores  are  de- 
posited. 

TREA'TY.  an  agreement,  league,  or 
contract  between  two  or  more  nations  or 
sovereigns,  formally  signed  by  commis- 
sioners properly  autiiorized,  and  solemn- 
ly ratified  by  the  several  sovereigns  or 
the  supreme  power  of  each  state.  Trea- 
ties are  of  vario Ms  kinds,  as  treaties  for 


regulating  commercial  intercourse,  trea- 
ties of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive. 
treaties  for  hiring  troops,  treaties  of 
peace,  <tc.  In  most  monarchies,  the 
power  of  making  and  ratifying  treaties  is 
vested  in  the  sovereign  ;  in  republics,  it 
is  vested  in  the  chief  magistrate,  senate, 
or  executive  council  ;  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  vested  in  the  president,  by 
and  with  the  consent  of  the  senate  ;  while 
in  the  Germanic  confederation,  the  par- 
ticular states  have  the  right  of  making 
treaties  of  alliance  and  commerce  not  in- 
consistent with  the  fundamental  laws  of 
the  confederation.  The  East  India  Com- 
pany enjoys  the  right  of  making  treaties 
under  certain  limitations;  buti  in  all 
cases  treaties  can  only  be  made  by  the 
sovereign  power  in  a  state,  or  by  parties 
upon  whom  the  sovereign  power  has  con- 
ferred that  right  Hence,  in  oriler  to 
enable  a  public  minister  or  other  diplo- 
matic agent  to  conclude  anil  sign  a  treaty, 
he  must  be  furnished  with  full  power  by 
the  sovereign  authority,  and  the  treat}' 
concluded  in  this  manner  is  binding  on 
the  state,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  it  had 
been  concluded  immediately  by  the  sove- 
reign power.  In  the  United  .States,  it  is 
neoessary  that  the  sanction  of  the  legis- 
lative body  be  given  to  treities  of  com- 
merce, or  those  which  impose  taxes  on 
the  people,  entered  into  by  the  exe- 
cutive. 

TREB'LE,  the  highest  or  most  acute  of 
the  parts  in  music  which  is  adapted  to  the 
voice  of  females  or  boys. —  Treble  note,  the 
note  in  the  treble  stave,  placed  on  the 
line  with  the  cliff. 

TRENCII'ES,  or  lines  of  approach,  in 
fortification,  ditches  cut  in  oblique  zig- 
zag directions,  to  enable  besiegers  to  ap- 
proach a  fortified  place  without  being  ex- 
posed to  the  fire  of  its  cannon.  Hence 
the  terms  "to  open  the  trenches,"  to 
break  ground  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
on  approaches  to  a  besieged  place ; 
"  mount  the  trenches,"  to  mount  guard 
in  the  trenches,  &c. 

TRENT,  COUN'CIL  OF,  in  ecclesias- 
tical history,  was  assembled  by  Paul  III. 
in  1545,  and  continued,  in  twenty-five 
sessions,  until  1563,  under  Julius  III. 
and  Pius  IV.  This  celebrated  council 
was  convoked  at  a  period  when  the  Chris- 
tian world  was  agitated  by  the  early  ef- 
forts of  the  reformers  ;  and  its  most  im- 
I)ortant  decrees  have  therefore  reference 
to  the  points  on  which  the  controversies 
of  the  Reformation  ehiefiy  turned  :  e.  g., 
transubstantiation,  image-worship,  the 
authority  of  the  pope.    There  is  a  certain 


C08 


cvcLOi'EniA   OF   i.rrKi!ATi.i:E 


Till 


degree  of  ambiguity  in  the  expression  of 
some  of  its  decrees,  owing  to  the  uncertain- 
ty which  the  doctrines  (if  tiio  reformers 
caused  in  the  minds  nf  su^ijiortcrs  of  the 
llomish  faith.  But,  on  the  whole,  it  can- 
not he  denied  that  they  express  the  gene- 
ral belief  of  Western  Christians  at  the  pe- 
riod when  they  were  drawn  up;  and  that 
they  condemn,  although  wit  li  lit  tie  decision 
and  firmness,  many  of  the  more  gross  abu- 
ses of  the  church.  The  authority  of  these 
decrees  (e.xcept  so  far  as  the  more  strictly 
doctrinal  part  of  them  is  embotlied  in  the 
creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV.)  has  been  much 
debated  among  Romish  ecclesiastics.  In 
(Jermany,  Poland,  and  Italy,  they  ap- 
jiear  to  have  been  adopted  from  the  be- 
ginning without  restriction  ;  in  Spain 
only  with  a  reservation  of  the  rights  of 
the  monarch  ;  in  France  they  have  never 
been  solemnly  received  But  as  regards 
the  more  important  portions  of  them 
■which  contain  the  rule  of  faith,  they 
probably  accurately  express  the  belief  of 
the  lloinan  Catholic  church  at  the  pres- 
ent day. 

TRES'PASS,  in  law,  any  violation 
of  another's  rights  ;  as,  the  unlawfully 
entering  on  his  premises;  but  when 
violence  accompanies  the  act,  it  is  called 
a  trespass  ri  et  arwis. —  In  a  moral 
sense,  the  transgression  of  any  divine 
law  or  command  is  a  trespass. 

TRI'AD,  in  music,  the  common  chord, 
consisting  of  the  third,  fifth,  and  eighth. 

TRI'AL,  in  law,  the  examination  of 
causes  before  a  proper  judge,  which,  as 
regards  matters  of  fact,  are  to  be  tried 
by  a  jury  ;  as  regards  matters  of  law,  by 
the  judge;  and  as  regards  records,  by 
the  record  itself. 

TRIBUNE,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
title  of  various  officers.  A  tribune  of 
the  people,  was  chosen  out  of  the  plebeians 
to  ])rotect  them  against  encroachments 
and  oppressions  of  the  patricians,  and 
the  atteinjits  of  the  senate  and  consuls 
on  their  liberty.  These  tribunes  were 
not,  strictly  speaiiing.  magistrates,  or 
invested  with  inagisleriiil  powers;  but 
they  e.xercisod  a  g-eiit  induence  upon 
piil>lic  affairs.  They  had  the  power  of 
putting  a  negative  on  the  decrees  of  the 
senate,  iind  of  arresting  the  proceedings 
«;f  magistrates  by  their  veto  ;  and  in 
process  of  time  their  iiiniiciice  was  in- 
creased to  such  a.  degree,  that  they 
endiingered  the  safety  of  the  slate. — 
Mililartj  tribune,  an  ofliccr  in  the 
Roman  army,  wlm  cominandud  in  chief 
over  a  body  of  forces,  ]iart icularly  the 
division   of  a   legion,  coiisi.--ting    usually 


of  about  1000  men— Tlie  title  of  tribune 
was  also  given,  as  we  observed  above,  to 
various  other  officers  ;  as  Tribuni  tcrarii, 
tribunes  of  the  treasury.  Tribuni  fab- 
ricarum,  those  who  ha<l  the  direction  of 
the  making  of  arms.  Also,  Tribuni 
mtirinorurn,  Tribuiti  nuhinorunt,  Tri- 
buni roliiptatum,  mentioned  in  the 
Theodosian  code,  as  intendants  of  the 
public  shows,  and  other  diversions. — 
Tribune,  in  the  French  houses  of  legisla- 
ture, the  puljiit  or  elevated  place  from 
which  the  members  deliver  their  speeches, 
which  they  usually  read,  if  of  any  con- 
siderable length.  In  general,  only  short 
replies  are  made  extempore.    ■ 

TRIB'UTE.  a  sum  of  money  paid  by 
an  inferior  sovereign  or  state  to  a 
superior  potentate,  to  secure  the  friend- 
ship or  jirotection  of  the  latter.  The 
black  mail  formerly  levied  by  the  Scot- 
tish borderers  on  their  less  powerful 
neighbors,  for  protecting  their  property 
from  the  depredations  of  caterans,  was  a 
species  of  tribute. 

TRICLINIUM,  in  ancient  architec- 
ture, a  room  furnished  on  three  sides 
with  couches,  the  fourth  side  being  left 
open  for  facilitating  the  attendance  of 
the  servants,  in  which  company  was  re- 
ceived and  the  repasts  served.  The 
winter  triclinia  were  placed  to  the  west, 
and  those  for  summer  to  the  east. 

TRl'COLOR,the  national  French  ban- 
ner of  three  colors,  blue,  while,  and  red, 
adopted  on  the  occasion  of  the  first 
revolution.  The  immediate  occasion  for 
ailopting  them  is  said  to  have  been  that 
they  were  the  colors  worn  by  the  ser- 
vants of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  ;  and  they 
were  first  assumed  by  the  people  when 
the  minister  Neckar  was  dismissed  in 
17S9.  But  these  colors,  in  combination, 
ajipear  to  have  formed  a  nalional  em- 
blem in  France  from  a  very  early  period. 
It  is  also  said  to  have  been  formed  by 
uniting  the  three  colors  successively 
used  in  the  French  standards  at  different 
periods;  vi/.  the  blue  of  the  banner  of 
St.  Martin,  the  red  of  the  oriHamme,  and 
the  white  of  the  white  cross,  su])posed  to 
have  been  assumed  under  Philip  of 
Valois.  The  three  colors  were  given  by 
llonry  IV.  to  the  Dutch  on  their  desiring 
him  to  confer  on  them  the  nalional  colors 
of  his  country  ;  and  they  have  since  been 
borne  successively  by  the  Dutch  rc)niblic 
and  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  domestic  livery  of  Louis  XIV.  was 
tricolored,  as  were  also  the  liveries  of  the 
Bourbon  kings  in  Spain.  At  the  revolu- 
tion, when  the  three  ci>lorswcie  assumed 


TRij 


AND    THK    FINE    ARTS. 


009 


on  the  national  tlag,  they  were  borne  in 
the  same  onler  as  the  Dutch,  but  in  a 
different  position,  viz.  the  division  of 
colors  parallel  to  the  flag-staff;  whereas 
in  the  Dutch  flag  it  is  at  right  angles 
with  it.  Tricolorcd  flags  have  been 
adopted  in  some  of  the  Gorman  states, 
and  in  Belgium,  Ac;  and  they  are  often 
employed  as  emblematical  of  liberty. 

TRI'DENT,  an  attribute  of  Neptune, 
being  a  kind  of  three-pronged  sceptre 
which  the  fables  of  antiquity  put  into  the 
hands  of  that  deity. 

TKIERAR'CIIIA,  an  Athenian  in- 
stitution which  imposed  on  a  certain  body 
of  citizens  the  duty  of  fitting  out  triremes 
for  the  use  of  the  state.  About  1200 
citizens  were  usually  chosen  for  this 
purpose  from  the  richest  individuals, 
and  these  were  subdivided  into  clubs  of 
12  or  16  to  each  ship.  Demosthenes  in- 
trfxluced  a  new  regulation,  by  which  the 
burden  to  be  borne  by  each  individual 
was  made  to  bear  a  given  proportion  to 
his  property. 

TRIET'ERIS,  in  Grecian  chronology, 
a  cycle  invented  by  Thalos  to  connect  his 
year,  which  consisted  of  12  months  of  30 
days  each,  amounting  to  360  days  ;  this 
falling  short  of  the  true  solar  year,  he 
inserted  a  month  of  30  days  at  the  end 
of  every  three  years,  by  which  means  he 
made  it  exceed  the  true  vear  by  13  days. 

TRIFO'RTUM,  (Latin.)  in  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture, an  arched  story  between  the 
lower  arches  and  the  clere-story  in  the 
aisles,  choir,  and  transepts  of  a  church. 
An  e.Kample  may  be  seen  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  where  the  triforium  affords  a 
communicating  gallery  entirely  round 
the  church. 

TRIG'AMY,  the  state  of  having  three 
husbands  or  three  wives  at  the  same  time. 

TRIG'LYPH,  in  architecture,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Doric  frieze,  repeated  at  equal 
intervals. 

TRIL'LO,  in  music,  a  term  by  which 
it  is  intimated  that  the  performer  is  to 
beat  quickly  on  two  notes  in  conjoint  de- 
grees alternately  one  after  another,  be- 
ginning with  the  highest  and  ending  with 
the  lowest.  It  is  marked  with  a  single 
T  as  well  in  a  vocal  as  in  an  instrumen- 
tal part. 

TRI'LOBITES,  the  name  given  by 
Cuvier  to  an  order  of  Crustaceans,  com- 
prehending those  remarkable  fossil  spe- 
cies in  which  the  body  is  divided  into 
three  lobes  by  two  fissures  which  run  pa- 
rallel to  its  a.vis. 

TRIL'OGY,  the  word  applied  to  a  se- 
ries (f  three  dramas,  which,  although 
30 


each  of  them  is  in  one  sense  complete, 
yet  bear  a  mutual  relation,  and  form  but 
parts  of  one  historical  and  poetical  jiic- 
ture.  All  the  i)lays  of  jj-lst-hylus,  and 
the  Henry  VI.  of  Shakspeare,  are  exam- 
ples of  a  triloiry. 

TRIN'GLE,  in  architecture,  a  little 
square  member  or  ornament,  fixed  exact- 
ly over  every  triglyph,  under  the  jilat- 
band  of  the  architrave,  from  whence  the 
gutta?  or  pendant  drops  hang  down. 

TRINITA'RIANS,  a  religious  order 
founded  in  1198  under  the  pontificate  of 
Innocent  III.  Its  members  devoted 
themselves  especially  to  the  duty  of  ran- 
soming captives  taken  by  the  Moors  and 
other  infidels.  Another  body  of  Trinita- 
rians was  formed  in  consequence  of  a 
reformation  of  the  order  in  1578.  There 
was  also  a  female  order  of  the  same  name, 
and  dedicated  to  the  same  objects. 

TRIN'ITY,  in  theology,  the  ineffable 
mystery  of  three  persons  in  one  God— - 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit. 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  a  society  so  called 
in  England,  incorporated  by  Henry  VIII. 
in  1515.  for  the  promotion  of  commerce 
and  navigation,  by  licensing  and  regu- 
lating pilots,  ordering  and  erecting  bea- 
cons, light-houses,  &c.  This  corporation 
is  governed  by  a  master,  four  wardens, 
eight  assistants,  and  thirty-one  elder  bro- 
thers ;  besides  numerous  inferior  members 
of  the  fraternity,  named  younger  breth- 
ren. Many  valuable  privileges  are  at- 
tached to  this  corporation,  and  its  revenue 
amounts  to  about  140,000/.  per  annum. 

TRI'O,  in  music,  an  instrumental  piece 
of  three  obligato  voices,  or  two  chief 
voices  and  an  accompanying  bass,  or  of 
one  chief  voice  and  two  accompanying 
parts. 

TRIOLETT',  a  stanza  of  eight  lines, 
in  which,  after  the  third  the  first  line, 
and  after  the  sixth  the  first  two  lines,  are 
repeated,  so  that  the  first  line  is  heard 
three  times. 

TRIP'LET,  in  music,  a  name  given  to 
three  notes  sung  or  plaj'ed  in  the  time 
of  two. 

TRIP'LE  TIME,  in  music,  a  time  con- 
sisting of  three  measures  in  a  bar. 

TRIPLI'CITY,  in  astrology,  the  divi- 
sion of  the  signs  according  to  the  number 
of  the  elements,  each  division  consisting 
of  three  signs. 

TRI'POD,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  the 
sacred  seat,  supported  by  three  feet,  on 
which  the  priestesses  among  the  ancients 
used  to  deliver  the  oracles. 

TRI'POS,  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, the  name  given  to  one  who  pre- 


GIO 


CYCLOI'EDIA     OK     LTTKRATURK 


[tko 


pares  what  is  termed  a  tripos  paper  — A 
tripos  pui)cr,  also  culled  a  tripos,  is  a 
priiiled  li^t  of  the  successful  candidates 
fur  matheiiiTitieal  honors,  accompanied  by 
a  piece  in  Latin  verse.  There  are  two 
of  these  papers,  designed  to  couimenio- 
rate  the  two  tripos  days,  or  days  of  e.\- 
aniination.  The  tirst  contains  the  names 
of  the  wranglers,  an<l  senior  optinies,  and 
the  second  the  names  of  the  junior  op- 
times.  The  word  tripos  is  supposed  to 
refer  to  the  three-legged  stool,  formerly 
used  at  the  examinations  for  these  honors. 

TRIREME,  in  Greek  and  Roman  an- 
tiquity, a  galley  with  three  tiers  or  banks 
of  oars,  in  which  the  rowers  were  placed 
upon  seats  ascending  gradually  one  above 
another. 

TRISOLYMPON'IC.\,  in  antiquity, 
one  among  the  Greeks  who  returned  three 
times  victorious  from  tiic  Olympic  games, 
and  on  whom  special  honors  were  con- 
ferred by  the  state. 

TRITHEIST,  in  theology,  one  who 
believes  that  there  arc  three  distinct 
Gods  in  the  Godhead,  that  is,  three  dis- 
tinct substances  and  essences. 

TRI'TONE,  in  music,  an  interval,  now 
generally  called  a  sharp  fourth,  consist- 
ing of  four  degrees,  and  containing  three 
tones  between  the  extremes,  on  which 
account  the  ancients  gave  it  its  name. 
It  is,  moreover,  divisible  into  six  semi- 
tones, three  diatonic  and  three  chromatic. 
In  dividing  the  octave,  we  find  on  one 
side  the  tritone  and  on  the  other  the  false 
fifth. 

TRI'TOXS,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a 
kind  of  deiui-gods,  half  man  and  half 
fish,  upon  whom  the  Nereids  rode. 

TUrUMI'lI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
public  and  solemn  honor  conferred  by  tiie 
Koinans  on  a  victorious  general,  by  al- 
lowing him  a  magnificent  procession 
through  the  city.  The  triumph  was  of 
two  kinds,  the  greater  and  the  less,  the 
latter  of  which  was  called  an  oration. 
The  splendid  spectacle  was  as  follow.?  : 
the  whcde  senate  went  out  to  meet  the 
victor,  who,  being  seated  in  a  gilded  char- 
iot, usually  drawn  by  white  horses,  and 
clad  in  his  triumphal  robes,  was  followed 
by  the  kings,  princes,  and  generals  whom 
he  had  vanquished,  loaileil  with  chains. 
Singers  and  musicians  preceded,  followed 
bj'  choice  victims,  and  by  the  spoils  and 
emblems  of  the  conquered  cities  and  pro- 
vinces. Lastly  followed  the  victorious 
army,  horse  and  foot,  crowned  with  laurel, 
and  adorned  with  the  marks  of  distinc-  : 
tion  they  had' received,  shouting  lo  tri- 
uniphe,  aiul  singing  songs  of  victory,  or 


of  sportive  raillery.  Upon  the  capitol, 
the  general  rendered  public  thanks  to  the 
gods  for  the  victory,  caused  the  victims  to 
be  slaughtered,  and  dedicated  the  crown 
which  he  wore  and  a  part  of  the  spoils  to 
Jupiter.  All  the  temples  were  open,  and 
all  the  altars  loided  with  offerings  and 
incense  ;  games  and  combats  were  cele- 
brated in  the  public  places,;  I  he  general 
gave  a  costly  feast,  and  the  shouts  of  the 
multitude  rent  the  air  with  their  rejoic- 
ings. 

TRIUM'PIIAL  ARCH,  in  architecture, 
an  arch  erected  to  perpetuate  the  memo- 
]  ry  of  a  conqueror,  or  of  some  remarkable 
I  victory   or  important  event.     At  first  it 
j  consisted  of  a  single  arch,  decorated  mere- 
I  ly  with  a  statue  and  spoils  of  the  victori- 
j  ous  commander  ;   but  arches  were  after- 
wards  erected   with  two,  and  then  with 
!  three  passages.     Those  on  the  Via  Tri- 
umphalis  in  Rome  were  the  most  magni- 
j  ficent  ;  and  in  cases  where  they  served  as 
j  gates,  they  were  usually  constructed  with 
two  openings,  so  that  one  was  appropriat- 
,  eil  for  carriages  passing    into,    and    the 
other  for  carriages  passing  out  of  the  city. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal triuinplial  arches  of  antiquity  :  The 
arch  at  Rimini,  erected  in  honor  of  Augus- 
I  tus  on   the  completion  of  the  repairs  of 
I  the  Flaminian  Way  from  Rome  to  that 
city.    It  was  one  of  the  noblest  as  well  as 
most  ancient  of  the  arches  of  the  ancients, 
having    a    single   passage    about    thirty- 
three  feet  wide,  and  was,  contrary  to  the 
usual  practice,  crowned  with  a  pediment. 
The  lesser  arch  of  Septimus  Severus  at 
Rome,  commonly  called  the  Arch  of  the 
(roldsiniths.  is  a  curious  example,  being 
of  a  single  opening,  and  crowned  with  a 
flat  lintel.     An  extremely  elegant  arch 
at  Susa,  on  the  Italian  side  of  Mont  Ce- 
nis.  in  honor  of  .■\ugastus.    The  arches  of 
Aurelian  and  Janus,  which  possess  more 
singularity  than  beauty. 

TRIl  ;\i  VIRATE,  an  absolute  govern- 
ment administered  by  three  persons,  with 
equal  authority;  as  that  of  Augustus, 
iMarc  .Antony,  and  Lepidus.  which  gave 
the  last  blow  to  the  Roman  republic  ;  fer 
Augustus  having  vanquished  Lepidus  and 
Antony,  the  triumvirate  was  soon  con- 
verted into  a  monarchy. 

TRIl'M  VIRS,  {triuinciri.)  in  Roman 
history,  three  men  who  jointly  obtained 
the  sovereign  ]K)wer  in  Rome. 

TRO'CIIEE,  in  the  (ireek  and  Latin 
poetry,  a  foot  consisting  of  two  syllables, 
the  first  long,  and  the  second  short. 

TRO'CHILI'S,  in  architecture,  a  name 
used    by  the  ancients  for  a  hollow  ring 


TRO] 


AND    IHE    FINE    ARTS. 


61] 


round  a  column,  which  the  moderns  call 
Scotia. 

TKOG'LODYTES,  certain  tribes  in 
Ethiopia  who  are  represented  bj'  ancient 
writers  as  living  in  subterranean  caverns, 
and  respecting  whom  we  have  many  fab- 
ulous stories. 

TROM'BONE,  a  deep-toned  instru- 
ment of  the  trumpet  kind,  consisting  of 
three  tubes  ;  the  first,  to  which  the  mouth- 
piece is  attached,  and  the  third,  which 
terminates  in  a  bell-shaped  orifice,  are 
placed  side  by  side  ;  the  middle  tube  is 
doubled,  and  slides  into  the  other  two 
like  the  tube  of  a  telescope.  By  the  side 
of  the  tube,  every  sound  in  the  diatonic 
and  chromatic  scales  being  within  its 
compass,  is  obtained  in  perfect  tune,  and 
thus  the  trombone  surpasses  every  other 
instrument,  in  admitting,  like  the  violin 
or  the  voice,  the  introduction  of  the  slide. 
The  trombone  is  of  three  kinds,  the  alto, 
the  tenor,  and  the  base  ;  and  in  orches- 
tral music,  these  are  generally  used  to- 
gether, forming  a  complete  harmony'  in 
themselves. 

TROOP,  in  cavalry,  a  certain  number 
of  soldiers  mounted,  who  form  a  compo- 
nent part  of  a  squadron.  It  is  the  same 
with  respect  to  formation,  as  company  in 
the  infantry. — The  word  troops  (in  the 
plural)  signifies  soldiers  in  general, 
whether  more  or  less  numerous,  inclu- 
ding infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery. 

TROPE,  in  rhetoric,  a  change  in  the 
signification  of  a  word,  from  a  primary 
to  a  derivative  sense,  a  word  or  expres- 
sion used  in  a  different  sense  from  that 
which  it  properly  signifies  ;  or  a  word 
changed  from  its  original  signification  to 
anotl^er,  for  the  sake  of  giving  life  or 
emphasis  to  an  idea;  as,  when  we  call  a 
stupid  fellow  an  ass,  or  a  shrewd  man  a 
fox.  Tropes  are  chiefly  of  four  kinds, 
metaphor,  metonymy,  sj'nccdoche,  and 
irony  ;  but  to  these  may  be  added,  alle- 
gory, prosopopoeia,  autonomasia,  and  per- 
haps some  others.  Some  authors  make 
figures  the  genus,  of  which  trope  is  a 
species ;  others  make  them  different 
things,  defining  trope  to  be  a  change  of 
Eense,  and  figure  to  be  any  ornament,  ex- 
■sept  what  becomes  so  by  such  change. 

TROPHY,  anything  taken  and  pre- 
lerveJ  as  a  memorial  of  victory,  as  arms, 
standards,  &c.  taken  from  an  enemy.  It 
was  customary  with  the  ancients  to  erect 
their  trophies  on  a  spot  where  they  had 
gained  a  victory.  At  first  they  consisted 
of  the  arms  they  had  taken  ;  but  after- 
wards trophies  were  formed  of  bronze, 
marble,  or  even  gold. — In   architecture. 


an  ornament  representing  the  stem  of  a 
tree,  charged  or  encompassed  with  mili- 
tary weiipons. 

TROUBADOURS',  poets  who  flourished 
in  Provence  from  the  10th  to  the  13t\ 
century.  They  wrote  poems  on  love  anvi 
gallantry,  on  the  illustrious  characters 
and  remarkable  events  of  the  times,  Ac, 
which  they  set  to  music  and  sung:  they 
were  accordingly  general  favorites  in 
different  courts,  diffused  a  taste  for  theii- 
liingu.age  and  poetry  over  Europe,  and 
essentially  contributed  towards  the  res- 
toration of  letters  and  a  love  for  the  Arts. 
The  royal  court  in  Provence,  at  Aries, 
was,  from  the  times  of  Boso  I.,  for  nearly 
two  centuries,  the  theatre  of  the  finest 
chivalry,  the  centre  of  a  romantic  life. 
The  assembly  of  knights  and  Troubadours, 
with  their  Aloorish  story-tellers  and  buf- 
foons, and  ladies  acting  as  judges  or  par- 
ties in  matters  of  courtesy,  exhibit  a 
glittering  picture  of  a  mirthful,  soft,  and 
luxurious  life.  The  knight  of  Provence 
devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  his  la- 
dy-love in  true  poetic  earnest,  and  made 
the  dance  and  the  sport  of  the  tilt-yard 
the  great  business  of  his  life.  Each 
baron,  a  sovereign  in  his  own  territory, 
invited  the  neighboring  knights  to  his 
castle  to  take  parts  in  tournaments  and 
to  contend  in  song,  at  a  time  when  the 
knights  of  Germany  and  Northern  France 
were  challenging  each  other  to  deadly 
combat.  There  the  gallant  knight  broke 
his  lance  on  the  shield  of  his  manly  an- 
tagonist ;  there  the  princess  sat  in  the 
circle  of  ladies,  listening  seriously  to  the 
songs  of  the  knights,  contending  in 
rhymes  respecting  the  laws  of  love,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  contest,  pronouncing 
her  sentenco  {arret  d'amoiir.)  Thus  the 
life  of  thp.  Proven^ ;ils  was  lyrical  in  the 
highest  .fegree  ;  but  it  was  necessarily 
superficial,  and  would  lose  its  chief  value 
if  unaccompanied  by  music.  In  the  11th 
and  r2th  centuries  it  had  attained  its 
highest  bloom  :  it  had  spread  into  Spain 
and  Lombardy,  .and  even  German  empe- 
rors (Frederic  Barbarossa,)  and  English 
kings  (Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,)  composed 
songs  in  the  Provenfal  dialect.  But  the 
poetry  of  the  Troubadours,  as  in  the  course 
of  time  it  became  more  common,  became 
degraded  into  mere  ballad-singing;  and 
the  few  specimens  of  it  that  have  been 
preserved,  consist  of  short  war-songs  and 
lyrics  of  pastoral  life  and  love. 

TRO'VER,  in  law,  an  action  which  lies 
against  any  one  who,  having  the  goods 
of  another  unjustly  in  his  possession,  re- 
fuses to  deliver  them  up. 


612 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITKltAFUKE 


[TCI 


TRUCE,  an  agreement  between  states. 
or  those  representing  thoin,  for  the  sus- 
pension of  hostilities.  •  .Such  .in  agree- 
ment, when  made  by  officers  of  the  state 
in  the  general  exercise  of  their  <lut3-,  and 
not  authorized  for  the  purpose  expressly, 
or  by  necessary  implication,  ranks  among 
thatclass  of  conventions  which  jurists  term 
sponsions,  and  which  are  binding  onl)- 
if  ratified.  A  general  armistice  or  truce 
differs  from  a  partial,  which  is  limited  to 
particular  places  ;  as  between  two  armies, 
or  between  a  besieged  fortress  and  the 
besieging  army.  The  former,  in  general, 
requires  ratification;  power  to  include 
the  latter  is  held  to  be  implied  in  the 
general  authority  of  military  and  naval 
officers. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD,  a  suspension  of  arms, 
which  occasionally  took  place  in  the 
middle  ages,  putting  a  stop  to  private 
hostilities.  The  right  to  engage  in  these 
hostilities  was  jealously  maintained  by 
the  inferior  feudatories  of  the  several 
monarchies  of  Europe.  But  it  was  re- 
strained by  the  repc.ited  promulgation 
of  these  truces,  under  the  authority  of  the 
church. 

TRUM'PET,  the  loudest  of  all  portable 
wind  instruments,  consisting  of  a  folded 
tube,  generally  of  brass. —  Speaking 
trumpet.,  a  tube,  from  si.K  to  fifteen  feet 
in  length,  made  of  tin,  perfectly  straight 
and  having  a  very  large  aperture;  the 
mouth-piece  being  large  enough  to  ad- 
mit both  lips.  By  means  of  this  instru- 
ment the  voice  is  carried,  with  distinct- 
ness, for  a  mile  or  more.  It  is  chiefly 
used  at  sea. —  The  /east  of  trumpets,  a 
festival  among  the  Jews,  observed  on  the 
first  day  of  the  7th  month  of  the  sacred 
j'ear,  which  was  the  first  of  the  civil  year, 
and  answered  to  our  September.  The 
beginning  of  the  year  was  proclaimed  by 
sound  of  trumpet. 

TRU.ST,  in  law,  is  a  term  commonly 
used  to  designate  any  equitable  right  or 
interest,  as  distitiguishcd  from  a  legal 
one  ;  properly,  that  olas.s  of  equitable 
rights  supposed  to  bo  founded  in  the  con- 
fidence placed  by  one  party  in  another  ; 
the  name  trustee  denoting  the  person  in 
whom  confidence  is  placed.  The  origin  of 
conveyances  in  trust  may  be  traced  to  the 
fidci  coinmissum  o{  the  Romans,  which 
was  a  gift  by  will  to  a  person  capable  of 
taking  in  trust  for  another  incapable  by 
the  Roman  law  of  taking  such  benefit, 
whose  claim  under  such  gilts  was  for  a 
long  time  precarious,  and  merely  fiduei- 
Rry.  but  came  at  length  to  bo  recognized 
iind  cnfiirrcil  by  law 


TRUSTEE',  in  law,  one  to  whom  \e 
confided  the  care  of  an  estate,  money,  or 
business,  to  keep  or  manage  for  the  bene- 
fit of  another,  either  by  the  direction  of  a 
body  of  creditors  or  at  the  instance  of  an 
individual,  Ac  ,  or  by  a  legal  instrument 
called  a  i/eed  nf  tfust. 

TRUTH,  e.\act  accordance  with  that 
which  is,  has  been,  or  shall  be. — J\[oral 
truth  consists  in  relating  things  according 
to  the  honest  persuasion  of  our  minds, 
and  is  called  also  veracity.  Metaphysi- 
cal or  transcendental  truth,  denotes  the 
real  existence  of  things  conformable  to 
the  ideas  which  we  have  annexed  to  their 
names. 

TU'BA,  a  wind  instrument,  used  by 
the  ancient  Romans,  resembling  our 
trumpet,  though  of  a  somewhat  different 
form. 

TUDOR  STYLE,  in  architecture,  a 
name    frequently    applie'l   to    the    latest 


Gothic  style  in  England,  called  also 
Florid  Gothic.  The  period  of  this  style 
is  from  1100  to  1537.  It  is  character- 
ized by  a  fiat  arch,  shallow  mouldings, 
and  a  profusion  of  panelling  on  the 
walls. 

TUES'DAY,  the  third  day  of  the  week, 
answering  to  the  dies  lilartis  of  the  Ro- 
mans, but  dedicated  by  the  Saxons  to 
Tuisco.  The  peculiar  attribute  of  the 
deity  worshipped  under  this  name  is  not 
clearly  known. 

TUi'LERIES,  the  residence  of  the 
French  monarchs,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Seine,  in  Paris.  It  was  begun  by 
Catharine  de  Mcilici,  wife  of  Henry  II., 
in  15()1,  and  the  latest  adilitions  made  to 
it  were  by  Napoleon,  in  1808.  The  ex- 
terior of  the  Tuilorics  is  didicient  in  har- 
mony,   having   been    built     at    iliffcrent 


■;l-s] 


AND    THE     FINK     A  UTS. 


GI-3 


times,  and  on  very  different  plans,  but 
the  interior  is  nmgnilicent. 

TU'MUH'S,  !i  barrdw  or  mound  of 
earth  in  iinuient  times  raised  to  the 
memory  of  the  dead.  Barrows  of  loose 
stones  or  of  dark  mould  and  flints  are 
very  common  in  England  ;  and  urns  con- 
taining the  ashes  of  those  who  have  here 
been  buried,  with  spears,  swords,  shields, 
bracelets,  beads,  itc  ,  are  among  the  prin- 
cipal contents.  We  find,  indeed,  that 
these  rude  funeral  monuments  are  met 
with  in  most  countries. 

TUNE,  a  short  air  or  melody  ;  a  series 
of  inusictil  notes  in  some  particular  mea- 
sure, and  consisting  of  a  single  series,  for 
one  voice  or  instrument,  the  effect  of 
which  is  melody  ;  or  a  union  of  two  or 
more  series  or  parts  to  be  sung  or  played 
in  concert,  the  effect  of  which  is  harmo- 
ny. Thus  we  say,  a  merry  tune,  a  lively 
tune,  a  grave  tune,  a  psalm  tune,  a  mar- 
tial tune. — Correct  intonation  in  singing 
or  playing;  the  state  of  giving  the  proper 
sounds ;  as  when  we  say,  a  harpsichord  is 
in  tujie  ;  that  is,  when  the  several  chords 
are  of  that  tension,  that  each  gives  its  prop- 
er sound,  and  the  sounds  of  all  are  at  due 
intervals,  both  of  tones  and  semitones. 

TU'NINGr,  the  art  or  operation  of  ad- 
justing the  various  sounds  of  a  musical 
instrument,  so  that  they  may  be  all  at 
due  intervals,  and  the  scale  of  the  instru- 
ment brought  into  as  correct  a  state  as 
possible.  In  tuning  an  instrument,  the 
first  point  is  to  fi.K  upon  some  one  note  as 
a  leading  note,  and  then  by  the  pitch  of 
it  to  determine  the  relative  sounds  of  all 
the  rest. — The  art  or  operation  of  ad- 
justing two  or  more  musical  instruments, 
so  as  to  bring  them  into  agreement  with 
each  other,  as  two  or  more  violins,  a  vio- 
lin and  violoncello,  Ac.  Horns,  fifes, 
flutes,  (fee,  have  a  permanent  relative 
scale,  and  only  change  their  pitch  by 
change  of  temperature. 

TU'NIXG-FOllK,  a  steel  instrument 
consisting  of  two  prongs  and  a  handle  ; 
used  for  tuning  instruments,  for  regulat- 
ing their  pitch,  and  also  the  pitch  of 
voices.  There  are  two  kinds  of  tuning 
forks  in  use  ;  one  of  which  sounds  C  ma- 
jor, and  the  other  A  minor.  The  first  is 
used  in  tuning  piano-fortes,  and  the  sec- 
ond in  orchestras,  for  the  violins,  &c. 

TU'NIC,  a  garment  worn  within  doors 
by  the  Romans  of  both  se.xes,  under  the 
toga:  the  slaves  and  common  people  only 
appearing  in  it  abroad.  The  senators 
wore  a  tunic  with  a  broad  stripe  of  purple 
sewed  on  the  breast :  the  equites  had  nar- 
row stripes. 


TUN'NEL,  a  subterraneous  passage 
Some  are  cut  through  hills  to  continue 
the  lines  of  canals,  from  half  a  mile  to 
two  or  three  miles  long  ;  others  are 
formed  on  the  lines  of  railroad,  where 
steep  hills  render  them  necessary. 

Tl'K'I5.\N,  a  head-dress  worn  by  most 
Oriental  nations,  of  very  various  forms, 
but  consisting  generally  of  a  piece  of  fine 
cloth  or  linen  wound  round  a  cap.  Ihe 
cap  is  red  or  green,  roundish  on  the  top, 
and  quilted  with  cotton.  The  Turkish 
sultan's  turban  contains  three  heron's 
feathers,  with  many  diamonds  and  other 
precious  stones.  The  grand  vizier  has  two 
heron's  feathers;  other  officers  but  one. 

TUIl'BARY,  in  English  law,  the  right 
of  digging  turf  on  another  man's  land. — 
Common  of  Inrhary,  is  the  liberty  which 
a  tenant  enjoj's  of  digging  turf  on  the 
lord's  waste. 

TURKTSII  ARCHITECTURE,  this 
style  assimilates  itself,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, to  that  of  the  Saracenic.  In  their 
public  buildings  they  indulge,  above  all 
other  things,  in  a  great  number  of  towers 
and  minarets.  They  employ  little  art,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  the  constructicm  of  pri- 
vate houses,  the  lower  parts  of  which  are 
generally  of  cut  stone,  and  the  upper  of 
bricks  dried  in  the  sun.  The  dwellings 
of  the  rich  are  surrounde<l  by  a  court- 
yard; and  in  the  interior  is  often  a  beauti- 
ful hall,  paved  with  marble  and  adorned 
with  fountains.  This  hall  is  ordinarily 
of  the  whole  height  of  the  building,  and 
surmounted  by  a  small  dome. 

TURN'PIKES,  the  name  given  to  the 
toll  gates  on  the  public  roads,  the  ancient 
gate  being  a  mere  pole  or  pike. 

TUR'QUOISE,  or  TURK'OIS,  a  mine- 
ral of  a  beautiful  sky-blue  color,  occur- 
ring in  thin  layers,  or  in  rounded  masses. 
It  is  destitute  of  lustre,  but  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish,  and  is  much  used  in 
jewellery.  It  contrasts  well  with  dia- 
monds anil  pearls  set  in  gold.  Some  nat- 
uralists say  that  the  turquoise  is  a  bono 
impregnated  with  cupreous  particles,  and 
not  a  real  stone. 

TUS'C  AN  ORDER,  in  architecture,  ona 
of  the  five  orders,  and  the  simplest  of 
them  all.  It  is  not  found  in  any  ancient 
example.  Palladio  has  given  two  ex- 
amples of  this  order,  from  one  of  which 
the  profile  here  given  is  adopted,  though 
by  some  that  composed  by  Vignola  hai 
been  preferred.  The  base,  as  will  be 
seen  on  inspection,  consists  of  ,a  simple 
torus  with  its  fillet,  accompanied  b_y  a 
plinth.  Sir  William  Chambers  assigns 
to  the  column,  with  it.s  base  and  cajiital. 


614 


CYCLOPEDIA     OF     LITKRATURE 


[fLE 


a  height  equal  to  seven  of  its  diameters. 
Vitruvius  spertk?  of  thi.<  order  with  little 
praise,  but  Pallndio  cuinnicn  Is  it  for  its 


great  utility.  It  does  not  allow  the  in- 
troduction of  ornament  ;  and  it  is  to  be 
observed,  that  its  columns  are  never 
fluted.  By  some  architects  it  has  been  va- 
ried on  the  shaft  with  rustic  cinctures  ;  but 
such  taste  is  perhaps  very  questionable. 

TUT'TO,  or  TUT'TI.  in"  Italian  music, 
a  direction  for  all  to  plav  in  full  concert. 

TWELFHIN'DI,  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  men  of  the  highest  rank,  who 
were  assessed  at  1200  shillings;  and  if 
any  injury  were  done  to  such  persons, 
satisfaction  was  to  be  made  according  to 
their  worth. 

TYM'PAN,  in  architecture,  that  part 
of  the  bottom  of  the  pediments  which  is 
enclosed  between  the  cornices — In  car- 
pentry, it  is  apiilied  to  the  pannels  of 
doors  in  the  same  sense — Among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  a  tt/mpaniim  was  a 
musical  instrument,  not  unlike  the  tam- 
bourine, beaten  wirh  the  hand. 

TYPE,  in  theology,  a  sign  or  symbol ; 
a  figure  of  something  to  come;  as,  the 
paschal  Iamb  was  a  t>jpe  of  Christ.  To 
the  word  in  this  sense  is  opposed  atiti- 
typc;  Christ,  therefore,  i.s  the  antitype  — 
In  natural  history,  type  means  a  gene- 
ral form,  such  as  is  ciiiiunon  to  the  species 
of  a  genus,  or  the  iii'Iividiial  of  a  species. 

TY'PIIUX,  liio  evil  genius  of  Esrvpti.an 
mythology.  According  to  Sir  (I.  Wilkin- 
son they  seem  to  have  acknowledged  two 
deities,  who  answered  to   the  dcscrijition 


given  by  the  Greeks  of  Typho.  "  One 
who  was  the  brother  of  Netpe,  and  op- 
pitsed  to  his  brother  Osiris,  as  the  bad  to 
the  good  principle  ;  the  other  bearing  the 
name  of  Typho,  and  answering  to  that 
part  of  liis  character  which  represents 
him  as  the  opponent  of  Horus  :"'  the 
true  evil  genius  Omble,  whom  the  (ireeks 
seem  to  confound  with  Typho.  "  lie  is 
figured  under  the  human  form,  having 
the  head  of  a  quadruped,  with  square- 
topped  ears,  which  some  might  have 
supposed  to  represent  an  ass  with  clipped 
ears,  if  the  entire  animal  diil  not  too 
frequently  occur  to  prevent  this  erroneous 
conclusion."  In  his  Egyptian  names  is 
"  Ombte,"  in  which  Sir  G.  Wilkinson 
thinks  he  traces  a  connection  with  An- 
tocus,  the  son  of  Earth.  There  ajjpears 
to  have  been  a  general  propensity  to 
erase  his  figure  and  titles  frum  the  monu- 
ments at  some  remote  epoch. 

TYRANT,  (me  whoe.vcrcises  arbitrary 
or  e.vcessive  pnwer.  A  monarch  or  other 
ruler  wlio,  by  injustice  or  cruel  punish- 
ment, or  the  demaml  of  unreasonable 
services,  imposes  burdens  and  hardships 
on  those  under  his  control,  which  law  does 
not  authorize,  and  which  are  reimgnant 
to  the  dictates  of  humanity. — The  word 
tyrant,  in  its  original  signification,  mere- 
ly meant  an  absolute  ruler ;  but  the 
abuse  of  the  office  led  to  a  different  ap- 
plication of  the  word. 


u. 


r,  the  twenty-first  letter  and  the  fifth 
vowel  of  the  alphabet,  is  generally  pro- 
nounced nearly  like  eu  shortened  or 
blendeil ;  as  in  ariHuily,  enumerate,  mute, 
duke,  rule,  infuse.  In  some  words,  as  in 
bull,  pull,  full,  the  sound  of  u  is  that  of 
the  Italian  v,  the  French  ou.  but  short- 
ened. Its  other  sound  is  heard  in  tun, 
run,  rub,  xnuh.  &v. 

URItiUITARfAXS,  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  <a  sect  of  Lutherans  who  sprung 
up  in  Germany  about  the  year  l.'SOO,  anil 
maintained  that  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ 
is  {ubique)  ouinipresent.  or  in  every 
place  at  the  same  time. 

UKASE,  in  Russia,  a  proclamation  or 
imperial  order  published. 

ULE'MA,  the  college  or  corporation 
composed  of  the  three  classes  of  the 
Turkish  hierarchy  :  the  iinans,  or  minis- 
ters of  religion  ;  the  muftis,  or  doctors 
of  law  ;  the  cadis,  or  administrators  of 
justice.     This  organi/.atiim,  according  to 


'TKl] 


AND    THE    FINE    ARTS. 


615 


D'Obisson  was  first  framod  by  the  caliplis, 
and  adopted,  along  with  the  other  (irin- 
ciples  of  their  government,  by  the  Otto- 
man (-ulfans.  Candidates  for  admission 
into  the  Ulema  are  educated  at  the  dif- 
ferent colleges  (inedresscs)  of  the  em- 
pire. The  Sheikk  ul  Islam,  or  mufti  of 
Constantinople,  is  the  president  of  the 
whole  body. 

ULTIMA'TUM,  (from  ultlnius,  last,) 
in  modern  di[)lomiic_y,  the  final  condi- 
tions offered  for  the  settlement  of  a  dis- 
pute, or  the  basis  of  a  treaty,  between 
two  governments.  The  word  is  also  used 
for  any  final  proposition  or  condition. 

UL'TRA,  a  prefi.x  to  certain  words  in 
modern  politics,  to  denote  those  members 
of  a  party  who  carry  their  notions  to 
excess.  In  179)3,  those  persons  in  France 
were  called  ullra-rerolutionists.  who  de- 
manded much  more  than  the  constitution 
they  adopted  allowed.  When  the  Bour- 
bons returned  to  France  in  ISlij,  the 
words  ultra-royalists  and  ultra-liberals 
were  much  useil  and  have  become  com- 
mon wherever  political  parties  exist. 

ULTRAMARINE',  in  painting,  a 
valuable  pigment  aflTording  a  beautiful 
sky-blue  color. — Its  name  ultramarine 
is  derived  from  being  brought  fiMrn  be- 
yond sea.  that  is  to  say,  from  Ilindostan 
and  Persia,  and  it  was  originally  ob- 
tained only  from  the  rare  mineral  lapis 
lazuli. —  Ultramarine  ashes,  a  pigment 
which  is  the  resirluum  of  lapis  lazuli, 
after  the  ultramarine  has  been  extracted. 

ULTRAMONTANE,  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  countries  which  lie  beyond  the 
mountain  :  thus  France,  with  regard  to 
Italy,  if!  an  ultramontane  country. 

LTM'BER.  in  painting,  a  pigment 
affording  a  fine  dark-brown  color.  It  is 
a  dusky-colored  earth,  or  ore,  and  was 
formerly  brought  from  Umbria,  in  Italy, 
tt  is  used  in  two  states ;  the  first  its 
natural  one,  with  the  simple  precaution 
i)f  levigation,  or  washing;  the  second, 
that  in  which  it  is  found  after  being 
6urnt.  The  hues  of  burnt  and  unburnt 
amber  greatly  differ  from  each  other. 

UN,  in  philology,  a  particle  of  nega- 
(ion,  giving  to  words  to  which  it  is  pre- 
fixed a  negative  signification.  I'n  and 
in  were  formerly  ii  ed  indiff"erently  for 
this  purpose  ;  but  the  tendency  of  modern 
usage  is  to  prefer  the  use  of  in,  in  some 
words,  where  nn  was  before  used.  It  is 
prefixed  generally  to  adjectives  and  par- 
ticiples, but  sometimes  also  to  verbs,  as 
in  unbend,  unbind,  &c. 

U'NA  VO'CE,  (Latin,)  with  one  voice; 
'inanimously. 


UNBELIEF',  in  the  sense  used  in  the 
New  Testament,  signifies  a  di.«bclief  of 
the  truth  of  the  gospel,  and  a  distrust 
of  God's  promises,  Ac. 

UNCIAL,  pertaining  to  letters  of  a 
large  size,  used  in  ancient  manuscripts. 

UNCTION,  the  anointing  with  con- 
secrated oil,  a  practice  among  the  Jews  in 
consecrating  kings  and  priests;  also  still 
in  use  at  coronations  :  and  is  one  of  the 
seven  sacraments  of  the  Catholic  church. 
It  is  performed,  in  cases  of  mortal 
disease,  bj'  anointing  the  head,  hands, 
and  feet  with  oil  consecrat_ed  by  the 
bishop,  and  accompanied  with  prayers. 
The  anointing  of  persons  who  are  on 
their  death-bed  is  called  extreme  unction. 
UNDERSTAND'ING,  the  intellectual 
faculty,  or  that  faculty  of  the  human 
mind  by  which  it  apprehends  the  real 
state  of  things  presented  to  it,  or  by 
which  it  receives  or  comprehends  the 
ideas  which  others  express  and  intend  to 
communicate. 

UNDERAVRI'TER,  one  who  under- 
signs a  policy  of  insurance  on  a  ship  or 
its  cargo,  at  a  certain  rate  per  cent. 

UNDINES'r  or  ONDINES,  the  name 
given  by  the  Cabalists  to  one  class  of 
their  spirits  of  the  elements,  namely, 
those  residing  in  the  waters.  The  an- 
cient Greeks  believed  springs  and  lakes 
to  be  haunted  by  a  peculiar  race  of  su- 
pernatural nymphs,  and  this  belief 
passetl  down  unimpaired  to  the  middle 
ages.  The  ancient  Saxons  adored  the 
female  deity  of  the  Elbe  ;  and  the  belief 
in  undines  is  still  scarcely  eradicated  in 
that  region.  The  Saxon  peasauts  report 
that  an  undine  is  often  met  in  the  market- 
place of  Magdeburg,  dressed  as  a  girl  of 
their  own  class,  but  always  to  be  known 
by  having  one  corner  of  her  apron  wet. 
Near  Toulouse  many  objects  of  value 
were  once  discovered  on  draining  a  large 
artificial  lake,  which  are  supposed  to 
have  been  thrown  in  as  offerings  to  the 
spirits  of  the  water.  The  ni-ve  of  the 
northern  countries  is  of  the  same  family, 
and  the  Scottish  kelpies  are  creatures  of 
a  similar  superstition. 

UNIFORM'ITY.  ACT  OF,  the  act  of 
the  English  parliament  by  which  the  form 
of  public  prayers,  administration  of  sac- 
raments and  other  rites,  is  prescribed  to 
be  observed  in  all  the  churches. 

UN'ION,  or  Act  of  Union,  in  politics, 
the  act  by  which  Scotland  was  united  to 
England,  or  by  which  the  two  kingdoms 
were  incorporated  into  one,  in  1707.  Also, 
the  legislative  union  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  in  1801 — The  United  States  are 


616 


CVCl.Ol'EDIA     OF    LMKHATUUK 


also  called  the  Z^nion. — Among  painters, 
w/iio;i  denotes  a  .syininetry  and  agreement 
between  the  several  parts  of  a  painting. — 
In  architeeture,  iiarniony  between  the 
colors  in  the  materials  of  a  building. — -In 
ecclesiastical  aflfairs,  the  c-ombining  orcon- 
solidatingof  two  or  more  ehurehes  into  one. 

U'NISUN,  in  music,  a  coincidence  or 
agreement  of  sounds,  proceeding  from  an 
equality  in  the  number  of  vibrations 
made  in  a  given  time  by  a  sonorous  body. 
Unison  consists  in  sameness  of  degree,  or 
similarity  in  respect  to  gravit3'  or  acute- 
ness,  and  is  applicable  to  any  sound, 
whether  of  instruments  or  of  the  human 
organs,  &c. 

UNITA'RIAN,  a  name  used  to  desig- 
nate a  religious  denomination  who  hold 
to  the  personal  unity  of  God,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  doctrine  of  the  Unitarian  faith. 
They  profess  to  derive  their  views  from 
Scripture,  and  to  make  it  the  ultimate 
arbiter  in  all  religious  questions,  thus 
distinguishing  themselves  from  the  Ra- 
tionalists (otherwise  called  the  Anti-su- 
pernaturalists)  of  (iermany.  They  un- 
dertake to  show  that,  interpreted  accord- 
ing to  the  settled  laws  of  language,  the 
uniform  testimony  of  the  sacred  writings 
is,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  has  no  personal 
(xistence  distinct  from  the  Father,  and 
that  the  Son  is  a  derived  and  dependent 
being,  whether  as  some  believe,  created 
in  some  remote  period  of  time,  or,  as 
others,  beginning  to  live  when  he  appear- 
ed on  earth.  Three  of  the  passages  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  have  been  relied 
on  to  prove  the  contrarj',  (1  John  v.  7  ; 
1  Tim.  iii.  16  ;  and  Acts  x.\.  28,)  they 
hold,  with  other  critics,  to  be  spurious. 
Others  (as  John  i.  1,  Ac.  ;  Romans  i.\.  5,) 
they  maintain  to  have  received  an  erro- 
neous interpretation.  They  insist  that 
ecclesiastical  history  enables  them  to 
trace  to  obsolete  systems  of  heathen  phi- 
losophy the  introduction  of  the  received 
doctrine  into  the  church,  in  which,  once 
received,  it  has  been  sustained  on  grounds 
independent  of  its  merits  ;  and  they  go  so 
far  as  to  aver  that  it  is  satisfactorily  re- 
futed by  the  biblical  passages,  when 
rightly  understood,  which  are  customari- 
ly adduccil  in  its  support  The  principal 
Unitarian  authorities  are  Dr.  Priestley 
and  Mr.  Belsham,  who  were  among  the 
most  active  teachers  of  the  doctrine  in 
Great  Britain,  and  Dr.  William  E.  Chan- 
ning  in  this  country,  whose  writings  on 
the  subject  have  been  widely  circulated. 
In  the  United  States,  the  Unitarian  doc- 
trine has  prevailed  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent  among    the   Congrogationalists   of 


I  New  England,  and  is  said  to  number 
about  two  bundled  and  fifty  churches  in 
connection  with  that  body. 

U  NUriES,  in  the  drama,  are  three — 
of  time,  place,  and  action.  The  latter 
onlj-  is  strictly  adhered  to  in  the  dramatic 
coiupo.=itions  of  classical  antiquity;  but 
what  is  termed  by  moderns  the  classical 
drama  (in  opposition  to  the  romcntic)  re- 
quires all  three. 

U'^JITY,  the  state  of  being  one;  one- 
ness. Unity  may  consist  of  a  simple  sub- 
stance or  existing  being,  as  the  soul ;  but 
usually  it  consists  in  a  close  junction  of 
particles  or  parts,  constituting  a  body  de- 
tached from  other  bodies.  Unity  is  a  thing 
undivided  itself,  but  separate  from  every 
other  thing — In  poetry,  the  principle  by 
which  a  uniform  tenor  ot  ftory  and  pro- 
priety of  representation  is  preserved.  In 
the  (Jreek  drama,  the  three  unities  re- 
quired were  those  o{  action,  of  time,  and 
of  place  ;  in  other  wonls,  that  there  should 
be  but  one  main  plot ;  that  the  time  sup- 
posed should  not  exceed  twenty-four 
hours,  and  that  the  place  of  the  action  be- 
fore the  spectators  should  be  one  and  the 
same  throughout  the  jtiece.  In  the  epic 
poem,  the  great  and  almost  only  unity  is 
that  of  action. — In  music,  such  a  combina- 
tion of  parts  as  to  constitute  a  whole,  or  a 
kind  of  symmetry  of  style  and  character. 
— In  all  the  arts,  the  correspondence  of  the 
various  parts  of  a  work,  so  that  they  may 
form  one  harmonious  whole.  Unity  is  in- 
dispensable in  every  work  of  art. — In  law, 
the  properties  of  a  joint  estate  are  deriv- 
ed from  its  unity,  which  is  fourfold  ;  unity 
of  interest,  unity  of  title,  unity  of  time, 
and  unity  of  possession ;  in  other  words, 
joint-tenants  have  one  and  the  same  in- 
terest, accruing  by  one  and  the  same  con- 
veyance, commencing  at  the  same  time, 
and  held  by  one  and  the  same  undivid- 
ed possession.  Unity  of  possession  is  a 
joint  possession  of  two  rights  by  seve- 
ral titles,  as  when  a  man  has  a  lease  of 
land  ui)on  a  certain  rent,  and  afterwards 
buys  the  fee  simi)le.  This  is  a  unity  of 
possession,  by  which  the  lease  is  extin- 
guished.—  Unity  of  faith,  is  an  equal  be- 
lief of  the  same  truths  of  God,  and  pos- 
session of  the  grace  of  faith  in  like  form 
and  degree. —  Unity  of  spirit,  is  the  one- 
ness which  subsists  between  Christ  and 
his  saints,  by  which  the  same  spirit  dwells 
in  both,  and  both  have  the  same  disposi- 
tion and  aims;  and  it  is  the  oneness  of. 
Christians  among  themselves,  united  un- 
der the  same  head,  having  the  same  spir- 
it dwelling  in  them,  and  possessing  tb« 
same  graces,  faith,  love,  hope,  <fcc. 


CNl] 


AND    TIIK    yiSK     A  UTS. 


617 


UNIVER'SALISTS,  those  Christians 
who  believe  in  the  final  salvation  of  all 
men,  in  opjiosition  to  the  ductrine  of  eter- 
nal punishment.  There  is,  however,  a 
great  difference  of  opinion,  in  reganl  to 
the  future  state,  among  those  who  are 
called  Universalists  :  some  believe  in  a 
remedial  punishment  of  limited  duration, 
which  will  end  in  a  universal  restoration 
to  goodness  and  happiness  ;  others  believe 
that  all  men  will  bo  happy  after  the  dis- 
solution of  the  body,  but  in  different  de- 
grees until  the  resurrection;  and  yet 
others  bold  that  the  future  state  of  all 
will  be  alike  perfect  and  happy  immedi- 
ately after  death.  This  denomination 
has  made  great  progress  within  a  few 
years  in  the  United  States,  and  numbers 
about  1200  churches. 

UNIVERSALITY,  in  painting.  This 
quality,  though  impossible,  strictly  speak- 
ing, to  be  attained  by  any  individual, 
should,  in  a  modified  sense,  be  acquired 
by  the  artist  who  enters  for  fame  in  the 
hazardous  lists  of  historical  painting. 
According  to  the  subject  which  he  has  to 
treat,  it  is  requisite  that  he  should  know 
well  how  to  represent  both  landscape  and 
architecture,  lie  will  occasionally  find 
himself  obliged  to  introduce  the  figures 
of  horses,  dogs,  tigers,  lions,  serpents, 
&c.  Warlike  arras,  utensils  devoted  to 
sacred  ceremonies,  whether  ancient  or 
modern,  groups  of  cattle,  human  figures 
— in  short,  ahnost  everj'  object  which  is 
susceptible  of  exhibition  on  canvass  may 
be  regarded  as  likely  to  fall  in  his  way, 
and  to  demand  a  faithful  delineation. 
The  ancient  artists,  it  is  true,  mostly  dis- 
claimed this  universality  ;  with  them  the 
sole  object  frequently  was,  to  paint  with 
exactness  and  expression  the  human  form: 
but  modern  art  has  exploded  their  exclu- 
sive s^'stem  ;  and  requires  at  the  hand  of 
the  painter  of  history  an  acquaintance 
with  the  extensive  range  to  which  we 
have  alluded. 

U'NIVERSE,  the  collective  name  of 
heaven  and  earth  :  or  totalitj'  of  space, 
and  all  its  material  contents  and  phe- 
noniona,  of  whose  boundless  extent  and 
pmallest  parts  finite  beings  can  have  no 
just  idea  ;  but.  as  far  as  we  can  discover, 
it  is  filled  with  an  ethereal  fluid,  in  which 
masses  of  matter  are  equally  disposal 
throughout  space,  which  masses,  like  our 
sun,  act  as  centres  of  motion,  excite  lumi- 
nosity, and  transfer  motion  and  momenta 
to  subordinate  spheres,  like  our  earth, 
each  centre  being  millions  of  millions 
of  miles  distant  tVoni  the  others. 

UXIVER'SITY,  a  name  applied  to  an  1 


establishment  for  a  liberal  education, 
wherein  professors  in  the  several  branch- 
es of  science  and  polite  literature  arc 
maintained,  and  where  degrees  or  honors 
attached  to  the  attainments  of  scholars, 
are  c<inferred.  Such  an  establishment  is 
called  a  unirersily  ox  unitersal  school,  as 
intended  to  embrace  the  whole  compass 
of  study.  The  universities  of  Great  Bri- 
tain are  seated  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  St. 
Andrew's,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  Edin- 
burgh. They  are  governed  by  chancel- 
lors, vice-chancellors,  proctors,  and  bea- 
dles ;  and  every  college  has  its  master  and 
tutors  ;  there  are  also  public  lectures  of 
professors  in  every  established  branch  of 
knowledge.  The  students  and  all  the 
members  wear  an  ancient  costume  con- 
sisting of  trencher-caps  and  gowns,  varied 
according  to  their  degrees,  which  are 
bachelors  of  arts,  divinity,  law,  music, 
medicine  ;  masters  of  arts,  and  doctors  of 
divinity,  law,  and  physic.  The  London 
University  and  King's  College,  are  two 
collegiate  establishments  in  the  metropo- 
lis, of  recent  foundation,  which  may  prob- 
ably be  the  precursors  of  others.  Univer- 
sities in  their  present  form,  and  with 
their  present  privileges,  are  institutions 
comparatively  modern.  They  sprang 
from  the  convents  of  regular  clergy  or 
from  the  chapters  of  cathedrals  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  where  young  men  were 
educated  for  holy  orders,  in  that  dark 
period  when  the  clergy  possessed  all  the 
little  erudition  which  was  left  in  Europe. 
Probably  in  every  town  in  Europe  where 
there  is  now  a  university,  which  has  any 
claim  to  be  called  ancient,  these  convents 
were  seminaries  of  learning  from  their 
first  institution;  for  it  was  not  till  the 
more  eminent  of  the  laity  began  to  see 
the  importance  of  literature  and  science, 
that  universities  distinct  from  convents 
were  founded,  with  the  privilege  of  ad- 
mitting to  degrees,  which  conferred  some 
rank  in  civil  society.  These  universities 
have  long  been  considered  as  lay  corpora- 
tif)ns  ;  but  as  a  proof  that  they  had  this 
kind  of  ecclesiastical  origin,  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  observe,  that  the  pope  arroga- 
ted to  himself  the  right  of  vesting  them 
with  all  their  privileges  ;  and  that,  prior 
to  the  Rfcformation,  every  university  in 
Europe  conferred  its  degrees  in  all  the 
faculties  by  authority  derived  from  a 
papal  bull.  The  most  ancient  universi- 
ties in  Europe  are  those  of  Oxford,  Cam- 
bridge, Paris,  Salamanca,  and  Bologna, 
and  in  the  two  English  universities,  the 
first-founded  colleges  are  those  of  Uni- 
versity, Baliijl,  and   Jlerton.  in  the   for- 


CIS 


C\CI.01'E1)1A     OV     I.KKKATUKE 


UNI 


mer,  and  St.  Peter's  in  the  latter.  O.vford 
and  Cnmbridge  however,   weic  universi- 
ties, or,  as  they  weie  then  called,  filuiiie.", 
some  hundreds  of  ycais  beCore  colleges 
or  schools  were  built  in  theui  ;  for  the  for- 
mer flourished  as  a  seminary  of  learning 
in  the  reign  of  Alfreil  the  Great,  and  the 
otiier,  if  we  may  credit  its  partial  histo- 
rians, at  a  period  still  earlier.   The  univer- 
sities  of  Scotland  are  four,  St.  Andrews, 
Glasgow,     Aberdeen,      and     Edinburgh. 
In  Ireland   there   is  but  one  university, 
viz.,  that   of   Dublin,    founded   by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  very  richly  endowed.   The 
University  of  Oxford,  in  England,  i.s  an 
establishment  for  the  purposes  of  eihica- 
tion.  which  corresponds  to  a  federal  body 
united  for  political  purposes.     As,  in  this 
latter  case,  the  several  states  have  separ- 
ate jurisdictions,  separate  duties,  and  to  a 
certain  e.\tent  separate  interests,  so  the 
several  colleges  and  halls  which  compose 
the  academical  body,  have  each  its  own 
private  regulations  for  the  education  of  its 
members,  but  all  contribute   to  the  uni- 
versity education.     This  may  be  brought 
under  the  heads  of  public  examinations 
and   college    preparation.     In    its    early 
constitution,  and  in  the  gradual  additions 
■which   for    many  ages  were  made  to  it, 
the  system  now  followed  in  the  German 
universities  was   kept  in  view,   and  pro- 
fessorships or  readerships  in  the  different 
arts  and  sciences  were  established  ;  but 
these  university  officers  are  no  longer  the 
main  sources  of  instruction.    The  demand 
for    instruction    created    by  the    degree 
examination,  is  met   almost   exclusively 
by  lectures  delivered  in  the  several  col- 
leges and   halls,  or  rather,  by  private  tu- 
tors in  the  colleges  and  halls  ;  so  exclu- 
sively indeed,  that,  although  some  knowl- 
edge of  (Jreek  is  essential  for  a  degree, 
and    a   considerable   proficiency   for    the 
higher  class  degrees,  the  (J reek  professor 
has  no    lectures.     What   is  actually   re- 
quired for  a  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  is, 
that  the  student  should  display  some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  facts  and  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  religion,   and  especially 
with  the  peculiar  tenets  of  the  church  of 
England,  as  set  forth  in  its  articles  ;  some 
proficiency  in  the  (ireek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages,  in  one   or  more  of  the   ancient 
philosophical  treatises,  or,  in  lieu  of  this, 
in    a   portion    of  ancient    history :  some 
knowledge  also,  either  of  the  elements  of 
logic   or   of  the   elements   of  geometry. 
The   statute,   however,  contemjilates  the 
probability  of  a  much  higher  standard  of 
qualilication  in  a  portion  of  the  students; 
and  for  tlie.-c  it  provides  honors  adilition- 


al   to   that   of  a    mere  degree.       Their 
names  are  printed,  arranged  in  four  clas- 
ses,   according   to    a    fixed    standard    of 
merit    for    each   class.        The   candidate 
is    [icrmitted  to  name  the  book  in  which 
he    wishes    to    be    examined  :    and    the 
examiners  are,  besides,  at  liberty  to  exa- 
mine in  any  books  which  they  may  select. 
'J"he  mathematical  examinations  are  con- 
ducted principally  by    means   of  printed 
questions,  answered  in  writing.     A  candi- 
date for  the  first  class  may  be  stated  g«n- 
j  crallj'  to  have    acquired  a  knowledge  of, 
1  1.    the  elements   of  analytical  geometry 
!  and  trigonometry  ;   2.  the  differential  and 
integral  calculus  and  its  applications;   3. 
I  meclianics,  including  the  ])riuciples  of  ita 
application  to  the  solar  system,  embracing 
the  substance   of  the  three   first  sections 
of  Newton's    J-'rincipia,  which    are  also 
read  in  the  original  forms  ;  4.  the  princi- 
ples of  hydrostatics,  optics,  and  plane  as- 
tronomy.    The  examinations  take  place 
twice  a  year.     Prizes  are  given   for  the 
encouragement  of  compositions  in  prose 
and  verse,  in  Latin  and  English.     There 
are  also  public  scholarships,  which  ope- 
rate as  rewards  and  encouragements   of 
general  proficiency  or  particular  acquire- 
ments. These  include  classical  literature, 
mathematics,  Hebrew„  and  the  law.    The 
university  also   affords  facilities  for  the 
acquirement  of  various   branches  which 
do  not  enter  into  the  qualifications  for  a 
degree.     Thus  the  several  j)rofessors  of 
geology,    cheraistrj-,    and    many     other 
branches  of  science,  are  always  provided 
with  classes,  often  with  numerous  ones. 
AVe  now  proceed  to  the   college  prepara- 
tion for  the   public  examinations.     It  is 
this    that   really  constitutes   the  Oxford 
education.     The  process  of  instruction  in 
the  college  is  by  no  means  of  recitations. 
Every  head  of  a  house  appoints  a  certain 
number  of  tutors  for  this  purpose.   Ques- 
tions are  put  by  the  tutor,  ami   remarks 
made  bj'  him   on  the  book   which   is  the 
subject   of  study,     lie    also  gives  direc- 
tions respecting  the  proper  mode  of  study  • 
ing.     The  students    usually  attend  two, 
three,  or  four  tutors,  why  thus  give  in- 
struction in  different  branches.     The  col- 
lege tutor,  moreover,  has  interviews,  from 
time  to  time,  with  his  pujiils,  sejiarately, 
for    the    sake  of    ascertaining    the    indi- 
vidual's state  of  preparation  for  the  pub- 
lic   examination,    assisting    him    in    his 
diffieulties,    &c.      Besides   these    college 
tutors,  however,  there  are  jirivate  tutors, 
who  superintend  the  studies  of  individu- 
als, and  prepare  thcin  for  attendance  on 
the  exercises  of  the  college  tutors.  These 


UNlJ 


AND    THE    FINE    AIITS. 


Ill 


private  tutors  are  particularly  useful  to 
that  largo  cla«s  of  students  who  come 
to  college  in-uffioiently  prepared.  The 
college  instruction  close:^  at  the  end  of 
each  term,  with  a  formal  examination  of 
each  member  separately,  bj'  the  head  and 
tutors,  who  attend  for  this  purpose.  This 
summing  up  of  the  business  of  the  term 
is  called,  in  the  technical  language  of  the 
place,  colhclions  or  terminals.  Each 
student  preseuts  himself  in  turn,  with  the 
books  in  which  ho  has  received  instruction 
during  the  term,  and,  in  many  colleges. 
with  the  essays  and  other  exercises  which 
he  has  written,  his  analyses  of  scientific 
works,  abriilginents  of  histories  and  the 
like.  In  some  colleges  the  students  are 
required  to  present,  for  their  examina- 
tion, some  book  also,  in  which  they  have 
not  received  instruction  during  the  term. 
Besides  the  other  studies  pursued  in  the 
eolleges,  the  students  write  weekly  short 
essays  on  a  given  subject,  occasionally 
interchanged  with  a  copy  of  Latin  verses, 
for  those  skilled  in  versification.  The 
liberality  of  donors  has  enabled  the  col- 
leges to  provide  indirectly  for  the  pro- 
rairtion  of  study  by  means  of  exhibitions, 
scholarships,  and  fellowships.  Every  col- 
lege and  hall  examines,  if  it  thinks  fit, 
its  own  candidates  for  admission,  and 
pronounces,  each  according  to  a  standard 
of  its  own,  on  their  fitness  or  unfitness 
for  the  university.  The  first  universities 
founded  in  Germany  wpro  those  of  Prague, 
1343,  and  Vienna,  13(5.'i,  both  after  the 
model  of  that  of  Paris:  in  both  the  divi- 
sion into  four  nations  was  adopted.  This 
circumstance  caused  the  decline  of  the 
former,  and  the  foundation  of  a  new  one. 
The  emperor  Charles  lY.  had  divided  the 
teachers  and  students,  when  the  univer- 
sity of  Prague  was  founded,  into  the  Bo- 
hemian, Polish,  Bavarian,  and  Saxon 
nations.  The  Germans,  therefore,  (as  the 
Polish  nation  consisted  chiefly  of  German 
Silesians,)  had  the  advantage  over  the 
Bohemians  :  and,  as  these  were  unwilling 
to  suffer  their  oppressions,  John  Huss 
and  Jerome  of  Prague  induced  the  em- 
peror Wenceslaus  to  make  three  nations 
of  the  Bohemian  and  one  of  the  two  Ger- 
man. Several  thousand  students  and 
teachers  withdrew  immediately,  and  gave 
rise  to  the  university  of  Leipsic,  in  1409, 
where  they  were  divided  into  four  na- 
tions, the  Misnian,  Saxon,  Bavarian,  and 
Polish.  None  of  the  other  (icrman  uni- 
versities, founded  in  the  fifteenth  centu- 
ry, adopted  the  division  into  nations. 
TTniversities  were  now  expressly  estab- 
lished, and  not   loft  to   grow  up  of  them- 


selves, iis  before.  For  almost  three  cen- 
turies, the  popes  continueil  to  erect  these 
institutions,  and  exercised  the  right  of 
Iirotccting  and  of  su[)crintending  them. 
Monarchs  who  wished  to  establish  a  uni- 
versitv,  requested  the  papal  confirmation 
(which  never  was  denied,)  and  submitted 
to  the  authority  which  the  Roman  see 
arrogated  over  them.  Wittenberg  was 
the  first  German  university  which  re- 
ceived its  confirmation  (in  1.502,)  not  from 
the  pope,  but  from  the  (jlerman  emperor  ; 
but  oven  this  institution  eventually  re- 
quested the  papal  confirmation.  Marburg 
was  established  in  1525,  without  papal 
or  imperial  confirmation  :  the  latter,  how- 
ever, was  subsequently  given.  Even 
Giittingen,  founded  in  1734,  obtained  im- 
perial privileges,  after  the  model  of  those 
of  llalle.  The  unhappy  thirty  year's 
war  did  much  injury  to  the  German  uni- 
versities ;  but  since  that  period,  they  have 
advanced  beyond  those  of  any  other  coun- 
try ;  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  principal 
part  of  the  liberty  left  to  the  Germans  has 
been  academical  liberty  ;  hence,  also,  their 
abuse  of  it ;  hence,  too,  the  fondness  with 
which  a  German  recalls  his  life  at  the  iini- 
versitv  ;  and  hence  the  students'  jealousy 
of  their  privileges.  Germany  has  more 
universities  than  any  other  country.  The 
general  organization  of  a  German  univer- 
sity is  as  follows  : — A  number  of  vrofes- 
sores  ordinarii  are  appointed  for  the  va- 
rious branches.  They  divide  themselves 
mt'^iowT  faculties,  each  having  a  dean  an- 
nually chosen  by  themselves  from  among 
their  number.  All  these  professors  gen- 
erally form  the  senate,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  rector,  who  is  chosen  an- 
nually. They  have  jurisdiction  over  the 
students,  in  regard  to  small  offences  and 
matters  of  police,  and  make  the  general 
provisions  respecting  instruction,  with  the 
consent  of  the  government.  Professors 
in  most  universities  are  appointed  by  the 
government.  Besides  these  professors, 
there  are  an  indefinite  number  of  profes- 
sorcs  extraordinarii,  for  the  same  branch- 
es, or  for  particular  parts  of  them.  They 
receive  small  salaries,  and  are  the  persons 
to  whom  the  government  look  to  fill  va- 
cancies. They  are  generally  persons  who 
have  distinguished  themselves,  and  whose 
talents  the  government  wishes  J;o  secure. 
In  Berlin,  there  are  a  great  many  of  these 
extraordinary  professors.  The  last  class  of 
lecturers  are  the  docentes,  or  licentiates, 
who,  after  undergoing  an  examination, 
have  obtained  permission  to  teach  (licen- 
tia  dorendi.)  They  receive  no  salarj' 
.\ny  person  can  request  to  bo  examined 


620 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[use 


by  the  faculty  in  this  way,  and  thus  ca- 
pacitate himself  tn  teach.  Froni  them 
the -prq/eisoj-cs  exlraordinarii  are  ordi- 
narily taiven.  Every  person  in  these 
three  classes  can  lecture  upon  whatever 
Bubjcct  he  may  choose,  the  professors  being 
only  obliged  to  deliver  lectures  also  on 
the  branches  for  which  they  are  particu- 
larly appointed  Thus  we  constantly  find 
theologians  lecture  on  polities,  philoso- 
phers on  theological  subjects  and  statis- 
tics ;  theologians  on  philology,  Ac.  Very 
often  three  or  four  courses  are  delivered 
on  the  same  subject.  The  Gerinan  stu- 
dent, in  the  Protestant  universities,  is 
left  at  full  liberty  to  choose  the  lectures 
which  he  will  attend.  No  official  exami- 
nation takes  place  during  his  term  of 
study.  The  only  regulation  is  that,  in 
the  case  of  most  sciences,  he  is  required 
to  attend  certain  lectures,  and  study  full 
three  year^,  if  he  wishes  to  obtain  an  ap- 
pointment, practise  a  profession,  A'c  ,  if 
he  is  not  specially  exempted  from  so 
doing.  If  he  wishes  to  practise  medicine, 
he  must  studj'  in  Prussia  four  }'ears.  The 
German  student  usually  divides  his  term 
of  study  among  two  or  more  universities  ; 
but  whilst  he  is  thus  left  almost  at  full 
liberty  while  at  the  university,  ho  must 
go  tllrough  a  severe  examination,  particu- 
larly in  Prussia,  if  he  wishes  to  become 
a  clergyman,  statesman,  practise  as  phy- 
sican,  lawyer,  or  teacher  in  a  superior 
school.  These  examinations  are  both 
oral  and  in  writing,  and  the  successive 
steps  of  promotion  are  attended  with  new 
examinations.  In  the  United  States,  the 
word  university  has  bean  applied  to  Har- 
vard College  at  Cambridge,  and  other 
smaller  literary  institutions.  b\it  not  with 
exact  propriety,  as  those  seminaries  are 
usually  devoted  to  the  elementary  studies 
of  an  academical  course. 

URA'NIA,  in  Grecian  mytiiology,  the 
muse  of  astronomy.  She  is  generally 
represented  with  a  crown  of  stars,  in  a 
garment  spotteil  with  stars,  and  holding 
in  her  left  hand  a  celestial  globe  or  a 
lyre.  Urania  is  likewise  the  name  of 
the  heavenly  Venus,  or  of  ))ure  intellec- 
tual love.  One  of  the  Occanides,  or  sea- 
nymphs,  was  also  called  Urania. 

U  '  U  I  M,  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
among  the  Israelites,  signify  lights  and 
perfections.  These  were  a  kind  of  orna- 
ment belonging  to  the  habit  of  the  his'i 
priest,  in  virtue  of  which  he  ^ave  oracular 
answers  to  the  jieople  ;  liut  what  tiiey  were 
has  not  been  satisfactorily  ascertained. 

URN,  in  antiquity,  a  kmd  of  vase  of  a 
roundish  form,  but  largest  in  the  middle, 


destined  to  receive  the  ashes  of  the  dead. 
The  substances  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  these  vessels  were  numerous. 
Amongst  them  are  gold,  bronze,  glass, 
terracotta,  marble,  anii  porphyry.  Many 
have  been  discovered  bearing  inscriptions; 
others  with  the  name  only  of  the  (larty 
to  whoso  remains  they  were  devoted. — 
It  was  also  customary  with  the  Romans 
to  put  the  names  of  those  who  were  to 
engage  at  the  public  games,  into  urns, 
taking  them  in  the  order  in  which  they 
were  drawn  out.  Into  such  a  vessel  also 
they  threw  the  notes  of  their  votes  at  the 
elections — The  urn  {iirna)  was  also  a 
Roman  measure  for  liquids,  containing 
about  three  gallons  and  a  half,  wine  meas- 
ure.    It  was  half  the  umjihora 

UR'SULINES  or  Nuns  of  St.  UrsuU, 
a  sisterhood  founded  by  St.  Angela  of 
Brescia,  in  1537,  at  first  without  being 
bound  to  the  rules  of  the  monastic  life, 
but  devoting  themselves  merely  to  the 
practice  of  Christian  charity  and  the  ed- 
ucation of  children  Many  governments, 
which  abolished  convents  in  general,  pro- 
tected the  Ursulines  on  account  of  their 
useful  labors,  particularly  in  the  practice 
of  attending  on  the  sick,  and  administering 
to  their  cure  and  their  comforts. 

USANCE,  in  commerce,  the  time  fixed 
for  the  payment  of  bills  of  exchange, 
reckoned  either  from  the  day  on  which 
the  bill  is  accepted,  or  from  that  of  its 
date,  varying  in  dilfereiit  countries,  and 
thus  called,  because  wholly  dependent  on 
usage. 

I'SII'ER,  literally  a  "door-keeper:" 
being  derived  from  the  French  "huissier." 
In  Britain,  usher  is  the  name  given  to 
several  public  officers,  in  which  sense  it 
seems  to  be  synonymous  with  sergeant. 
These  ushers  are  in  waiting,  introduce 
strangers,  and  execute  orders.  Usher  is 
also  used  as  the  denomination  of  an  assist- 
ant to  a  school-master;  where  it  seems 
to  refer  to  his  ollicc  of  introducing  the 
scholars  to  learning. 

USTRl'NU.M,  in  Roman  antiquities,  ii 
public  burning-]ilace,  enclosed  by  walls, 
in  which  boilics,  mostly  of  the  poorer  sort 
of  people,  were  consumed.  An  ustrinum, 
according  to  Jlontfaupon.  was  square, 
and  in  compass  about  3U0  feet. 

USUCAP'TION,  in  the  civil  law,  the 
acquisition  of  the  title  or  right  to  jiroj)- 
erty  by  the  undisputed  possession  and 
enjoyment  of  it  for  a  certain  term  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

U'S UFRUCT.  in  the  civil  law,  the  tem- 
porary use  or  enjoyment  of  lands  or  ten- 
ements ;    or   the    right  of  receiving   the 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


621 


truits  and  profits  of  an  inheritance,  with- 
v.ut  a  pox'Oi-  of  aiiennting  the  property. 

U'SURY,  a  ociiipensatiou  or  rewiird  for 
money  lent.  In  this  sense  it  is  merely 
equivalent  to  i,i,'crest.  In  the  couinion 
business  of  lifa,  however,  it  rarely  has 
this  significaiion ;  but  is  chiefly  u.^eJ  in 
an  odious  sense,  to  o.xpre.ss  an  exorbitant 
or  illegal  compensation  for  money  lent, 
in  contradistinction  to  logal  interest. 

UTILITA'IUAXS,  a  rame  which  has 
been  given  to  a  particular  sect  of  modern 
politicians ;  those,  namely-,  who  profess 
to  try  the  excellence  of  modes  of  govern- 
ment ai:d  usiiges  simply  hy  tbeir  utility. 
The  celebrated  Jeremy  Ijcnthaiu,  regard- 
ed as  the  fcuuder  of  this  sect,  introduced 
into  the  critical  department  of  politics  a 
closer  logic  than  had  been  commonly  ap- 
plied to  it  ;  and  aimed  at  applj'ing  his 
famous  principle.  "  the  greatest  ha.npiness 
of  the  greatest  niuxiber,"  as  an  immedi- 
ate test  by  which  Ic  affirm  or  deny  the 
value  of  institutioi.s.  It  is  evident  that 
all  political  sects,  boMi  of  writers  and 
statesmen,  profess  ultiia;;tely  the  same 
object.  The  real  charatieristic  of  the 
Utilitarwns  consists  in  the  j.bouliar  sense 
in  which  they  understand  it  They  con- 
fine for  the  most  part  the  proposed  utility, 
so  as  to  restrict  it  to  that  which  is  "jseful 
for  the  material  and  economical  :vell- 
being  of  the  muUitude. 

TITIPOSSIDE'Tf;^,  in  politics,  a  treaty 
which  leaves  bellige.' nt  parties  mutually 
\.\  possession  of  what  they  have  acquired 
by  their  arms  during  the  war  is  said  to 
be  based  on  the  principle  of  uti  possidetis 
— "  as  you  possess." 

UTOTIA,  a  term  invented  by  Sir  T. 
More,  and  applied  in  his  celebrated  work 
called  Utopia  to  an  imaginary  island, 
which  he  represents  to  have  been  discov- 
ered by  a  companion  of  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci,'and  as  enjoying  the  utmost  perfec- 
tion in  laws,  polities,  &c  ,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  defects  of  those  which  then 
existed.  The  work  was  first  printed  in 
1516,  but  Froben's  edition,  of  1518,  is 
more  correct.  The  word  Utopia  has  now 
passed  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe 
to  signifj'  a  state  of  ideal  perfection  ;  and 
Utopian  is  used  synonymously  withyan- 
ciful  or  chimerical. 


V. 


V,  the  twenty-second  letter  of  the  al- 
phabet, is  a  labial  articulation,  nearly 
allied  to  /".  being  formed  by  the  same  or- 


gans ;  but  V  is  vocal,  and  ./"  i.?  aspirate, 
and  this  constitutes  the  principal  diflTer- 
ence  between  them.  V  has  one  sound 
only,  as  in  vain,  very,  rote,  vanity. 
Though  r  and  u  have  nt^  distinct  uses  as 
afly  two  letters  in  the  al])liabet,  they  were 
formerly  con;  idercd  as  one  letter;  and  in 
some  eneyclopajdias  and  dictionaries  the 
absunl  practice  of  arranging  the  words 
which  begin  with  these  letters  is  still  con- 
tinued. As  a  numeral,  V  stan<is  for  5j 
and  with  a  dash  over  it,  in  old  books,  for 
5000. 

VA,  in  music,  Italian  for  "  go  on,"  as 
va  rresrcndo,  go  on  increasing. 

VACA'TION,  in  law,  the  period  be- 
tween the  end  of  one  term  and  the  begin- 
ning of  another :  and  the  same  in  the 
universities. 

VA'DE  IN  PACE,  (Lat.  5-0  m  peace) 
In  monastic  communities  offences  were 
sometimes  punished  by  the  dreadful  in- 
fliction of  starving  to  death  in  prison  ;  and 
bones  have  been  occasionally  found  among 
the  ruins  of  convents  of  victims  who  ap- 
pear to  have  perished  in  this  manner. 
The  punishment  acquired  this  name  from 
the  words  in  which  the  sentence  was  pro- 
nounced. The  use  which  Walter  Scott  has 
made  of  this  custom  in  his  poem  of  Mar- 
mion  is  well  known.  But  it  is  no  roman- 
tic fiction. 

VA'DE-MEi;UM  (from  the  Latin,  sig- 
nifying Ho  wii/i  7116,)  a  favorite  book  or 
i  other  thing  that  a  person  constantly  car- 
!  lies  with  him. 

VA'GRANT,  in  law,  the  word  vagrant 
h,\s  a  much  more  extended  meaning  than 
thii.'.  assigned  to  it  in  ordinary  language, 
and  in  its  application  the  notion  of  wan- 
deriug  is  almost  lost.  By  the  law  va- 
grants are  divided  into  three  classes — 
idle  and  disorderly  pers^jus ;  rogues  and 
vagabinds  ;  incorrigible  rogues.  Under 
the  first  class  are  included,  every  person 
who  refuses  or  neglects  to  maintain  him- 
self and  family,  he  being  able  to  do  so  ; 
paupers  returning  without  certificate  to 
pari.shes  from  which  they  have  been  le- 
gally removed ;  pedlars  without  license, 
beggars,  common  prostitutes,  &c.  Under 
the  second  class,  are  included  every  per- 
son committing  any  offence  which  would 
constitute  him  an  idle  or  disorderly  per- 
son, and  who  has  been  once  already  con- 
victed, fortune  tellers,  and  other  impos- 
tors ;  persons  guilty  of  indecent  exhibi- 
tions ;  persons  collecting  alms  or  money 
under  false  pretences ;  wanderers  who 
have  no  visible  means  of  subsistence,  and 
cannot  give  a  good  account  of  themselves  ; 
persons  playing  at  games  of  chance  in 


622 


CVCI.OrKDIA     OF    MTKIIATUUE 


[v 


public  places ;  reputed  thieves;  persons 
having  in  their  pofsession  housebreaking 
implements  or  offensive  weapons  with  in- 
tent to  use  them.  UniJer  the  third  class 
are  inolu  led  persons  guilty  of  the  last 
class  of  offences,  having  been  already  con- 
victed ;  persons  breaking  out  of  legal  con- 
finement ;  every  person  apprehended  as  a 
rogue  and  vagabond,  and  violently  resist- 
ing any  constable  or  other  peace  officer, 
so  apprehending  him.  For  all  these  of- 
fences the  punishment  is  imprisonment  or 
hardjabor  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  particular 
offence.  In  Scotland,  the  laws  against 
vagrants,  as  beggars,  fortune  tellers,  jug- 
glers, minstrels,  Ac,  are  of  a  much  less 
stringent  nature,  and  such  persons  are 
seldom  apprehended  or  punished,  unless 
where  police  regulations  are  enforced,  or 
where  they  are  entering  a  parish  in  the 
face  of  an  advertised  prohibition,  or  where 
they  are  committing  or  in  the  notorious 
habit  of  committing  pettv  delinquencies. 
VAL'ENTINE'S  DAY,  the  14th  of 
February,  a  festival  in  the  calendar  in 
honor  of  St.  Valentine,  who  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius. He  was  eminently  distinguished  for 
his  love  and  charity;  and  the  custom  of 
choosing  valentines,  or  special  loving 
friends,  on  this  day,  is  by  some  supposed 
to  have  thence  originated  The  following 
solution  is,  however,  the  .iiore  probable 
one.  It  was  the  practice  in  ancient  Rome, 
during  a  great  pirt  of  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary, to  celebrate  the  Lupcrealiii,  which 
were  feasts  in  honor  of  Pan  and  Juno, 
whence  the  latter  deit3'  was  named  Fe- 
bruata,  or  Februalis.  On  this  occasion, 
amidst  a  variety  of  ceremonies,  the  names 
of  young  women  were  put  into  a  bo.\, 
from  which  they  were  drawn  by  the  men, 
as  chance  directed.  The  pastors  of  the 
early  Christian  church,  who  by  every  pos- 
sible means  endeavored  to  eradicate  the 
vestiges  of  pagan  superstitions,  and  eliief- 
ly  by  some  commutations  of  their  forms, 
substituted,  in  the  present  instance,  the 
names  of  particular  saints,  instead  of 
those  of  the  women;  anvl  as  the  festival 
of  the  Lupercalia  had  commenced  about 
the  middle  of  February,  they  appear  to 
have  chosen  Valentine's-day  for  celebrat- 
ing the  new  feast,  because  it  occurred 
nearly  at_[he  same  time. 

VAL'El',  originally,  the  sons  of 
knijrhts,  and  afterwar.ls  those  of  the 
nobility  before  they  had  attained  the 
ago  of  chivalry.  The  name  is  sometimes 
written  vasletits.  and  seems  to  be  derived 
from  the  sai«e  root  with  vassal ;  probably 


the  Celtic  gwas.  Valet  in  French,  and 
varlet  in  English,  degenerated  in  later 
times  into  the  signification  of  servant. 

VALHALLA,  the  palace  of  immor- 
tality, in  the  Scandinavian  uij'thology, 
inhabited  by  the  souls  of  heroes  slain  in 
battle. 

VALKY'RIUR,  the  Fates  rS  the 
Scandinavian  mythology:  the  '"choosers 
of  the  slain,"  who  conduct  heroes  killed 
in  battle  to  Valhalla. 

VALLA'KIS  CORO'NA,  in  antiquity, 
agolden  crown  which  the  Roman  generals 
bestowed  on  him  who,  in  attacking  the 
enemy's  camp,  first  broke  in  upon  the 
lines  or  pallisades.  It  was  al.so  called 
Corona  caslrensis. 

VALLUM,  among  the  Romans,  was 
the  parapet  which  fortified  their  encamp- 
ments. 

VALO'REM,  or  AD  VALOREM,  ac- 
cording to  the  value  ;  as,  an  ad  valore.n 
duty. 

VAL'UE,  in  commerce,  the  price  or 
worth  of  any  purchasable  commodity. 
The  intrinsic  value  denotes  the  real  and 
effective  worth  of  a  thing,  and  is  used 
chiefly  with  regard  to  money,  the  popular 
value  of  which  may  be  raised  or  lowered, 
but  its  real  or  intrinsic  value,  depending 
wholly  on  its  weight  and  purity,  is  not 
at  all  thereby  affected  — The  value  of 
commodities  is  regulated  principally  by 
the  comiiarativo  facility  of  their  produc- 
tion, and  partly  on  the  relation  of  the 
supply  and  demand.  Rut  many  other 
causes  operate  to  raise  or  depreciate  the 
value  of  an  article  ;  as  monopolies, 
fashion,  new  inventions,  the  opening  of 
new  markets,  or  the  stoppage  of  com- 
mercial intercfuirso  through  war,  <fec. 
And,  in  fact,  in  all  countries  where  mer- 
chants are  possessed  of  large  capitals, 
and  where  they  are  left  to  be  guiiled  in 
the  use  of  them  by  their  own  discretion 
and  foresight,  the  prices  of  commodities 
will  frequently  be  very  much  influenced, 
not  merelj'  by  the  actu.il  occurrence  of 
changes  in  the  accustomed  relation  of 
the  supply  and  demand,  but  by  the  niero 
anticipation  of  them — Value,  in  another 
sensf,  denotes  those  properties  in  a  thing 
wnicti  render  it  useful  or  estimable  :  thus, 
for  instance,  the  i-ea!  or  intrinsic  value 
I  of  iron  is  far  greater  than  that  of  gold. 
I  V.V.M'PLET,  in  arch;oology,  a  piece 
»*<f  steel,  formed  like  a  fnnntd,  placdi  on 
'  tilting  spears  just  before  the  hand  to  se- 
cure it,  but  which  might  be  taken  off  at 
pleasure. 

VAN'D.\L.S,  a  ferocious  race,  who,  it 
is  believeil,  were  either  a  Sclavonic  tribe, 


VAUj 


ANT)     ritK     FIXE     ARTS. 


023 


or  came  from  the  north  of  Germany,  be- 
tween the  Elbe  and  the  Vistula.  During 
the  4th  and  5th  centuries  tbcy  became 
very  puwerful,  ami,  under  Oenscric,  their 
king,  overran  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Italy. 
They  subsequently  c.stabli.-<hed  them- 
selves in  Africa  ;  but  were  eventually 
•subdued  by  Belisarius,  the  celebrated 
itMinan  general  in  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
who  took  their  king,  Gelimer,  prisoner, 
and  carried  him  to  Con.stantinople  in 
triumph.  From  the  ferocity  of  their 
character,  and  the  havoc  they  made  of 
the  finest  works  of  art,  the  words  Van- 
dalism and  Vandalic  have  been  applied 
to  such  acts  as  imply  a  rude  and  savage 
ferocity  combined  with  a  disregard  of 
the  advantages  of  civilization. 

VA'RI.A.XCE,  in  law,  a  difference  of 
statement  between  two  material  docu- 
ments in  a  cause;  as  where  the  plain- 
tiff's declaration  differed  (formerly)  from 
the  writ,  or  where  it  differs  from  a  deed 
on  which  it  is  grounded.  And,  in  or- 
dinary language,  a  departure  in  the  oral 
evidence  from  the  statement  in  the 
pleadings  is  termed  a  variance.  This 
variance  may  be  either  immateria'  or 
material  ;  and,  in  the  latter  case,  amend- 
able or  not.  aceordiiig  to  a  groat  varietj' 
of  distinctions. —  Variation,  in  music,  the 
different  manner  of  pl.aying  or  singing 
the  same  air  or  tune,  by  subdividing  the 
notes  into  several  others  of  less  value,  or 
by  adding  graces,  &c.,  yet  so  that  the 
tune  itself  may  be  discovered  through  all 
its  embellishments. — In  grammar,  change 
of  termination  of  nouns  and  adjectives, 
constituting  what  is  called  case,  number, 
and  gender. 

VARIORI'M  EDITIO]T.S,  in  litera- 
ture, editions  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics,  in  which  the  notes  of  different 
commentators  are  inserted. 

VAiiRO'NIAN  SATIRE,  a  species  of 
s.itire  so  called  from  the  le'arned  Varro, 
who  first  composf.]  it.  The  style  was 
free  and  unconfined,  containing  both 
prose  and  verse  intermixed  according  to 
the  fancv  of  the  writer. 

VAR'TABED,  one  of  an  order  of 
ecclesiastics  in  the  Armenian  church. 
They  di9'>r  from  the  priests  by  living  in 
seclusion  and  celibacy.  They  also  preach, 
while  the  priests  do  not. 

VARU  N.A,  in  Hindoo  mythology,  the 
god  of  tl)e  waters,  the  Indian  Neptune, 
and  the  regent  of  the  west  division  of  the 
earth,  lie  is  represented  as  a  white  man. 
four-armed,  riding  on  a  sea  animal,  with 
a  rope  in  one  of  his  hands,  and  a  club  in 
another. 


VASE,  in  architecture,  an  ornament 
placed  on  cornices,  socles,  or  pediments, 
representing  such  vessels  as  the  ancients 
used  in  sacrifices,  <fec.  The  Grecian  art- 
ists gave  to  every  vase  the  shape  best 
adapted  to  its  use,  and  most  agreeable  to 
the  eye.  A  great  number  of  these  ves- 
sels have  been  preserved  to  the  present 
daj',  and  offer  to  artists  models  of  the 
most  beautiful  forms. — Among  florists, 
the  calyx  of  a  plant,  as  the  tulip,  is  called 
a  rase. 

VATICAN,  the  ancient  palace  of  the 
popes,  and  the  most  magnificent  in  the 
world,  stands  at  Rome  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tiber,  and  on  the  hill  anciently 
called  by  the  same  name  ;  derived,  ac- 
cording to  Aulus  Gellius,  from  Vaticini- 
um,  or  rather  from  an  ancient  oracular 
deity  of  the  Latins,  called  by  the  Romans 
Jupiter  Vaticanus,  who  was  worshipped 
there.  Some  say  that  Pope  Symmachus 
began  the  constructi(m  of  the  palace.  It 
was  inhabited  by  Charlemagne  in  800  ; 
and  the  present  irregular  edifice  has  been 
raised  by  the  gradual  additions  of  a  long 
series  of  pontiffs.  Its  extent  is  enormous, 
the  number  of  rooms,  at  the  lowest  com- 
putation, amounting  to.  4422  ;  and  its 
riches  in  marbles,  bronzes,  and  frescoes, 
in  ancient  statues  and  gems,  and  in  paint- 
ings, are  unequalled  in  the  world  ;  not  to 
mention  its  library,  the  richest  in  Europe 
in  manuscripts.  The  length  of  the  mu- 
seum of  statues  alone  is  computed  to  be 
a  mile  :  here  are  the  Sistine  Chapel ;  tno 
Caraere  of  Raphael,  painted  by  himself 
and  pupils  ;  the  Museum  of  Pius  VI ,  pe- 
culiarly rich  in  objects  of  ancient  Italian 
workmanship  ;  and  other  deposits  of  art 
and  antiquil3-,  each  of  Which  by  itself 
would  sutiioe  to  reniler  a  city  illustrious. 

VAU'DEVILLE,  in  French  poetry,  a 
species  of  light  song,  frequently  of  a  sa- 
tirical turn,  consisting  of  several  couplets 
and  a  refrain  or  burden,  introduced  into 
theatrical  pieces.  The  origin  of  the  word 
is  disputed;  some  derive  it  from  Vau-de- 
vire,  a  village  in  Normandy.  Short  comic 
pieces  interspersed  with  such  songs  are 
also  termed  Vaudevilles. 

VAU  DOIS,  the  inhabitants  of  some 
valleys  in  the  Alps  between  Italy  and 
Provence,  from  whence  they  derive  their 
name  ;  and  who  must  be  distinguished 
from  liie  Waldenses,  or  followers  of  Peter 
Waldo,  who  acquired  celebrity  in  the  12th 
century,  and  from  whom  some  writers 
have  deduced  both  their  religious  tenets 
and  their  ai>pellation  also.  The  Vaudoia 
are  celebrated  for  having  maintained  the 
purity  of  their  doctrine  for  many  ages 


621 


CVCLUI'KDIA     UF    LITKIIATLRS; 


[VEE 


before  the  l\fcform<ition  ;  and  it  has  been 
asserted  by  gome  theologians  that  the 
true  spirit  of  the  iiriiuitive  Christianity 
was  kept  alive  among  them  throughout 
the  whole  period  of  Itomish  corruption. 
This  position,  however,  does  not  seem 
susceptible  of  proof.  Another  claim  that 
they  possess  to  a  place  in  ecclesiastical 
historj',  is  derived  from  the  numerous 
persecutions  to  which  they  have  been 
e.xposed  on  account  of  the  witness  they 
have  so  long  borne  agairist  the  erro- 
neous doctrines  of  the  nations  by  whom 
they  are  surrounded.  Their  extreme 
antiquity  is  certain  at  all  events  ;  and 
the  numerous  attempts  which  have  been 
made  by  Romanist  writers  to  fi.x  on  them 
the  stigma  of  Manicheism  seem  unsup- 
ported by  the  evidence.  For  the  last 
three  centuries  they  have  been  viewed 
with  displeasure  by  the  dukes  of  Savoy 
and  the  kings  of  Sardinia,  their  masters, 
and  repeatedly  visited  with  military  ex- 
ecution, or  more  legal  forms  of  violence. 
One  great  persecution,  in  the  17(h  cen- 
tur.v,  is  known  to  us  by  Milton's  noble 
sonnet. 

VAULT,  in  architecture,  a  continued 
arch,  or  an  arched  roof,  so  constructed 
that  the  stones,  bricks,  or  other  material 


of  which  it  is  composed,  sustain  and  keep 
each  other  in  their  places.  Vaults  are 
of  various  kinds,  cylindrical,  elliptical, 
single,  dt)uble,  cross,  diogonal,  Gothic, 
<fcc.  When  a  vault  is  of  greater  height 
than  half  its  span,  it  is  said  to  be  sur- 
viounted,  r^nd  when  of  less  height,  sur- 
based.  A  rampant  vault  is  one  which 
springs  from  p!  tnes  not  parallel  to  the 
horizon.  One  \!iult  placed  above  an- 
other constitutes  u  duiible  ratUt.  A  conic 
vault  is  fornicil  of  part  of  the  surface  of  a 
cone,  and  a  spherical  i^ault  of  part  of  the 
surface  of  a  sphere,  as  fig  4.  A  vault  is 
iimpli:,  as  Cgs    ■  and  4,  when  it  is  formed 


by  the  surface  of  some  regular  solid, 
around  one  axis;  and  compound,  as  figs. 
2  and  3,  when  compounded  of  more  than 
one  surface  of  the  »ame  solid,  or  of  two 
different  solids.  A  groined  vault,  fig.  3, 
is  a  compound  vault,  rising  to  the  same 
height  in  its  surfaces  as  that  of  two  equal 
cylinders,  or  a  cylinder  with  a  cylindroid 

VAVASOR,  an  ancient  title  of  nobili- 
ty in  England,  said  by  Camden  to  be 
ne.xt  below  a  baron. 

VEAT.ER,  the  13th  month  of  the  Jew- 
ish  ecclesiastical  j-ear. 

VE  DA,  the  name  by  which  the  Hin- 
doos designate  the  collective  body  of  their 
Scriptures;  sometimes  called  Vedam, 
Bedam,  &c-  according  to  various  provin- 
cial pronunciations,  by  European  writers. 
The  four  Vedas  (Rig,  Yajust,  Saman,  and 
Atharvan,)  are  believed,  according  to  the 
orthodo.x  creed,  to  have  been  revealed  by 
Brahma.  But  the  subdivisions  are  infi- 
nite, as  are  also  the  connected  works — 
Upavedas,  Angas,  Upangas,  &c. ;  some 
of  which  are  considered  by  Mr.  Cole- 
brooke  to  constitute,  according  to  received 
opinion,  a  fifth  Veda.  The  arrangeii.ent 
is  ascribed  to  one  Vyasa,  a  sage  of  whom 
ns..ihing  positive  can  be  ascertained.  The 
Vedas  chiefly  consist  of  prayers,  precepts 
or  maxims,  and  stories ;  called  respec- 
tively by  different  titles,  '''hus  a  portion 
of  the  mythological  histoues  are  called 
Puranas ;  but  ihese  are  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  poems  of  romantic  my- 
thology called  by  the  same  name.  The 
genuineness  and  antiquity  of  the  Vedas 
have  been  matter  of  much  dispute  among 
western  antiquaries.  The  chief  chrono- 
logical data  are,  that  they  were  compiled 
before  the  supposed  incarnation  of  Vishnu, 
as  Rama  aud  Kirshna,  under  which  titles 
he  is  now  so  commonly  worshipi)ed  among 
the  Hindoos;  and  also  before  the  appear- 
ance of  Buddha.  Sir  Williiini  Jones  gave 
them  a  conjectural  anti()uity  uf  about 
3000j-ears;  and  Mr.  Colebrooke  arrives 
at  about  the  same  conclusion. 

VEDAN'TA,  a  sect  among  the  Hin- 
doos, whose  theory  of  philosophy  is  pro- 
fessedly founded  on  the  revelations  con- 
tained in  the  Vedas.  Its  fundamental 
tenets  appear  to  have  a  near  connection 
with  the  opinions  of  Epicliarnn:s,  I-'iato, 
I'yrrho,  and  what  is  tcnneil  the  Berke- 
lian  philosophy  among  ourselves:  namely, 
that  matter  has  no  existence  iinlependcnt 
of  mental  )ierception  ;  with  the  onlinary 
consec|uences  of  that  doctrine,  of  which 
those  practically  most  important  are  the 
maxims  of  Quietism. 

VE1)ET'TE,  in  military  affairs,  a  sea- 


•'J 


ANU    THE    FINE    AltTS. 


G2; 


tinel  on  horsoback  (.lotaclieJ  froiu  the  main 
body  of  tho  army,  to  discover  and  give 
notice  of  the  enuiiiy'.s  movoinonts. 

VEIIM  10  (JUURTS,  criminal  courts 
of  justice,  established  in  (Jcrmany  during 
the  middle  ages.  These  courts  are  com- 
monly said  to  have  originated  in  those 
held  by  the  Missi  Dominici,  or  imperial 
legates,  sent,  by  Charlemagne  into  the 
provinces  of  his  empire  ;  but  many  cir- 
cumstances denote  tiieir  descent  from  the 
more  ancient  tribunals  of  the  (icrman 
tribes,  held  in  the  open  air  in  the  primi- 
tive periods  of  tlioir  history.  But  the 
character  under  which  these  institutions 
became  foruii  lable  and  important,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  arose 
from  llie  disordered  state  of  northern 
Germany  after  tlic  dissolution  of  the 
duchy  of  Saxony.  The  Vehmio.  or  as 
they  were  called,  free  courts,  were  then 
modelled  on  a  secret  system  of  organiza- 
tion. The  president  was  usually  a  prince 
or  count  of  the  empire  ;  his  assistants 
were  persons  affiliated  to  tho  society  by 
secret  initiation,  to  the  number,  it  is  said, 
at  one  time  of  100,000.  All  these  were 
bound  to  attend  the  secret  meetings  of  the 
courts  when  summoned,  and  to  e.xecute 
their  decrees,  if  necessary,  by  taking  the 
life  of  persons  condemned.  Westphalia, 
styled,  in  the  language  of  the  free  courts, 
the  Red  Land,  was  the  district  in  which 
their  central  authority  was  seated.  These 
courts  exercised  a  great  power,  which 
was  occasionally  serviceable  in  repressing 
the  lawless  violence  of  the  nobles  of  that 
period,  but  which  was  also  liable  to  be 
perverted  to  the  gratification  of  private 
malice  and  tyranny.  Various  leagues 
were  formed  in  the  fifteenth  century,  by 
the  nobles  of  the  empire,  for  tho  purpose 
of  destroying  their  influence  ;  which  was 
at  last  effected,  chiefly  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  better  system  of  public  judica- 
ture and  police  in  the  several  states. 

VELI'TES,  in  antiquity,  light  armed 
troops  in  the  Roman  armies,  who  derived 
their  name,  a  velocitate,  from  their  swift- 
ness. They  seem  not  to  have  been  divid- 
ed into  distinct  bodies  or  companies,  but 
to  have  hovered  loosely  in  front  of  the 
army.  They  were  disposed  sometimes 
before  the  front  of  the  kastali,  sometimes 
dispersed  up  and  down  among  the  void 
spaces,  and  sometimes  placed  in  two  bod- 
ies in  the  wings.  The  Vdites  generally 
began  the  combat,  skirmishing  in  flying 
parties  with  the  first  troops  of  the  enemy, 
ami,  when  repulsed,  fell  back  by  the 
flanks  of  the  army,  or  rallied  again  in 
the  rear.  Thoir  armor  was  a  javelin, 
40 


casque,  cuirass,  and  shield,  all  of  a  light 
construction. 

VEL'LUM,  a  fine  kind  of  i)archment 
made  of  calves'  skins,  rcn  Jercd  particu- 
larly clear  and  white.  The  invention  of 
vellutu  has  been  usually,  though  errone- 
ously, ascribed  to  Attalus,  king  of  I'erga- 
mus,  now  Eergaino :  but  the  art  of 
writing  upon  skins  was  known  long  hefore 
tho  time  of  Attalus,  and  is  assignable  ti> 
Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  the  contem- 
porary with  Ptolemy  Philadolpiiu.-i,  who.-e 
motive  for  giving  his  attention  to  tho  im- 
provement of  vellum  .s  said  to  be  as  fol- 
lows : — The  Egyptian  monarch  was  anx- 
iously employed  in  perfecting  his  magni- 
ficent library  at  Alexandria  ;  with  these 
feelings  anil  views,  he  prohibited  the  ex- 
portation of  the  papyrus  from  his  domin- 
ions, that  he  might  not  be  subjected  to 
the  inconvenience  of  wanting  paper  for 
the  multitude  of  scribes,  whom  he  con- 
stantly employed  to  copy  the  MSS.  which 
ho  had,  by  means  of  skilful  emissaries, 
collected  in  every  part  of  the  known  world. 

VENEER'INU,  the  art  of  inlaying 
furniture,  Ac,  with  different  kinds  of 
wood,  metal,  or  other  materials.  Also, 
of  making  representations  of  flowers, 
birds,  and  other  figures. 

VENE'TIAN  SCHOOL,  the  distin- 
guishing character  of  this  school  is  color- 
ing, and  a  consummate  intellectual  knowl- 
edge of  chiaro-scuro  ;  in  both  which,  all  is 
grace,  spirit,  and  faithful  adherence  to 
nature,  so  seductive  as  to  lead  the  spec- 
tator away  from  aay  consideration  of  its 
defects.  It  is  an  exquisite  bouquet  of 
well-arranged  flowers  ;  or  a  collection  of 
pulpy,  juicy,  saccharine  fruits.  But  it  is 
not  to  be  inferred  that  it  is  altogether 
wanting  in  still  higher  accomplishments  : 
for  the  head  of  it  was  Tiziano  de  Vecelli ; 
and  in  its  ranks  are  to  be  found  Tinturet- 
to,  Paul  Veronese,  Giorgione,  and  many 
other  illustrious  masters.    See  Painting. 

VENIAL  SIN,  in  theology,  is  defined 
by  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  a  sin 
which  weakens  sanctifying  grace,  but 
does  not  take  it  away.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, although  commendable,  to  mention 
such  sin  in  confession.  Reformed  theo- 
logians altogether  reject  the  formal  dis- 
tinction between  venial  and  mortal  sin. 

VENI'RE  FA'CIAS,  in  law,  a  judicial 
writ,  directed  to  the  sheriff,  to  cause  u 
jury  to  come  or  appear  in  the  neighbor- 
hood where  a  cause  is  brought  to  issue,  to 
try  the  same.  A  venire  facias  de  nova, 
being  a  writ  directing  the  sherifiF  to  cause 
a  jury  to  come  and  try  a  cause  a  second 
time,  is  granted  where  there  has  been  a 


62G 


CYCLOrEDIA    OK    1.1  IKK  ATLllK 


[VBR 


mis-trial  ;  on  the  ground  of  irregularity, 
sis,  for  instance,  in  summoning  the  jury  ; 
on  the  ground  of  misconduct  by  the  jury  ; 
and  also  in  certain  c:ises  where  the  ver- 
dict given  is  inipcrfoct  by  reason  of  some 
ambiguity  and  uncertainty.  The  great 
rule  of  ditfercnce  between  a  venire  do 
novo  in  the  latter  case  and  a  new  trial  is, 
that  the  former  is  only  granted  on  matter 
appealing  on  the  record. 

VENf,  S.-VNC'TE  SPIRI'TUS,  (Lat. 
Cuine,  Holy  (rhosl.)  The  name  given  to 
a  mass  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  to 
invoke  the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

VEN'TIDUCT,  in  building,  a  passage 
for  wind  or  air  ;  a  subterraneous  passage 
or  spiracle  for  ventilating  apartments. 

VEXTILATiON,  the  act  of  expelling 
impure  air,  and  of  dissipating  no.\ious 
vapors.  Tew  persons  are  aware  how 
very  necessary  a  thorough  ventilation  is 
to  the  preservation  of  health.  We  pre- 
serve life  without  food  for  a  considerable 
time  ;  but  keep  us  without  air  for  a  very 
few  minutes,  and  we  cease  to  e.xist.  It  is 
not,  however,  enough  that  we  have  air; 
we  must  hn,vo  fresh  air,  for  the  principle 
by  which  life  is  supported  is  taken  from 
the  air  during  the  act  of  breathing.  One 
fourth  only  of  the  atmosphere  is  capable 
of  supporting  life  ;  the  remainder  serves 
to  dilute  the  pure  vital  air,  and  render  it 
more  fit  to  be  respired. 

VEXTRIL'OQUISM,  an  art  or  prac- 
tice of  speaking,  by  means  of  which  the 
voice  appears  to  proceed  from  dififcrent 
places ;  though  the  utterer  does  not 
change  his  place,  and  in  many  instances 
does  not  appear  to  speak.  It  has  been 
considered  that  the  sounds  were  produc- 
ed independent  of  the  labial  and  lingual 
organs,  and  was  supposed  to  be  a  natural 
peculiarity,  because  few  persons  have 
learned  it  by  being  taught ;  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  practice  only  is  necessary  to 
carry  tliis  act  of  illusion  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection,  and  that  the  sound  is  not 
produced  during  inspiration,  but  proceeds 
as  unual,  during  expiration,  with  a  less 
opened  mouth.  The  art  of  the  ventrilo- 
quist consists  merely,  in  this:  afterdraw- 
ing  a  long  breath,  he  breathes  it  out 
slowly  and  gradually,  dextrously  dividing 
the  air,  and  diminishing  the  sound  of  the 
voice  by  the  muscles  of  the  larj-nx  and 
the  palate,  moving  the  lips  as  little  as 
possible. 

VEN'lIE,  in  law,  a  neighborhood  or 
near  place ;  the  place  where  an  action  is 
laid.  The  county  in  which  the  trial  of 
a  particular  cause  takes  place,  is  said  to 
be  the  venuo  of  that  cause.     Originally 


jurors  were  summoned  from  the  immedi- 
ate neighborhood  where  a  fact  happened, 
to  try  it  by  their  own  knowledge,  but  they 
are  now  summonable  from  the  body  of  the 
county.  In  what  are  termed /ota/ ((c7;ons, 
the  actual  pl.ice  in  which  tl.o  subject 
matter  is  situated  must  be  l.iid  as  the 
venue  in  the  action  ;  but  in  those  actions 
tertaed  transilorij,  that  is,  actions  of  debt, 
contract,  for  i)ersonal  injuries,  <te.,  any 
county  may  be  laid  as  the  venue  in  the 
action.  In  criminal  trials,  the  venue  is 
the  county  in  which  the  offence  charged 
was  actually  committed.  The  courts, 
however,  have  a  discretionary  power  of 
changing  the  venue,  both  in  civil  and 
criminal  cases. 

YERBA'TIM  ET  LITERA'TIM,  [Lat.] 
wonl  for  word,  and  letter  for  letter. 

VER'DICT,  in  law,  the  answer  of  a 
jury  given  to  the  court  concerning  any 
matter  of  fact  in  any  cause,  civil  or  crim- 
inal, committed  to  their  trial  and  exam- 
ination. 

\'E11GE,  in  law,  the  compass  or  extent 
of  the  ro3'al  court,  within  which  is  bound- 
ed the  jurisdiction  of  the  lord  steward  of 
the  royal  household. 

VER'tJERS,  certain  officers  of  tho 
courts  of  the  queen's  bench  and  common- 
pleas  who  carry  white  wands  before  the 
judges.  There  are  also  rer^ers  of  cathe- 
drals and  collegiate  churches,  who  carry 
a  rod  tipped  with  silver  before  the  bishop, 
dean,  &c. 

VERMIL'IOX,  a  red  pigment,  of  a 
hue  between  scarlet  and  crimson.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  vermilion  ;  the  one 
natural  or  native,  and  the  other  artificial 
or  factitious.  Native  verir.ilion  is  found 
in  several  silver-mines,  in  the  form  of  a 
ruddy  sand,  which  only  requires  to  be  pu- 
rified. Facliticnis  or  coiuinon  vermil- 
ion ii  made  of  the  red  sulphuret  of  mer- 
cury, or,  as  it  was  i'ormerly  called  facti- 
tious cinnabar,  reduced  to  a  very  fine 
powder. 

VER'NAL,  appearing  in  or  appertain- 
ing to  the  spring:  as,  vernal  flowers  are 
preparatives  to  autumnal  fruits. —  Vernal 
signs,  in  astronomj',  the  signs  in  which 
the  sun  ajipears  in  the  spring. —  Vernal 
equinox,  the  equinox  in  March ;  opposed 
to  tho  autumnal  equinox,  in  September. 

VERSATILE,  an  epithet  for  that 
quality  which  enables  persons  to  turn 
readily  from  one  thing  to  another. 

VERSE,  in  poetry,  a  line  or  part  of  a 
composition,  the  cadences  of  which  are 
similar  in  each.  The  harmony  of  every 
verse  is  complete  in  itself.  Verses  are 
made  up  of  feet,  the  number  and  species 


vrc] 


AMJ     line    KINK    ARTS. 


r.f  whicli  constitute  the  ciiaracter  ot  the 
verse,  as  hexameter,  pentameter,  Ac.  In 
the  Greek  and  Koiuan  versiiication,  a  foot 
was  determineii  by  its  quantify;  in  the 
English,  quantity  is  supplied  by  accent  — 
Blank-rerse,  poetry  in  which  the  line.-- do 
not  end  in  rhymes. — Heroic  verse  usually 
consists  of  ten  syllables,  or,  in  English,  of 
five  accented  syllables,  eonslitutini;;  five 
feet. —  Versiiication  is  the  art  of  adjust- 
ing the  syllables,  and  forming  them  into 
harmonious  measure. 

VERST,  a  Russian  measure  of  length, 
containing  3500  feet ;  about  three  quar- 
ters of  an  English  mile. 

VESICA  PISCIS,  a  name  given  to  a 
symbolical  representation  of  Christ,  of  a 
pointed  oval  or  egg-shaped  form,  made 
by  the  intersection  of  two  equal  circles 
cutting  each  other  in  their  centres.  The 
actual  tigure  of  a  tish  found  on  the  sar- 
cophagi of  the  early  Christians  gave  waj', 
in  course  of  time,  to  this  oval-shaped 
ornament,  which  was  the  most  common 
symbol  used  in  the  middle  ages.  It  is  to 
be  met  with  sculptured,  painte<l  on  glass, 
in  ecclesiastical  seals,  itc.  &o.  The  aureole 
or  glory,  in  pictures  of  the  Virgin,  &c., 
was  frequently  made  of  this  form. 

VES'PERS,  the  evening  songs  or  pray- 
ers in  the  Romi.'^h  church — Sicilian  ves- 
pers, in  French  history,  a  massacre  of  all 
the  French  in  Sicily,  in  the  year  1582. 
It  is  so  called,  becau.'e  the  ring  of  the 
bell  for  vespers  was  the  signal. 

VES'TALS,  in  antiquity,  certain  vir- 
gins consecrated  at  Rome  to  the  service 
of  the  goddess  Vesta,  and  to  whom  was 
committed  the  care  of  the  vestal  fire, 
which  was  to  be  kept  perpetually  burning 
upon  her  altar.  Their  dress  was  a  white 
vest,  with  a  purple  border;  a  white  linen 
surplice,  called  suj/arum  lintcuiii  ;  and 
over  this  a  large  purple  mantle,  with  a 
long  train.  On  their  heads  they  wore  the 
inf'ula,  and  from  the  infulahung  ribbons. 
When  a  vestal  was  convicted  of  unehasti- 
ty,  she  was  led  to  the  Campus  Sceleratus, 
and  stripped  of  her  habit  solemnly  by  the 
pontiff.  She  was  then  put  alive  into  a 
pit,  with  a  lighted  candle,  a  little  water 
and  milk,  and  thus  covered  up  to  pine  and 
languish  away  the  short  remainder  of  her 
miserable  existence. 

VES'TIBULE,  in  architecture,  a  porch 
or  entrance  into  a  building. — In  fortifica- 
tion, that  space  or  covered  ground  which 
is  in  front  of  a  guard-house. 

VES'TRY,  a  place  adjoining  the  church 
where  the  vestments  of  the  minister  are 
kept;  also  where  the  parishioners  assem- 
ble for  the  discharge  of  parochial  busi- 


ness ;  whence  such  a  meeting  is  also  called 
a  vestry. —  Vestry-clerk,  an  oflicer  ap- 
pointed to  attend  all  vestries,  and  take 
account  of  their  proceedings,  itc. 

VET'ERAX,  among  the  Romans,  a 
soldier  who  had  passed  the  legal  age  of 
military  service,  which  extended  fioin 
seventeen  to  forty-six,  was  termed  vete- 
ranus;  or,  in  the  later  times  of  the  re- 
public, one  who  had  served  a  requi^ile 
number  of  campaigns,  generally  twenty- 
five. 

VE  TO,  in  politics,  the  power  cn- 
joj'ed  by  a  branch  of  the  legislature, 
which  cannot  of  itself  originate  or  moil- 
ify  a  law,  to  reject  the  propositions  of 
the  other  branch  or  branches.  In  the 
Polish  diet,  every  noble  who  was  an  in- 
dependent member  could  prevent  any  res- 
olution from  passing  by  his  simple  dis- 
sent (expressed  in  the  words  "Xie  poz- 
walam,"  1  do  not  permit)  The  privilege 
of  thus  arresting  the  deliberations  of  the 
diet  was  termed  the  "  liberum  veto,"  and 
proved  the  fertile  source  of  the  disorders 
and  anarchy  of  that  country.  In  most 
constitutional  monarchies  the  king  has  an 
absolute  veto  (as  in  France  and  Eng- 
land;) in  some  it  is  only  suspensive. 
Thus,  in  Norway,  if  three  successive 
storthings  (assemblies)  repeat  the  same 
resolution,  it  becomes  law  against  the 
will  of  the  king.  The  president  of  the 
United  States  may  return  a  bill,  with  his 
reasons  for  dissenting  from  it,  to  the 
house  in  which  it  originated  ;  but  if  both 
houses  pass  it  afterwards  by  a  majority 
of  two  thirds  in  each,  it  is  not  in  his  power 
again  to  reject  it. 

VI'ADUCT,  a  structure  made  for  con- 
veying a  carriage  way,  either  by  rais- 
ing mounds  or  arched  supports  across 
marshes,  rivers,  &c.,  as  is  the  case  with 
some  of  the  railroads,  or  by  perforation 
through  hills,  Ac. 

VIAT'ICUM,  among  the  Romans,  an 
allowance  or  provision  made  by  the  re- 
public for  such  of  its  officers  or  magis- 
trates as  travelled  upon  the  business  (if 
the  state  into  any  of  the  provinces.  The 
term  viaticum  implies  not  only  money 
for  defraying  the  expenses  of  travelling, 
but  their  clothes,  ornaments,  baggage, 
itc. —  Viaticum,  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
an  appellation  given  to  the  eucbarist, 
when  administered  to  persons  at  the  point 
of  death. 

VI.'V'TOR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an  ap- 
pellation given  in  common  to  all  officers 
of  any  of  the  magistrates ;  as  lictors,  ac- 
censi,  scribes,  criers,  &c. 

VICAR,    a  particular  kind  of  parish 


n-28 


CVCl.OI'KUIA     OK     LnKKAIlKK 


[VIL 


priest,  wlicre  the  predial  tithes  are  im- 
propriated, that  is,  belonging  to  a  chapter 
or  religious  house,  or  to  a  layman,  who 
receives  tlieni,  and  only  allows  the  vicar 
the  smaller  tithes  as  a  salarj'. —  T'lVars 
apostolical y  in  the  Romish  church,  are 
tliose  who  perform  the  functions  of  the 
pope  ill  churches  or  provinces  committed 
to  their  direction. — The  title  of  ricar- 
generul  was  given  by  Henry  VIII.  to  the 
earl  of  Essex,  with  power  to  oversee  all 
the  clergy,  and  regulate  all  church  af- 
fairs. It  is  now  the  title  of  an  office, 
which,  as  well  as  that  of  official  principal, 
is  united  in  the  chancellor  of  the  diocese. 
The  business  of  the  vicar-general  is  to 
exercise  jurisdiction  over  matters  purely 
spiritual. 

VICE,  (Lat.  vice,  in  the  turn  or  place,) 
is  used  in  composition  to  denote  one  qui 
vicem  gerit,  who  acts  in  the  place  of  ano- 
ther, or  is  second  in  authority.  Thus  we 
have  such  words  as  vice-chamberlain, 
rice-chancellor,  vice-resident,  vicegerent, 
viceroy. ^-c. —  Vice,  in  smithory,  an  instru- 
ment used  for  holding  fast  any  piece  of 
iron  which  the  artificer  is  svorking  upon. 
— Among  glaziers,  a  machine  f(ir  drawing 
lead  into  flat  rods  for  case  windows. 

VICTORY,  in  classical  mythology,  a 
goddess,  called  by  Varro  the  daughter  of 
Heaven  and  Earth.  Her  altar  was  pre- 
served in  the  curia  or  senate-house  of 
Rome  ;  and  its  destruction  was  the  sub- 
ject of  one  of  the  latest  contests  between 
Christians  and  j)agans. 

VIDEL'ICET,  in  law.  In  pleading,  it 
is  usual  to  state  any  allegation  which 
forms  part  of  the  facts  set  out,  but  whi(-h 
it  is  not  intended  to  prove  with  precision, 
with  the  word  "scilicet"  (in  English, 
"to  wit")  preceding  it.  Thus,  numbers 
and  ilates,  for  instance,  are  frequently 
laid  under  a  videlicet :  as  where  anything 
is  alleged  to  have  taken  place  heretofore, 
"  to  wit,"  on  such  a  day  ;  or  where,  in 
trespass,  the  plaintifT  charges  the  defend- 
ant with  carrying  away  or  injuring 
divers.  "  to  wit,"  so  many  articles,  &c. 
The  general  rule  on  this  subject  is,  that 
where  an  allegation  is  in  itself  material, 
so  that  the  issue  cannot  be  established 
without  it,  there  the  putting  a  videlicet 
before  it  will  not  dispense  with  the  proof; 
but  where  an  allegation  is  in  itself  imma- 
terial, there  (in  general,  but  not  always,) 
the  omission  of  a  videlicet  before  it  will  j 
render  it  material,  and  make  it  necessary 
for  the  party  so  alleging  it  to  prove  it  as 
stated.  But  the  distinctions  on  this 
iubject  run,  as  may  be  supposed,  into 
e.xtreme  minuteness. 


VI  ET  ARMIS,  in  law,  words  made 
use  of  in  indictments  and  actions  of  tres- 
pass, to  show  the  violent  commission  of 
any  trespass  or  crime. 

VIGIL,  an  ecclesiastical  usage,  the 
evening  before  a  feast  day,  is  so  termed. 
The  observation  of  vigiU  i.s  said  by  some 
to  be  nearly  the  oldest  of  Christian  cere- 
monies. According  to  Laclantius,  Je- 
rome, and  other  ancient  authorities,  the 
second  advent  of  our  Saviour  was  ex- 
pected to  take  place  on  the  vigil  of 
Easter.  They  were  originally  celebrated 
by  meeting  together  at  night  (as  they 
are  still  on  some  occasions  in  the  Eastern 
churches,)  and  are  said  thus  to  preserve 
the  memory  of  the  nocturnal  assemblies 
of  Christians  in  times  of  persecution. 

VIGNETTE',  originally,  a  kind  of 
flourish  of  vine  leaves  and  flowers  in  the 
vacant  part  of  the  title-page  of  a  book, 
above  the  dedication,  or  at  the  end  of  a 
division.  At  present,  however,  the  word 
signifies  any  small  engraved  embellish- 
ment for  the  illustraticm  or  decoration 
of  a  page  of  any  work  ;  and,  in  a  more 
limited  sense,  such  illustrations  as  are 
softened  off  at  the  edges,  and  not  ter- 
minated by  a  definite  boundary  line. — In 
architecture,  ornamental  carving  in  im- 
itation of  vine  leaves. 

VIGORO'SO,  in  music,  a  term  which, 
prefixed  to  a  movement,  denotes  that  it 
is  to  be  performed  with  strength  and 
firmness. 

VIK'ING,  a  pirate.  The  Vikingr 
were  Northmen  who  infested  the  Eu- 
ropean seas  in  the  8th.  9th,  and  lOth 
centuries.  They  were  generally  the  sons 
of  Northern  kings,  who  betook  them- 
selves to  piracy  as  a  means  of  distin- 
guishing themselves,  and  of  obtaining  an 
independent  command. 

VIL'LA,  in  Roman  antiquities,  origi- 
nally any  country  dwelling,  farm-house, 
Ac,  but  in  architectural  language,  the 
country  residences  of  individuals  of  the 
wealthier  classes  were  so  called,  ilany 
descriptions  of  ancient  villas  are  here 
and  there  scattered  in  the  pages  of  clas- 
sical writers  ;  but  the  two  most  complete, 
undoubtedly  (besides  tlmse  contained  in 
the  work  of  ^'itruvius,)  are  the  accounts 
given  by  Pliny  the  younger  of  his  Lau- 
rent ine  and  Tuscan  residences  :  the  first 
being  the  complete  picture  of  a  marine, 
and  the  second  of  an  inland  villa.  The 
remains  of  the  first  are  thought  to  have 
been  discovered  not  far  from  Ostia,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century.  The  most 
important  parts  of  an  ordinary  villa 
were  the  porticoes,  one    or  more,  along 


vis] 


AND     lilt;     FINK     A  ins. 


629 


the  front  or  sides  of  the   mansion  ;  the  | 
triclinium    or    dining-room  :    the    wings  i 
forming  suits  of  living  apartments,  coin-  i 
monly    called,    in    the    time    of    Pliny,  ' 
diastiO ;    the    baths,    with    their    appur- 
tenances,   the     hvpocausta    or    vaulted 
heating-rooms,   apod^'teria    or  dressing- 
rooms,  rooms  for  exercise,  Ac.     Adjacent 
to  the    main    portico   are   generally  the 
xystus. 

VIL'LAGE,  in  English  legal  phrase- 
ology, a  suhdivision  of  a  parish;  some- 
times a  whole  parish,  and  sometimes  a 
manor.  iMost  commonly  it  means  the 
out  part  of  a  parish,  consisting  of  a  few 
houses  separate  from  the  rest.  In  coun- 
tries where  there  are  peasants  attached 
to  the  glebe,  or  possessing  distinct  rights 
and  obligations  from  other  subjects,  a 
village  is  properly  a  place  inhabited  by 
peasants  only.  From  the  Latin  villa 
was  derived  the  French  ville,  city,  ori- 
ginally signifying  any  residence ;  and 
thence  a  collectio.n  of  houses  which  grad- 
ually grew  around  a  principal  residence. 
Thus,  especially  in  Normandy,  ville  is  a 
common  termination  to  the  names  of 
towns. 

VIL'LEIN,  a  name  given,  in  ancient 
times,  to  persons  not  proprietors  of  land, 
many  of  whom  were  attached  to  the 
land,  and  bound  to  serve  the  lord  of  the 
manor. 

VIXA'LTA,  in  antiquity,  a  festival  ob- 
Berved  by  the  Romans,  Aug.  19,  in  honor 
of  Jupiter  and  Venus. 

VIOL,  astringed  musical  instrument  of 
the  same  form  as  the  violin,  but  larger. 
Viols  are  of  different  kinds;  the  largest 
is  called  the  bass  viol,  whose  tones  are 
deep,  soft,  and  agreeable. 

VIOLIN',  the  most  perfect  of  all  string- 
ed musical  instruments  played  with  the 
bow.  The  violin  consists  of  three  chief 
parts — the  neck,  the  table,  and  the  sound- 
board. The  violin  ha,s  four  catgut  strings 
of  different  sizes,  of  which  the  largest  is 
wound  round  with  wire.  Music  for  the 
violin  is  always  set  in  the  (J  key,  which 
on  that  account  is  called  the  rio/ni  Aey  ; 
and  the  e.xcellence  of  the  instrument  con- 
sists in  its  purity  and  distinctness, 
strength,  and  fulness  of  tone. 

VIOLOXCEL'LO,  a  musical  instrument 
which  comes  between  the  viola  di  braccio 
(or  arm  violin)  and  the  double  bass,  both 
as  to  size  and  tone.  It  is  constructed  en- 
tirely on  the  same  plan  with  the  violin; 
and  the  player  hoMs  it  between  his  knees. 
Its  notes  are  written  in  the  F  or  bass 
clef;  and  it  generally  accompanies  the 
double  bass. 


VIOLO'XO,  the  English  doiihlt  base, 
a  deep-toned  musical  instrument,  the 
largest  of  the  kind  jjlayed  with  a  bow, 
and  principally  used  to  sustain  the  har- 
mony. 

VIR'GA,  in  nrchav)logy,  the  rod  or 
statf  which  sheriffs,  bailiffs,  &c.  carry  a.?  a 
badge  of  their  office. 

VIR'GINAL,  in  music,  a  stringed  and 
keyed  instrument  resembling  the  spinnet 
It  is  now  quite  obsolete,  though  former 
ly  in  great  repute. 

VIK'TU,  a  love  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  a 
taste  for  curiosities. 

VIR'TL'E,  in  moral  philosophy,  is  em- 
ployed both  in  an  abstract  and  compre 
hensive  sense,  to  signify  the  law  or  lawi 
in  which  right  conduct  consists,  and  als' 
concretely  for  that  quality  of  actions  anc. 
persons  which  arises  from  their  agi'06- 
ment  with  the  rules  of  morality.  By 
theories  of  virtue  are  understood  the  dif- 
ferent explanations  which  have  beea  giv- 
en, both  of  that  which  distinguis'n^r.  light 
from  wrong,  and  of  the  naturj  of  the 
feelings  with  which  virtue  and  vice  are 
contemplated  by  mankind.  'j."ae  distinc- 
tion of  these  two  questions,  eo  frequently 
confounded  by  ethical  writTi.  is  due  to 
Adam  Smith,  but  has  since  Vden  strongly 
insisted  upon  by  Mackintoi'j.  and  Hamp- 
den. 

VIRTUO'SO,  one  .skilled  in  antique  or 
natural  curiosities  ;  a  lovor  of  the  liberal 
arts. 

VISCOUNT,  (pron.  vi'count)  in  France 
and  England,  a  nobleman  next  in  degree 
to  an  earl.  The  first  viscount  was  creat- 
ed in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. — A  vis- 
count's coronet  has  neither  flowers  nor 
points  raised  above  the  circle,  like  those 
of  superior  degree,  but  only  pearls  placed 
on  Siva,  the  circle  itself. 

VISH'NU,  one  of  the  three  principal 
deities  of  the  Hindoo  mythology,  the 
other  two  being  Brama  and  Siva.  He 
is  commonly  called  the  Preserver,  the 
other'two  being  respectively  the  Creator 
anil  the  Destroyer.  The  great  objects  of 
his  providence  are  brought  about  by  his 
successive  incarnations  or  avatars,  in 
which  he  appears  and  acts  on  earth. 
Nine  of  these  have  taken  place.  The 
last  is  said  to  have  been  the  appearance 
of  Buddha,  which  is  supposed  by  some 
learned  orientalists  to  have  taken  place 
about  A  D.  1014  ;  and  hence  the  Buddhists 
reject  the  Vedas,  which  were  compiled 
before  that  event.  Tlie  tenth 'avatar  of 
Vishnu  is  yet  to  take  place,  when  he 
will  appear  on  a  white  horse,  with  a 
blazing    scimitar,    for    the    everlasting 


630 


CYCLOPEUIA     OK     LITKllATrUK 


VOC 


punishment  of  the  \YioUeJ.  One  of  the 
iiiCiirniitiDns  of  Vishnu  is  the  celebrated 
Jufr^ornaut,  whoso  temple  and  worship 
hold  such  a  prominent  place  in  Indian 
superstition.  On  the  fjrand  annual  fes- 
tival in  his  honor,  all  distinetions  of 
castes  and  classes  are  forgotten,  and 
even  on  that  occasion  the  Ijrahminieal 
Hindoos  and  the  followers  of  Buddha 
cease  their  religious  hostilities.  The 
word  Juggernaut  signifies  literally  Tjord 
of  the  Universe:  and  it  is  said  that  on  the 
day  he  expired,  Buddha  assumed  this  ap- 
pellation, exclaiming  ''  0  Universe,  I  am 
thy  Lord.'''' 

VISION,  BEATIF'IC,  in  theology. 
The  doctors  of  the  churcli  distinguish 
three  manners  of  seeing  or  knowing  God  : 
which  they  call,  1.  Abstractive  vision;  i.  e. 
through  the  consideration  of  his  attri- 
butes. 2.  Beatijic  or  intuitive  vision;  that 
which  the  faithful  enjoy  in  heaven.  The 
belief  termed  Catholic  by  the  Romanists 
is,  that  this  vision  is  accorded  to  the  just, 
who  die  without  leaving  a  sin  unexpiated, 
immediately  on  their  departure.  The 
Greek  church  holds  that  they  do  not  en- 
joy it  until  after  the  general  resurrec- 
tion. This  is  one  of  the  opinions  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Florence  in 
1439;  and  its  decision  is  confirmed  by 
that  of  Trent.  3  The  third  kind  of  vision, 
or  comprehension,  is  that  which  belongs 
to  God,  who  alone  can  know  Himself  as 
He  is.  Prophetic  vision  is  only  the 
knowledge  of  future  or  distant  events, 
given  by  inspiration. 

VISITA'TION,  in  ecclesiastical  polity, 
an  office  or  act  of  superintendence,  per- 
formed by  a  bishop  once  in  three  years, 
by  visiting  the  churches  and  their  rectors. 
&c.,  throughout  the  whole  diocese.  Pa- 
rochial visitation  by  the  archdeacon  is 
annual. 

VIS'ITOR.  in  law,  an  inspector  into 
the  government  of  a  corporation. 

VIS'UAL,  in  perspective,  the  visual 
point  is  a  point  in  the  horizontal  lifle,  in 
which  all  the  ocular  rays  unite. 

VIT'RIFIED  WALLS  or  FORTIFI- 
CATIONS, ancient  remains  discovered  in 
Scotland,  constructed  of  stones  piled 
ru<lcly  upon  one  another,  and  firmly  ce- 
mented together  by  some  matter  which 
has  been  vitrified  by  means  of  fire. 
They  generally  surrounil  the  top  of  some 
steep  conical  hill.  Tiiey  have  been  dis- 
covereil  chiefly  in  the  Higlilatids,  but 
also  in  Galloway.  The  vitrification  is 
mostly  external,  the  interior  of  the  walls 
being  a  mere  heap  of  loose  stones. 
Dainos  Barrinsrton  considered  the  vitrifi- 


cation to  be  accidental,  but  his  explana- 
tion of  how  it  took  place  is  not  very 
intelligible.  It  seems  more  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  art  was  derived  from 
observation  of  the  ea.se  with  which  some 
kinds  of  earth  containing  much  ir(m  ore 
are  vitrified  by  fire,  and  that  the  process 
was  renilered  easy  by  the  quantities  of 
wood  which  in  early  days  covered  the 
Highlands 

VIVA'CE,  in  music,  an  Italian  epi- 
thet, signifying  lively  ;  and  vivacissimo, 
very  lively. 

VI'VARY,  a  place  for  keeping  living 
animals,  as  a  park,  a  warren,  a  pond, 
&c. 

VrVA  VO'CE,  (Latin.)  by  word  of 
mouth ;  as,  to  vote,  or  to  communicate 
with  another  person,  viva  voce. 

VIZIR,  (in  Arabic,  a  porter;  and,  by 
a  singular  metaphor,  the  title  in  various 
oriental  countries  of  a  minister  and 
councillor  of  state.)  The  grand  khalifs 
had  their  vizirs,  who  attained  to  the 
highest  rank  and  consideration  in  their 
states,  and  were  often  more  powerful 
than  their  masters  ;  but  after  the  crea- 
tion of  the  new  dignity  of  Emir-ul-omr.ih 
(commander  of  commanders,)  by  Khalif 
Radhi,  the  older  title  lost  much  of  its 
consideration.  In  Turkey,  the  council- 
lors of  state  who  sit  in  the  divan,  gen- 
erally eight  in  number,  arestj'led  vizirs  ; 
and  the  chief  among  them  vizir  azem, 
rendered  by  us  by  grand  vizir,  which  is 
the  highest  temporal  dignity  in  the  em- 
pire. 

VOCAB'ULARY,  a  list  or  collection 
of  the  words  of  a  language,  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order  and  explained ;  a 
word-book ;  the  words  of  a  science  ;  a 
dictionary  or  lexicon.  We  often  nse  ro- 
cabulanj  in  a  sense  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  dictionary,  restricting  the 
signification  to  the  list  of  words  ;  as  when 
we  say.  the  rocabiilart/  of  .Fohnson  is 
more  full  or  extensive  than  that  of  En- 
tick.  We  rarely  use  the  word  as  synony- 
mous with  dictionary,  but  in  other 
countries  the  corresponding  word  is  so 
used,  and  this  may  be  so  used  in  Eng- 
lish. 

VO'CAL  MU'SIC,  music  produced  by 
the  voice,  either  unaccompanied  or  ac- 
companied by  instruments.  Vocal  music 
has  many  advantages  over  instrumental, 
in  its  endless  variety  of  intonation  and 
expression,  and  in  the  support  which  it 
derives  from  its  connection  with  words. 

VOCATION,  in  divinity,  the  grace 
vouchsafed  by  God  to  any  man  in  calling 
him  from  death   unto  life,   and  putting 


VOl] 


AND    TIIK     FINK     ARTS. 


631 


him  iiilo  the  way  of  solvation.  It  is  also 
used  ror.tho  call  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by 
which  |ier?i)ns  are  supposed  to  be  initiated 
into  tlie  clerical  onler. 

VOICE,  the  sounds  produced  by  the 
organs  of  respiration,  especially  the 
larynx.  The  lungs,  the  wind-pipe,  &c.. 
the  finely-arched  roof  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  pliability,  of  the  lips,  are  each  of  the 
•  greatest  importance  in  producing  the 
ditlerent  intonations  which  render  the 
huiuiin  voice  so  agreeable  and  harmoni- 
ous. A  good  musical  voice  depends 
cliiefly  upon  the  soundness  and  power  of 
the  organs  of  utterance  and  of  hearing  ; 
and  is  much  promoted  by  the  practice  of 
singing  and  gymnastic  exercises  that 
expand  the  ehe  t. 

VOIRE  DIRE,  in  law,  according  to 
ancient  practice,  an  objection  to  the  com- 
petency of  a  witness,  in  a  trial  at  com- 
mon law,  could  only  be  taken  on  a  pre- 
liminary examination,  in  which  the  wit- 
ness was  sworn  to  speak  the  truth,  and 
then  examined  touching  his  interest  in 
the  subject  matter.  The  same  practice  is 
'still  followed  occasionally,  although  the 
objection  may  now  be  taken  when  it 
arises  on  the  examination  in  chief. 

VOL'TA,  in  music,  an  Italian  word, 
signifying  that  the  part  is  to  bo  repeated, 
one,  two,  or  more  times. 

V0LTI(5EUR,  afoot-soldier  in  a  se- 
lect company  of  every  regiment  of  French 
infantry.  VoUis;eurs  were  established 
by  Js'apoleon  during  his  consulate.  Their 
duties,  exercises,  and  equipment,  are 
similar  to  those  of  our  light  companies. — 
In  the  I'tiited  States,  a  light  horseman. 

VOL'TI  SU'BITO,  in  music,  a  term 
directing  that  the  leaf  is  to  be  turned 
over  quickly. 

VOLUME,  properly  signifies  a  roll  or 
book,  so  called  a  rolvendo,  because  the 
ancient  books  were  rolls  of  bark  or  parch 
inent.  This  manner  lasted  till  Cicero's 
time.  The  several  sheets  or  pieces  were 
glued  or  pasted  end  to  end,  and  written 
only  on  one  side.  At  the  bottom  a  stick 
was  fastened,  cnlled  lunbilicus,  round 
which  it  was  rolle<l;  and  at  the  other 
end  was  a  piece  of  parchment,  on  wliich 
the  title  of  the  book  was  written  in  let- 
ters of  gold  Of  such  volumes,  Ptolemy's 
library  in  Alexandria  contained,  as  some 
authors  sav,  700,000. 

VOL'UXT  ARY,  in  music,  a  piece  play- 
ed by  a  niiisician  extemporarily,  accord- 
ing to  his  fancy. 

VOL'UNTEt'R,  a  person  who  enters 
into  military  or  ither  service  of  his  own 
free  will. 


VOLUTE',  in  architecture,  a  kind  of 
spiral  scroll,  used  in  the  Ionic  and  Com- 
posite capitals,  of  whi  -h  it  is  a  principal 
ornament.  The  number  ofvulntes  in  the 
Ionic  order   is   four;    in    the   Composite, 


eight.  There  are  also  eight  angular  vo- 
lutes in  tlie  Corinthian  capital,  accom- 
panie  I  with  eight  smaller  ones,  called 
helices. 

VO.MITO'RIA,  in  architecture,  the 
openings,  gates,  or  doors,  in  the  ancient 
theatres  and  amphitheatres,  which  gave 
ingress  and  egress  to  the  public. 

VOTE,  the  suffrage  of  the  people  of 
each  of  the  members  of  an  assembly, 
where  any  affiiir  is  to  be  carried  by  a 
majority  assembled  in  large  meetings. 

VO'TIVE,  in  numismatics.  Votive 
medals  are  such  as  were  struck  in  grate- 
ful commemoration  of  any  auspicious 
event,  such  as  the  recovery  from  sickness 
of  a  prince,  <to.  ;  especially  those  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  struck  every  five,  ten, 
or  twenty  years,  on  which  the  public  vows 
on  their  behalf  are  recorded.  The  cus- 
tom is  said  to  have  originated  in  the  re- 
peated continuance  of  Augustus  in  his 
high  offices  at  the  prayers  of  the  people 
A  votive  tablet,  picture.  &c.,  is  one  dedi- 
cated in  consequence  of  the  vow  of  a  wor- 
shipper; in  classical  Europe  some  deity, 
in  modern  Roman  Catholic  countries,  tc 
saiats. 

VOUCII'ER,  one  who  gives  witness 
or  full  attestation  to  anything. — In  law, 
the  act  of  calling  in  a  person  to  make 
good  his  warranty  of  title. — A  book,  pa- 
per, or  document  which  serves  to  vouch 
the  truth  of  accounts,  or  to  confirm  and 
establish  facts  of  any  kind.  The  mer- 
chant's books  are  his  vouchers  for  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  accounts.  Notes,  bonds, 
recei{)ts,  and  other  v/ritings,  are  used  as 
voucher!^  in  proving  fncts — Iti  Scofg  law^ 
roucherig  the  technic.il  name  fur  the  writ- 
ten evidence  of  payment. 

VOUS'SOIKS  in  bridges,  are  the  stones 
which  imraedi:itely  form  the  arch,  being 
of  the  shape  of  a  truncated  wedge.  Their 


632 


CYCLOl'KDIA     OF     l.ITEU  ATfUE 


[WAO 


under  sides  form  the  intrados  or  soflritt. 
The  lengtli  of  the  niifMle  voussoir,  or  key- 
stone, ought  to  be  about  l-15th  or  l-16th 
of  the  spun,  and  the  rest  shouhl  increase 
all  the  way  down  to  the  imposts.  Their 
joints  should  be  cut  perpendicular  to  the 
eurve  of  the  intrados  ;  consequently  the 
angle  of  the  sides  is  determined  by  the 
curvature. 

VOW,  a  solemn  and  religious  promise, 
or  oath.  The  use  of  vows  is  found  in  most 
religions.  They  make  up  a  considerable 
part  of  the  pagan  worship,  licing  made 
either  in  consequence  of  some  deliver- 
ance, under  some  pressing  necessity,  or 
for  the  success  of  some  enterprise.  Among 
the  Jews,  all  vows  were  to  be  voluntary, 
and  made  by  persons  wholly  in  their  own 
power;  and  if  such  person  made  a  vow  in 
anything  lawful  and  possible,  he  was 
obliged  to  fulfil  it.  Among  the  Roman- 
ists, a  person  is  constituted  a  religious  by 
taking  three  vows,  that  of  poverty,  chas- 
tity, and  obedience. — Vows,  among  the 
Romans,  signified  sacrifices,  offerings, 
presents,  and  prayers  made  for  the 
Citsars  and  emperors,  particularly  for 
their  prosperity  and  the  continuance  of 
their  einjiirc. 

VOAV'EL,  in  grammar,  a  letter  which 
can  bo  pronounced  alone,  thus  distin- 
guished from  consonants,  which  require 
to  be  sounded  with  the  aid  of  a  vowel. 
They  are  divided  in  ancient  prosody  into 
long,  short,  and  common,  i.  e.,  either  long 
or  short  at  pleasure.  A  diphthong  con- 
sists of  two  vowels,  of  which  the  sounds 
run  (or  are  supposed  to  run)  into  one 
another. 

VULCAN,  in  mythology,  the  Latin 
name  for  the  divinity  called  t)y  the 
(treeks  llepluvstus.  the  god  who  jn-esided 
over  the  working  of  mctal.-i.  lie  was  also 
called  Mulciber.  lie  was  the  son  of  Ju- 
piter, wlio,  incensed  at  his  interference 
on  the  part  of  his  mother  Juno,  cast  him 
out  of  heaven  :  he  fell  in  the  isle  of  Lem- 
nos,  and  broke  his  leg  in  the  fall.  His 
feats  as  the  )iatron  of  armorers  and  work- 
ers in  metal,  his  mariiago  with  Venus, 
and  her  infidelities,  form  the  subjects  of 
many  of  the  best  known  classical  stories. 
There  is  about  the  character  of  Vulcan 
much  of  the  usual  confusion  belonging  to 
tireek  niylliology.  Cicero  inpntion.<  three 
Vuleans.  besides  the  son  of  Jniiiler:  one, 
the  child  of  Uranus:  another,  of  Nilus, 
who  reigned  in  Kgypt  ;  athini,  of  Ma^na- 
lius.  A  peculiarity  attending  the  wor- 
ship of  Vulcan  was,  that  the  victims  were 
wholly  consumed,  in  ret'orenco  to  his  char- 
acter as  god  of  fire.     In  iculjiture,  he  is 


represented  as  bearded,  with  a  hammer 
ami  pincers,  and  a  pointed  cap.  IJc  does 
not  appear  lame,  as  represented  by  the 
poets.  Cicero,  however,  praises  the  sculp- 
tor Alcamenes  for  making  his  lameness 
observable  without  amounting  to  defor- 
mity. 

V  U  L  C  A  N'l  C  T  II  E'O  R  Y,  a  system 
which  ascribes  the  changes  on  the  earth's 
surface  to  fire,  while  others  ascribe  the 
whole  to  water,  under  a  theory  called 
Neptunian. 

VUL'GATE,  a  very  ancient  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible,  which  was  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek  of  the  Septuagint. 
It  is  the  only  one  acknowledged  by  the 
Romish  church  to  be  authentic. 


w. 

W,  the  twenty-third  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  takes  its  written  form  from 
the  union  of  two  V's,  and  its  name  of 
double  u  from  the  Roman  capital  V  rep- 
resenting that  which  we  call  U.  In  Eng- 
lish it  is  always  followed  by  a  vowel,  e.\- 
cept  when  followed  by  /i,  as  in  vhen,  or 
by  r,  as  in  wrong-.  The  ir,  being  a  strong 
breathing,  is  nearly  related  to  all  aspi- 
rated sounds,  and  tlirongh  them  again  to 
the  gutturals,  so  that  we  lind  w  and  "■ 
often  interchanged  in  different  languages, 
as  in  the  words  William,  Guillaume,  &c. 

AVAD'SETT,  an  ancient  tenure  or 
lease  of  land  in  the  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, which  seems  to  have  been  upon  a 
kind  of  mortgage. 

WA'GER  OF  BATTLE,  an  ancient 
mode  of  trial  by  single  comiiat,  where,  in 
appeals  of  felony,  the  apjiellee  might 
fight  with  the  appellant  to  prove  his  in- 
nocence ;  and  it  is  but  recently  that  this 
relic  of  barbarism  and  injustio'  has  been 
abolished.  It  was  also  used  in  affairs  of 
chivalry  and  honor,  and  in  civil  cases 
upon  issue  joined  in  a  writ  of  right. 

WA'C.EK  OF  T,AW.  the  offer,  on  the 
part  of  the  defendant  in  an  action  of  debt 
by  simple  contract,  to  take  an  oath  in 
court  in  the  presence  of  eleven  compur- 
gators, that  he  owes  the  ])laintifr  nothing 
in  the  manner  and  form  as  he  has  de- 
clared, whercujion  the  law  allows  him  his 
discharge. 

AVA'GES,  in  political  economy,  are  the 
return  made  or  compensation  paid  to 
those  employed  to  perform  any  kind  of 
labor  or  service  by  Iheir  employers — In 
orilinary  language,  the  term  wages  i.s 
usually  employed  to  designate   (he  sums 


wak] 


AND    MIL    FINE    AUTS. 


635 


paid  to  artisans  or  laborers  emploj'od  in 
manufactures,  in  household  services,  and 
in  agriculture,  mines,  and  oilier  manual 
cccupatiotis.  Substantially  and  in  fact, 
however,  it  has  a  much  more  extensive 
application :  the  salaries  of  public  func- 
tionaries of  all  sorts,  and  the  fees  of  law- 
yers, phj'sicians,  and  other  professional 
men,  are  as  really  wages  as  the  sums 
paid  by  them  to  the  menials  in  their  ser- 
vice, and  depend  on  the  same  laws  and 
principles.  "  Every  man,"  says  Dr.  Pa- 
ley,  '•  has  his  work.  The  kind  of  work 
varies,  and  that  is  all  the  difference  there 
is.  A  great  deal  of  labor  exists  besides 
that  of  the  hands,  many  species  of  indus- 
try besides  bodily  operation,  equallj'  ne- 
cessary, requiring  equal  assiduity,  more 
attention,  more  anxiety.  It  is  not  true, 
therefore,  that  men  of  elevated  stations 
are  exempted  from  work  ;  it  is  only  true 
that  there  is  assigned  to  them  work  of  a 
different  kind ;  whether  more  easy  or 
more  pleasant  may  be  questioned;  but 
certainly  not  less  wanted,  nor  less  essen- 
tial to  the  common  good." 

W.A.IIA'BEES,  a  Mussulman  sect,  of 
which  the  founder  was  a  learned  Arabian, 
named  Abd  el  Wah^b,  who  became  per- 
suaded of  the  corruption,  both  of  doctrine 
and  practice,  prevalent  among  the  pro- 
fessors of  Islam,  especially  the  Turks. 
Ilis  daughter  married  Mohammed  Ibn 
Saoud,  the  principal  person  of  the  town 
of  Derayeh,  who  became  his  first  convert 
and  leader  of  the  sect,  about  1760.  Like 
the  original  prophet  of  their  faith,  Saoiid 
and  his  followers  propagated  their  doc- 
trines at  once  by  persuasion  and  arms. 
Abd  el  Aziz  and  Ibn  Saoud,  the  son  and 
grandson  of  the  first  Saofid,  carried  their 
arms  to  the  utmost  extremities  of  Arabia, 
and,  conformably  with  the  old  Moham- 
medan principle,  established  a  spiritual 
and  temporal  leadership  united  in  their 
persons.  The  Bedouins,  or  wandering 
tribes,  formed  the  bulk  of  their  converts. 
They  acknowledged  the  Koran  and  the 
Sunne,  or  orthodox  tradition,  and  they 
professed  adherence  to  the  liberal  tenets 
of  both;  but  they  accused  the  other  Mo- 
hammedans of  an  idolatrous  veneration 
for  the  prophet  and  other  saints,  and  de- 
nied the  intercession  of  saints  altogether. 
Like  the  early  Protestants  of  Europe, 
their  favorite  taste  was  the  destruction 
of  the  cupolas  and  tombs  of  saints.  To 
this  the  mob  of  Wahabys  added  a  strong 
aversion  to  the  rich  dress  of  the  Turks, 
and  to  the  practice  of  smoking  tobacco, 
which  had  been  prohibited  by  Abd  el 
Wahib  much  on  the  same  bold  principle 


which  had  induced  Mohammed  himself  to 
condemn  the  use  of  wine.  The  province  of 
Nedjd  became  the  chief  seat  of  the  Waha- 
by  power.  Under  the  last  Saoud  (a  very 
handsome  man,  whom  the  Arabs  calleil 
Abou  Showareb,  or  the  Father  of  Mus- 
taches,) it  reached  its  greatest  extent. 
Like  the  early  caliphs,  he  administered 
justice  in  person  to  great  part  of  .Arabia. 
The  Wahabj's,  in  the  first  twenty  years 
of  this  century,  extended  their  plunder- 
ing expeditions  to  Syria,  Irak,  and  Mes- 
opotamia. In  1803  they  took  ]Mekka. 
and  soon  conquered  the  Hidjah.  In  1809 
Mehemet  Ali  began  hostilities  in  Arabia  ; 
and  in  1812  the  llidjah  was  restored,  and 
the  caravans  of  pilgrims  once  more  ar- 
rived with  their  usual  pomp  at  Mekka  ; 
but  for  some  years  afterwards  the  Waha- 
bys maintained  th^ir  superiority  in  the 
rest  of  Arabia.  Saoud  died  in  1814,  and 
was  succeeded  in  his  political  and  relig- 
ious authority  by  his  son  Abdallah,  under 
whom  the  Wahabys  were  finally  subdued 
by  Mehemet  Ali ;  but  we  possess  no  au- 
thentic account  of  their  conquest,  or  their 
present  condition. 

WAIFS,  in  law,  goods  found,  of  which 
the  owner  is  not  known,  and  which  are 
claimed  by  the  crown.  These  were  ori- 
ginall}^  such  goods  as  a  thief,  when  pur- 
sued, threw  away  to  prevent  his  being 
apprehended. 

WAIN'SCOT,  in  architecture,  the 
framed  lining  in  panels  wherewith  a  wall 
is  faced.  The  wood  originally  used  for 
this  purpose  being  a  species  of  foreign 
oak,  that  wood  has  acquired  the  name 
from  the  purpose  to  which  it  was  thus 
applied. 

WAITSjformerly,  minstrels  or  musical 
watchmen,  who  attended  on  great  men,  and 
sounded  the  watch  at  night.  At  present 
the  name  is  given  to  those  itinerant  musi- 
cians who,  in  most  of  the  large  towns  of 
England  and  Scotland,  especially  London 
go  round  the  principal  streets  at  night  for 
some  time  before  Christmas,  play  two  or 
three  tunes,  call  the  hour,  then  remov(« 
to  a  suitable  distance,  where  they  go 
through  the  same  ceremony,  and  so  on 
till  four  or  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

WAI'VER,  in  law,  the  passing  by,  or 
declining  to  accept  a  thing ;  applied 
either  to  an  estate,  to  a  plea,  &c. 

AVAI'WODE,  in  the  Turkish  empire, 
the  governor  of  a  small  province  or 
town.  , 

WAKE,  in  antiquities  and  popular 
usage,  the  word  is  of  the  same  meaning 
as  vigil ;  and  the  custom  originated  in 
the  processions  which  took  place  early  in 


634 


CVCLOfEDIA    OF    LITlCRATfriE 


[wAP 


the  movnin;;  of  feast  dnj-s  to  the  church, 
and  were  iiDt  uncommonly  followeil  by 
revelling  ami  drunkenness.  At  present 
most  fast  Jays  are  popularly  calleti  wakes 
by  the  English  peasantry  ;  but  the  pe- 
culiar "  ivake"  or  "  revel"  of  county 
parishes  was.  originally,  the  Jay  of  the 
week  on  which  the  church  had  been  JeJi- 
cateJ  ;  aftcrwarJs,  the  day  of  the  year. 
In  1336,  an  aot  of  convocation  appoin'eJ 
thit  the  wake  should  be  held  in  every 
parish  on  the  same  day,  namely,  the 
first  Sunday  in  October  ;  but  it  was  dis- 
regarded. Wakes  are  expressly  men- 
tioned in  Charles  the  First's  Book  of 
Sports,  among  the  feasts  which  it  was  bis 
majesty's  pleasure  should  be  observed. 
The  wake  appears  to  have  been  also  held 
on  the  Sunday  after  the  day  of  dedica- 
tion :  or,  more  usu;illy,  the  day  of  the 
saint  to  whom  the  church  was  dedicated. 
— A  strange  practice  of  celebrating  fu- 
neral rites  by  the  lower  orders  in  Ireland, 
has  been  thus  described  by  Miss  Elge- 
worth  : — "At  night  the  body  is  waked; 
that  is  to  say,  all  the  friends  and  neigh- 
bors of  the  deceased  collect  in  a  barn  or 
stable,  where  thecorpsf!  is  laid  upon  some 
boards,  or  an  unhinged  door,  supported 
upon  stools,  the  face  exposed,  the  rest  of 
the  body  covered  with  a  white  sheet. 
Round  the  body  are  stuck,  in  brass  candle- 
stick-^, which  have  been  borrowed  per- 
haps at  five  miles'  distance,  as  many 
candles  as  the  poor  person  can  beg  or 
borrow,  observing  always  to  have  an  odd 
number.  Pipes  ami  tobacco  arc  first  dis- 
tributed, and  then,  according  to  the  abil- 
ity of  the  deceased,  cakes  and  ale,  and 
sometimes  whiskey,  are  dealt  to  the  com- 
pany-" 

WALDEX'SES,  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, a  remarkable  religious  sect,  said  to 
have  derived  their  name  froni  Peter  Wal- 
do, a  merchant  of  Lyons,  who  preached 
what  he  regarded  as  the  pure  doctrine  of 
the  Script  urea  about  1 180.  Historians  have 
confounded  them,  on  the  one  hand,  with 
the  Vau  lois  (see  that  article,)  wlio  appear, 
although  their  history  is  involved  in 
much  obscurity,  to  bo  an  older  and  separ- 
ate people;  and  on  the  otiier  (especially 
those  of  the  Catholic  party,)  with  the 
Albigenscs  ;  ami  thus  it  has  been  endeav- 
ori!d  to  throw  on  them  the  discredit  of 
the  Manichean  tracts,  which  are  common- 
ly (but  (m  very  doubtful  testimony)  im- 
puted to  the  latter.  It  seems  clear,  how- 
ever, that  the  AValdenses  were  distinct 
from  these,  and  probably  from  the  Vau- 
dois  also.  Their  distinguishing  character, 
H  has  been  said,  '■  seems  to  have  consist- 


ed in  a  strict  adherence  to  what  they  con- 
sidered to  be  the  doctrine  originally 
delivered  by  Christ  to  his  apostles."  And 
out  of  their  extremely  literal  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Gospel  appears  to  have  arisen 
most  of  their  peculiaiities,  whether  good 
or  evil.  They  seem  to  have  rejected  an 
established  succession  of  the  priesthood, 
and  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
the  priestly  otfice  ;  the  high  C^itholic  doc- 
trine of  the  sacraments,  besides  the  coia- 
mon  ecclesiastical  abuses  of  their  day; 
and  are  said-  in  addition,  to  have  protest- 
ed against  oaths,  warfare,  lawsuits,  aniJ! 
the  accumulation  of  wealth.  Their  later 
history  is  obscure  ;  and  it  may  be  said  of 
them,  as  well  as  of  other  sects  of  the  day, 
that  they  had  little  of  the  elements  of 
permanence,  the  same  opinions  being 
continually  promulgated  afresh  by  new 
reformers,  and  then  receiving  new  de- 
nom'natious. 

WALPUR'GIS  NIGHT,  the  night  of 
the  1st  of  May,  a  festival  of  St.  Philip 
and  St.  James.  Saint  Walpurga  was  an 
English  lady,  sister  of  Boniface,  the  apos- 
tle of  the  Germans  :  her  festival  falls  on 
the  same  day  with  that  of  the  above-men- 
tioned saints,  and  is  a  common  day  in 
Germany,  like  Lady -day  in  England,  for 
the  commencement  of  leases,  &,c.  It  is 
also  known  as  the  day  on  the  eve  of  which, 
according  to  popular  superstition,  the 
great  witch  festival  is  held  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Brocken,  in  the  Harlz  moun- 
tains. This  superstition  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  in  the  rites  performed  by 
the  pagan  remnints  of  the  Saxons  to 
their  gods,  when  their  nation  was  forcibly 
'converted  to  Christianity  ;  which,  being 
secretly  celebrated  in  remote  places, 
were  supposed  by  the  vulgar  to  be  super- 
natural orgies. 

WALTZ,  a  national  German  dance, 
but  now  common  in  England,  and  other 
European  countries.  To  waltz  with  ef- 
fect, much  grace  ami  precision  are  neces- 
sary, or  else  it  becomes  a  mere  vulgar 
exercise.  The  waltz  of  the  north  of  Ger- 
many was  grave  and  slow,  whilst  that  of 
the  south  is  gay,  and  the  quick  gay  waltz 
is  by  far  the  most  prevalent. 

AVAM'PUM,  shells  used  by  the  Ameri- 
can Indians  as  money  or  a  medium  of 
commerce.  These  shells  are  run  on  a 
string,  and  form  a  broad  belt,  which  is 
worn  a.s  an  ornament  or  girdle. 

WAP'ENSIIAW,  an  exhibition  of 
arms,  according  to  the  rank  of  the  individ- 
ual, made  formerly  at  certain  times  in 
every  district.  These  exhibitions  or  lueet- 
ings  were  not  designed  for  military  oxer- 


war] 


AKD    THE    FINK    ARTS. 


635 


tises,  but  only  for  showing  that  the  lieges 
were  properly  provided  with  arms. 

W.JlP  ENTAKE,  in  law,  a  division  or 
distrii^t,  peculiar  to  some  of  the  northern 
counties  of  England,  and  answering  to 
the  hundred  or  cantred,  in  other  counties. 
This  name  had  its  origin  in  a  custom  of 
touching  lances  or  spears  when  the  chief 
or  leading  man  of  the  hundred  entered  on 
his  office. 

AVAR,  a  contest  between  nations  or 
states,  carried  on  by  force,  either  for  de- 
fence, or  for  revenging  insults  and  re 
dressing  wrongs,  for  the  e.xtension  of  com- 
merce or  acquisition  of  territory,  or  fur 
obtaining  and  establishing  the  superiori- 
ty and  dominion  of  one  over  the  other. 
These  objects  are  accomplished  by  the 
slaughter  or  capture  of  troops,  and  the 
capture  and  destruction  of  ships,  towns, 
and  property.  Among  rude  nations,  war 
is  often  waged  and  carried  on  for  plun- 
der. As  war  is  the  contest  of  nations  or 
states,  it  always  implies  that  such  contest 
is  authorized  by  the  monarch  or  the  sov- 
ereign power  of  the  nation.  When  war 
is  commenced  by  attacking  a  nation  in 
peace,  it  is  called  an  offensive  war,  and 
such  attack  is  aggressive.  When  war  is 
undertaken  to  repel  invasion  or  the  at- 
tacks of  an  enemy,  it  is  called  defensive, 
and  a  defensive  war  is  considered  as  jus- 
tifiable. When  war  arises  between  dif- 
ferent portions  or  members  of  the  same 
nation,  or  between  the  establisho<l  govern- 
ment of  a  nation,  and  a  portion  of  the 
people  resisting  it.  it  is  called  a  civil  war. 
Very  few  of  the  uars  that  have  desolated 
nations  and  deluged  the  earth  with  blood, 
have  been  justifiable.  Happy  would  it  be 
for  mankind,  if  the  prevalence  of  Chris- 
tian principles  might  ultimately  e.\tin- 
guish  the  spirit  of  war,  and  if  the  ambi- 
tion to  be  great  might  yield  to  the  ambi- 
tion of  being  good.  The  "  rights  of  war" 
are  such  as  arise  in  times  of  hostilities — 
1.  between  enemies  ;  2.  between  neutrals. 
As  between  enemies,  it  is  a  general  law 
that  subjects  of  a  hostile  state  who  are 
not  in  arms,  or  whoh.Tve  submitted,  may 
not  be  slain.  The  killing  of  prisoners  is 
only  justifiable  in  very  extreme  cases. 
The  usage  of  e.xchanging  prisoners  is  now 
general,  but  was  only  firmly  established 
in  the  17th  century;  and  it  is  not  now 
considered  obligatory.  As  to  property, 
that  belonging  to  the  government  of  the 
vanquished  nation  belongs  to  the  victori- 
ous state,  wherever  it  is  found  ;  but  pri-_ 
vate  rights  are  unaffected  by  conquest, 
with  the  remarkable  exception  of  private 
property  when  at  sea,  which  is  by  gene- 


ral usage  held  l.Twful  pri/.o.  Acts  of  hos- 
tility are  only  lawful,  according  to  mod- 
ern usage,  when  committed  by  those  au- 
thorized by  the  express  or  implied  com- 
mand of  the  state  ;  such  as  the  regularly 
commissioned  military  and  naval  forces 
of  the  nation,  and  all  others  called  out  by 
tiie  government  in  its  defynce,  as  well  as 
persons  spgntaneouslj'  defending  them- 
selves in  case  of  necessity.  Irregular 
bands  of  marauders  are  therefore  denied 
the  rights  of  war,  and  liable  to  be  treated 
as  banditti;  and  this  distinction  is  gene- 
rally only  observed  so  far  as  suits  the  bel- 
ligerent's purpose.  For  privnte  citizens 
taking  up  arms,  although  in  obedience  to 
proclamations,  are  constantly'  liable  to  be 
treated  as  marauders ;  as  by  the  French 
in  the  Peninsular  war,  and  in  numerous 
other  cases. 

WARD,  in  law,  a  term  applied  to  all 
infants  under  the  power  of  guardians. — 
A  certain  district,  division,  or  quarter  of 
a  town  or  city. 

WAR'DEN,  a  keeper;  as,  the  warden 
of  a  prison. —  Warden  of  a  college,  the 
head  or  president. —  IVardeii  of  the  cinque 
ports,  an  officer  or  magistrate  who  has 
the  jurisdiction  of  certain  ports  or  havens 
in  England. 

WARD'MOTE,  a  court  kept  in  every 
ward  in  London,  usually  called  the  ward- 
mote court;  of  this  court  the  inquest  has 
power  every  j-ear  to  inquire  into  all  defi- 
ciencies with  regard  to  the  officers  of  the 
ward. 

WARD'SIIIP,  guardianship  ;  care  and 
protection  of  a  ward. — Right  of  guardian- 
ship. Wardship,  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, was  one  of  the  incidents  of  tenure 
by  knight  service.  When  the  tenant 
died,  and  his  heir  was  under  the  age  of 
21,  being  a  male,  or  14,  being  a  female, 
the  lord  was  entitled  to  the  wardship  of 
the  heir,  and  was  called  the  guardian  in 
chivalry.  This  wardship  consisted  in 
having  the  custody  of  the  body  and  lands 
of  such  heir,  without  any  account  of  the 
profits,  till  the  age  of  21  in  males,  ami 
14  (which  was  afterwards  advanced  to  16) 
in  females,  the  male  heir  being  then  con- 
sidered capable  of  performing  knight 
service,  and  the  female  capable  of  marry- 
ing. This  right  of  wardship  was  abol- 
ished under  the  commonwealth — Pupil 
age  ;  state  of  being  under  a  guardian. 

WARMTH,  in  painting,  that  glowing 
effect  which  arises  from  the  use  of  warm 
colors,  and  ako  from  the  use  of  trans- 
parent colors,  in  the  process  of  glazing; 
opposed  to  leaden  coldness. 

WAR'RANT,  in  law,  a  precept  autho- 


636 


CYCLOIEDIA     fiF    LI  1  KK  A  I  T  lilC 


[WEU 


rizing  an  officer  to  seize  an  offender  and 
bring  him  fn  justice. —  Wdrraiil  of  attor- 
ney, an  autliority  given  to  an  attorney 
by  his  client  to  appear  and  plead  for 
him  ;  or  in  a  more  general  sense,  that  by 
which  a  man  appoints  another  to  act  in 
his  name,  and  warrants  his  transaction. — 
Search  icarrant,  a  precept  authorizing  a 
person  to  enter  houses,  &c.  to'search  for 
stolen  or  contraband  goods,  or  to  discover 
wliether  a  criminal  be  there  concealed. — 
Warrant  officer,  an  officer  holding  a 
warrant  from  the  navy  board,  such  as  the 
master,  surgeon,  purser,  Ac.  of  a  ship. — 
Press  icarrant.  in  the  navy,  a  warrant 
issued  by  the  admiralty,  authorizing  an 
officer  to  impress  seamen. 

WAR'RANTY,  in  law,  a  covenant  by 
deed,  made  by  one  party  tD  another,  to 
secure  to  him  the  enjoyment  of  an  estate 
or  other  thing  bargained  for.  Warranty 
is  real,  when  annexed  to  lands  and  tene- 
ments granted  in  fee  or  for  life,  &c.,  and 
personal,  when  it  respects  goods  sold  or 
their  quality.  If  a.  man  sells  goods 
which  are  not  his  own,  or  which  he  has 
no  right  to  sell,  the  purchaser  may  liave 
satisfaction  for  the  injury.  And  if  the 
seller  expressly  warrants  the  gooils  to  be 
sound,  and  they  prove  to  be  ot he  wise,  he 
must  indemnify  the  purchaser.  I'ut  the 
warranty  must  be  at  the  time  of  sale. 

WAR  HEX,  a  franchise  or  privileged 
place  for  keeping  beasts  and  fowls  of  the 
warren,  as  hares,  partridges,  and  pheas- 
ants. 

WAS'SAIL-BOWL,  a  large  drinking 
vessel,  in  which  the  Saxons,  at  their  pub- 
lic entertainments,  drank  health  to  each 
other,  saying,  "  Wa^s  h:v\ !" — "  Health 
be  to  you  !"  or  "  Your  health  !"  It  was 
also  a  Saxon  custom,  to  go  about  with 
such  a  bowl,  at  the  time  of  the  Epiphany, 
singing  a  festival  song,  drinking  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants,  and,  of  course, 
collecting  money  to  replenish  the  bowl. 
This  custom,  from  which  christmas-boxes, 
christmas-ale,  bell  men's  verses,  and 
carols,  are  all,  probably,  more  or  less 
derived,  was  called  irassailing,  and  those 
who  practised  it,  7cassailers. 

WASTE,  in  law,  an  epithet  for  lands 
which  are  not  in  any  man's  occupation, 
but  lie  common. 

WATCH  AM)  WARD,  the  custom  of 
watcliing  by  night,  and  warding  or  keep- 
ing the  peace  by  day  in  towns  and 
cities,  which  was  first  apr)ointcd  by  Henry 
III. 

WATER-COT/ORS,  in  painting  and 
limning,  colors  diluted  and  made  with 
jfum-water  instead  of  oil,     Tiie  principal 


of  the  water-colors  are  as  follow:  White 
— Ceruse,  white  lead, Spanish  white,  tlake 
white,  spodium  ;  Black — Burnt  cherry- 
stones, ivorj'  black,  lampblack;  (ireen — 
Green  bice,  green  verditer,  grass  green, 
sap  green,  verdigris  distilled;  Blue- 
Sanders  blue,  terre  blue,  blue  verditer, 
indigo,  litmus,  smalt,  Prussian  bluo, 
light  blue,  ultramarine,  blue  bice  ;  Brown 
— Spanish  brown,  Spanish  liquorice,  um- 
ber, bistre,  terra  de  Sienna,  burnt  and 
unburnt  ;  Red — Native  cinnabar,  burnt 
ochre,  Indian  red,  red  lead,  minium, 
lake,  vermilion,  carmine,  red  ink,  Indian 
lake  ;  Yellow — English  ochre,  gall  strmes, 
gamboge,  mastieot,  ochre  de  luce,  orpi- 
ment,  Roman  ochre,  Dutch  pink,  saffron 
water,  king's  yellow,  gold  yellow,  French 
berries. 

WA'TER-GAVEL,  in  law,  a  rent  paid 
for  fishing,  or  any  other  benefit  received 
from  some  river. 

WA'TER-LINE,  a  horizontal  line  sup- 
posed to  be  drawn  about  a  ship's  bottom, 
at  the  surface  of  the  water.  This  is 
higher  or  lower,  according  to  the  depth 
of  water  necessarv  to  float  her. 

WA'TER-LOGGED,  is  said  of  a  ship 
when,  by  leaking  and  receiving  a  great 
quantity  of  water  into  her  hold,  she  has 
become  so  heavy  as  to  be  totally  unman- 
ageable. 

W.A'TERMAN,  one  who  plies  with  a 
boat  upon  a  river  ;   a  ferryman. 

WA  TER-MARK,  the  utmost  limit  of 
the  rise  of  the  Hood — The  mark  visible 
in  paper,  which  is  made  in  the  manufac- 
turing of  it. 

WA'TER-TABLE,  in  architecture,  a 
ledge  in  the  wall  of  a  building,  about  18 
or  20  inches  from  the  ground. 

WAX-WORK,  figures  formed  of  wax, 
in  imitation  of  real  persons.  Where  the 
likenesses  arc  correct,  and  the  artist  lias 
displayed  good  taste  in  adjusting  the 
draperies,  &c.,  a  collection  of  wax-work 
figures,  representing  public  characters, 
affords  an  amusing  exhibition.  But 
figures  of  this  kind  <ivcrstep  the  proper 
limit  of  the  Eine  Arts  ;  and  their  ghastly 
fixedness  has  a  tendency  to  make  us 
shudder  even  while  gratifying  our  curi- 
osit}'.  At  present  wax  is  used  for  ana- 
tomical jtreparations,  or  for  fruits:  it 
also  serves  the  sculptor  for  his  models 
and  studios. 

WAYS  AND  MEANS,  the  financial  re- 
sources to  meet  the  public  expenditure, 
or  sup|)lios  voted  bv  Congress. 

WEDNES  DAY,'  the  fourth  day  of  the 
week,  so  called  fidm  AVodin,  or  Odin,  a 
deity  "r  chief  among  the  northern  nations 


'ES] 


AND    THE    FIXE    ARTS. 


637 


of  Europe. — Ash  Wednesday,  the  first 
day  of  Lent.  Some  think  the  d;iy  receiv- 
ed this  name,  or  Dies  ciiierurn,  from  the 
custom  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church, 
of  penitents  appearing  in  sackcloth  with 
ashes  on  their  heads.  But,  however  cer- 
tain it  is  that  such  a  practice  prevailed, 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  done  pre- 
cisely on  that  day. 

\VEEK,  a  period  of  seven  days,  of  un- 
certain origin,  but  which  has  been  used 
I'runi  time  immemorial  in  eastern  coun- 
liios  The  week  did  not  enter  into  the 
calendar  of  the  Greeks,  who  divided  the 
civil  month  into  three  periods  of  ten 
days  each;  and  it  was  not  introduced  at 
Kome  till  after  the  reign  of  Theodosius. 
By  some  writers  the  use  of  weeks  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  remnant  of  the  tradition  of 
the  creation  ;  by  others,  that  it  was  sug- 
gested by  the  phases  of  the  moon  ;  while 
a  third  class,  with  more  probabilitj',  re- 
fer its  origin  to  the  seven  jtlanets  known 
in  ancient  times.  This  opinion  explains 
the  circumstance  that  the  days  of  the 
week  have  been  universally  named  after 
the  planets,  according  to  a  particular 
order.  In  the  ancient  Egyptian  astron- 
omy, the  order  of  the  planets,  in  respect 
of  distance  from  the  earth,  beginning 
with  the  most  remote,  is  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Mars,  the  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  the 
Moon.  The  day  was  divided  into  24 
hours,  and  each  successive  hour  conse- 
crated to  a  particular  planet  in  the  order 
now  stated  ;  so  that  one  hour  being  con- 
secrated to  Saturn,  the  next  fell  to  Jupi- 
ter, the  third  to  Mars,  and  so  on  ;  and 
each  day  was  named  after  the  planet  to 
which  its  first  hour  was  consecrated. 
Now,  suppose  the  first  hour  of  a  particu- 
lar day  to  have  been  consecrated  to 
Saturn,  it  is  evident  that  Saturn  would 
also  have  the  8th,  the  15th,  and  the  22d 
hours.  The  23d  hour  would  therefore 
fall  to  Jupiter  ;  the  24th  to  Mars;  and 
the  25th,  or  the  first  hour  of  the  following 
day,  would  belong  to  the  Sun,  from  which 
it  would  take  its  name.  By  proceeding 
in  the  same  manner,  it  is  found  that  the 
first  hour  of  the  third  dny  would  fall  to 
the  Moon,  the  first  of  the  fourth  day  to 
Mars,  of  the  fifth  to  Mercury,  of  the 
sixth  to  Jupiter,  and  of  the  seventh  to 
Venus.  The  cycle  being  completed,  the 
first  hour  of  the  eighth  day  would  return 
to  Saturn,  and  all  the  others  constantly 
succeed  in  the  same  order.  According  to 
Dio  Cassius,  the  Egyptian  week  began 
with  Saturday.  The  Jews,  on  their 
flight  from  Egypt,  made  Saturday  the 
last  day  of  the  week.     The  Saxons  seem 


to  have  bori  iwjd  the  week  from  some 
eastern  nati  n,  si'h-titnting  the  names 
of  their  owr  divinities  for  tho.-;e  of  the 
gods  of  Gree  e.  in  England,  the  L.itir 
names  of  th  j  djys  nre  still  retained  in 
legislative  ai,J  judiciary  acts. 

WELL,  a  cylindrical  exciivatioi"  sunk 
perpendicularly  into  the  carfli  to  such  a 
depth  as  to  reach  a  supply  of  water,  and 
walled  with  otone  or  brick  to  sufiport  the 
earth. —  WeU,\n  the  military  art,  adejith 
which  the  miner  sinhs  under  ground,  with 
branches  or  galleries  running  out  from 
it,  either  to  prepare  a  mine,  or  to  discover 
and  disappoint  the  enemy's  mine. 

WELSH,  the  language  or  general 
name  of  tha  people  of  Wales.  The  Welsh 
call  thems-jlves  Cymry,  their  country 
Cymru,  an  1  the  name  of  their  language, 
Cymraeg.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the 
Ciinbri,  of  Jutland.  It  was  to  Wales  that 
the  ancient  Eritons  fled  when  Great  Bri- 
tain was  iu-T  aded  by  the  Saxons ;  and 
there  they  1  mg  maintained  themselves 
as  an  independent  state,  preserving  their 
own  langui>4,e,  and  being  governed  by 
their  native  kings;  till  Llewellin,  their 
last  prince,  being  vanquished  and  slain 
in  1283,  wh<  e  resisting  the  forces  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  th&  country  was  united  to  Eng- 
land. The  jieople  submitted  to  the  Eng- 
lish dominion  with  extreme  reluctance; 
and  Edwarc?,  as  a  conciliatory  means, 
promised  to  give  them  for  their  prince  a 
Welshman  by  birth,  and  one  who  could 
speak  no  other  language.  This  notice 
being  recei\  ed  with  joy,  he  invested  in 
the  prineipalitj'  his  second  son,  Edward, 
then  an  infint,  who  had  been  born  at 
Carnarvon.  The  death  of  his  eldest  son, 
Alphonso,  happening  soon  after,  young 
Edward  became  heir  also  of  the  English 
monarchy,  and  united  both  nations  under 
one  governiuent ;  but  some  ages  elapsed, 
before  the  animosity  which  had  long  sub- 
sisted betw(;en  them  was  totally  extin- 
guished. 

WEH'EGfLD,  in  ancient  English  law, 
a  compensa(,ion  paid  for  a  man  killed  by 
the  person  v^ho  caused  his  death.  Black- 
stone  says  it  was  paid  partly  as  a  penal- 
ty to  the  king  for  the  loss  of  a  subject, 
partly  to  the  lord  of  the  vassal,  and  part- 
ly to  the  next  of  kin. 

WEST,  one  of  the  cardinal  points,  be- 
ing that  point  of  the  horizon  where  the 
sun  sets  at  the  equinox,  or  any  point  in 
a  direct  line  between  the  spectator  or 
other  object,  and  that  jioint  of  the  horizon. 
In  a  less  strict  sense,  it  is  that  region  of 
the  hemisphere  near  the  point  where  the 
sun  sets  when  in  the  equator. 


638 


CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LI  lEIlATf  UE 


WHl 


WEST'ERNE.M'PIRE,  the  nnme  given 
by  hisloriiin?  to  tlic  wct-tcrn  divi.-iioii  of 
the  Roman  empire,  when  divided,  bj  the 
will  of  Theodcisius  the  Great,  between  his 
sons  llonorius  and  Arcjidius,  ad.  395. 
After  tile  deposition  of  the  emperor  An- 
gustuliis  hy  Odoacer,  a.d.  47G,  the  Wes- 
tern einjiire  was  definitely  at  an  end. 
But  when  Charlemagne,  in  the  3'ear  800, 
assumeil  the  imperial  crown,  it  was  with 
the  view  of  reassuining  the  ancient  dig- 
nity of  the  C;t.sar.-i  in  Western  Europe; 
and  after  him  the  (ierinan  emperors  were 
considered  by  the  jurists  of  their  own 
country,  and  of  their  party  in  Ital^-,  as 
representing  the  majesty  of  ancient  Rome, 
the  Italian  states  being  looked  on  as  feu- 
dat  iries  of  the  empire. 

WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY,  a 
name  given  to  the  synod  of  divines  and 
laymen,  who  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I , 
assembled  by  authority  of  parliament,  in 
Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel,  Westmin- 
ster, for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  gov- 
ernment, liturgy,  and  doctrine  of  the 
Church  of  England.  The  great  majority 
of  those  who  attended  this  assembly  were 
presbyterians.  Those  members  of  epis- 
copalian principles  refraineil  from  attend- 
ing, because  the  king  liaii  declared  against 
the  asseinbl}'.  The  Westminster  Assem- 
bly continued  in  e.xistence  for  five  years 
and  a  half.  They  signed  the  solemn 
league  and  covenant,  drew  up  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  a  Directory  for  Public 
Worship,  the  Larger  and  Sliortor  Cate- 
chisms, and  some  other  publications  of 
temporary  importance. 

WHEEL,  BRE.AK'IXa  ON  THE, 
a  mode  of  cajiital  jiunishmenf,  said  to 
have  been  first  employed  in  (lermanj-  ; 
according  to  some  writers,  on  the  mur- 
derers of  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  in 
the  14th  century.  According  to  the  Ger- 
man method  of  this  savage  execution, 
the  criminal  was  laid  on  a  cart-wheel 
with  his  arms  and  logs  extended,  and 
his  limbs  in  that  posture  fractured  with 
an  iron  bar.  But  in  France  (where  it 
was  restricted  to  cases  of  assassination, 
or  other  murders  of  an  atrocious  descrip- 
tion, highway  ridibery,  parricide,  and 
rape  )  the  criminal  was  laid  on  a  frame 
of  wooil  in  the  form  of  a  St.  Andrew's 
cross,  with  groove.*  cut  transversely  in  it 
above  and  below  the  knees  and  elbows; 
and  the  executioner  struck  eight  blows 
with  an  iron  bar,  so  as  to  break  the  limbs 
in  those  places,  sometime.-:  finishing  the 
criminal  by  two  or  three  blows  on  the 
ehest  or  .'tomach  :  thence  called  coui)s  de 
grace.     lie  was   then   unbound  and  laid 


on  a  small  carriage  wheel,  with  his  face 
upwards,  and  his  arms  and  legs  doubleJ 
under  him  ;  there  to  expire,  if  .-till  alive. 
Sometimes  the  sentence  contained  a  re- 
teiitum,  by  which  the  executioner  was 
directed  to  strangle  the  criminal,  either 
before  the  first,  or  after  one,  two  or  three 
blows.  This  punishment  was  abolished 
in  France  at  the  Revolution  ;  but  it  is 
still  resorted  to  in  Germany  as  the  pun- 
ishment for  parricide,  the  last  instance 
of  which  took  place  in  18'27  near  (i(jltiii- 
gen.  The  assassin  of  the  bishop  of  Erme- 
land  in  Prussia,  in  1841,  was  sentenced 
to  the  wheel. 

WHIG,  one  of  a  ])olitical  party  which 
had  its  origin  in  England  in  the  17th 
century,  in  the  reign  of  the  Stuarts,  when 
great  contests  existed  respecting  the  royal 
prerogatives.  Those  who  supported  the 
king  in  his  high  claims  were  called  To- 
ries, and  the  advocates  of  popular  rights 
were  called  fVhigs.  The  term  is  of  Scot- 
tish origin,  and  was  first  used  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  11.  According  to  Bishop 
Burnet,  it  is  derived  trom  wliiggani,  a 
word  which  was  useil  by  the  peasants 
of  the  south-west  of  Scotland,  in  driving 
their  horses  ;  the  drivers  being  called 
ichis'gamores,  contracted  to  ichiggs.  In 
1648,  after  the  news  of  the  Duke  of  Ham- 
ilton's defeat,  the  clergy  stirred  up  the 
peojile  to  rise  and  march  to  Edinburgh, 
and  they  themselves  inarched  at  the  head 
of  their  parishes.  The  Marquis  of  Ar- 
gyle  and  his  party  came  and  headed 
them.  This  was  called  the  irhiggainores' 
inroad,  and  ever  after  {hat  all  that  op- 
posed the  court  came,  in  contempt,  to  be 
called  irhiggs ;  and  from  Scotland,  the 
word  was  brought  to  England,  where  it 
has  since  continued  to  be  used  as  the 
distinguishing  appellation  of  the  political 
party  opposed  to  the  Tories.  It  was 
first  assumed  as  a  party  name  by  that 
body  of  politicians  who  were  most  active 
in  placing  William  III.  on  the  throne  of 
England.  Generally  speaking,  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  whigs  have  been  of  a  pop- 
ular character,  and  their  measures,  when 
in  power,  tending  to  increase  the  demo- 
cratic influence  in  the  constitution  In 
American  history,  the  friends  and  sup- 
porters of  the  war  and  the  principles  of 
the  revolution,  were  called  w/iigs.  and 
those  who  opposed  them  were  called 
tories  and  rui/cdists.  One  of  the  two 
great  political  parties  in  the  United 
States,  is  (riilled  u-hi<z. 

AVIIIS'PERING  DOMES,  or  GALLE- 
RIES, are  places  in  which  whispers  or 
feeble    sounds    are    comniunicatou  to   a 


wixj 


AND    THR     FINE     ARTS. 


639 


grenter  rlistance  than  under  any  ordinary 
circumstances.  Jn  order  to  produce  this 
effect,  the  (iirin  of  the  roof  or  walls  of  the 
building  must  be  such  that  sound  yiro- 
ceediiig  from  one  part  is  transniitted  by 
reflection  or  repeated  reflections  to  an- 
other. The  dome  of  .St.  Paul's  church  in 
London  furni.'ihes  an  instance. 

WHI.'>T.  the  most  perfect  game  at  the 
car<l  table,  requiring  great  attention  and 
silence,  whence  its  name.  This  game  is 
played  by  four  persons,  who  cut  for 
partners  ;  the  two  highest  and  the  two 
lowest  are  together,  and  the  partners  sit 
opposite  to  each  other:  the  person  who 
cuts  the  lowest  card  is  to  deal  first,  giving 
one  at  a  time  to  each  person,  till  becomes 
to  the  last  card,  which  is  turned  up  for 
the  trump,  and  remains  on  the  table  till 
each  person  has  played  a  card.  The 
person  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  dealer 
plays  first,  and  whoever  wins  the  trick  is 
to  play  again,  thus  going  on  till  the  cards 
are  played  out.  The  aee,  king,  queen, 
and  knave  of  trumps  are  called  kottors  ; 
whichever  side  holds  three  of  these 
honors,  reckons  two  points  towards  the 
game,  or  for  the  whole  of  the  honors,  four 
points,  the  game  consisting  of  ten  points. 
The  honors  are  reckoned  after  the  tricks; 
all  above  si.t  tricks  reckoning  also  to- 
wards the  game. 

WHITFIELD'I.^N  METH'ODISTS,  j 
the  name  given  to  the  most  numerous  i 
body  of  the  .Methodists  after  the  Wesley-  j 
ans ;  so  called  from  Whitfield,  whose  ; 
early  connection  with  the  Methodists  will 
be  found  noticed  under  that  term.  Soon 
after  the  return  of  Mr.  Whitfield  from  ! 
America  in  1741,  he  withdrew  connection 
from  Wesley  on  account  of  religious 
tenets  ;  the  former  holding  the  high  doc- 
trine of  Calvinism,  and  differing  from  the 
latter  chiefly  oji  the  subjects  of  election 
and  general  redemption.  But  though 
they  differed  in  sentiments,  these  good 
men  lived  and  died  united  in  heart. 
Whitfield  devoted  his  life  to  itinerant 
preaching,  and  was,  if  possible,  more 
popular  as  an  energetic  and  eloquent 
pulpit  orator  than  his  former  coadjutor. 
He  did  not  confine  his  labors  to  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  but  visited  North 
America  no  fewer  than  seven  different 
times  ;  and  died  there  at  Boston,  in  1770, 
in  the  fifty-si.vth  year  of  his  age.  But 
he  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  the  founder 
of  a  sect :  his  chief  object  was  itinerating. 
At  several  places,  indeed,  he  erected 
chapels,  ot  tabernacles,  as  he  called  them  ; 
but  these  he  invariably  left  to  the  care 
of  any  orthodox  clc-gyman,  whether  in 


the  establishment  or  among   the   dissen- 
ters, who  was  prepared  to  occiijiy  them. 

WIUTSUNTliJE,  the  tifiieth  day 
after  Easter,  and  which  is  properly  called 
Pentecost.  It  is  said  to  have  received  its 
popular  name  from  the  circumstance, 
that,  formerly,  people  newly  baptized 
came  to  church  between  Easter  and  Pen- 
tecost in  white  garments. 

WICK'LIEFITES,  a  religious  sect 
which  sprung  up  in  England  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.,  and  took  its  name  from 
John  Wickliffe,  doctor  and  professor  of 
divinity  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  who 
maintained  that  the  substance  of  the  sacra- 
mental bread  and  wine  remained  unalter- 
ed after  consecration  ;  and  opposed  the  doc- 
trine of  purgatory,  indulgences,  auricular 
confession,  the  invocation  of  saints,  anil 
the  worship  of  image-i.  He  made  an 
English  version  of  the  Bible,  and  com- 
posed two  volumes  called  Aletheia,  that 
is.  Truth,  from  which  John  IIuss  learned 
most  of  his  doctrines.  In  short,  to  this 
reformer  we  owe  the  first  hint  of  the  ref- 
ormation, which  was  effected  about  two 
hundred  years  after. 

WIU'WAM,  a  name  given  by  the 
English  to  the  huts  or  cabins  of  the  North 
American  Indians. 

WILL,  that  faculty  of  the  mind  by 
which  we  determine  either  to  do  or  for- 
bear an  action.  The  will  is  directed  or 
influenced  by  the  judgment.  The  under- 
standing or  reason  compares  different  ob- 
jects, which  operate  as  motives  ;  the 
judgment  determines  which  is  prefer- 
able, and  the  xcill  decides  which  to  pur- 
sue. The  freedom  of  the  will  is  essential 
to  moral  action,  and  is  the  great  distinc- 
tion of  man  from  the  brute. 

WILL  or  TE.S'TAMENT,  the  disposi- 
tion of  a  person's  estate,  to  take  effect 
after  his  or  her  decease.  No  person  un- 
der twenty-one  can  make  a  valid  will. 
Wills  are  to  be  construed  as  if  made  im- 
mediately before  the  death  of  the  testa- 
tor, unless  a  contrary  intention  is  ex- 
pressed; and  properties  bequeathed  in 
general  terms  include  all  property  in  the 
possession  of  the  testator  at  his  decea.=e, 
whether  acquired  before  or  after  the  will 
was  made. 

WIN'CHE.STER  BUSU'EL,  the  origi- 
nal English  standard  measure  of  capacity, 
given  by  King  Edgar,  and  kept  in  the 
town-hall  of  the  ancient  city  of  Winchester, 
with  other  measures  both  of  quantity  and 
length.  Until  the  year  182(3.  when  the 
imperial  standard  measure  was  introdu- 
ced, the  Winchester  bushel  was  the  stand- 
ard for  England. 


640 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  I.ITEUATIKE 


[wn 


WIN'TER,  one  of  the  four  scasions  of 
the  year,  coiuinencing  on  the  day  when 
the  sun's  distance  from  the  zenith  of  the 
place  is  the  greatest,  and  endin<^  on  that 
when  it  is  at  a  mean  between  tlic  great- 
est and  the  least.  The  coldness  of  winter 
is  therefore  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the 
days,  or  time  during  which  the  sun  is 
above  the  horizon,  and  the  oblique  direc- 
tion in  which  his  rays  fall  upon  our  part 
of  the  globe  at  that  season. 

"WISDOM,  the  right  use  of  knowledge. 
It  may  be  considered  both  as  vt. faculty  of 
the  mind  and  as  an  acquirement.  In 
the  former  sense  it  is  the  faculty  of  dis- 
cerning or  judging  what  is  most  just, 
proper,  and  useful  ;  in  the  latter,  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  what  is  best,  most 
just,  and  most  conducive  to  prosperit}'  or 
happiness. — In  Scripture  theology,  iris- 
dom  is  the  knowledge  and  fear  of  God, 
and  sincere  and  uniform  obedience  to  his 
comm.ands  ;  in  other  words,  true  religion. 
—  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  one  of  the  books 
of  the  Apocrypha.  It  is  by  many  thought 
to  have  been  written  after  the  cabalistic 
philosophy  was  introduced  among  the 
Jews. 

AVIT,  in  its  original  signification,  was 
synonymous  with  wisdom.  Thus  we  read 
of  our  ancient  witenageraot,  or  Sa.Kon 
parliament,  an  assembly  of  wise  men  ; 
and  so  late  as  the  Elizabethan  age,  a 
man  of  great  or  pregnant  wit,  meant  a 
man  of  vast  judgment.  The  word  wit, 
however,  like  many  other  words,  has  in 
the  course  of  time  undergone  various 
mutations.  According  to  Locke,  wit  lies 
in  the  assemblage  of  ideas,  and  putting 
those  together  with  quickness  and  variety, 
so  that  a  congruity  of  associations  and 
pleasant  images  may  be  present  to  the 
fancy  ;  while  Pope  defines  it  to  be  a  quick 
conception  and  an  easy  delivery.  It  is 
evident  that  wit  e.xcites  in  the  mind  an 
agreeable  surprise,  and  that  this  is  en- 
tirely owing  to  the  strange  assemblage 
of  related  ideas  presented  to  the  mind. 
Of  so  much  consequence  are  surprise  and 
novelty,  that  nothing  is  more  vapid  than 
a  joke  that  has  become  stale  by  frequent 
rejietition.  For  the  same  reason,  a  witty 
repartee  is  infinitely  more  pleasing  than 
a  witty  attack  ;  and  a  ])un  or  happy  al- 
lusion thrown  out  extempore  in  ccmversa- 
tion,  will  often  appear  e.xcellent,  though 
it  might  be  deemed  execrable  in  print. 
Humor  and  wit  are  both  addressed  to  the 
comic  passion  ;  but  humor  aims  at  the 
risibility,  and  wit  at  the  admiration  ; 
humor  is  the  seasoning  of  farce,  and  wit 
of  comedy  ;  humor  judges  by    instinct ; 


wit  by  comparison.  As  a  learned  divine 
has  well  observed,  "sometimes  it  playeth 
in  words  and  phrases,  taking  advantage 
from  the  ambiguity  of  their  sense,  or  the 
affinity  of  their  sound;  sometimes  it  is 
wrapped  in  a  dress  of  humorous  expres- 
sion ;  sometimes  it  lurketh  under  an  odd 
similitude  ;  sometimes  it  is  lodged  in  a 
sly  f|uestion,  in  a  smart  answer,  in  a 
quirkish  reason,  in  a  shrewd  intimation, 
in  cunningly  diverting  or  cleverly  retort- 
ing an  objection;  sometimes  it  is  couched 
in  a  bold  scheme  of  speech,  in  at  ait  irony, 
in  a  lusty  hyperbole,  in  n  startling  meta- 
phor, in  a  plausible  reconciling  of  ciratra- 
dictions,  or  in  acute  nonsense.  Often  it 
consisteth  in  one  knows  not  what,  and 
springeth  up  one  can  hardly  tell  how." 
Note. — It  is  difficult  to  give  any  strict 
definition  of  the  term  icit,  its  precise 
boundaries  being  still  too  unsettled.  It 
has  passed  through  a  greater  variety  of 
significations  in  the  course  of  the  last 
two  centuries  than  most  other  terms  in 
the  English  language.  Originally,  wit 
signified  wisdom  ;  and  anciently  a  man 
of  uitte.  was  a  wise  man.  In  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  a  man  of  pregnant  icit,  or 
of  great  irit,  was  a  man  of  vast  judgment. 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.  uit  was  used  to 
signify  the  intellectual  faculties  or  mental 
powers  collectively.  In  the  time  of  Cow- 
ley it  came  to  signify  a  superior  under- 
standing, and  more  particularly  a  quick 
and  brilliant  reason.  By  Dryden  it  is 
used  as  nearly  s^'nonymous  with  talent 
or  ability.  According  to  Locko,  it  con- 
sists in  quickness  of  fancj'  ami  imagina- 
tion. I'opo  defined  wit  to  be  a  quick 
conception  and  an  easy  delivery  ;  accord- 
ing to  which,  a  man  of  ifi7,  or  a  icit,  is  a 
man  of  brilliant  fancy  ;  a  man  of  genius. 
At  present,  irit  is  used  to  designate  a 
peculiar  facultj'  of  the  mind,  connected 
with  the  more  comprehensive  faculty  of 
the  imaginaticm  ;  and  also  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  this  faculty,  which  consists  in 
the  display  of  remote  resemblances  be- 
tween dissimilar  objects,  or  an  unexpected 
combination  of  remote  resemblances;  in 
the  exhibition  or  perception  of  ludicroua 
points  of  analogy  or  resemblance  among 
things  in  other  resjiects  dissimilar. 
Hence,  a  man  of  uit,  or  a  wit,  is  eon- 
siklered  to  be  a  man  in  whom  a  readiness 
for  such  exerci.se  of  the  mind  is  remark- 
able. It  is  evident  that  wit  excites  in 
the  mind  an  agreeable  surprise,  and  that 
arising,  not  from  anything  marvellous  in 
the  subject,  but  solely  from  the  imagery 
employed  or  the  strange  assemblage  of 
related    ideas    presented    to    the   mind. 


wrr] 


AND    TIIK     KINE     ARTS. 


641 


This  end  is  effected,  1.  by  debasing 
things  pompous  or  seeminglj-  grave  ;  2. 
by  aggrandizing  ,'hings  little  and  frivo- 
lous;  or,  3.  by  t^etting  ordinarj'  objects  in 
a  particular  and  uncommon  point  of 
view,  by  means  not  only  remote,  but  ap- 
parently contrary.  Hence  arise  a  great 
many  kinds  of  wit.  'Wit  is  often  joined 
■with  humor,  but  not  necessarily  .so;  it 
often  displays  itself  in  the  keenest  satire ; 
but  when  it  is  not  kept  under  proper  con- 
trol, or  when  it  becomes  the  habitual  ex- 
ercise of  the  mind,  it  is  apt  to  impair  the 
nobler  powers  of  the  understanding,  to 
chill  the  feelings,  to  check  friendly  and 
social  intercourse,  and  to  break  down 
those  barriers  which  have  been  estab- 
lished by  courtesy.  At  the  same  time, 
when  kept  within  its  proper  sphere,  and 
judiciously  used,  it  may  bo  rendered  very 
etfective  in  attacking  pedantry,  preten- 
sion, or  folly,  and  may  also  be  employed 
as  a  powerful  weapon  against  error. 

WITCH'CRAFT,  a  supernatural  power, 
which  persons  were  formerly  supposed  to 
obtain  the  possession  of,  by  entering  into 
compact  with  the  evil  one.  Indeed,  it 
was  fully  believed  that  they  gave  them- 
selves up  to  him  body  anil  soul  ;  and  he 
engaged  that  they  should  want  for  no- 
thing, and  be  able  to  assume  whatever 
shape  they  pleased,  to  visit  and  torment 
their  enemies  !  The  insane  fancies  of  dis- 
eased minds,  unusual  phenomena  of  na- 
ture, and  the  artful  machinery  of  design- 
ing malignitj',  ambition,  or  hypocrisy, 
were  all  laid  at  Satan's  feet.  Witchcraft 
was  universally  believed  in  throughout 
Europe  till  the  IGtl'  century,  and  even 
maintained  its  gro'nd  with  tolerable 
firmness  till  the  17tf'  Vast  numbers  of 
reputed  witches  wei'  convicted  and  con- 
demned to  be  burn  In  short,  it  is  re- 
corded, that  500  wiiehes  were  burned  at 
Geneva  in  three  months,  about  the  year 
1515;  that  1000  were  executed  in  one 
year  in  the  diocese  of  Como;  and  it  has 
been  calculateil  that  not  less  than  100,000 
victims  must  have  suffereil,  in  (lermany 
alone,  from  the  date  of  Innocent's  bull, 
in  1484,  which  directed  the  Inquisition  to 
bo  vigilant,  in  searching  out  and  punish- 
ing witches,  to  the  final  extinction  of  the 
prosecutions.  The  number  of  those  put 
to  death  in  England  has  been  estimated 
at  about  30.000!  Much  has  been  said 
joncerning  the  c(mnection  between  reli- 
gious fanaticism  and  the  superstition  of 
witchcraft.  It  has  been  seen  that  the 
cruelties  and  absurdities  of  witch  perse- 
cution had  reached  a  great  height  even 
before  the  Reformation ;  but  it  can 
41 


scarcely  be  denied  that  the  strong  reli- 
gious excitement  which  produced  and  ac- 
companied that  event  was  in  some  way 
connected  with  the  rapid  spread  and  de- 
velopment of  that  atrocious  sj'stem.  The 
more  intense  the  belief  in  the  overruling 
providence  of  God,  and  his  immediate 
interference  in  the  course  of  oriiinary 
events  (which  especially  characterized 
the  revival  of  religion,)  the  more  does  the 
parallel  belief  in  the  agency  of  evil  spirits, 
and  their  dealings  with  man,  appear  to 
take  root  in  the  imagination.  Sir  W. 
Scott  observes  that,  among  Protestant 
sects,  the  Calvinists  (whose  views  of  re- 
ligion were  at  once  the  most  gloomj'  and 
the  most  engrossing)  seern  to  have  afford- 
ed the  most  terrible  examples  of  this  pre- 
vailing mania.  There  seems  also  to  have 
been  a  constantly  recurring  tendency  to 
treat  witchcraft  and  heresy  as  allied 
offences.  It  appears,  upon  the  whole, 
that  the  persecutions  during  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries  were  most  violent  in  those 
countries  which  were  the  scene  of  much 
strife  between  the  two  religions,  or  in 
which  the  Calvinist  opinions  were  pushed 
to  an  extreme — France,  the  Netherlands, 
Northern  and  Western  Germany,  Swit- 
zerland, Scotland,  England  under  the 
Commonwealth,  and  at  a  still  later  period 
New  England.  A  singular  example  of 
the  contagion  of  fanaticism  suddenly 
spreading  with  extraordinary  violence, 
and  subsiding  again  after  one  terrible 
outbreak,  is  to  he  found  in  the  history 
of  the  witch  persecutions  in  Sweden,  ia 
the  end  of  the  17th  century.  In  Italy, 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  of  the 
northern  districts,  the  superstition  wa.? 
generally  less  prevalent,  or  at  least  less 
distressing  in  its  effects  ;  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  Spain,  after  the  first  pe- 
riod of  the  history  of  the  Inquisition. 

WITENAGE'MOTE,  literally,  an  as- 
sembly of  wise  men.  Among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  the  great  national  council  or 
parliament,  consisting  of  nobles,  or  chiefs, 
the  largest  landholders,  and  the  principal 
ecclesiastics.  The  meetings  of  this  coun- 
cil were  frequent;  they  formed  the  high- 
est court  of  judicature  in  the  kingdom  ; 
they  were  summoned  by  the  king  in  any 
political  emergency;  their  concurrence 
was  necessary  to  give  validity  to  laws, 
and  treaties  with  foreign  states  wore  sub- 
mitted to  their  approval.  They  had 
even  power  to  elect  the  king,  and  if  the 
sceptre  descended  in  his  race,  it  was  by 
means  of  the  formal  recognition  of  thp 
new  king  by  the  nobles,  bishops,  Ac,  in 
an   assembly  convened   for  tue  purpose. 


642 


CYCI.OPK.DIA     CF     l.riK.i:ATVKK 


[woo 


It  s»ems  that  in  En?t  An^^lia  the  po^ses- 
si<m  of  ('(irty  hiiles  of  l;iiiii  was  tiecessai\y 
to  eiitille  a  pcr.«)n  lo  rauk  among  Iho^e 
tcrmc.l  in  the  Latin  of  the  age  "pro- 
ceres."  who  appear  to  have  hecn  niein- 
bcrs  of  llie  great  council.  The  iiowers 
and  character  of  the  witenageniote  pa.=sc'J 
to  tile  great  council  of  the  early  Norman 
king,*,  which  are  called  by  ihe  same 
name  by  Sa.\on  writers. 

WITNESS,  in  law,  one  who  gives  evi- 
dence in  a  judicial  proceeding.  In  civil 
cases,  witnesses  are  compelled  to  attend 
b_v  the  process  called  sub/xjena  ad  testifi- 
candum (which  see,)  and  punishable  if 
they  neglect  to  do  so  by  attachment  or 
acti<m.  In  criminal  cases,  by  subpccna 
or  by  recognizance  taken  by  the  magis- 
trate before  whom  the  information  is 
given. 

AVO'DEN,  or  AVUOTAN,  an  Anglo- 
Sa.\on  divinitj-,  considered  to  correspond 
with  the  Jlercury  of  the  ancient  (Jreeks 
and  Romans  ;  from  whom  Wednesday 
derives  its  name.  He  is  sometimes  also, 
though  erro  leouslj',  considered  as  iden- 
tical with  Oilin. 

WOM'AN,  the  female  of  the  human 
race,  grown  to  an  adult  age.  In  the  pa- 
triarchal ages  women  were  used  agreea- 
bly to  that  simplicity  of  manners  which 
for  a  long  time  after  pervaded  all  na- 
tions. They  drew  water,  kept  sheep, 
and  fed  the  cattle  ;  as  may  be  observed 
in  what  is  related  of  Kebeeca,  the  niece 
of  Abraham,  and  Rachel,  the  daughter 
of  Laban.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, women  were  employed  in  sjiinning, 
weaving,  embroidery,  and  all  sorts  of 
necdie-work  ;  their  education  being  whol- 
ly confined  to  their  domestic  duties.  It 
is  in  the  Christian  home  only  that  woman 
reigns — the  mother,  sister,  wife,  and 
friend.  The  influence  of  Christianity 
gave  woman  a  new  station  in  society, 
broke  her  chains,  and  released  her  from 
the  degrading  restrictions  in  which  she 
had  almost  become  the  soulless  thing 
which  she  had  been  represented  to  be. 
As  man  ceased  to  be  a  mere  citizen  of  his 
own  country,  and  felt  himself  to  be  a 
citizen  of  the  world,  so  woman  was 
restored  to  her  natural  rights.  "  In 
every  age  and  country  (says  Gibbon,) 
the  wiser,  or  at  least  Ihe  stronger,  of  the 
two  se.\es  has  usurped  the  powers  of  the 
state,  and  confined  the  otlier  to  the  cares 
and  pleasures  of  domestic  life.  In  heredi- 
tary monarchies,  however,  and  especially 
in  those  <if  niochnii  Europe,  the  gallant 
(spirit  of  chivalry,  anil  the  law  of  snccos- 
eion,  have    accustomed    us    to    nlhuv    a 


singular  exception  ;  and  a  woman  is  often 
acknowledged  the  absolute  sovereign  of 
a  great  kingdom,  in  which  she  would 
be  deemed  inca])able  of  exercising  the 
smallest  employment,  civil  or  military. 
But  as  the  Roman  emperors  were  still 
considered  as  the  generals  and  magis- 
trates of  the  republic,  (heir  wives' 
mothers,  although  clistinguished  by  the 
name  of  Augusta,  were  never  associated 
to  their  ]iersonal  honors  ;  and  a  female 
reign  would  have  apjieared  an  ine.xjiia- 
ble  prodigy  in  the  eyes  of  those  primitive 
Romans  who  married  without  love,  or 
loved  without  delicacy  and  respect  " — 
Born  to  feel  and  inspire  the  kind  and 
tender  afi'ections.  it  is  the  fault  of  men 
if  well-educated  females  become  not  the 
grace  and  ornament  of  society.  This,  at 
least,  is  the  rule;  the  reverse  of  this, 
the  exception. 

WON'DER,  that  emotion  which  is  ex- 
cited by  something  presented  to  the 
senses  which  is  either  sudden,  extraordi- 
nary, or  not  well  understood.  The  word 
wonder  is  nearly  allied  to  astonishment, 
though  it  expresses  less,  and  much  less 
than  amazement — Among  the  ancients, 
the  sei-en  xconders  of  the  xcorld  were — 
the  Egyptian  pyramids- — Jhe  mausoleums 
erected  by  Artemisia — the  temple  of 
Diana,  at  Ephesus — the  walls  and  hang- 
ing gardens  of  Babylon — the  colossus  at 
Rhodes — the  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympus — 
and  the  Pharos  or  watch-tower  at  Alex- 
andria. 

AVOOD-ENGRAV'ING,  or  wood-cut- 
ting, the  art  of  cutting  figures  in  wood, 
that  they  may  be  printed  by  the  same 
process  as  common  Ictter-jjrcss.  The 
mode  of  engraving  on  wood  is  exactly 
the  reverse  of  that  of  copper-plate,  the 
parts  intended  to  appear  being  raised  on 
the  surface.  The  wood  which  is  used  for 
the  purpose  of  engraving,  is  that  of  the 
box-tree,  of  which  a  considerable  quan- 
tity is  imported  from  Turkey.  The 
design  drawn  upon  the  wood  is  the  re- 
verse of  the  object  copied,  so  that  when 
the  impression  is  taken  from  the  engrav- 
ing, the  object  is  correctly  represented. 

WOOD'-'gELD,  in  ancient  English 
customs,  the  gathering  or  cutting  of  wood 
within  the  forest;  or  the  money  paid  for 
the  same  to  the  foresters.  Sometinifs  it 
also  seems  to  signify  an  immunity  from 
this  payment  by  the  king's  grant. 

WOOE'SACK,  the  seat  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England,  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  is  so  called,  from  its  being  a  large 
square  bag  of  wool  without  back  or  arms, 
Oo\ered  with  red  cloth. 


•1 


AND    THK    FINE    AIITS 


643 


WORDS,  are  signs,  or  sj'rubols  of 
iilens  and  thoughts,  produced  by  sounds, 
and  couibinatiuns  of  sounds,  or  by  letters 
and  their  combinations. — In  the  lan- 
guage of  an  old  writer,  wlio  somewhat 
quaintly  expresses  himself.  "'  lie  that  has 
names  without  ideas,  wants  meaning  in 
his  words,  and  speaks  only  empty  sounds. 
He  that  has  comple.v  ideas  without 
names  for  them,  wants  despatch  in  his 
e.\pre.ssion.  lie  that  uses  his  words 
loosely  and  unsteadily,  will  either  not  be 
minded  or  not  understood.  He  that  ap- 
plies names  to  ideas,  different  from  the 
common  use.  wants  propriety  in  his  lan- 
guage, and  speaks  gibberish ;  and  he 
that  has  ideas  of  substances  disagree- 
ing with  the  real  existence  of  things,  so 
far  wants  the  materials  of  true  knowl- 
edge." 

WORLD,  the  whole  system  of  created 
globes  ;  or  the  orbs  which  occupy  space, 
and  all  the  beings  which  inhabit  them. 
The  duration  of  the  world  is  a  subject 
which  has  given  rise  to  much  disputation. 
Plato,  after  Ocellus  Lucanus,  held  it  to 
be  eternal,  and  to  have  flowed  from  God 
as  rays  flow  from  the  sun.  Aristotle,  who 
was  much  of  the  same  opinion,  asserts 
that  the  world  was  not  generated  so  as  to 
begin  to  be  a  world,  which  before  was 
none  :  he  lays  down  a  pre-e.xisting  and 
eternal  matter  as  a  principle,  and  thence 
argues  the  world  eternal.  His  arguments 
amount  to  this,  that  it  is  impossible  an 
eternal  agent,  having  an  eternal  passive 
subject,  should  continue  long  without  ac- 
tion ;  and  his  opinion  was  for  a  long  time 
generally  followed,  as  seeming  to  be  the 
fittest  to  end  the  dispute  among  so  many 
sects  about  the  first  cause.  But  some  of 
the  modern  philosophers  refute  the  im- 
aginary eternity  of  the  world  by  this  ar- 
gument, that  if  it  be  ab  eterno^  there 
must  have  been  a  generation  of  individ- 
uals in  a  continual  succession  from  all 
eternity,  since  no  cause  can  be  assigned 
why  they  should  not  be  generated,  viz., 
one  from  another. — By  the  world  we 
sometimes  understand  the  things  of  this 
world,  its  pleasures  and  interests.  It 
also  means  the  customs  and  manners  of 
mankind  ;  the  practice  of  life. 

WOR'SHIP,  or  DIVINE' WOR'SHIP, 
the  act  of  jiaying  divine  honors  to  the 
Supreme  Being;  or,  the  reverence  and 
homage  offered  up  to  God  in  prayer,  ado- 
ration, and  other  devotional  exercises, 
e.xfiressive  of  pious  veneration.  If  the 
worship  of  God,  says  Paley,  be  a  duty  of 
religion,  public  worship  is  a  necessary  in- 
stitution ;  because  without  it  the  greater 


part  of  raJinkind  would  exercise  no  reli- 
gious worship  at  all. 

WRANtJ  LEll,  Senior,  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Cambriilge,  the  student  who  pusses 
the  best  examination  (especially  in  math- 
ematical knowledge)  in  the  senate-house, 
for  the  first  degree  or  that  of  bachelor  in 
arts;  they  who  follow  next  in  the  same 
division  are  respectively  termed  second, 
(hird,  fourth,  &<i.  wranglers. 

AVRECK,  in  navigation,  the  destruc- 
tion of  a  ship  and  the  cargo,  by  being 
driven  ashore,  or  found  floating  at  sea  in 
a  deserted  and  unmanageable  condition. 
But  in  order  to  constitute  a  legal  wreck, 
the  goods  must  come  to  land.  In  former 
times  the  most  inhospitable  and  barbar- 
ous conduct  was  exercised  against  all  who 
had  the  misfortune  to  suffer  from  the 
perils  of  the  sea ;  but  as  commerce  and 
navigation  were  extended,  the  law  was 
made  to  afford  the  adventurous  mariner 
protection.  In  England,  and  other  coun- 
tries, wrecks  had  been  adjudged  to  the 
king  :  but  the  rigor  and  injustice  of  this 
law  was  modified  so  early  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.,  when  it  was  ruled,  that  if 
any  person  escaped  alive  out  of  the  ship, 
it  should  be  no  wreck.  And  after  various 
modifications,  it  was  decided,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  that  if  goods  were  cast  on 
shore,  having  any  marks  by  which  they 
could  be  identified,  they  were  to  revert 
to  the  owners,  if  claimed  any  time  within 
a  year  and  a  day.  The  p)lundcring  of 
wrecks  had,  however,  become  so  confirmed 
by  the  custom  of  ages,  that  various  sub- 
sequent penal  statutes  were  enacted  to 
repress  it. 

WREST'LING,  a  kind  of  combat  or 
engagement  between  two  persons  un- 
armed, body  to  body,  to  prove  their 
strength  and  dexterity,  and  try  which 
can  throw  his  opponent  on  the  ground. 
Wrestling  is  an  exercise  of  very  great 
antiquity  and  fame.  It  was  in  use  in  the 
heroic  age;  anil  had  considerable  rewards 
and  honors  assigned  to  it  at  the  Olympic 
games. 

AVRIT,  in  law,  a  precept  issued  by 
some  court  or  magistrate  in  the  name  of 
the  government,  and  addressed  to  a  sher- 
iff, his  deputy,  or  other  subordinate  ex- 
ecutive oflncer,  commanding  him  to  do 
some  particular  thing.  Writs  are  distin- 
guished into  origincd  and  judicial,  the 
former  being  such  as  a  party  sues  out 
without  any  direction  of  the  court  in  the 
particular  case ;  the  latter,  such  as  are 
issued  in  pursuance  of  a  decree,  judg- 
ment, or  order  of  a  court.  A  writ  or 
sunimons,  is  called  a  subpoena,  when  it 


644 


CVCLOPEDIA    OF     LnKR-iT':H.a, 


[XES 


requires  witnesses  to  appear ;  a  latitat, 
when  it  is  assumed  the  party  is  concealcu  ; 
of  habeas  corpus,  when  it  is  to  bring  up 
the  body;  <>f  j)remunii-e,  when  it  incurs 
forfeiture  of  all  propertj';  and  of  7«i  tarn, 
when  to  recover  a  line,  of  which  the  pros- 
ecutor is  to  have  a  share. 

WRI'TING,  an  art  and  act  of  express- 
ing and  conveying  our  ideas  to  others  by 
letters  or  characters  visible  to  the  eye. 
AVithout  its  aid  the  experience  of  each 
generation  would  hare  been  almost  en- 
tirely lost  to  succeeding  ages,  and  only  a 
faint  glimmer  of  truth  could  have  been 
discerned  through  the  mists  of  tradition. 
The  most  ancient  remains  of  writing, 
which  have  been  transmitted  to  us,  are 
upon  hard  substances,  such  as  stones  and 
metals,  which  were  used  for  edicts  and 
matters  of  public  notoriety.  Thus  we 
read  that  tlie  decalogue  was  written  on 
two  tables  of  stone  ;  but  this  practice  was 
not  peculiar  to  the  Jews,  for  it  was  used 
by  most  of  the  Eastern  nations,  as  well 
as  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  laws 
penal,  civil,  and  ceremonial,  among  the 
Greeks,  were  engraven  on  tables  of  brass, 
called  cyrbes.  The  Chinese,  before  the 
invention  of  paper,  wrote  or  engraved 
with  an  iron  tool,  or  style,  upon  thin 
boards  or  on  bamboo.  Pliny  says,  that 
table-books  of  wood  were  in  use  before 
the  time  of  Homer.  In  later  times  the'se 
tables  were  usually  waxed  over,  and 
written  upon  witii  a  style.  What  was 
written  upon  the  tables  which  were  thus 
waxed  over  was  easily  eifiiced,  and  by 
smoothing  the  wax  new  matter  might  be 
substituted  in  the  place  of  what  was  writ- 
ten before.  The  bark  of  trees  was  also 
used  for  writing  by  the  ancients,  and  is 
so  still  in  several  parts  of  Asia.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  leaves  of  trees 
But  the  Greeks  and  Romans  continued 
the  use  of  waxed  table-books  long  after 
the  use  of  papyrus,  leaves,  and  skins 
became  common,  because  they  were  so 
convenient  for  correcting  extemporary 
compositions. 


X,  the  twenty-fourth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  is  borrowed  from  the  Greek. 
When  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  it 
has  precisely  the  sound  of  z,  but  in  the 
mitldlc  and  at  the  end  of  wonls,  its  sound 
is  the  same  as  ks ;  as,  ira.r.  Iii.viiri/,  tax- 
ation, ic.  In  French,  .r  has  the  various 
pronunciations  of  .s,  ,•?,«,  qz,  and  z,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.    The  Italians  never 


use  it,  on  acco-irl  if  if^?  guttural  charac- 
ter, but  express  it  by  sc,  as  in  Atessan- 
tiro  ;  and  the  German.t  gen<irally  substi- 
tute for  it,  ks,  o's,  or  clis  X  begins  no 
word  in  our  language  but  such  as  are  of 
Greek  original  ;  and  is  in  few  others  but 
what  are  of  Latin  derivation.  As  a  nu- 
meral, X  stands  for  ten.  When  laid 
horizontally,  thus,  ^ ,  it  stands  for  ii 
thousand,  and  with  a  dash  over  it,  tea 
thousand.  As  an  abbreviation,  >'  struds 
for  Christ,  as  in  Xn.,  Christian  ;  Xmas., 
Cliristmas. 

XANG  TI  in  theology,  a  name  among 
the  Chinese  for  the  t5U[)reme  Being. 

XAN'TIIICA,  in  antiquity,  a  .Mace- 
donian festival,  so  called  because  it  wai( 
observed  in  the  month  Xanthus,  whicb 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as 
April. 

XEBEC,  a  small  three-masted  vessel, 
used  in  the  Mediterranean  t^ea,  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Spain,  Portugal  and  Barbary. 
Being  generally'  equipped  as  a  corsair, 
the  xebec  is  constructed  with  a  narrow 
floor,  for  the  sake  of  speed,  and  of  a  great 
breadth,  so  as  to  bo  able  to  carry  a  con- 
siderable force  of  sail  without  danger  of 
overturning.  When  close  hauled,  it  car- 
ries large  lateen  sails.  The  Algeriue 
xebecs  usually  carried  from  16  to  24  guns, 
and  from  300  to  450  men,  two  thirds  of 
whom  were  soldiers. 

XENELA'SIA,  in  antiquitj',  a  law 
among  the  Spartans,  by  which  strangers 
were  excluded  from  their  society,  not  out 
ot  fear  lest  they  should  imitate  the  Spar- 
tan manners,  but  lest  the  Spartans  should 
be  contaminated  by  foreign  vices.  It  was 
a  barrier  set  up  against  contagion  ;  but 
was  not  so  strict  as  to  exclude  deserving 
men,  or  any  talent  worthy  of  being  re- 
ceived. 

XE'NIA,  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, were  presents  made  by  strangers  to 
such  persons  as  had  treated  them  with 
kindness  and  hospitality — Xeiiia  was  also 
a  name  given  to  the  gifts  and  presents 
made  to  the  governors  of  provinces  by  the 
inhabitants  of  them. 

XENUDO'CillA,  in  antiquity,  places 
where  strangers  wore  lodged  and  enter- 
tained. 

X  E  N  0  P  A  R  0  'C  H  I,  in  antiquity, 
Roman  officers  whose  business  it  was  to 
provide  every  necessary  for  ambassa- 
dors. 

XEROPIIAGV,  the  name  given  to  a 
sort  of  fast  which  was  adopted  in  the 
primitive  ages  of  Christianity,  and  which 
consisted  entirely  o(  dry  viands. 

XES'T7\,    in    antiquity,    an    Athenian 


YEO 


AM)     llIK     KINK     AKTS. 


045 


measure   of  capacity,    answering   to   tho 
Roman  sextarius. 

XYLOCO'PIA,  among  tho  Greeks,  a 
sort  of  punishment  inflicted  with  a 
cudgel. 

XYLOG'RAPIIY,  wood- engraving ; 
the  act  or  art  of  cutting  figures  in 
wood,  in  representation  of  natural  ob- 
jects. 

XY'LON,  a  species  of  punishment  in 
use  among  the  Greeks,  which  answered 
to  our  putting  offenders  in  the  stocks. 

XYiSOE'ClA,  an  Athenian  festival, 
observed  in  memory  of  Theseus  having 
united  all  the  petty  communities  of  At- 
tica into  one  commonwealth,  whose  as- 
Betnblies  were  ever  after  to  beheld  in  the 
Prytaneum  at  Athens. 

XY'S'TARCII,  an  officer  in  the  Grecian 
gymnasium,  who  presided  over  the  xystus, 
as  lieutenant  to  the  gymnasiaroh.  His 
business  was  to  superintend  the  uthletce 
in  their  exercises  in  the  two  xysti. 

XY'S'TER,  in  surgery,  an  instrument 
used  for  scraping  bones. 

XYS'TUS,  or  XYS'TOS,  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  a  portico  covered  at 
the  top,  designed  for  the  exercise  of  the 
wrestlers  when  the  weather  did  not  per- 
mit them  to  contend  in  the  open  air.  The 
Xystus  made  a  necessary  part  of  a  gym- 
nasium :  and  the  name  given  to  the  ath- 
lette  who  performed  their  exercises  there, 
was  Xystici. 


Y,  the  twentj'-fifth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
vowel,  and  at  other  times  as  a  consonant : 
as  the  latter  at  the  beginning  of  words. 
In  the  middle  and  at  the  end  of  words,  y 
is  precisely  the  same  as  i ;  being  sound- 
ed as  i  long,  when  accented,  as  in  reply, 
defy;  and  as  i  short,  when  unaccented, 
as  in  synonymoux,  liberty,  ability,  &c. — 
Y,  as  a  numeral,  stands  for  150,  and  with 
a  dash  over  it,  for  150,000. — Y,  by  the 
Pythagoreans,  was  made  the  emblem  or 
sj'mbol  of  virtue  and  vice.  The  broad 
line  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter,  repre- 
sents the  innocency  and  simplicity  of  in- 
fancy and  early  youth.  The  place  where 
it  is  divided  into  two  parts  shows  us  the 
years  of  discretion,  when  we  take  the 
side  of  wisdom  or  of  folly,  andean  discrim- 
inate what  is  right  from  what  is  wrong. 
The  narrow  line  on  the  right  exhibits  to 
the  fancy  the  strait  path  that  leads  to 
happiness,  and  the  difficulties  which  at- 
■  tend  a  course  of  virtue.     The  broad  line 


on  the  left  represents  the  broad  road  that 
leads  to  destruction,  and  the  seducing 
blandishments  of  vice. 

Y'ACllT,  a  sailing  vessel,  pleasure 
boat,  or  small  ship  with  one  deck,  suffi- 
ciently large  for  a  sea  voyage.  In  its 
original  signification  it  is  a  vessel  of  stale 
used  to  convey  princes,  ambassadors,  and 
other  great  personages  from  one  kingdom 
to  another.  It  is  usually  fitted  with  :i 
variety  of  convenient  apartments  and 
suitable  furniture.  The  smaller  yachts 
are  generally  rigged  as  sloops. 

YA'GERS,  or  JAGERS,  light  infantry 
armed  with  rifles  {chasseurs,  riflemen) 
In  the  Prussian  service,  the  Y'agers  form 
a  distinct  corps  with  peculiar  discipline; 
in  that  of  Austria,  ligiit  infantry,  gene- 
rally from  the  mountain  districts.  In 
Germany  the  term  jager  is  applied  to  a 
peculiar  species  of  higher  servant  attach- 
ed to  the  families  of  the  aristocracy. 

Y'A'HOO,  a  name  given  by  Swift,  in 
one  of  his  imaginary  voyages,  to  a  nice 
of  brutes,  having  the  form  of  man  and 
all  his  degrading  pas.-ions.  Thej'  are 
placed  in  contrast  with  the  Houyhnhurn.i, 
or  horses  endowed  with  reason,  the  whole 
being  designed  as  a  satire  on  the  human 
race.  Chesterfield  uses  the  term  yahoo 
for  a  savage,  or  one  resembling  a  savage. 

YAN'KEE,  a  word  comraonlj'  applied 
to  an  inhabitant  of  the  United  States,  as 
John  Bull  is  to  an  Englishman  or  Myn- 
heer to  a  Dutchman.  It  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  a  corrupt  pronunciation  of 
the  word  English  by  the  native  Indians 
of  America,  who  called  the  early  settlers 
from  Great  Britain  Yengeese,  but  this 
etymology  is  doubtful. 

Y'^EO'MAN,  in  English  polity,  a  com- 
vioner,  or  a  plebeian  of  the  first  or  most 
respectable  class.  In  ancient  times,  it 
denoted  one  of  those  who  held  folk-latid ; 
that  is,  had  no  fief,  or  book-land,  and 
therefore  did  not  rank  among  the  gentry. 
What  he  possessed,  however,  he  possessed 
independently;  he  was,  therefore,  no 
man's  vassal.  To  understand  the  true 
condition  of  the  ancient  yeomen,  it  must 
be  observed  that  there  were  some  lands 
which  never  became  subject  to  the  feudal 
system.  These  were  called  folk -lands,  oi 
the  lands  of  the  people.  When  therefore, 
it  is  said  that  the  sovereign  is  lord  of  the 
soil  of  all  England,  the  assertion  is  not 
true.  He  is  certainly  the  lord  paramount 
of  all  fiefs  ;  but  he  has  no  such  reversion- 
ary interest  in  lands  that  were  never 
held  in  fee.  The  collective  body  of  yeo- 
men or  freeholders  is  termed  Yeomanry. 
—  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  a  certain  de- 


6-16 


CVCl.OrKDIA    OF    LITERATURE 


[/.K> 


seription  of  foot-guarJs,  who  attend  iin- 
meJiately  on  the  person  of  the  sovereign. 
They  were  established  by  Henry  Vlll., 
and  their  office  and  dress  continue  the 
same. 

YEZDEGEtl'DIAX,  noting  an  era, 
dated  from  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian 
empire,  when  Yezdegerd  was  defeated  by 
the  Arabians,  in  the  eleventh  3-ear  of  the 
Heglra,  ad.  C36. 

YEZ  [DEES,  a  small  tribe  bordering 
on  tlie  Euphrates,  whose  religion  is  said 
Ui  be  a  mi.vture  of  the  worship  of  the 
devil,  with  some  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Magi,  Mohammedans,  and  Christians. 

YU'GA,  among  the  Hindoos,  a  species 
of  asceticism,  which  consists  in  a  complete 
abstraction  from  all  worldly  objects,  by 
which  the  Hindoo  ascetic  e.xpecrs  to  ob- 
tain final  emancipation  from  further  mi- 
grations, and  union  with  the  universal 
spirit.  Those  who  practise  the  Yoga  are 
called  Yogis,  and  the  horrible  tortures 
which  they  commit  on  themselves  have 
been  often  described. 

YOUTH,  in  painting,  sculpture,  &e. 
The  most  beautiful  period  of  life,  and 
consequently  that  which  the  nrtist  will 
select  to  display  and  embody  his  abstract 
ideal  of  corporeal  human  perfection. 
The  smooth  and  glowing  substance  of  the 
skin,  the  beautifull}'  defiued  contours  of 
the  figure,  the  firm  and  well  knit  muscles 
of  man,  and  the  delicious  shapeliness  of 
woman  ;  these  qualities,  as  they  are  in 
themselves  uniformly  amiable  in  real 
life,  so  they  cannot  fail  to  draw  forth  the 
ability  of  the  artist,  and  excite  the  admi- 
ration of  the  beholder,  w.hen  transmitted 
to  canvass  or  marble. 

YULE,  the  common  .Scottish  name  for 
Christmas.  It  appears  to  be  a  very  an- 
cient Celtic  word.  In  ^\''elsh,  wyl  or 
gywl  sigr;£cs  a  holiday;  whence  al.-;!)  the 
old  phrase,  "Gule  of  August,"  the  first 
day  of  August,  or  fast  of  >St.  Peter  and 
Viiicula,  for  which  various  absurd  ety- 
mologies have  been  found.  Perhaps  tlie 
old  French  word  '•  Noel,"  for  Christmas 
(used  also  generally  as  a  popular  cry  of 
rejoicing,)  has  the  same  original.  Count 
de  trebelin,  however,  derives  yule  from  a 
supposed  primitive  word  connected  with 
the  idea  of  revolution  or  "  wheel." 


Z,  the  last  letter  of  the  English  alpha- 
oet,  is  a  sibillant  articulation  and  somi- 
>owa'"     bearing  the  same  relation   to  s, 


as  r  does  to  /".  In  Italian,  it  is  somo- 
times  sounded  like  our  ts,  sometimes  like 
ds ;  in  Spanish,  it  corresponds  to  our  tk; 
and  in  French,  when  pronounced  at  all, 
it  has  the  sound  of  a  forcibly  articulated 
s.  As  a  numeral,  Z  stands  for  2,000,  and 
with  a  dash  over  it  for  '2,000,000. 

ZAC'CHO,  in  architecture,  the  lowest 
part  of  the  pedestal  of  a  column. 

ZAIMS,  a  name  for  certain  leaders  or 
chiefs  among  the  Turks,  who  support  and 
pay  a  mountel  militia  of  the  same  name. 

ZEAL'OT,  one  who  engages  warmly  in 
any  ciuse,  and  pursues  his  object  with 
earnestness  and  ardor.  It  is  generally 
used  in  dispraise,  or  applied  to  one  whose 
ardor  is  intemperate  and  censuraole. 
The  fury  of  zealots  was  one  cause  ot  the 
destruction  of  Jerus.ilera. 

ZECHARI'AH,  one  of  the  minor  pro- 
phets, who  prophesied  in  the  reign  of 
Darius  Hystaspes.  The  design  of  the 
fir.4  p;irt  of  Zechariah's  prophecy,  like 
that  of  his  contemporary,  Hhggai,  is  to 
entourage  the  Jews  to  procfccd  with  re- 
building the  Temple,  by  giving  them 
assurance  of  God's  aid  and  protection. 
From  this  he  proceeds  to  forctel  the 
glory  of  the  Christian  church  (the  true 
Temple  of  (ioi.)  under  its  great  High- 
priest  and  Ruler,  Jesus  Christ;  of  whom 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  were  figures.  He 
treats  of  his  death,  sufferings,  and  king- 
dom, in  many  prirticulars  not  mentioned 
by  any  other  of  the  minor  prophets  before 
him;  everything  relating  to  those  great 
events  becoming  more  explicit,  in  pro- 
portion as  their  accomplishments  drew 
nearer.  His  style,  like  that  of  Haggai, 
is  for  the  most  pait  prosaic,  especially 
towards  the  beginning;  the  last  si.K 
chapters  are  more  elevated  ;  for  which 
reason,  among  others,  these  si.x  chapters 
are,  by  many  commentators,  ascribed  to 
the  prophet  Jeremiah. 

ZEMINDAR',  r.  title  introduced  into 
India  by  its  Mohammedan  comjuerors, 
conferred  in  Bengal,  and  generally 
throughout  the  Mogul  empire,  on  the 
agent  employed  to  collect  that  share  of 
the  produce  of  the  soil  which  belongs  to 
it.  The  zemindars  were  the  great  land- 
holders of  the  Mogul  empire;  but  the 
nature  of  their  tenure  has  given  rise  to 
muchdispute.  Whether  they  were  heredi- 
tary, absolute  owners  of  the  soil,  or  only 
tenants  of  the  sovereign  at  a  fixed  rent 
by  way  of  land-tax.  for  which  they  were 
personally  responsible,  was  a  question 
much  agitated  by  writers  on  Indian  sub- 
jects at  the  period  of  the  "  Permanent 
Settlement"  in  1793.  By  that  settlement 


zot] 


AXU    THE    FINK    AIMS. 


G4' 


the  rent  was  to  be  fixed  in  the  first 
instance  by  custom,  and  the  zemindar 
was  then  to  give  the  ryot  a  lease  re- 
stricted to  himself  and  his  assignees  on 
performance  of  its  conditions ;  liis  own 
share  being  fixed  as  befcire  iit  10  per  cent, 
of  the  assessment,  and  his  hereditary 
right  secured.  A  zemindary,  i.  e  ,  the 
di.-trict  of  a  zemindar,  is  liable  to  be  sold 
by  government  for  arrears  of  revenue, 
and  existing  leases  with  the  ryots  to  be 
set  aside.  At  present  the  land-tax  of 
India  is  levied  in  three  methods,  which 
pievail  in  dift'erent  districts — the  "  ze- 
mindar settlement,"  by  which  the  zemin- 
dar is  responsible  to  government  ;  the 
"  mouzawar"  or  village  settlement,  by 
which  the  collector  contracts  with  the 
head  man  of  the  village  ;  and  the  "ryot- 
war"'  or  cultivator  settlement,  by  which 
the  tax  is  collected  immediately  from  the 
peasantry- 

ZEND,  or  ZENDAVE.S'TA,  a  book 
■iscribed  to  Zoroaster,  and  containing  his 
pretended  revelations  ;  which  the  an- 
cient magicians  and  modern  Persians, 
called  also  G:iurs,  observe  and  reverence 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Christians  do 
the  Bible,  iv  d  the  Mahometans  do  the 
Koran,  making  it  the  sole  rule  of  their 
faith  and  manners. 

ZEN'DIK,  in  Arabic,  a  name  given 
to  those  who  are  charged  with  atheism. 
or  rather  disbelief  of  any  revealed  reli- 
gion ;  or  with  magicril  heresies.  The  sect 
of  Zendiks  ojiposed  the  progress  of  Mo- 
hammedanism in  Arabia  with  great  ob- 
stinacy. It  appears  to  have  had  many 
features  in  common  ■with  Sadduceeism 
among  the  Jews. 

ZEPHANI'AH,  a  canonical  book  of 
the  Old  Testament,  containing  the  pre- 


dictions of  Zephaniah,  the  son  of  Cushi, 
and  grandson  of  Gedaliah;  being  the 
ninth  of  the  twelve  lesser  prophets,  lie 
prophesied  in  the  time  of  king  Josiali,  a 
little  after  the  cajitivity  of  the  ten  tribes 
and  before  that  of  Judah  ;  so  that  he  was 
contemporary  with   Jeremiah. 

ZEPIITRUS,  or  ZEPHYR,  the  west 
wind  ;  a  wind  blowing  from  that  cardinal 
point  opposite  to  tiie  east.  The  poets 
personify  it,  and  represent  Zephyrus  .as 
the  mildest  and  most  gentle  of  all  the 
deities  of  the  woods  ;  the  character  of 
this  personage  is  youth  and  gentleness. 
It  is  also  called  Favonius  and  Occidens. 

ZEUG'MA,  a  figure  in  grammar  by 
which  an  adjective  or  yerb  which  agrees 
with  a  nearer  word,  is,  by  way  of  supple- 
ment, referred  to  another  more  remote. 

ZO'IIAK,  a  Jewish  book,  highly  esteem- 
ed by  the  rabbis,  and  supposed  to  be  of 
great,  though  altogether  unascertained 
antiquity.  It  consists  of  cabalistical  com- 
mentaries on  Scripture,  especially  the 
books  of  Moses.  It  has  been  translated 
into  Latin. 

ZOLL'VEREIX,  the  Prussian  or  Ger- 
man comraeicial  orcustoujs  union,  found- 
ed, through  the  example  and  efforts  of 
the  government  of  Prussia,  in  the  year 
1834,  and  having  for  its  object  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  uniform  rale  of  customs 
duties  throughout  the  various  states  join- 
ing the  uniim. 

ZOOL'ATRY,  the  worship  of  animals, 
which  was  the  characteristic  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptian  religion  most  remarked 
upon  by  foreigners. 

ZOTHECA,  in  architecture,  a  small 
room,  or  alcove,  which  might  be  added 
to  or  separated  from  another,  by  means 
of  curtains  and  windows. 


FSNI8. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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mm  Z] 


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Form  L9-Series  4939 


' —    "~    "■'"   """••".  i-'v-tor-  wi    luc    luciiajr  ui    |)rrT-ti>[ioil,  ana  tnO 

result  of  its  exercise  npon  the  tastes  and  emotions.  It  may  therefore  be  termed  a  Com- 
pendium of  Aesthetics  and  Nattiral  Morals ;  and  its  use  in  refining  the  mind  and  heart 
has  made  it  a  standard  test-book. 

BOYD'S  ANNOTATED  ENGLISH  CLASSICS. 


Milton's  I'arailise  I^o.st. 
Youttf/'a  yif/ht  Tlionf/Iits. 
Coirjtrr's  Tush,  Tnhle  Tnllt,  Ac. 


Tliotnsoti  '.V  S^'tisoiis. 
J'ollok's  Course  of  Time. 
J^ot'il  Jtitrott  's  JCssHf/s. 


In  six  cheap  volumes.  The  service  done  to  literature,  by  Prof.  Boyd's  Annotations 
upon  tliese  st^indard  writers,  can  with  difHculty  be  estimated.  Line  by  line  their  ex- 
pressions and  ideas  are  analyzed  and  discussed,  until  the  best  comprehension  of  the 
powerful  use  of  language  is  obtained  by  the  '.earner. 


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